^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.^ 



$ ITEMS' 



0. 



I ^^//M^i^A^ 



I UNITEDSTATESOrAMBRICA. ^ 



Dean's Stereotype Edition. 

BIBLIOTHECA CLASSICA: 



OR, 

A DICTIONARY 



OF ALL 



THE PRINCIPAL NAMES AND TERMS 



RELATING TO THE 



GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, PlISTORY, LITERATURE, AND 

MYTHOLOGY 



OF 



ANTIQUITY AND OF THE ANCIENTS 



WITH 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



-_^- 

By J. 1.EMPRIERE, D. D. 



REVISED AND CORRECTED, AND DIVIDED, UNDER SEPARATE HEADS, 

INTO THREE PARTS: 

Part I. GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. 
Part II. HISTORY, ANTiaUITIES, &c. 
Part m. MYTHOLOGY. 




BY 

LORENZO L. DA PONTE AND JOHN D. OGILBY. 
FIFTEENTH AMERICAN EDITION, 

GREATLY ENLARGED IN THE HISTORICAL DEPARTMENT, 

By LORENZO L. DA PONTE. 




Ur 



NEW-YORK; 
W. E. DEAN, PRINTER & PUBLISHER, 2 ANN ST. 









\ 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Eight Hundred and 
Forty-Jive, by W. E. Dean, in the Clerk*s Office of the Southern District of New-York. 




cc£y y^ /2^ fy^^ ^^ . /r^^. 



«55. 



TO 
JOHN W. FRANCIS, A. M. M. D. 

Late Professor of Materia Medica, Institutes of Medicine, Medical Jurispnidence, &c. in the 
University of the State of New York ; Member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society of 
London; of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh ; of the Academy of Na- 
tural Sciences of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York; of the 
Historical Societies of Massachusetts and New York, &c. &c. 

This edition of Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, after having undergone 
such enlargements and improvements as may render it less unworthy of his name, 
is respectfully inscribed, by his very often and very much 

Obliged Friend, 

THE EDITOR. 



PREFACE 

TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. 



The peculiar circumstances under which the present edition of Lempriere's Classical Diction- 
ary is offered to the public, and the changes which have been introduced into the plan of the 
work, and still more in its execution, appear to demand from the editors an exposition of the 
views by which they have been governed, and a justification of the various alterations which 
they have ventured to make. They feel, however, that no apology can be required for the liber- 
ties which they have taken with the text of Lempriere. The design of his work, the most com- 
prehensive of all the publications of the class that have appeared, either in this country or in 
England, and which has secured to it an unequalled popularity, can hardly atone for the many 
glaring and pernicious inaccuracies which deface the detail ; inaccuracies misleading the mind, 
and sometimes mixed with grosser failings, to pervert the moral sense and feeling of the youthful 
inquirer who may have recourse to its pages. It was first in this city that the attention of the 
public was called to these defects, and that some attempt was made to correct them ; and the last 
American Edition may be considered, by the approbation with which it was received, to have as- 
certained and collected the public voice in favour of further amendments. More recently, the 
Quarterly Journal of Education undertook the task of reviewing the original book ; and that 
paper, published under the authority of names beyond all competition in letters, among which are 
tbbse ofLord Brougham, Lord John Russel, Sir T. Denman, Hallam, Hobhouse, Maltby, Mill, and 
Pattison, appears to have set on it the final seal of absolute reprobation. Impressed with a full 
conviction of the utter worthlessness of an authority so universally sought after, and so inces- 
santly consulted, the editors of the present edition had long contemplated the publication of a 
volume which should resemble Lempriere's in nothing but in the outline of its plan ; in embra- 
cing, namely, a general account of antiquity. With this view, they proceeded to separate the 
Mythological from the Geographical and Historical parts, and these from each other ; in- 
tending, for the sake of distinctness, to treat them separately, that the certain and actual narra- 
tions and descriptions which belong to the historian and geographer might not be blended with 
the fictitious or allegorical representations of the poet or mythologian. To this they were tlie 
rather induced, from observation of the inevitable and irremediable confusion produced in the 
mind of the youthful readers of Lempriere, as a consequence of the indiscriminate blending of 
these separate objects of study. Even the mind accustomed to analysis may be sometimes bewil- 
dered, and forget the truth in its heterogeneous mixture with fable. Having accomplished this 
separation, they had intended to re- write every article, and to introduce such new ones as might 
appear requisite to make the work what it purports to be, a complete Bibliotheca Classica. Be- 
fore, however, they could even prepare for the commencement of this task, by procuring from 
Europe the proper authorities, the call of their publisher required them to begin ; and the demand 
of the market, they were informed, was of so urgent a character, that unless the work could ap- 
pear within a limited time, it was considered as of no avail to prepare it. This call the editors were 
not at liberty to disregard, from the nature of their contract, and from the engagements which had 
arisen out of it between their publishers and other parties not originally concerned. The seventh 
edition is presented, therefore, with great diffidence to the public as the result of three months' 
labour, bestowed on it by the editors in the evenings of days devoted to professional avocations. 
Under circumstances such as these, it was impossible that the whole work should be re-written, 
or even submitted to a perfect revision ; and as the Geographical department has always been 
held the most important, at the same time that it was the most incorrect in the original work, 
it will be observed that that department has claimed the principal care of the editors. The addi- 
tion of many new articles, in all, it is believed, amounting to several hundred, was the smallest 
part of their labour ; the greater number of all those which were to be found in former editions, 
being entirely re-written in this. The geography of Italy and Greece has recently been admira- 
bly illustrated by the research and the labours of many learned scholars ; but no writer has suc- 
ceeded in describing more accurately or more eloquently the interesting cities, rivers, and moun- 
tains, of those countries, all equally connected with the most pleasing associations of the clas- 
sical scholar, than the Rev. J. A Cramer, in his Geographical descriptions of Ancient Italy and 
Greece. The results of this able antiquary's investigations the editors have freely transferred to 
their pages, having put to the test of a strict comparison with the ancient authorities the passa- 
ges of which they have thus availed themselves. This may detract in some measure from the 
originality of their work, but it is confidently presumed that it will greatly add to its value. Tho 
editors, however, believe that whatever they may have now first introduced, and with whatever 
exactness they may have corrected the original articles, they have performed in that a less useful 
work than in the scrupulous care with which they have removed from their pages the offensive 
matter with which those of the first author were so profusely stained, und which were not tho- 
roughly eradicated in any subsequent edition. 



PART I. 



GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. 



AB 

AB^, an ancient city of Phocis, at no 
great distance from Elatea, and to the right of 
that city going towards Opus. It was early ce- 
lebrated for an oracle and temple of Apollo, held 
in great esteem and veneration. The temple, 
being richly adorned with treasures and various 
oflferings, was sacked and burned by the Per- 
sians. Having been testored, it was again con- 
sumed in the Sacred War by the Boeotians. But 
Pausanias asserts that it was but half destroy- 
ed at first, and, like many other Grecian temples, 
was sufiered to remain in that condition as a 
monument of Persian hostility. It was treated 
with great favour by the Romans, who conced- 
ed to it peculiar privileges, out of veneration to 
the deity there worshipped. The ruins of the 
place are pointed out by Sir W. Gell, in his 
Itinerary, near the village of Exarcho. Cra- 
mer, Anc. Chreece. — Strabo, 445. — Soph. (Ed. 
Tyr. m.— Herod. 1, 46 ; 8, 134 ; 8, 33.— Di- 
od. Sic: 16, 530. — Pausan. 10, 3 aiid 35. 

Abalus, an island supposed to have been si- 
tuated in the German ocean, on whose shores, 
according to some of the ancients, the spring- 
tides deposited amber. The same island is 
called Baltia by Timseus. Plin. 37, 2, 

Abantia. Vid. Abantes, Part 11, 

Abarimon, a country of Scythia, near mount 
Imaus. Plin. 1, c. 2. 

Abas and Abus, I. a mountain of the greater 
Armenia, probably Ararat, a part of the Ala- 
Dag. That part of the Euphrates, sometimes 
called the Arsanias, and into which the smaller 
river of that name empties, has its source in this 
mountain. Plin. 5, 24. — D'Anville. — Malte- 

Brun. II. A river of Armenia Major, 

where Pompey routed the Albani. Vid. Parts 
II. and III. 

Abasa, an island in the Red Sea, near Ethi- 
opia. Pans. 6, c. 26. 

Abasitis, a part of Mysia in Asia. Strab. 

Abassena. Vid. Abyssinia. 

Abatos, an island in the lake near Memphis 
in Egypt, abounding with flax and papyrus. 
Osiris was buried there. Lnican. 10, v. 323. 

Abdera, I. a town of Hispania Baetica, built 
by the Carthagiaians. Strab. 3. II. A mari- 
time city of Thrace, to the east of the Nes- 
tus, founded originally by Timesius of Clazo- 
menas, and subsequently recolonized by a large 
body of Teians from Ionia. Abdera was al- 
ready a large and wealthy town when Xerxes 
arrived there on his way into Greece ; returning 
whence he presented the town with his golden 
scymetar and train, as an acknowledgement of 
the reception he had met with there. Abdera 
was the limit of the Odrysian empire to the 
west. It continued to increase in prosperity and 
i-uportance until it became engaged in hostili- 



AB 

ties with the Triballi, who had gained an as- 
cendancy over the Odrysas and the other na- 
tions of Thrace. According to Diodorus, Abde- 
ra at length fell into the hands of Eumenes king 
of Pergamus, through the treachery of Pytho, 
one of its commanders. In Pliny's time it was 
considered a free city; and the circumstance of 
having given birth to the philosophers Democri- 
tus and Protagoras added to its celebrity. In 
the middle ages it degenerated into a small town, 
to which the name of Polystylus was attached, 
according to the Byzantine historian Curopa- 
late. Its ruins are said to exist near the Cape 
Baloustra. Cramer, Anc. Greece, — Strab. 7, 
120; 8, 120; 2,97.— Died. Sic. 15, 476.— jEa:- 
cerpt. 3.— Plin. 4, 11.— Pomp. Mel. ^, 2.—Cic. 
ad Attic 4. 16. 

Abella, now Avella, a town of Campania, 
whose inhabitants were called Abellani. Its 
nuts, called avellancz, and also its apples, were 
famous. Virg. JSn. 7, v. 740. -SLl. 8, v. 544. 

Abia, a maritime town of Messenia, suppos- 
ed to be the ancient Ira mentioned by Homer. 
Pausan. 4, 30.- II. 1, 150. 

Abila, or Abyla, a mountain of Africa, in 
that part vhich is nearest to the opposite moun- 
tain called Calpe, on the coast of Spain, only 
eighteen miles distant. These two mountains 
are called the columns of Hercules, and were 
said formerly to be united, till the hero separa- 
ted them and made a communication between 
the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Strab. 
3.— Mela, 1, c. 5, 1. 2, c. 6.— Plin. 3. 

Abnoba, a mountain of Germany, now the 
Black mountain. It is sometimes, though in- 
correctly, given in the plural, as mountains of 
Germany. The Danube has its source in this 
spur of the Lepontine Alps, which forms the 
southern extremity of the Hercynian range. 
Bossi Cost.de Germ. — Tacit. Germ. 1. — Avien. 

Abobrica, I. a town of Lusitania. Plin. 4, 
c. 20. II. Another in Spain. 

AbonitIchos, now AineJiboli, a town of 
Paphlagonia towards the northern boundaiy, 
and nearly midway between east and west. 
The later writers among the Greeks called it 
lonopolis. 

Abobras. Vid. ChaJboras. ' 

Abrotonum, a town of Africa, near the Syr- 
tes. Plin. 5, 4. 

Abrus, a city of the Sapaei. Paus. 7, c. 10. 

Absinthh, a people on the coasts of Pontus. 
Herodot. 6, c. 34. 

Abs5rus, the principal of the Absyrtides, 
with a town of the same name. 

Absyrtides Insole, otherwise the Brigei- 
des, four islands on the coast of Histria.^ Their 
modem names are Cherso, Oscro, Ferosina and 
Chao. Vid. Absyrtnis, Part III. 
7 



AB 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AC 



Abus, a river of Britain, now the Humber, 
dividing the Brigantes of the modern York- 
shire , from the Coritani of Lincolnshire. 
Cambd. Brit. — Heyl. Cosm. 

Abydos, I. a town of Asia, on the borders of 
the Hellespont in the lesser Mysia, not far from 
the mouth of the Simois, built, as pretended, by 
the Milesians under the auspices of Gyges king 
of Lydia. The strait by which the Asiatic 
coast is here divided from Europe is so narrow, 
that Abydos appeared from a distance as one 
town with Sestos, which stood upon the other 
side. The actual width was seven stadia; but 
D'Anville asserts that these were the shortest 
of the three measures of that denomination. It 
was here that Xerxes constructed his celebrat- 
ed bridge of boats for the transportation of his 
innumerable hosts. Poetry and history com- 
bined to render this place interesting to the an- 
cients, and both in modern times concur to ren- 
der it as interesting to us. Recent experiments, 
moreover, have added probability to the story of 
Leander's gallantry ; for the passage of the Hel- 
lespont by an expert swimmer has been proved 
to be easily practicable. Abydos being attacked 
by the Macedonian king Philip, the inhabit- 
ants devoted themselves to death rather than 
fall into the hands of their enemy. For three 
days this slaughter continued ; the king of Ma- 
cedon forbidding his soldiers to leave the town, 
lest the citizens should then desist from their vo- 
luntary self-immolation. Abydos again became 
famous for its firm and vigorous resistance 
whenbesiegedby the Turks under Orchan, the 
son of Othman. The treason of the gover- 
nor's daughter, who had become enamoured of 
a young Turk among the besiegers, is said 
alone to have occasioned the fall of the place. 
Since that time the town has remained in pos- 
session of the Turks, who rmder Mahomet II. 
erected the two castles of the Dardanelles for 
the defence of Constantinople by sea. These 
forts do not exactly occupy, as many have be- 
lieved, the sites of the ancient Abydos and Ses- 
tos ; the only remains of the former being now 
the ruins at a spot called Nagara. Mela. — Just. 
2, 13.— Plin.— Herod. 7, 36.—Polyb. 16, 29, 35. 

— Liv. 31, 17. II. A town of Egypt, about 

seven miles from the borders of the Nile to- 
wards Libya. Its modern name, Madfune, is 
expressive of its dilapidation, and of the ruins 
which alone remain of its original splendour. 
It was famous as the residence of Memnon, 
and for a temple of Osiris. D Anville consi- 
ders it the Oasis Magna, and says, that in the 
time of the Lower Empire it was used as a 
place of banishment, Plin. 5, 9. 
Abyla, Vid. Abila. 

Abyssinia, a large division of Africa, little 
known to the ancients. In its least unstable 
limits it corresponds to the southern part of 
Ethiopia supra iEgyptum. This situation and 
extent would make its eastern boundary the 
Red Sea, with an indefinite limit upon every 
other side. The name of Ethiopia, given to the 
country of which Abyssinia is but a portion, 
was from the Greek, and Abyssinia is the Ara- 
bic name, which the inhabitants reject. All 
history of this country is unsatisfactory ; but an 
organized government of some kind existed 
among the Abyssinians at least as early as 
the time of Solomon, as is proved by the 
8 



scripture account of queen Sheba's visit to that 
king. 

AcACEsiuM, a town of Arcadia, Mercury, 
surnamed Acacesius, was worshipped there. 
Paus. 8, c, 3, 36, 6ic, 

AcADEMiA, I, a part of the Ceramic us with- 
out the city, from which it W£LS distant about six 
stadia. Its name was derived from the hero 
Academus, 



'Ev iba-KfOK S'^ofA.oicrtv 'AxatTjI^oy ^iw. 



Eupol. Fra^ 



It was originally a deserted and unhealthy spot ; 
but Hipparchus surrounded it with a wall at a 
considerable expense, and it was afterwards 
adorned with walks, groves, and fountains, by 
Cimon. Here Plato possessed a small house 
and garden ; and from the time that he there 
delivered his mstructions, it became in a great 
measure sacred to philosophy. From traditions 
connected with the memory of Academus, it is 
said that this place was spared by the Lacedee- 
monians in their incursions into Attica. But 
Sylla, during the siege of Athens, is said to 
have cut ^ovm the groves of this celebrated 
spot. Without the enclosure was the monu- 
ment of Plato and the tower of Timon, The 
name of Akathymia is still attached to this once 
favourite haunt of philosophers and poets. Vid. 
Plato. Cram. Gr. — Potter^ Arch. Gr. — Plut. 
Vit. Cim. and Syll. — Paus. 1, 30.. — Hawkins^ 
Topogr. of Athens. — —II. A villa of Cicero, 
to which he gave the name of Academia^ and 
where he probably composed his Academicix. It 
was situated between the Lucrine lake and Pu- 
teoli, and was close to the shore. Cicero more 
generally terms it his Puteolanum. Cic. ad Att, 
1, ep. 3; 14, ep. 7. 

AcALANDRUs, or AcALYNDRUs, uow the Sa- 
landella, a river falling into the bay of Taren- 
tum. Plin. 3. c. 11. 

AcAMPsis, the lower part of a river which 
separates Colchis from Armenia. It rises in. 
the country of the ancient Tzani or Sanni, 
where it was called Boas. It rushes, says 
DAnville, with such impetuosity into the sea, 
as to forbid all approaches to the shore. 

Acanthus, I. a town on the isthmus that lies 
between the Strymonic and Singitic gulfs ; on 
the former of which it is placed by Herodotus 
and Mela ; on the latter, by Strabo and Pto- 
lemy, Near this place was the canal of 

Xerxes. II. A town of Athamania, between 

the Aracthus and the Inachus. Cram. Gr. 



III. A town of Caria, otherwise called 

Dulopolis. Mela, 1, 16, 16.— PZm. 5, 28. 

AcARiA, a fountain of Corinth, where lolas 
cut off the head of Eurystheus, Strab. 8. 

AcARNANiA, a country of Greece, having on 
the north the Ambracian gulf, on the west the 
Ionian sea, and on the east the Achelous, which 
separates it from ^Etolia. To the north-west it 
bordered on the districts of the Amphilochi and 
Agrsei, barbarous tribes, whose history is chief- 
ly connected with that of Acamania, and may 
therefore be included in the description of that 
country which now bears the name of, and 
forms part of the modern Livonia. Travel- 
lers, who have visited the interior, represent it 
as covered with forests and mountains of no 
great elevation, but wild and deserted, while 



AC 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AG 



the valleys are filled with several lakes. The 
earliest accounts represent this province as in- 
habited by the Leleges, Curetes, and Teleboae ; 
and it would seem that the name of Acarnanes 
was unknown in Homer's time, since it does 
not occur in his poems. Cram. Gr. — Strab. 10, 
325, 335, 450, b%\.—Hobhouse, Travels.— Hol- 
land, Travels. 

AcARNAs and Acarnan, a stony mountain of 
Attica. Senec. in Uippol. v. 20. 

AcATHANTUs, a bay in the Red Sea. Strab. 16. 

Ace, I. a towii in Phcsnicia, called also Pto- 
lemais, now Acre. C. Nep. in Datam. c. 5. 

IL A place of Arcadia, near Megalopolis, 

where Orestes was cured from the persecution 
of the furies, who had a temple there. Paus. 
8, c. 34. 

AcERR^, I. a town of Campania, near the 
source of the Clanius. In the year of the city 
442 it received the rights of a Roman city, but 
was destroyed m the second Punic War by Han- 
nibal. It was rebuilt, however,' by its former 
inhabitants on his evacuation of Campania. It 
still subsists, and the frequent inundations from 
the river, which terrified its ancient inhabitants, 
are now prevented by the large drains dug 
there. Virg. G. 2, v. 225.— Liv. 8, c. 17.- 



II. A town on the Addua, referred to by Plu- 
tarch, Strabo, and Polybius. Its modern name 
is Gherra. 

Aces, a river of Asia. Herodot. 3, c. 117. 

AcEsiA, part of the island of Lemnos, which 
received this name from Philoctetes, whose 
wound was cured there. Philostr. 

AcEsiNEs, now Chenab, a river which rises 
in the Himalah mountains and empties into the 
Indus in the large province of Pendj-ab. Ac- 
cording to Ptolemy the navigation was extreme- 
ly dangerous, and an immense number of per- 
sons had perished in attempting it. Its width 
is computed by the same author at fifteen stadia. 
The difficulties and the dangers of sailing on 
this river are greatest at its confluence with the 
Hydaspes ; and so great is the roar of the waters 
and the terror of the scene at that place, that in 
passing it the rowers of Alexander dropped their 
oars, and were at first unable to proceed. This 
river is, however, by Gluintus Curtius supposed 
to unite with the Ganges near its entrance into 
the Erythrean Sea. Alexander made the conflu- 
ence of the Acesines and the Indus the limit of 
the government of Philip. This point is about 
one hundred miles above the city of Mooltan. 
The effect of the rains on this river are remark- 
able ; to such a degree that the ordinary width 
of three hundred yards above Lahore is some- 
times swollen to little less than a mile and a 
half. Mela. — Arrian. — Q. Curtius. — Malte- 
Brun. 

AcESTA, a town of Sicily, called after king 
Acestes, and known also by the name of Se- 
gesta. It was built by ^neas, who left here 
part of his crew as he weis going to Italy. Virg. 
Mn. 5, V. 746, &c. 

AcHffiORUM poRTus, ou the Messenian Gulf, 
in or near the site of which stands Coron at the 
present day. 

ACH.E0RUM sTATio, a placc on the coast of 
the Thracian Chersonesus, where Polyxena 
was sacrificed to the shades of Achilles, and 
where Hecuba killed Poljonnestor, who had 
murdered her son Polydorus. 

Part I.— B. 



AcHAiA, I. a country of Peloponnesus, which 
within its ancient limits was bounded on the 
north by the Corinthian Gulf, and on the south 
by a lofty chain of mountains which separated 
it from Arcadia. On the east it bordered on Si- 
cyonia. Towards the west it reached the con- 
fines of Elis, the small river Larissus being 
the common boundary. It was anciently called 
JEgialus from its maritime situation, and its 
earliest inhabitants are said to have been of the 
Pelasgic race. These were succeeded by the 
lonians, who were in turn dispossessed by the 
Achaeans. The division into twelve districts, 
which subsequently formed the Acheean league, 
is generally attributed to its earliest population. 
Achaia was at first a small and insignificant 
state, and so thinly peopled, that the inhabitants 
of its twelve districts were scarcely equal to 
those of a single city. Upon the capture of Co- 
rinth by L. Mummius, and the consequent dis- 
solution of the Achaean league, the whole of 
Greece was reduced to the condition of a Ro- 
man province, and thenceforward the name of 
Achaia was applied to the Peloponnesus and 
all the country south of Macedonia. Cram. Gr. 
— Pausan. 7, 1. — Herod. 7, 94. — Piut. Arat. — 

Pohjb. 2, 89.— Tacit. 1, 76. II. A small part 

of Phthiotis was also called Achaia, of which 
Alos was the capital. 

Achara, a town near Sardis. Strab. 14. 

AcHARNJE, the most considerable of the Attic 
demi, on or near the site of the modern Menidi. 
Vid. Aristoph. 

AcHELous, I. one of the largest rivers of 
Greece, and the most celebrated in ancient 
times. Thucydides describes it as flowing from 
mount Pindus, through the country of the Dolo- 
pians, Agraeans and Acarnanians, and discharg- 
ing itself into the sea near the town of CEniadaB. 
It was particularly noted for the quantit)'- of al- 
luvial soil which is there deposited ; many of 
the islands, known to the ancients under the 
name of Echinades, being by that means con- 
nected with the main land. As its course also 
varied greatly, which occasioned inundations in 
the districts through which it flowed, hence 
called Paracheloitis, it was found necessary to 
check its inroads by means of dykes and dams ; 
which is thought to have given rise to the fable 
of the contest of Hercules with the river for the 
hand of Deianira, so beautifully introduced in 
the Trachinicas of Sophocles, ver. 507. The 
Achelous is said to have been formerly called 
Thoas and Thestius. Most ancient writers 
name it as a river of Acarnania ; some, how- 
ever, ascribe it to JEtolia, which is owing to the 
variation in the limits of these two countries. 
The modern name is Aspropotamo. Cram. Gr. 
2, 20.— /Z. 21, 193.— 7%7^c. 2, W2.—Diod. 4, 168. 
Vid. Part III. II. A river of Arcadia, fall- 
ing into the Alpheus. III. Another, flowing 

from mount Sipjdus. Paus. 8, c. 38. 

Acheron, I. a river celebrated in antiquity 
from its supposed communication with the 
realms of Pluto, which discharges itself into the 
sea a little below Parga. Homer called it, from 
the dead appearance of its waters, one of the ri- 
vers of hell ; and the fable has been adopted by 
all succeeding poets. It is known in modem 
geography by the name of the Souli river, and 
the gloominess of its scenery accords well with 
the fancied horrors of Tartarus, It rises in 
9 



AC 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AD 



Molossia, flows through Thesprotia, and, after 
passing through the Acherusian lake, falls into 
the sea near the Chimerian promontory. The 
word Acheron is often taken for hell itself. 

Cram. Gr.—Livy, 7, 2i.— Thuc. 1,46. II. A 

branch of the Alpheus in Elis. Vid. Part III. 

AcHERONTiA, uow Accreuza, was situated, as 
Horace describes it, on an almost inaccessible 
hill, south of Ferentum. It is called Acheron- 
lum by Livy, who mentions it as a strong place 
of Apulia. Procopius notices it as a fortress 
of very great strength. Cram. It. 2, 291. — 
Liv. 9, 30. 

AcHERusiA PALUs, I. a marsh through which 
the Acheron flows, near its mouth. Its site is 
now only to be discovered by the reeds and 
aquatic plants which almost choke up the wa- 
ter. The destructive effects of the malaria are 
perceptible in the sallow and emaciated counte- 
nances of the surrounding peasantry. Hence, 
probably, it was that the ancients, ignorant of 
the natural causes of disease transferred the 
miasmata of the plain to the Plutonian lake, 
and represented it as emitting a deadly effluvia. 
Hughes' Travels. II. Another in Italy, be- 
tween Misenum and Cumae, to which the mo- 

AernLago di Fnsaro probably answers. III. 

A lake of Egypt, near Memphis, over which, as 
Diodorus, W). 1. mentions, the bodies of the 
dead were conveyed, and received sentence ac- 
cording to the actions of their life. The boat was 
called Baris, and the ferryman Charon. Hence 
arose the fable of Charon and the Styx, &c. af- 
terwards imported into Greece by Orpheus, and 
adopted in the religion of the country. 

AcHERUsiAs, a place or cave in Chersonesus 
Taurica, where Hercules, as is reported, drag- 
ged Cerberus out of hell. Xenoph. Anab. 6. 

Achillea. Vid. Leuce. 

AcHiLLEUM, a town of Troas, near the tomb of 
Achilles, built by the Mityleneans. Plin. 5, c. 30. 

AciDAS, a river of Peloponnesus, formerly 
called Jardanus. Pans. 5, c. 5. 

AciLLA, a town of Africa, near Adrumetum; 
(some read Acolla.) Ccbs. Afr. c. 33. 

AciRis, now Agri, a river of Lucania. 

AcoNTisMA, a defile on the Thracian coast, 
eighteen miles from Philippi, also called Sym- 
bolum and the Pass of the Sapsei. 

AcoNTOBULUS, a place of Cappadocia, under 
Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. Apollon. 
arg. 2. 

Agra, I. a town of Italy, II. Eubcea, 

III. Cyprus, IV. Acarnania, V. Sicily, 

-VI. Africa, VII. Sarmatia, &c. 



VIII. A promontory of Calabria, now Capo di 
Leuca. 

Acradina, the citadel of Syracuse, taken by 
Marcellus the Roman consul. Plut. in Mar- 
cel. — Cic. in Verr. 4. 

AcRiEPHiA, a town in Boeotia ; whence Apol- 
lo is called Acraephius. Its ruins are still to be 
seen on the eminence above the village of Car- 
ditza. Herodot. 8, c. 135. 

AcRAGAS, Vid. Agragas. 

AcRATHOs, a promontory of the peninsula on 
which mount Athos is situate, towards the 
Strymonic gulf. It is the modem Capo Monte 
Santo. 

AcROCERAUNii MONTEs, loiown in modem geo- 
graphy by the name of CAiTmxrra, formed the na- 
tural boundanr of Illyria and Chaonia. This 
10 



lofty chain, so celebrated in antiquity as the 
seat of storms and tempests, extends for seve- 
ral miles along the coast, from Cape Linguei- 
ta, the Acroceraunium Promontorium, to the 
neighbourhood of ^w^ri^i^o ; while inland it is 
connected with the ramifications of the Thes- 
protian and Molossian mountains. The Greek 
and Latin poets are full of allusions to these 
dangerous-rocks. 

Acroceraunium promontorium. Vid. Acro- 
ceraunii Monies. 

AcROCORiNTHUs, a lofty mountain on the isth- 
mus of Corinth. There is a temple of Venus 
on the top, and Corinth is built at the bottom. 
Strab. 8. — Pans. 2, c. 4. — Plut. in Arat. — Stat. 
Theb. 7, v. 106. 

Acropolis, the citadel of Athens, built on a 
rock, and accessible only on one side. Minerva 
had a temple at the bottom. Paus. in Attic. 

AcROREA REGio, the bordcr tract along ihe 
boundary of Arcadia and Elis, so called from 
its mountainous character. It contained several 
towns, of which Lasion was one. Xen. Hell. 
3, 2, 221. 

AcTE, I. the peninsula in which mount Athos 
rises, between the Singitic and Strymonic -gulfs. 
II. Also a name applied to the coast of At- 



tica, (from dxT«, a shore,) and sometimes ex- 
tended to the whole country. Thuc. 4, 109. — 
Pomp. Mel. 2, 3. 

AcTiuM, I. a town of Acarnania, celebrated 
for the victory to which it gave its name. Il 
was situated close to the entrance of the Ambra- 
cian gulf, on an elevated promontory. Thucy- 
dides mentions Actium as a port in the territory 
of Anactorium. The antiquity of the temple of 
Apollo appears to have been great, since Virgil 
supposes it to have existed in the time of ^Eneas, 
The name of Azio is still attached to some 
ruins which are visible on a bold rocky height 
in the position assigned by D Anville to Actium. 
Strab.— Thuc. 1, 29.— ^ti. 3, TiL— Hughes' 

Travels. II. A promontory of Corey r a. Cic. 

ad Att. 7, 2. 

Addua, now the Adda, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul. It separated the Insubres from the Ce- 
nomani, and, after supplying the lake Larius, 
empties into the Po some distance below the 
town of Acerree. Strabo refers its origin to the 
mount Adula, which can only be correct if 
Adula be a name applied to all the Rhoetian 
Alps. Strabo. — Cram. It. 

Adonis, a river of Phoenicia, rising in, 
mount Lebanon, and falling, after a north-west 
course, near Byblus, into the sea. The soil 
through which this river flows is of a reddish 
clay, and when the floods prevail the reddish 
tinge of the waters affords occasion to the poets 
for some of the fables connected with the name 
of Adonis. 

Adramyttium, an Athenian colony on the 
sea-coast of Mysia, near the Caycus. Strab. 
13.— Thucyd. 5, c. 1. 

Adrana, a river of Germany, now the Eder, 
running through Hesse, and falling into the 
Weser not far from Cassel. Tac. Ann. 1, 56. — 
Polyb. 

Adranum, a toAvn of Sicily, near iEtna, with 
a river of the same name. The chief deity of 
the place was called Adranus, and his temple 
was guarded by 1000 dogs. Plut. in Timol. 

Adrastu, a region and city of the Troad in 



-EG 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MQ 



Mysia, called, from the battle fought there by- 
Alexander with the Persians, Adrasth Campi ; 
and it was here that the first meeting took place 
between the rival kings. Its earlier name was 
Parimn, but Homer calls it Adrastia. Arrian. 
■ -Strabo. 

Adria. Vid. HadricB. 

Adrianopolis. Vid. Hadrianopolis. 

Adrumetum. Vid. Hadrmnetum. 

Aduatuca, and Atuatuca, a town in the 
territory of the Eburones. The Itinerary of 
Antoninus caUs it Aduaca, and Ptolemy speaks 
of the Tongri and their city Atuacutum. Upon 
the destruction of the Eburones the Tongri oc- 
cupied their territory; whence Tongres^ the 
modern name of the ancient town. Tongres is 
in the Pays-bas, between MaestricM and Lou- 
vain. CcBs. Bell. G. 6, 32 and 34, Lemaire^s ed. 

Adula. Vid. Addua. 

Adulis, a town of Upper Egypt. 

JEje, jEa, or ^^A, an island of Colchis, in 
the Phasis. Apollon. 3. 

^ANTiuM, the promontory which closes the 
Pagasaean gulf on the Magnesian side. 

^AS. Vid. Aous. 

.EcuLANUM, or iEcLANUM, a town of Sam- 
nium, must be placed on the Appian Way, about 
13 .miles from Benevento. Holstenius first dis- 
covered its ruins near Mirabella, on the site 
called by the natives Le Grotte. Cram. It. 2, 
249.—^^. Civ. Bell. 1, 51. 

tEdepsus, now, perhaps, Dipso, a town of 
Eubcea, where were some warm springs conse- 
crated to Hercules. Plut. Vit. Syll. 

Odessa, or Edessa, a town near Pella. Ca- 
ranus, king of Macedonia, took it by following 
goats {ctiytt^') that sought shelter from the rain, 
and called it hence ^gse, otherwise written 
-Ege, .Egea, and -Egaea. It continued the 
capital of the country until the seat of govern- 
ment was transferred to Pella. It is believed 
that Vodina on the Vistritza represents this 
ancient city ; and there are still remains of se- 
pulchres in the vicinity. Justin. 7, 1. — Clarke's 
Travels. — Pliny, 4, 10. 

Mmcvhk Ridiculi, a temple .raised to the god 
of mirth from the following circumstance : af- 
ter the battle of Cannee, Hannibal marched to 
Rome, whence he was driven back by the incle- 
mency of the weather ; which caused so much 
joy in Rome, that the Romans raised a temple 
to the god of mirth. This deity Avas worship- 
ped at Sparta. Plut. in L/yc. Agid. and Cleom. 
PausaniEis also mentions a 3-2o? yixanog. 

Mgk, an island of the iEgean sea, between 
Tenedos and Chios. 

Mge, I. a town of Macedonia, Vid. Odes- 
sa. II. A town of Achaia, on the Crathis, 

celebrated for the worship of Neptune as early 
as the days of Homer. In Strabo's time it had 

ceased to exist. K 8, 203.—Strab. 8. III. 

Another in Euboea, south of ^Edepsus ; proba- 
bly the modern AJdo. 

JEgmje,^. town and sea-port of Cilicia. Im- 
can, 3, V. 227. 

^GiEUM mare, the Archipelago, that por- 
tion of the Mediterranean which intervenes be- 
tween the eastern shores of Greece and the op- 
posite continent of Asia Minor. It was consi- 
dered particularly stormy and dangerous; 
whence the proverb, tov Atyatov ttku. Different 
parts were known by particular names, as the 



Mare Myrtoum, which lay between the Cy- 
clades and the Peloponnesian coast ; and the 
Icarium, which washed the Lydian coast j and 
the islands Myconus, Icaria, and Samos. Tra- 
dition referred the origin of its name to ^geiis ; 
but Strabo, with more probability, deduced it 
from the little island of jEgas in the vicinity of 
Euboea. Cramer, Greece, 1, 7. — JEsch. Agam. 
64:2.— Hor. Od. 2, 16. 

^GALEOs, or MgaIuEum, a mountain of Atti- 
ca, opposite Salamis, on which Xerxes sat du- 
ring the engagement of his fleet with the Gre- 
cian ships in the adjacent sea. Herodot. 8, c. 
dO.— Thucyd.% c. 19. 

^GAN, and ^GON, the iEgean sea. Flac. 1, 
&2S.—Sat. 5, 56. 

-Agates, I. a promontory of JEolia. II. 

Three islands opposite Carthage, called Aras by 
Virg. jEn. 1, near which the Romans, under 
Catulus, in the first Punic War, defeated the 
Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 242 B. C. Liv. 
21, c. 10 and 41, 1. 22, c. 54.— MeZa. 2, c. 7.— 
Sil. 1, V. 61. 

./Egeleon, a town of Macedonia, taken by 
king Attalus. It has been conjectured that, 
instead of ^geleon in Livy, we should read 
Pteleon. 

-Egesta, an ancient town of Sicily near 
mount Eryx, destroyed by Agathocles. It was 
sometimes called Segesta and Acesta. Its 
ruins are still seen in the vale of Mazara. Diod. 
10. 

-Egialea, I. an island near Peloponnesus, in 

the Cretan sea. II. Another in the Ionian 

sea, near the Echinades. . Plin. 4, c. 12. — He- 
rodot, 4, c. 107. III. The ancient name of 

Peloponnesus. Strab. 12. — Mela, 2, c. 7. 

iEcriALUs, I. a city of Asia Minor, II. A 

mountain of Galatia. Vid. Achaia. 

Mg\T)x, a town in the little island of jEgidis, 
on the coast of Histria, at the mouth of the 
Formio. The later name of this place was 
Justinopolis ; it is now Capo d'Istria. Plin. 3, 
12.— Cram. It. 

MgI'lk, a place in Laconia, where Aristo- 
menes was taken prisoner by a crowd of reli- 
gious women whom he had attacked. Pans. 

4, c. 17. 

.^GiLiA, I. a small island in the Euripus, be- 
longing to the Styrians, where the Persian 
fleet, under Datis and Artaphernes, was moor- 
ed before the battle of Marathon. It is now 

Stouri. Herod. 6, 101 and 107. II. Another, 

now Cerigotte, between Cythera and Crete. 

tEgimorus, or jEgimurus, an island near 
Lybia, supposed by some to be the same which 
Virgil mentions under the name of Arae. Plin. 

5, c. 7. 

jEgina, now Egina or Enghia, an island, 
with a city of the same name, situated in the 
Saronic gulf, at equal distances from the Athe- 
nian, Megarian, and Peloponnesian coasts. 
PausaniEis observes that of all the Greek islands 
it is the most inaccessible, being surrounded by 
hidden rocks and shoals. In fabulous times this 
island is said to have borne the name of ^none, 
which it afterwards exchanged for that of -(Egi- 
na, mother of .Eacus and the long line of he- 
roes descended from him. It received colonies 
from Crete, Argos, and Epidaurus. The Cretan 
may be referred to the time of Minos ; that of 
Argos to the period in which Phidon was tjTant 
11 



^G 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MG 



of that city. The Epidaurians, who crossed 
over into Egina, were a detachment of those 
Dorians who had left Argos under Deiphontes 
to settle at Epidaurus. After the battle of 
Platsea, ^gina was at the height of its pros- 
perity, and was looked upon as the chief em- 
porium of Greece : but on the breaking out of 
the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians expelled 
the whole population from theisland, replacing 
them with some of their own citizens. After 
the battle of jEgospotami, Lysander re-esta- 
blished the ^ginetse, but they never recovered 
their former prosperity. According to Strabo, 
the island is about 180 stadia in circuit. The 
vestiges of the walls of the ancient city cover 
an extensive plain, and the walls of the port 
and arsenal may be traced to a considerable 
extent. Cram. Gr. 3, p. 275. — Strabo, 8. — He- 
rod. 8, 46.— Pans. 2, 29.— Thucyd.—Xen. Hell. 
2, 2, 5. 

^GiNiuM, an important city in the north-west 
of Thessaly, near the Ion, which Livy describes 
as almost impregnable. The Epitomizer of 
Strabo seems to place it in Macedonia, and 
Steph. Byz., still more incorrectly, in Illyria. 
It was taken by the Athamanes in the war with 
Antiochus, and, some years after, given up to 
plunder by Paulus iEmilius. Its strength de- 
terred Flaminius from laying siege to it. Mo- 
cossi probably stands near the site of the an- 
cient city. Cram. Gr. 1, 355. — Livy, 32, 15 ; 
36, 13 ; 44, 46 ; 45, 27. 

tEgira, one of the 12 cities of the Achaean 
league, was nearly opposite to CEanthe, in the 
country of the Locri Ozolae, and near the sea 
of Corinth, between Sicyon and ^gium. The 
port was about twelve stadia from the town, 
which was situated on an eminence. Accord- 
ing to Sir W. Gell, its ruins are to be seen 
on a woody hill above fhe spot now called 
Bloubouki. Its most ancient name was Hyper- 
esia. The change to ^gira is accounted for 
by Pausanias, 7, 26. — Polyb. 4, 57. — Herodot. 1, 
145. 

^Egiroessa, a town of jEtolia. Herodot. 1, 
c. 149. 

JEgitum, a town of JEolia, on a mountain 
eight miles from the sea. Thucyd. 3, c. 97. 

iEgiuM, now Vostizza, a town of Achaia, 
near the mouth of the Selinus. Here for a long 
time the general states of Achaia held their as- 
semblies, until a law was made by Philopcemen, 
by which each of the federal towns became in 
its turn the place of rendezvous. According to 
Strabo these meetings were convened near the 
town, in a spot called iEnarium, where was a 
grove consecrated to Jupiter. Pausanias affirms, 
that in his time the Achseans still collected to- 
gether at iEgium, as the Amphictyons did at 
Delphi and Thermopylae. Among its temples 
was one to Jupiter Homagyrius, which was 
supposed to stand on the spot where Agamem- 
non convened all the chieftains of Greece be- 
fore the Trojan expedition. Cram. Gr. 3, 63 — 
Liv. 38, 1.— Polyb. 2, 54, 3.—Strab. 8.— Pans. 
7, 23 and 24. 

iEooN, and JEgan, I, a promontory of Lem- 

nos. II. A name of the iEgaean. Stat. Theb. 

5, b&—Flacc. 1, 628. 

.^gospotamoi, a small river of the Thra- 
cian Chersonese, which empties into the Hel- 
lespont. At its mouth stands a town or port of 
12 



the same name, where the Athenian fleet was 
totally defeated by Lysander, A. C. 405, The 
village of Galata probably stands on the site of 
the ancient town. Cram. Gr. 1, 330. — Herodot. 
9, 112.— Xen. Hell. 2, Id.—Plut. Alcib.—Corn. 
Nep. Alcib. 

^gosag^, an Asiatic nation under Attains, 
with whom he conquered Asia, and to whom 
he gave a settlement near the Hellespont. Po- 
lyb. 5, 

^GOSTHENJE, a towTi of Mcgaris, a little to 
the south of Pagae, whither the Lacedaemonians 
retreated after the battle of Leuctra. Ptolemy 
erroneously assigns it to Phocis, According to 
Sir W, Gell, the village of Porto Germano, 
where there are yet considerable ruins of the 
ancient fortifications, and a perfect town, may 
be considered as the ancient ./Egosthense. 
Cram. Gr. 2, 4Ti.—Xen. Hell. 6, 4, 26. 

^GUSA, the middle island of the Agates 
near Sicily. 

tEgypsus, a town of the Gelas, near the Da- 
nube. Ovid, ex Pont. 1, ep. 8. 1. 4, ep. 7. 

^GYPTiuM MARE, that part of the Mediter- 
ranean sea which is on the coast of Egypt, 

iEoYPTUs, a coimtry lying between Arabia 
on the east, Libya on the west, the Mediterra- 
nean on the north, and Ethiopia on the south. 
It has been by different writers assigned to Af- 
rica and Asia, and the limits which separate it 
from either country are not well defined. The 
ancients, according to Strabo, confined the name 
Egypt to the parts watered and overflowed by 
the Nile. It presents itself to the eye as an 
immense valley, extending nearly 600 miles in 
length, and hemmed in, on either side, by a 
ridge of hills and a vast expanse of desert. The 
breadth of the cultivable soil varies, according 
to the direction of the rocky barriers by which 
its limits are determined; spreading, in some 
parts, into a spacious plain, while at others it 
contracts its dimensions to less than two leagues. 
The mean width has been estimated at about 
nine miles; and hence, including the whole 
area from the shores of the Delta to the first 
cataract, the extent of land capable of bearing 
crops has been computed to contain ten millions 
of acres. Egypt was divided into Superior and 
Inferior, the latitude of Cairo presenting in our 
day the line of demarcation. There was an- 
other division, frequently alluded to by the Greek 
and Roman writers, namely, that of the Delta, 
the Heptanomis, and the Thebaid. The first 
of these provinces was comprehended within 
the two principal branches of the Nile from its 
division to its mouths ; the third occupied the 
narrow valley of Upper Egj^t ; while to the se- 
cond was allotted the intermediate space, which 
seems to have been divided into seven nomes, 
districts, or cantons. The Delta is now called 
Bahari, which signifies in the Arabic a mari- 
time district. The modern name of Vostani, 
which expresses in Arabic an intermediate 
space, still marks the ancient Heptanomis, 
Said, south of Vostani, designates the The- 
baid. About the conclusion of the fourth cen- 
tury, the eastern division of the Delta, between 
Arabia and the Phatnitic branch of the Nile, as 
high as Heliopolis, was erected into a new pro- 
vince under the name of Angustamnica, The 
Heptanomis took under Arcadius, son of the 
great Theodosius, the name of Arcadia ; and at 



MG 



GEOGRAPHY. 



-2EN 



a later period the Thebaid was divided into 
Anterior and Superior. As to the origin of the 
name ^Egyptus much diversity of opinion has 
existed. It is asserted by the Greeks, that a ce- 
lebrated king of this name bequeathed it to his 
dominions, which had formerly passed under 
the appellation of Aeria, or the land of heat and 
blackness. In the Sacred Writings of the He- 
brews it is called Mizraim, the plural form of the 
oriental noun Mizr, the name which is applied 
to Egypt by the Arabs of the present day. The 
Copts retaia the native word Chemia, which, 
perhaps, has some relation to Cham, the son of 
Noah ; or, as Plutarch insinuates, may only de- 
note that darkness of colour which appears in a 
rich soil or the human eye. Mizraim was one 
of the children of Cham. Bruce remarks that 
YGj^t, the term used by the Ethiopians when 
they speak of Egypt, means the country of Ca- 
nals ; a description very suitable to the improved 
condition of that valley under its ancient kings. 
In the heroic age of Greece the word ^gyptus 
was employed in reference to an ancient sove- 
reign, to the land, and also to the river. Ac- 
cording to another opinion, the name of Copt, 
which distinguishes the remains of the original 
nations from the Arabs and from the Turks, is 
in- the form of Kypt, no other than the root of 
the Greek name >(Egyptus. Of all the countries 
of the ancient world none is more deservedly the 
subject of inquiry than Eg)rpt. The antiquity 
of its institutions, their influence, real or imagi- 
nary, upon the rest of the world, producing 
revolutions abroad, though at home unvarying; 
its stupendous monuments, which have resisted 
the influence of time from a period so remote as 
to defy calculation ; its peculiar climate and geo- 
graphical relations ; and its mysterious river, to 
which the country owes its very existence ; all 
and each of these distinguish it from almost 
every other portion of the globe. The aspect of 
Egypt undergoes periodical changes with the 
seasons. In our winter months, when nature is 
for us dead, she seems to carry life into these 
climates; and the verdure of Egypt's enamelled 
meadows is then delightful to the eye. In the 
opposite season this same country exhibits no- 
thing but a brown soil, either miry or dry, hard, 
and dust}'. During the period of summer, from 
June to the close of September, the heat is in- 
tense. The scarcity of rain is a remarkable 
phenomenon. " A long valley," says M. Reg- 
nier, " encircled with hills and mountains, pre- 
sents no point in which the surface has sufficient 
elevation to attract and detain the clouds. The 
evaporations from the Mediterranean, too, du- 
ring summer, carried off by the north winds, 
which have almost the constancy of trade winds 
in Egypt, finding nothing to stop their progress, 
pass over the country without interruption, and 
collect around the mountains of Central Africa, 
There, deposited in rains, they swell the tor- 
rents, which, falling into the Nile, augment its 
waters, and, under the form of an inundation, 
restore, with usury, to Egypt, the blessings of 
which the defect of rain otherwise deprived it." 
That the absence of rain is in part owing to the 
previous aridity of the soil is clearly established 
by the fact, that near the sea, where the soil is 
moist, rain is not uncommon; while at Cairo, 
for example, there are, perhaps, four or five 
showers in the year ; in Upper Egypt, one or 



two at most. The canals of Egypt were very nu- 
merous, and extended the fertilizing influence 
of the Nile beyond the limits of its inundation. 
{Vid. Nilus.) D'Anville. — Russell's Egypt. 
— Malte-Brun. — Herod. — Justin. 1. — Plin. 5, 
1 ; 14, l.—Polyb. Ib.—Diod. I.— Curt. 4, 1.— 
Paus. 1, H.—Mela, 1, 9. — Apollod. 2, 1 and 5. 

^GYs, a town of Laconia, on the borders of 
Arcadia, and contiguous to Belmina. Its site 
is probably the same with that of the modem 
Agia Eirene^ near the village of Collina. Cram. 
Gr.—Polyb. 2, bA.—Paus. 3, 2; 8, 27. 

^MATHioN, and ^MATHiA, Vid. Emathion. 

^MONA, now Laybach^ on the Save. At a 
late period, when the confines of Italy were 
extended beyond the Rhoetian Alps, this was 
considered the last town of that country. He- 
rodian. 

^MONiA, a country of Greece, which received 
its name from ^mon or JEmus, and was after- 
wards called Thessaly. Achilles is called JSwo- 
nius^ as being born there. Ovid. Trist. 3, el, 
11, I. 4, el. l.—Horat. 1, od. 37. It was also 
called Pyrrha, from Pyrrha, Deucalion's wife, 
who reigned there. — The word has been indis- 
criminately applied to Greece by some writers. 
Plin. 4, c. 7. 

jEnaria, now Ischia, an island on the Cam- 
panian coast. It was otherwise called Inarime 
and Pithecusa. The latter name commonly in- 
cludes the adjacent island of Prochyta, now 
Procida. Inarime some consider of Tuscan 
origin, signifying apes, rendered in Greek by 
the term Pithecus83. Pliny refers these names 
to the number of earthen vessels used in the 
island. The Latin poets have applied it to Ho- 
mer's description of the place of torment al- 
lotted to the earth-born Typhoeus, in conse- 
quence, no doubt, of the frequent volcanic erup- 
tions. Three colonies in succession, of Eretri- 
ans, Chalcidians, and Syracusans, were driven 
by the earthquakes from the island. Mount 
Epopeus, now Epomeo, or Monte San Nicola^ 
was remarkable for its volcanic character. 
Cram. It. 2, \SQ.—Liv. 8, 22.— iWfeZ. 2, l.—Plin. 
3, G.—Strai. 5. 

iENARiuM. Vid. Mgium. 

jEnea, or ^NEiA, I. a town of Macedonia, 
situated on the coast opposite to Pydna, on the 
other side of the Gulf of Thessalonica, and fif- 
teen miles from the latter place, Livy states 
that sacrifices were performed here annually in 
honour of JEneas, the reputed founder. Lyco- 
phron alludes to the foundation of this city by 
JEneas ; and Virgil has not omitted to notice 
the tradition. It was given up to plunder by 
P, JEmilius, after the battle of Pydna, Its 
ruins are visible near the small to-v^Ti of Pano- 
mi, close to the headland of the same name, 
which is perhaps the iEnion of Scymnus. 
Cram. Gr. 1, 242.— Liv. 40, 4 ; 45, 21.—jEn. 3, 

16, -II, A city of Acarnania, on the right 

bank of the Achelous, about 70 stadia from its 
mouth, Strabo states that it was formerly si- 
tuated higher up the river, but was afterwards 
removed. It is not improbable that the ruins of 
Trigardon represent the more recent iEnea, 
and that those which are to be seen at Palao 
Catouna answer to the more ancient town. 
Cram. Gr. 2, ^d.—Strab. 10, 

^Enianum Sinus, a name given by some to 
the Maliacus Sinus, Livy, 28, 5 ; 33, 3. 
13 



^o 



GEOGRAPHY. 



iET 



^Nos, I. a town of Thrace, to the east of the 
Hebrus, at the mouth of the estuary formed by 
that river. Herodotus calls it an iEolic city ; by 
others its foundation is ascribed respectively to 
Mitylene and Cumas. Its more ancient name 
was Poltyobria. Virgil supposes ^Eneas to 
have discovered here the tomb of the murdered 
PolydoruSj and intimates that he founded a city 
which he named after himself Pliny states 
that the tomb of Polydorus was at ^Enos ; but it 
is certain that, according to Homer, the city was 
called iEnos before the siege of Troy. jEnos, 
as well as Maronea, had been declared a free 
town by the Roman senate before the time of 
Pliay. It is known to the Byzantine writers 
under the name of Enos, which it still preserves, 
^nos and its district belonged originally to the 
Apsynthii; it was also called Apsinthus, and 
the Apsynthii are named by Herodotus as a peo- 
ple bordering on the Thracian Chersonnese. 
We read of a river Apsinthus in Dionys. Pe- 
rieg. 577. Cram. Gr. 1, Zld.— Herod. 4, 90; 
6, 34; 9, n^.—Steph. Byz.—ApoUod. Bibl. 2, 
5, 9.— Virg. ^n. 3, 18; 4, 11. 11. 4, 519.— 

Plin. 4, 11. II. A town near mount Ossa. 

Steph. Byz. 
^NUM, a mountain in Cephallenia. Strah. 7. 
iENYRA, a town of Thasos. Herodot. 6, 
0.47. 

iEoLiA, or iEoLis, a country of Asia Minor, 
near the ^Egean sea. It has Troas at the north, 
and Ionia at the south. The inhabitants were 
of Grecian origin, and were masters of many of 
the neighbouring islands. They had 12, others 
say 30, considerable cities, of which Cum^ and 
Lesbos were the most famous. They received 
their name from iEolus, son of Hellenus. They 
migrated from Greece about 1124 B. C, 80 
years before the migration of the Ionian tribes. 
" The iEolian Greeks," says Gillies, " esta- 
blished themselves, 88 years after the taking of 
Troy, along the shore of the ancient kingdom 
of Priam. They gradually diffused their colo- 
nies from Cyzicus on the Propontis to the mouth 
of the river Hermus, which delightful country, 
with the island of Lesbos, thenceforth received 
the name of ^olis or ^Eolia, to denote that the 
inhabitants belonged to the ^olian branch of 
the Hellenic race. JEolm continued for a long 
time free, and the assembly of the confederated 
cities met annually in the city of Cumas. The 
country was, however, subdued by the Lydians, 
and fell, with the rest of the empire of Croesus, 
into the hands of the Persians. The dialect of 
the ^olians was one of the principal forms of 
the Greek tongue, and connects it with various 
other idioms of Europe." Herodot. 1, c. 26, 
&c.—Sirab. 1, 2 and 6.— Plin. 5, c. 30.— Me- 
la, 1, c. 2 and 18. — Thessaly has been anciently 
called iEolia. Boeotus, son of Neptune, having 
settled there, called his followers Boeotians, and 
their country Boeotia. 

^OLiiE and tEoltdes, seven islands between 
Sicily and Italy; called Lipara, Hiera, Stron- 
gyle, Didyme, Ericusa, Phoenicusa, and Eu- 
onymos. They were the retreat of the winds ; 
and Virg. jEn. 1, v. 56, calls them .^olia, and 
the kingdom of .^olus, the god of stonns and 
winds. They sometimes bear the name of Vul- 
canicB and Hephcestiades, and Dioii,. Per. 1154, 
calls them Plotse; but they are known now 
among the modems under the general appella- 
14 



tion of Lipari Islands. lAican. 5, v. 609. — Jus^ 
tin. 4, c. 1. 

^OLiDA, I. a city of Tenedos. II. An- 
other near Thermopylse. Herodot. 8, c. 35. 

^PY, a town of Elis, under the dominion of 
Nestor. Stat. 4, Theb. v. 180. 

^auiMELiuM, a place in Rome where the 
house of Melius stood, who aspired to sovereign 
power, for which crime his habitation was lev- 
elled to the ground. Liv. 4, c. 16. 
jEsacus, a river of Troy near Ida. 
uEsARUs, now Esaro, a river in the Bruttio- 
rum Ager. At its mouth stands Crotona. 
The ^sarus was the scene of some of the best 
Bucolics in Theocritus. Polyb. Fragm. 10, 1. 
— Tlieoc. Idyll, i, 11. 

jEsepus, a river of Mysia, which rises in 
Mount Ida, and, flowing in a course very nearly 
parallel with that of the Granicus, empties into 
the Propontis between the mouths of the Tar- 
sius and the Granicus. D^Anville. 

JEsERNiA, now Isernia, a town of Samnium, 
said to have been colonized about the be- 
ginning of the first Punic War. In the Social 
War it fell into the hands of the allies. Subse- 
quently, it was re-colonized by Augustus and 
Nero. Cram.- It. 2, 230.— Liv. Epit. \%.—App. 
Bell. Civ. 1, 41. 

^sis, I. now the Esino or Fiumesino, a river 
of Italy, which separates Umbria from Pice- 
num. It rises in the Appenines, and empties 

into the Hadriatic north of Ancona. II. A 

town on the left bank of the iEsis. It is now 
lesi. The name is also written JEsium. Old 
inscriptions give it the title of colony. Cram. 
—Strab. b.—Plin. 3, 14. 
iEsruM. Vid. jEsis. 

tEson, I. a river of Macedonia, which emp- 
ties into the Thermaic gulf near Pydna, IL 

A town of Magnesia, in Thessaly. 
^sopus, a river of Pontus. Sf>rai. 12. 
.^STRJEUM, a city of the ^straei, a Paeonian 
tribe named by Ptolemy. iEstraeum is proba- 
bly the Asterium of Livy. Perhaps the As- 
traea assigned by Steph. Byz. to Illyria, is the 
city of which we are now speaking. Pliny calls 
it Astr^a. Cram. Gr. 1, 213.— Liv. 40, 23.— 
Plin. 4, 10. 

jEusla, a town of Latium, mentioned by Ho- 
race in the same line with Tibur, and there- 
fore naturally supposed to have stood in its vi- 
cinity. In Pliny's time it no longer existed. 
This ancient site remains undiscovered. Cram. 
It. 2, m.—Hor. 3, Od. 2d.— Plin. 3, 5. 

iEsYME, or CEsYME, incorrectly written Si- 
syme, a maritime town of Thrace, which op- 
posed the Romans in the last Macedonian war. 
The same as the Emathea of Livy. Horn. IL 
S.— Thuc— Liv. 4.3,1. 

JEthalia, called by the Latins Ilva, and now 
the island of Elba. It was situated about ten 
miles from Populonium, the nearest point of 
the Tuscan coast. This island was early ce- 
lebrated for its iron mines, which exhibit marks 
of having been worked from the remotest times. 
The supply of metallic substance was so great, 
that it became a matter of popular belief that 
it was constantly renewed. Arist. De Mirabil. 
—Plin. 34, U.— Virg. 10, 113.— Cram. It. 

^Ethiopia. No name that occurs in the an- 
cient writers is used with less precision than 
^Ethiopia. Homer represents Jove as leaving. 



iET 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AFR 



Olympus, and repairing to a feast in Ethiopia 
upon the Ocean. By some, Ocean, in the pas- 
sage alluded to, is referred to the Nile ; but it 
doubtless applies to the fabled waters which, 
according to the notions of many of the ancients, 
girt the earth like a zone. Virgil extends ^Ethi- 
opia to the western coast of Africa, compre- 
hending within it part of Mauretania. In fact, 
it would seem that the ancients included in 
jEthiopia all those southern regions which 
were unknown to them. That division of Ethi- 
opia which was distinguished from the rest els 
^Ethiopia supra JEgj^tum. or Superior, is the 
only part of which any thing certaia was 
known. Ethiopia Inferior comprehends Pto- 
lemy's Ethiopia Interior and his Terra Incog- 
nita, extending across Africa to the Ocean. 
That part which bordered on the Atlantic was 
called Hesperian, Ethiopia supra Eg5rptum 
commences on the frontier of Egypt, and ex- 
tends along the Nile, including Abyssinia with- 
in its limits. A large portion of the country 
along the Nile is, like Egypt, a narrow vale. 
It was first called Etheria, and afterwards At- 
lantia, as Pliny tells us. The name Ethiopia 
has been traced to uldce, to burn, and 04, the 
countenance, from the complexion of its inhabit- 
ants. Some apply to this country the Scriptu- 
ral appellation of L/iidim, from Lnid, son of 
Mizraim ; others, that of Chus^ the son of Cham. 
That of India is also given it in several pas- 
sages of the ancient authors. The people in 
the old time were said to be great astrologers ; 
the firstordainers also of sacred ceremonies, and 
in both tutors to the Egyptians. They held an 
annual feast at Diospolis, which Eustathius 
mentions, in which they carried about the sta- 
tues of Jupiter and the other gods for twelve 
days. Hence, probably, the Homeric fiction. 
D^Anville. — Malte-Brun. — Heylin. — HoTtier, 11. 
1, 423.— Fw-fi'. yEn. 10, 68; G. 2, 120; ^n. 4, 
481. 

Etna, a mountain of Sicily, now Gibello, 
famous for its volcano, which, for about 3000 
years, has thrown out fire at intervals. It is 
two miles in perpendicular height, and mea- 
sures 100 miles round at the base, with an as- 
cent of 30 miles. Its crater forms a circle about 
three and a half miles in circumference, and 
its top is covered with snow and smoke at the 
same time, whilst the sides of the mountain, 
from the great fertility of the soil, exhibit a rich 
scenery of cultivated fields and blooming vine- 
yards. Pindar is the first who mentions an 
eruption of Etna ; and the silence of Homer on 
the subject is considered as a proof that the 
fires of the mountain were unknown in his age. 
From the time of Pythagoras, fhe supposed date 
of the first volcanic appearance, to the battle of 
Pharsalia, it is computed that Etna has had 
100 eruptions. The poets supposed that Jupi- 
ter had confined the giants under this moun- 
tain, and it was represented as the forge of 
Vulcan, where his servants, the Cyclops, fabri- 
cated thunderbolts, &c. On its sides are 77 
cities or villages, of which the principal is Cata- 
nia, situate in the first of the three belts or zones 
into which the mountain is divided by the dis- 
tinct climates of equal number that characterize 
its ascent. Diodorus Siculus is the earliest who 
speaks of its eruptions; but since his time the 
mountain has been burning with intervals down 



to the present day. The last eruption took place 
in the year 1819. The name Etna, sometimes 
written Ethna, is derived most probably from 
cti6ee, to burn ; and other etymologies of the same 
word all refer to its volcanic character. Etna 
supplies the luxury of ice to all the adjacent^ 
and even to some comparatively distant, coun- 
tries. Hesiod. Theog. v. 860. — Virg. Mn. 3, 
V. blO.—Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 6, I. 15, v. 340.— 
Ital. 14, V. 59. 

Etolu, a country of Greece, bounded on 
the west by the Achelous, which separated it 
from Acarnania ; on the north by the mountain 
districts occupied by the Athamanes, Dolopes_, 
and Enianes; on the east by the country of 
the Dorians and Locri Ozolae; and on the 
south by the Corinthiacus Sinus. These were 
the limits of Etolia during the time of Spartan 
and Athenian glory; but when the Romans 
achieved the conquest of the country, the Eto- 
lians had extended their dominions on the west 
and north-west as far as Epirus, where they 
were in possession of Ambracia, leaving to 
Acarnania only a few towns on the coast ; to- 
wards the north they occupied the districts of 
Amphilochia and Aperantia, and a great por- 
tion of Dolopia. On the Thessalian side they 
had made themselves masters of the country of 
the Enianes, a large portion of Phthiotis, with 
the cantons of the Melians and Trachinians. 
On the east they had gained the whole of the 
Locrian coast to the Crissaean gulf, including 
Naupactus. This flourishing condition was of 
short duration. Upon the failure of their re- 
bellion against Rome, they were completely 
subdued and humbled by their conquerors. The 
chief cities of Etolia were Chalcis, Thermus, 
Calydon; its principal rivers, besides the Ache- 
lous, the Arachthus and Evenus. The most 
ancient name of the country was Curetis, de- 
rived from the Curetes, by some considered as 
indigenous, by others traced to Eubosa. The 
Hyantes, a primitive Grecian race, are said to 
have settled in Etolia as well as in Bosotia, 
where they are better known. The Eolians, 
a Thessalian tribe, on being expelled from their 
original settlements, occupied a part of Curetis, 
thence called Eolis. Finally, it is said that 
Etolus, the son of Endyinion, having arrived 
from Elis in Peloponnesus at the head of an 
army, defeated the Curetes, and forced them 
to abandon their country, to which he gave the 
name of Etolia. Strabo informs us that it 
was usual to divide the country, as first de- 
scribed, into Etolia Antiqua and Epictetos. 
The former extended along the coast from the 
Achelous to Calydon, answering to the Eolis 
of Thucydides. The latter, as the name im- 
plies, was a territory subsequently acquired, and 
comprehended the most mountainous and least 
fertile parts of the province. Cram. Gr. 2, 60. 
—Strab. 10.— Thiic. 3, 102.— Liv. 33, 13, and 
31. — Eustath. in II. B. 637. — Hesych. — Pausan. 
5, l.—Scymn. ch. 472.— JZ. 9, 529. 

Ex, a rocky island in the Egean Sea, be- 
tween Tenedos, or rather, perhaps, between 
Tenos and Chios. According to Pliny, from 
this island, the sea, near the centre of which it 
stood if Tenos be substituted for Tenedos, was 
called the Egean. 

Africa, called Ltjbia by the Greeks, one of 
the three parts of the ancient world, and the 
15 



AF 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AG 



greatest peninsula of the imiverse, was bounded 
on the east by Arabia and the Red Sea, on the 
north by the Mediterranean, south and west by 
the ocean. It is joined on the east to Asia, by 
an isthmus 60 miles long, which some of the 
Ptolemies endeavoured to cut, in vain, to join 
the Red and Mediterranean seas. The know- 
ledge which the ancients had of this continent 
was no less vague than circumscribed; and 
though Africa did, in their writings, often in- 
clude all that they knew of the peninsula, the 
names of its diiferent regions were more fre- 
quently used as the generic names of countries, 
than as designating inferior portions only of a 
vast continent. Africa, therefore, must be 
treated under the general head, and under that 
of Africa Propria. In its greatest extent as 
known to antiquity, it contained the divisions, 
1st, of Egypt, from the Red Sea or Sinus Ara- 
bicus, and from Rhinocolura in the Stony Ara- 
bia, to Apis on the Plinthenetic gulf; 2d, of 
Marmarica as far as 40 degrees east longitude, 
whence the Cyrenaica extended three degrees 
west as far as the Syrtis Major. Between this 
and the Syrtis Minor lay the barren country of 
the Regio Syrtica or Tripolitana, and west of 
this began the settlements of Proper Africa, di- 
vided into the countries of Numidia and Maure- 
tania. All these regions were confined strictly 
to the northern coast, except the kingdom of 
Egypt, which extends some hundred miles 
south along the valley of the Nile. Besides 
these, the Greeks and Romans entertained cer- 
tain indefinite notions of a country extending 
to an unknown limit south of Egypt, which 
they called jiEthiopia, and of a desert waste 
lying west of Egypt and south of the coast that 
we have described above. This they called 
Libya, or Africa Interior, inhabited by the Gsb- 
tuli, the Nasamones, the Garamantes, the Ni- 
gritise, and the Hesperii, around the great de- 
sert of sand or Sahara. " If," says Malte- 
Brun, " Africa has so long remained inaccessi- 
ble, we shall find in its physical form the princi- 
pal cause of its obscurity. A vast peninsula of 
5000 miles in length, and nearly 4600 in breadth, 
presents few long or easily navigated rivers. 
The Mediterranean on the north, and the At- 
lantic and Ethiopic oceans which encompass it 
on the west, form inconsiderable inequalities in 
its line of coast ; and the Arabian Gulf separates 
Africa from Asia without breaking the gloomy 
uniformity of the African coast. At great dis- 
tances are some large rivers, as the Nile in the 
north-east, the Senegal and Gambia in the 
west, and in the centre the mysterious Niger, 
which conceals its termination as the Nile used 
to conceal its origin. In the interior, and even 
on the coast, are great and lofty rocks, from 
which no torrents can proceed, and table-lands, 
watered by no streams, as the great desert of 
Sahara. At a greater distance are countries 
wholly impregnated with moisture. The Afri- 
can mountains are more distiaguished for their 
breadth than for their height. If they reach a 
great elevation, it is by a gradual rise, and in a 
succession of terraces. Atlas, which lines nearly 
the whole of the northern coast, is a series of 
five or six small chains, including many table- 
lands." Mela, 1, c. 4, &,c.—Diod. 3, 4, and 20. 
—Herodot. 2, c. 17, 26, and 32, 1. 4, c. 41, &c.— 
Plin. 5, c. 1, &c. ' ; 

16 



Africa Propria. A part of Africa, extend- 
ing from the river Ampsaga, now the Suffeg- 
mar, in Numidia, to the Cyrenaica; but this 
will include in Africa the Tripolitana through 
the sandy region, now the Barcan desert, as far 
as the Syrtis Major. Pliny defines it to extend 
from the eastern boundary of Numidia, the river 
Tusca, as far as the bay of the Lesser Syrtis ; 
that is to say, over the Carthaginian territory. 
Plin. 5, 4. 

Agagriane Port.e, gates at Syracuse, near 
which the dead were buried. Cic. in Tusc. 

Agalasses, a nation of India, conquered by 
Alexander. Diod. 17. 

Aganippe, a celebrated fountain of Boeotia, 
at the foot of mount Helicon. It flows into the 
Permessus, and is sacred to the muses, who, 
from it, were called Aganippedes. — Paus. 9, c. 
"iQ.—Propert. 2, el. "^.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 312.— 
Plin. 4, c. 7. Poetic license has sometimes 
confounded Aganippe with Hippocrene, which 
also belonged to the same region. 

Agassje, a town of Macedonia, on a branch 
of the Haliacmon in-Pieria. It was given up 
to plunder by P. ^milius, after the defeat of 
Perseus at the battle of Pydna, for having taken 
part with that prince. It is supposed by some 
to be the same as iEgae, the early capital of Ma- 
cedon. Liv. 45, 27. — Mannert, Geog. Ant. 

Agasus, supposed to be the modern Porto 
Greco, between the promontory Garganus and 
the Cerbalus in Paunia, 

Agatha, a town of France, near Agde, in 
Languedoc. Mela. 2, c. 5. 

Agdestis, a mountain of Phrygia, where 
Atys was buried. Paus, 1, c. 4. 

Agendicum, now Sens, a town, of Gaul, the 
capital of the Senones. Ccbs. Bell. Gall. 6, c. 44. 

Agisymba, a district of Libya Interior, by 
some considered as the limit of Africa south- 
ward as known to the ancients. 

Agoranis, a river falling into the Ganges. 
Arrian. de Ind. 

Agra, I. a place of Boeotia, where the Ilissus 
rises. Diana was called Agraea, because she 
hunted there. II. A city of Susa. 

Agr5;is Regio, a small territory, separated 
trom Acarnania by the mountain Thyamus. 
It was inhabited for a long time by an iEtolian 
tribe, and maintained its independence till con- 
quered by the Athenians and Acarnanians un- 
der Demosthenes, in the Peloponnesian war. 
The inhabitants were accounted barbarians, 
though Strabo calls them ^tolians. Thucyd. 
—Polyh.—Strab. 

Agragas, or AcRAGAS, now Girgenti, a town 
of Sicily, so called by the Greeks, the Agri- 
gentum of the Romans. The city was built 
B. C. 584, by the people of Gela, on the river 
from which it received its name. It was so 
well defended by nature, being situate upon 
an eminence at the confluence of the Agragas 
and the Hypsa, and so strongly built, that Em- 
pedocles, contrasting the luxurious style of liv- 
ing among the inhabitants with their durable 
and austere style of building, used to say " the 
Agrigentini live to-day as though they were to 
die to-morrow, and build as though they were 
to live for ever." In its flourishing situation, 
Agrigentum contained 200,000 inhabitants, 
who submitted with reluctance to the superior 
power of Syracuse. The government was mo- 



AL, 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AL 



narchical, but afterwards a democracy was esta- 
blished. The famous Phalaris usurped the sov^e- 
reignty, which was also some time in the hands 
of the Carthaginians. Agrigentum can now 
boasts of more venerable remains of antiquity 
than any other town of Sicily. Polyb. 9. — 
Strab. Q.—Diod. 13.— Virg. ^n. 3, v. 707.— 
Sil. It. 14, V. 211. 

Agrianes, now the Ergene, a river of Thrace, 
which empties into the Hebrus after receiving 
the Conta Desdus. Herodot. 4, c. 9. Vid. 
Part IL 

Agrigentum. Vid. Agragas. 

Agylla, called by the Latins Caere, which 
may have been its earliest name. It was one of 
the most considerable cities of Hetruria, upon 
the coast. According to the poets this was a 
flourishing city, under the rule of Mezentius, at 
the time of the reputed arrival of ^neas in 
Italy. We infer from hence that Agylla was 
one of the early cities which distinguished He- 
truria before the rise of the Roman domination. 
The Romans were frequently engaged in wars 
with this city ; but it is said, that afterwards, 
when Rome was compelled to purchase her 
liberation from the Gauls, the priests and ves- 
tals were received at Agylla, and the barba- 
rians, on their return, were defeated by the in- 
habitants, and forced to make restitution to the 
Romans. For this service the rights of citizen- 
ship were in part extended to the people of 
Ag}''lla, but not so as to afford them the privi- 
lege of voting ; whence the proverb, in Cceritum 
tabulas referre aliquem. At a later period they 
enjoyed the immunities of a municipium. In 
the Punic wars, Ag}41a lent a powerful aid to 
the Romans, as attested by Livy. Its antiquity 
was proved in the later days of the empire, by 
paintings then extant, of an earlier date than 
the founding of Rome. Before the time of Stra- 
bo, however, it had sunk into insignificance ; 
nor is the modem town of Cerveteri, which oc- 
cupies its site, more remarkable. Virg. 8. — 
Liv. 5, 40, and 18, 4b.— Val. Max. 1, I and 6. 
— Strab. — Cram. It. 

Agyrium, a town of Sicily, where Diodorus 
the historian was bom. The inhabitants were 
called Agyrinenses. Diod. 14. — Cic. in Verr. 
2, c. 65. it w£is sometimes written Agurium, 
now San Filippo d'Argirone, near the Symae- 
thus in the Val di Demona. 

Ajalon, a town in the part of Palestine al- 
lotted to the tribe of Benjamin. It was in the 
valley of this city that Joshua commanded the 
moon to stand, that he might accomplish the 
destruction of the army of the five kings. Josh. 
10, 12. 

Alabanda, ce, or orum, an inland town of 
Caria, to the east of Stratonice, abounding 
with scorpions. The name is derived from Ala- 
bandus, a deity worshipped there. Cic. de Nat. 
D. 3, c. \Q.— Herodot. 7, c. Vdb.— Strab. 14. 

Alabastrum, a town and a mountain of 
Egypt. Plin. 36, c. 7. 

Alabos, a river of Sicily, now the Cantaro. 

Al^i, a number of islands in the Persian 
gulf, abounding in tortoises. Arrian. in Perip. 

Al«sa, or Alesa, a city on a mountain of 
Sicily, about a mile from the sea. In the Ale- 
sian territory is a fountain mentioned by Pris- 
cian and Solinus, w^hich is said to have been 
excited to heaving and swelling at the sound of 

Part I.- C 



the music of a flute. Boch. Georg. Sac. 1, 27- 

Alalcomenje, I. a city of Boeotia, where 
some suppose that Minerva was bom, situate 
to the east of Coroneea. So great was the ve- 
neration with which this place was regarded a.s 
sacred to that goddess, that the Thebans, when 
their city was taken by the Epigoni, retired to 
this city as to an inviolable asylum. The tem- 
ple, however, was plundered by the Romans 
commanded by Sylla ; yet even to this day a 
few remains of the structure may be seen above 
the ruins of the town which lies in the vicinity 
of the modern Sulinara. Strab. — Pans. — Sir 

W. Gell, Itin£r. II. Another in Acarnania, 

or, according to Plutarch, in Ithaca. 

Alalia, a town of Corsica, built by a colony 
of Phocaeans, destroyed by Scipio 562 B. C. 
and afterwards rebuilt by Sylla. Herodot. 1, c. 
l%b.—Plin. 

Alata Castra, a Roman port, south of the 
Vallum Severinum and iEstuarium Bodotriae, 
or Frith of Forth. It was called also Edeno- 
dunum, and was the site of the present Edin- 
burgh, the Celtic termination dune being chan- 
ed into the Saxon burgh. Ptol. — Dionys. Pe- 
rieg. 1083. 

Alatrium, a town of Latium, to the east of 
Ferentinum now Alatri. In Strabo it is writ- 
ten 'AhiTpiov. It appears from CiceTo to have 
been a municipium : and Frontinus informs us 
that it was a colony. Cram. It. 2, 81. — Cic. 
Orat. pro Cluent. — Liv. 9, 43. 

Alazon, a river flowing from mount Cauca- 
sus into the Cyrus, and separating Albania from 
Iberia. Flac. 6, v. 101. 

Alba, I. a city of the Marsi, in Italy, which 
received the distinctive name of Fucentia, or 
Fucensis, from its vicinity to the Fusine lake, 
near the northern shore of which it stood. After 
it became a Roman colony it was chiefly select- 
ed as a residence for the captives of rank or con- 
sequence, on account of its strong and secluded 
situation. In the civil wars of Caesar and Pom- 
pey it adhered to the latter, and received the 
praises of Cicero afterwards for its resistance 
to the attack of Antony. The ruins of the 
ancient towm are considerable, and at no great 
distance from them stands the modern city, 
bearing the same name. Cram. It. — Plin. 3, 12, 

—Liv. 30, 45; 45, 42.— Cic. Phil. 3, 3. II. 

PoMPEU, a town of Liguria, on the Tana- 
rus, the birth-place of the emperor Pertinax. 

Plin. 3, 5. — Zon. Ann. 2. III. A river 

of Tarraconensis in Spain, emptying into the 
Mediterranean Sea a little to the south of the 
Pyrenean promontory, near the Gallicus Sinus, 
now the Gulf of Lyons. Its modem name is 

the Ter. Plin. 33. IV. Longa, a towTi of 

Latium, a little to the north of Aricia. Stra- 
bo places Alba on the slope of the mons Alba- 
nus, 20 miles from Rome. This position can- 
not agree with the modern town of Albano, 
which is at the foot of the mountain, and 12 
miles from Rome. Dionysius informs us that 
it was situated on the declivity of the Alban 
mount, midway between the summit and the 
lake of the same name. This description, and 
that of Strabo, agree with the position of Pa- 
lazzolo, a village belonging to the Colonna fa- 
mily. The Latin poets ascribe the foundation 
of Alba to Ascanius, and derive its name from 
the white sow which appeared to iEneas on the 

17 



AL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AL 



Latin shore. Bardetti traced it to the Celtic 
Alp, " white," for we find several towns of that 
name in Liguria and ancient Spain j and it is 
observed, that all were situated on elevated 
spots. From the diversity of opinion in regard 
to the origin of Alba, we may reasonably con- 
clude that it was one of the most ancient towns 
of Latium. Dionysius tells us, that the Albans 
were a mixture of Greek and other tribes. To- 
wards the close of the republic, Alba, or Alba- 
num, as it was then named, seems to have been 
a constant military station. It was occupied 
by the Praetorian cohorts during the latter days 
of the empire. As regards its history and final 
destruction by Tullus Hostilius, see Liv. 1. The 
Alban soil was famous for its fertility, and its 
vines were held inferior only to those of the 
Falernian vineyards. Cram. It. 2, 37. — Strah. 
5. — Dionys. 1, QQ-, 2, 2. — jEn. 8, 47. — Propert. 
4.—Eleg. L—Juv. Sat. 13, 10.— Capitol. Max- 
im. — Dion. Hal. 1, 66. 

Albania, a country of Asia, extending along 
the Caspian Sea, from the mouth of the Cyrus 
OT the Kur, to the borders of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
and having for its south-west boundary the ri- 
ver Cyrus, which separated it from Iberia and 
the Caucasus. Out of this region, at the pre- 
sent time, are formed the province of Kirvan in 
the south, Z^a^Aesifan on the north-eastern side, 
with a part of Georgia on the west. In Dag- 
hestan the Lesghi still bear some analogy in 
name to the Leges, the ancient inhabitants of 
that district. Dan. — Plin. 6, 9. — Mel. 3, 5. 

Albanije Pyl^, a remarkable defile be- 
tween a promontory of Caucasus and the sea, 
which gives entrance to Albania, and now closed 
by the city of Der-bend. The passage itself, 
according to D'Anville, is now called Tupkara- 
gan. 

Albana, a sea-port of Albania, now Bakre 
in Skirvan. 

Albanopolis, the chief city of the Albani, 
a small Illyrian tribe, from which have sprung 
the modem Albanians, who have extended 
themselves in such a manner as to cover the 
whole of Epirus. Cram. Gr. — Ptol. 

Albanum Pompeii, the Alban villa of Pom- 
pey is often mentioned by Cicero ; the modern 
town of Albano is supposed to occupy its place. 
Plutarch {Vid. Pomp.) states, that his ashes 
were interred there by his wife Cornelia ; and 
some have identified his tomb with the ruin 
which is more commonly, but erroneously, as- 
cribed to the Horatii andCuriatii. The burial- 
place of these warriors, and the Fossa Cluilia, 
or Camp of duilius, should not be sought for 
at a greater distance than five miles from 
Rome. Cram. It. 2, 40. — Cic. Orat. pro Mil. 
et pro Reb. — Ep. ad Att. 7, 5. — Liv. 1, 25. — 
Dion. Hal. 3, 4. 

Albaitos lacus, a lake near Alba Longa, 
doubtless the crater of an extinct volcano. It is 
remarkable for the prodigious rise of its waters, 
to such an extent as to threaten the surrounding 
country, and Rome itself, with an overwhelm- 
ing inundation. The oracle of Delphi being 
consulted on that occasion, declared, that unless 
the Romans carried off the waters of the lake 
they would never take Veil. This led to the 
construction of that wonderful subterranean ca- 
nal or emissario, which is to be seen at this very 
day, in remarkable preservation , below the town 
18 



of Castel Gardolfo. This channel is said to be 
carried through the rock for the space of a mOe 
and a half; and the water which it discharges 
unites with the Tiber about five miles below 
Rome. Cram. It. 2, 39. — Cic. de Div. 1, 44. 
—Liv.b, 15.— Val. Max. 1, 6.— Pint. Vit. Co- 
mill. 

Albanus mons, now Monte Cavo, celebrated 
in history from the circumstance of its being 
peculiarly dedicated to Jove, under the title of 
Latialis. It was on the Alban mount that the 
Feriae Latinae were celebrated. The Roman 
generals also occasionally performed sacrifices 
on this mountain, and received there the honours 
of the triumph. Cram. It. 2, 38. — Lucan. 1, 198. 
— Vulp. Vet. Lat. 12, 4. 

Albion, a name of Britain. The derivation 
of this name has been supposed from every lan- 
guage almost, in which analogous sounds were 
to be found. Thus the Greek AK<pov, white, the 
Hebrew Alben, white, the word alp itself of dis- 
puted etymology, have been considered as the 
root of the word Albion. Some writers believe 
that the name of Albin, by which Scotland is 
still designated, is but a corruption of Albion. 
Plin. 4, 16.— Ptol. 

Albis, the Elbe, a. river that divided ancient 
Germany in the middle, flowing between the 
Weser and the Oder, the Visurgis and Viadrus 
of antiquity. It rises on the borders of Silesia, 
and traversing Bohemia and Saxony, and pass- 
ing by the northern boundary of Hanover, emp- 
ties into the German Ocean below Gluckstadt 
in Holstein. Though Germany, in the prospe- 
rous days of the republic, was considered to ex- 
tend as far as the Vistula, yet only the Cisal- 
pine portion was known, by real intercourse, to 
the Romans. Domitius Ahenobarbus, about six 
years before the birth of Christ, eiFected the 
passage of this ancient limit ; though unaccom- 
panied by any victory or other advantage, this 
exploit alone was thought worthy of a triumph. 
When the irruption of the barbarians of the 
east and north began to press upon the German 
tribes, who were thus pushed upon the empire, 
the Albis became the northern boundary of 
Germany. 

Albium Ingaunum, or Albingaundm, now Al- 
benga, the chief town of the Ingaimi, lying on 
the Ligusticus Sinus, at the mouth of the Me- 
rula. Varr. de Re Rust.3, 8.— Mela, 2, 4.— Tac. 
Hist. 2, 15. 

Albium Intemelittm, or Alintemelium, now 
Ventimiglia, a town of the Intemelii in Ligu- 
ria. It was a place of some note, and a muni- 
cipium. Varr. de Re Rust. 3, 8. — Tac. Hist. 2, 13. 
Albius mons, a continuation of the Alpes 
Carnicae, running through Illyricum, and hav- 
ing at its base, upon the southern side, the 
country of Liburnia. It is connected with 
mount Scardus, by which it is united to the 
Haemus range, and may be considered as a 
link in the chain which the Alpine range ex- 
tends over Europe. Strab. — Gram. Gr. 

Albula, et ALBUL.E AQUiB, I. a sulphureous 
stream flowing from the Albunean fount, now 
Acqua Zolfa, or Solfatara di Tivoli. It falls 
into the Anio a few miles below Tibur, and from 
it the epithet " sulphureous" has been transfer- 
red to the waters of the Anio. Hevne ad JEn. 
7, 83.— Clnvcr. It. Mart. Ep. 1, 13.-5^7. Itai. 
12, 538. II. A name of the Tiber. 



AL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AL 



Albunea, a grove and fountain in the Ti- 
burtine territory. At this place Virgil fixes 
the oracle of Faunus. The fountain is a sul- 
phureous source, which discharges itself by the 
Albulae Aquae into the Anio a few miles below 
Tibur. Servius incorrectly describes the foun- 
tain as in Tiburtinis altis montibus. Virg. 7, 
83.— Heyne ad loc. 

Alburnts mons, a ridge of mountains in Lu- 
cania, near the junction of the Silarus and Ta- 
nager. It is now commonly called Monie di 
Postiglioiie, and sometimes Alburno. Cram. It. 
2, 316.— Virg. Geor. 3, 146. 

Alcathoe, a name of Megara in Attica, be- 
cause rebuilt by Alcathous, son of Pelops. 
Ovid. Met. 8, v. 8. 

Alcimedon, a plain of Arcadia. 

Alcimus, a cape near the entrance of Phale- 
rum and the mouth of the Ilissus, perhaps the 
headland of the promontory of Munychia. 
Here was erected the monument in memory of 
Themistocles and in commemoration of his 
services. This name is by some thought to be 
written by mistake for Alimus. Pans. — Plut. 
' — Meurs. — Cram. Gr. — Clarke, Trav. 

Alcyonia palus, a pool in Argolis, men- 
tioned by Pausanias. who informs us that the 
Bacchic orgies were once a year performed 
upon its banks. When Nero endeavoured to 
sound the depth of this pool, he is said by the 
same author to have found it unfathomable. 
Clarke, in bis travels found the same notion 
still prevailing that prevailed in the days of 
Pausanias, and the surrounding inhabitants be- 
lieve that nothing will swim on the surface of 
this pool. 

Alcyonium mare, " that portion of the Corin- 
thiacus Sinus lying between the promontory 
Antirrhium and the Megarean coast." Cram. 
Gi: 

AtjDDABis. Vid. Dubis. 

Alea, a town of Arcadia, built by Aleus. It 
had three famous temples, that of Minerv'a, Bac- 
chus, and Diana the Ephesian. When the fes- 
tivals of Bacchus were celebrated, the women 
were whipped in the temple. Paus. 8, c. 23, 

Aleius Campus, a place in Cilicia, between 
the rivers Pyramus and Sarus. ,Here it is said 
that Bellerophon fell from the horse Pegasus, 
and wandered over the country till the time of 
his death. Homer, II. 6, v. 201. — Dionys. Pe- 
rieg. 873. — Ovid, in Ibid. 257. 

Alemania. Vid. Alevucni, Part II. 

Ales. Vid. Hales. 

Alesia, or Alexia, a very important town of 
the Mandubii in Celtic Gaul, now Alise, in the old 
dukedom of Burgundy, on an eminence near 
the confluence of the Loze and the Oserain. Its 
antiquity extended as far back as the fabulous 
ages, and Diodorus refers its origin to Hercu- 
les. " Though there remains of this town but 
the name oi Alise" says D'Anville, " it remmds 
us of one of the greatest achievements of Cee- 
sar, and which may serve as an epoch of the 
subjugation of Gaul." Liv. — Cces. — Diod. — 
Flor. 3, 10. 

ALfisroM, a town and mountain of Pelopon- 
nesus. Paus. 8, c. 10. 

Alex, a river of the Brutii, in the present 
kingdom of Naples. It empties into that which 
was called the Siculum Mare, between the pro- 
montories Leucopetra on the east and Hercules 



on the west. It runs parallel with the Caeci- 
nus, and divides the Locri from the people of 
Rhegium, though some consider the Caecinus 
as the boundar}^ StraJ). — Pausan. — Theoc. 

Alexandria,"^ I. the principal city of Egypt 
since the accession of the Ptolemies, founded 
by Alexander the Great A. C. 332. At first 
it was merely a military colony ; but so well 
adapted was it to the purposes of commerce, that 
its population, composed of Eg}^tians, Alexan- 
drians, (i. e. foreigners, of whom a large portion 
were Jews,) and mercenaries in the pay of the 
king, accumulated with astonishing rapidit}^ 
The city was founded to the west of the Cano- 
pic mouth of the Nile, on the site of a more an- 
cient place, called Rhacotis, which name con- 
tinued to designate a part of the new town. 
The latter was situated on a peninsula, between 
the Mediterranean and the lake Mareotis. Its 
principal harbour was divided into two parts by 
a dyke (called from its length Hepta-stadiiim), 
wliich connected Pharos with the city. The 
quarter of the city called Bruchion, near the 
great harbour, contained the palaces, with the 
Museum, including the greater portion of the 
library, 400,000 volumes. This building re- 
mained unhurt till the reign of Aurelian, when 
it was destroyed during a civil commotion. The 
Serapion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis, a mag- 
nificent structure, containing the "Test of the 
library-, 300,000 volumes, was destroyed under 
Theodosius the Great, when all the heathen 
temples were by his edict devoted to ruin. Most 
of what had remained of the invaluable Alex- 
andrian library perished. ■ This work of de- 
vastation is usually, but erroneously, attributed 
to the Arabs under Omar. The chief remains 
of the splendid monuments of art, in which Al- 
exandria abounded, are, 1. the Alexandrian Co- 
lumn, dedicated, according to the most received 
accoimts, to Diocletian by a prefect called Pom- 
peius, or, according to Clarke, who has decy- 
phered the inscription, to Adrian by the pre- 
fect Posthumus: 2. Cleopatra's Needle, an 
obelisk of granite, with an inscription in hiero- 
gl}TDhics. There were originally two. 3. The 
relics of a magnificent colonnade, which ex- 
tended between the gates of the Sun and Moon, 
and was regarded as one of the most striking 
ornaments of the city. For miles the suburbs 
of the modern tovm are covered with ruins, 
whose history is absolutely unknown. The 
commerce of Alexandria had three principal 
branches : 1. The commerce by land through 
Asia and Africa. 2. The commerce on the 
Mediterranean Sea. 3. The commerce od the 
Arabian Gulf or Indian Sea. The Asiatic and 
Mediterranean commerce Alexandria shared 
with other cities ; the African it chielly pos- 
sessed; the Indian it monopolized. Ptolemy 
Philadelphus promoted the latter by establish- 
ing, on the Red Sea, the harbours Berenice and 
Myos Hormos, and by forming the road be- 
tween Berenice and Coptos. The vast com- 
mercial advantages of Alexandria may be ima- 
gined, when we take into consideration the 
simple fact that, even when its government was 
the prey of Roman fraud and faction, its pro- 
gress in wealth and luxury was still unretarded. 
Alexandria is no less interesting when viewed 
as the seat of literature and science than as the 
emporium of commerce. Ptolemy Lagus was 
19 



AL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AL 



. he first protector of science in Egypt. " The 
Museum," says Heeren, (a learned academy) 
" was founded, and the first library in Bruchion 
(that in the Serapion is of later origin), proba- 
bly under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. 
We have no just estimate of the merits of the 
Museum. But what Academy of modern Eu- 
rope has accomplished more 1" Nearly all we 
have of ancient literature we owe to the Alex- 
andrian school ; and how much larger would our 
debt have been but for the destruction of the 
Museum and Serapion'? The modern town, 
called Scanderia by the Franks, is built upon 
an accumulation of earth formed about the 
Hepta-Stadium. It is inconsiderable in extent 
if compared with the ancient city, its present 
population being less than 13,000. Its decline 
is chiefly owing to the diversion of its commerce, 
consequent upon the discovery of the passage to 
India by the Cape of Good Hope. B'Anville. 
— Chaussard. — Heeren. — RusselVs Egypt. — Cce- 

sar, B. C. 112, &c. II. A city situated at 

the extremity of a morass called Rahemah, 
formed by a canal derived from the right bank 
of the Euphrates below Babylon, and repaired 
by Alexander. This city was known by the 
name of Hira, when it became the residence of 
the Arabian princes who served the Persians 
and Parthians against the Romans, and were 
called Alamundari, after the name Al-Mondar, 
common to many of these princes at the fall of 
their dynasty in the first age of the Mahomme- 
dan. The body of Ali, who had been assassi- 
nated in Kufa, was interred in Hira ; which, 
from the sepulchre of this Khalif, came to be 
called Meshed-Ali. D'Anville. III. Ano- 
ther in Aria, on the Aria Palus, probably Cor- 

ra. D'Anville. IV. A town of Arachosia, 

which preserves the name of Scanderie of Ar- 
roJchage, though otherwise named Vaihend. 
D^Anville. V. Another, founded by Alex- 
ander at the confluence of the Acesines and 
Indus. From the silence of modern travellers 
in regard to it, we may infer that the growth 
of the place, if it still exists, has borne no pro- 
portion to the great advantages of its situation 
in a commercial point of view, commanding the 

Indus and its tributaries. Chcmssard. VI. 

AD Paropamisum, a town founded by Alexander 
at the foot of the Paropamisus, still a place 
of importance. The modern Quandahar, ac- 
cording to the opinion of DAnville and Ren- 
nel, occupies the site of the ancient city. 

Chaussard. VII. Cata Isson, a tovm of 

Syria, near Issus, on the Issicus Sinus, and 
south of the Syrioe Pylse. It is now called Al- 
cxandreita, or, by the Syrians, Scanderona. 

D^Anvilk. VIII. Oxiana, a town of Bac- 

triana, to the north-east of Bactra. The sur- 
name of Oxiana, which distinguishes its indi- 
viduality, according to Ptolemy, authorizes the 
presumption of its being upon the Oxus. D^An- 

ville. IX. Troas, a town of the Troad, 

which derived its name from Lysimachus, as 
a descendant of Alexander. Under the name 
of Old Constantinople it is considered as occu- 
pying the site of ancient Troy, and the Roman 
Itineraries distinguish it by the name of Ilium. 
Hence it received from theRomans considerable 

immunities. D'Anville X. Ultima, a town 

built by Alexander upon the ruins of Cyrescha- 
ta. 'The latter was built by Cyrus upon the 
20 



laxartes in Sogdiana. Ultima answers in La- 
tin to £ff;^ar»7, the termination of Cyreschata. 
Cogend on the Siho7i (laxartes) answers to the 
ancient Alexandria. Chaussard. 

Alexandrina aqua, baths in Rome, built by 
the emperor Alexander Severus. 

Alexandropolis, a city of Parthia, built by 
Alexander the Great. Plin. 6, c. 25. 

Alfaterna. Vid. Nuceria. 

Algidum, a small place in Latium, on the 
Via Latina; probably the modern VOsteria 
dell Aglio. Strab. 5. 

Algidus mons, the chain of mountains 
which stretched from the rear of the Alban 
mount, and is parallel to the Tusculan hills, 
being separated from them by the valley along 
which runs the Via Latina. The neighbour- 
hood was the scene of numberless conflicts be- 
tM^een the Roman armies and the ^qui and 
Volsci. It was consecrated to Diana and to 
Fortune. Cram. It. 2, 4Q—Ovid. Fast. 6, 721. 
—Hor. Carm. Sec. 69.—Liv. 21, 62. 

Aliacmon, Vid. Haliacmon. 

Aliartus. Vid. Haliartus. 

Altcis, I. a town of Laconia. II.- A tribe 

of Athens. Strab. 

Alif^e, Alifa, or Alipha, now Allife, a city 
of Samnium. It is noticed by Strabo as being 
in existence in his time. It was colonized un- 
der the triumvirs. Strab. 5. — Front, de Col. 

Aliljei, a people of Arabia Felix. 

Alinda, a town of Caria. Arrian. 

Aliphera, a town of Arcadia on the Al- 
pheus, remarkable for its strength of position. 
After the building of Megalopolis the Elians 
got possession of Aliphera, which they retained 
till it was wrested from them by Philip, in the 
Social War. The modern Nevoritza corre- 
sponds, probably, to the ancient Aliphera. Pans. 
Arcad. — Polyb . — Liv . 

Allia, a small river in the country of the 
Sabines, descending from the Crustumine hills, 
is generally supposed to be the stream on which 
the Romans suffered their first great defeat, 
when the Gauls were on their march, under 
Brennus, to attack the capital. The engage- 
ment took place on the Via Salaria, about 11 
miles from Rome ; and the appearance of the 
ground is still said to confirm the account of 
the historian. The Dies Alliensis was, from 
the defeat of the army of the Republic, consi- 
dered as a day of evil omen. 

" Hac est in fastis cui dat gravis allia nomen.^* 
Ovid. — Liv. 5, 37. — Laic. 7. 

Atxobroges, a warlike nation of Gaul near 
the Rhone, in that part of the country now call- 
ed Savoy and Dauphin e, between the rivers 
Isaroand Rhone, and the lake Lemanus, lake of 
Geneva ; having the Sequani on the north ; on 
the east the Nantuates, the Veragri, and the 
Centrones ; on the south, the Helvii and Valau- 
ni ; and on the west, the Ambassi and Segusia- 
ni. The Romans destroyed their city because 
they had assisted Annibal. Their ambassadors 
were allured by great promises to join in Cati- 
line's conspiracy against his country, but dis- 
covered the plot. Dio.— Strab. 4. — Tacit. 1. 
Hist. c. m.—Sallust. in Jug. bell. DAnville 
observes, that " the most considerable of the Al- 
lobroges, quitting their villages, formed the city 
of Vienna or Vienne., which was the capital of 



AL 



Orography. 



AL 



a great people before it became the metropolis of 
a province." They are also described as a scat- 
tered people, perjusa gens montibus ; and it is 
remarked, that their successors, the inhabit- 
ants of Dauphiny, have fewer cities than any 
other people of t'rance, 

Allotriges, a nation on the southern parts 
of Spain. Strab. 

Alma, a river of Tuscany, by some suppos- 
ed the modern Arbia. This river is much more 
celebrated for the battle which, in the middle 
ages, was fought there between the Tuscan 
Guelphs and Ghibelines, and in which the form- 
er were defeated with prodigious slaughter, 
than from any report coming down from an- 
tiquity. Ant. Iter. Ammirat. 

Almo, a small stream that empties into the 
Tiber near Rome. This river is much referred 
to by the poets, in connexion with the name of 
the goddess Cybele, whose image underwent an 
annual ablution in its waters on the sixth day 
before the kalends of April, (i. e. 25th March.) 
Ovid. Fast. 4, 2,'il.— Claud. 15, 119.— Val. 
Mac. 8, 239.— Sil. It. 8, 363. 

Alone, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
founded by a colony from Marseilles, not far 
from Alicant. It was remarkable for the abun- 
dance and the excellent quality of salt which it 
produced, and which, till recently, it continued 
to produce. It is now called Guardamar ; the 
name given to it by the Moors was Tudemir. 
Mel. — Steph. Byzant. — Voss. Obs. ad Mel. 
There were many other insignificant places of 
the same name. 

Alope. There were many towns in Greece 
of this name. One in Thessaly, perhaps the 
same as the Alitrope mentioned by Scylax. 
Hom. — Strab. Another of the Locri Ozolas. 
Strab. And a third of the Locri Opuntii. Strab. 

Alopece, I. an island in the Palus Maeotis 

Strab. II. Another ia the Cimmerian Bos- 

phorus. Plin. 4, c. 12. III. Another in the 

iEgean Sea, opposite Smyrna. Id. 5, c. 31. 

Alopeces, a small village of Attica, where 
was the tomb of Anchimolius, whom the Spar- 
tans had sent to deliver Athens from the tyran- 
ny of the Pisistratidae. Socrates and Aristides 
were born there. JEschin. contra. 'Pimarch. — 
Herodot. 5, c. 64. 

Alos, or Halos, called Phthioticum to dis- 
tinguish it from another of the same name in 
Locris. It stood upon the coast, and there the 
army destined for the defence of Greece against 
Xerxes disembarked. The Amphyssus flowed 
just imder its walls. There are said to be still 
a few remains of this ancient town. Herod. — 
Strab. — Demosth. — Cram. Gr. 

Alpenus, the capital of Locris, south of 
Thermopylae. Herodot. 7, c. 176, &c. From 
this place Leonidas obtained the necessary sup- 
plies for his little army. iEschines calls it Al- 
ponus. 

Alpes, the great mountain range of Europe, 
connected by its branches with all the middle 
and southern chains of that continent. They 
commence in the vicinity of Nice, and, stretch- 
ing in the form of a crescent with the concave 
side towards Italy, they terminate, after a course 
of almost 700 miles, at the head of the Adriatic, 
over the ancient Absyrtides, merging there and 
a little to the north m the branches that con- 
nect them with the Carpathian mountains and 



the mountains of Greece. Till the time of the 
emperors the Romans were but little acquainted 
with the Alps, but the various roads which were 
then opened through their accessible passes 
rendered them more familiar to the citizens. 
The whole chain was then divided into, 1st. the 
Alpes Maritime, Littoreae or Ligusticae, de- 
riving their name from their proximity to the 
sea, to the coast, or to the province of Liguria, 
This elevation commences a little to the east of 
the Var, near the town of Nice, not far from 
which the branch which constitutes the Appe- 
nines diverges from it. It separates Liguria 
from Narbonensis Secunda, the southern part of 
Gallia Provincia, now Provence^ and reaches as 
far as the Mons Vesulus, Monte Viso, at the 
source of the Po, upon the borders of Cisalpine 
Gaul. The summit of the Alpes Maritimae 
marked the limit between Gaul and Italy, and 
there Augustus erected a trophy, inscribed with 
the names of all the Gallic tribes subdued by 
him. It was the earliest passage used by the 
Romans, and that by which Caesar entered Italy 
before engaging in the civil war. La Pur- 
bia now occupies the site upon which Augustus 
erected his trophy, 2d. The Alpes Cotti.e, 
now mount Genevre, extending from the mons 
Vesulus to mount Cenis, between that part of 
Cisalpine Gaul which is Piedmont now, and 
the part of Gallia Narbonensis which is now 
Dauphiny. The name of this division of the 
Alps was derived from Cottius, a prince of cer- 
tain Alpine tribes in those regions, over which 
he was permitted to enjoy the prefecture by Au- 
gustus. Tiberius allowed him to rule over them 
as sovereign. The Alpes Cottiae did not be- 
come completely a Roman dependency till the 
time of the emperor Nero. 3d. The Alpes 
Graije, by the modern department of Isere, as 
far as the Col de Bon Homme, separating Sa- 
voy also on the west, from Piedmont, and the 
dutchy of Aouste on the east. 4th. The Alpes 
Penninjb, from the Col de Bon Homme to the 
sources of the Rhone and the Rhine. The 
north-east extremity of this division, in which 
these rivers take their rise, was distinguished by 
the name of the Lepontine Alps, from the Le- 
pontii, who were scattered among them. The 
Alpes Penninae separated the Valais, Vallis 
Pennina on the north, from the Milanese upon 
the south, and extended as far as the mons 
Adula, the modern St. Gotherd. The Lepon- 
tine range runs through the country of the 
Grisons, and originates the Jura chain. 5th. 
The Alpes Rh^ti^, or the Tridentine Alps, 
extending from the Adula group to mount 
Brenner ' in the Tyrol, which it separates, in 
part, from Vindelicia. 6th. The Alpes Nori- 
CM, from mount Brenner to mount Glockner, 
and the sources of the river Piave. This is a 
German branch, and scarcely relates to Italian 
geography, passing between Carinthia and No- 
ricum, and ending in the mons Cetitts, which 
connects it with the mountains of Bohemia and 
the Carpathian hills. 7th. The Carnic Alps, 
between Carinthia and Carniola, branching to- 
wards the south, and continuing in a south-east 
direction as far as the springs of the Save, where 
it declines into the Claudius mons and moun- 
tains of Slavonia. 8th. The Alpes Juli^, 
which, running south-east along the Save as the 
Carnic Alps accompany the line of the Drave, 
21 



AL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AM 



are lost at last in the Albius mons, on the bor- 
ders of lilyricum, about the springs of the 
Kulpa, the ancient Colapis, near Mniona, or 
Laybach. Other parts of the Alps were distin- 
guished by particular names; as the Suabian 
Alps, which unite the chain with the Hunga- 
rian range. According to Justin, the first who 
penetrated these mighty barriers, after the fa- 
bulous passage of Hercules, were the Gauls, in 
their early migrations. An infinite number of 
these people occupied the Alpine regions long 
before the Romans became acquainted with 
their several passes ; and from the time of the 
Gallic settlements the Alps remained inviolate 
till the memorable passage of Annibal, which 
admiration has converted into a fable. The 
passes known to the ancients were chiefly at 
three points through France and two through 
Germany, Those through France were, 1st. 
by the Liguria,n coast, a defile too narrow to 
admit of the passage of numerous bodies ; an- 
other over the Ginevre into Lombardy, by which 
Charles the Eighth entered Italy, and which 
was called the Roman way, as being the tho- 
roughfare from Rome to France ; and the third 
over mount Cenis, by which some pretend the 
army of Annibal entered. This pass leads at 
once to Aoust, the ancient Augusta Pretoria, 
and Lombardy. Through Germany, the pas- 
sages were by the Valtoline, the country of the 
Grisons, over the Lepontine Alps, and through 
the Tyrol, by way of Inspruck and Trent, over 
the Rhsetian Alps. In modern times the passes 
through this vast elevation were long the 
same, but now the principal roads are over the 
St. Gotherd, St. Bernard, and by the Simplon. 
The average height of the summits of this lofty 
region is from 10,000 to 15,000 feet ; and after 
7,000 or 8,000 commences a region of perpe- 
tual ice. Above an elevation of 10,800 feet the 
ice no longer appears, but from thence to the 
summit the mountain is covered with eternal 
snow. " The great depth of the Alpine lakes," 
says Malte-Brun, " is peculiar to these moun- 
tains ; and one of them, the lake of Achen, is 
not less than 1800 feet in depth." Cram. It. — 
Mel. — Danv. — Plin. — Liv. — Amm. — Marcel. — 
Suet. — Heylin. Cosm. — Malte-Brun. 

Alpheus, now Alpheo, a river of Arcadia 
and Elis in Peloponnesus. It rises on the bor- 
ders of Laconia, (which it separates from the 
territory of Tegea,) near the town of Phylace. 
The same spring supplies the Eurotas, which 
mingles with the Alpheus, and flows with it for 
a short distance till both disappear below the 
surface of the soil. The Alpheus emerges again 
at a place called Pegae, the sources, in the terri- 
tory of Megalopolis, and passing by Leuctra in 
Arcadia in a north-west direction, it touches the 
borders of Elis, where it receives its great tribu- 
tary, the Ladon. Here it turns almost directly 
west, and winding past Olympia, after receiving 
the Acheron, it falls into the Sicilian sea ; after 
which, it is said by the poets to shew itself again 
near Syracuse in Sicily, and to mingle with the 
waters of Arethusa. Strab. — Virg. — Paus. — 
Mosch. Id. — Dionys. Perieg. 285. Vid. Are- 
thusa, Part III. 

Alpis, a small river rising in the Rhoetian 
Alps, and falling into the Danube. 

Alsa, now the Ausa, according to D'An- 
rille a river of Camiola. Constantine was 
22 



slain in battle on its banks, by Constans his 
brother. Plin. 17, 18. 

Alsium, an ancient town of Hetruria, the 
origin of which was ascribed to the Pelasgi. Its 
precise site was a spot called Statua, near Palo. 
Dion. Hal. — D^Anville. — Cram. An. Italy. 

Alsus, a river of Achaia in Peloponnesus, 
flowing from mount Sipylus. Paus. 7, c. 27. 

Altinum, a flourishing city of Italy near 
Aquileia, famous for its wool. Martial. 14, ep. 
25. — Plin. 3, c. 18. This town is first men- 
tioned ' by V. Paterculus, and the period of its 
founding is unknown. It was afterwards sur- 
rounded with the villas of the rich, and present- 
ed an appearance so picturesque that it was 
compared to the celebrated and beautiful Baiae 
of Campania by the later writers of the empire. 
Its exact situation is not knoA^ii, but the tower 
of Altino on the right bank of the Silis, near its 
mouth, is considered by D'Anville as a relic of 
the ancient town. By others it is supposed to 
have occupied the site of the modern Ravenna. 
Plin. 3, 18.Strab.— Tac.—Mel. 2, 4.-~Vell. 
Pater. 2, 76. 

Altis. Vid. Olympia. 

Aluntum, now Alontio, a town of Sicily. 
Plin. 5, c. 8. — Cic. in Verr. 4 — D'Anville. 
Dionys. Hal. mentions a town of the same name, 
which seems to correspond with the village of 
S. Filadelfo near JEtna, as ancient as the Tro- 
jan war. 

Aluta, a river of Dacia, rising in that part 
of the Carpathian mountains which liesbetween 
Moldavia and Austria, and flowing through the 
same mountains on the borders of Transylva- 
nia and Wallachia, to empty into the Danube 
(after passing near Hermanstadt in the former 
province) at Nicopolis. Its course to where it 
passes the mountains lies in the ancient Dacia, 
and afterwards in Moesia. The modern name, 
the Olt, bears still some analogy to that which 
it bore in antiquity. D'Anville. 

Alyba, a country near Mysia. Homer. II. 2. 

Alyssus, a fountain of Arcadia, whose waters 
could cure the bite of a mad dog. Paus. 8, c. 19. 

Alyzia, atownof Acarnania, on the western 
mouth of the Achelous, opposite to the Echi- 
nades. Cic. ad Fam. 16, ep. 2. 

Amaltheum, a public place which Atticus 
had opened in his country-house, called Amal- 
thea, in Epinis, and provided with every thing 
which could furnish entertainment and convey 
instruction. Cic. ad Attic. 1. ep. 13. 

Amanic^ Pyl^. Vid. Amanus. 

Amantia, a town of Illyria, not far from the 
borders of Epirus, and belonging to the territory 
of Macedonia, in the greatest extent of that 
country. It is said that the Abantes of Phocis, 
on their return after the Trojan war, erected 
this city, which they called Abantia ; and that 
this name was changed, many years afterwards, 
into Amantia. The inhabitants took part with 
Caesar in the civil war, and their city was then 
considered as of considerable importance. The 
latest account of this place by an ancient wri- 
ter, is that of Hierocles before the time of Jus- 
tinian. It is said that a part of its ruins remain 
near the village of Nivitza, on a branch of the 
AoUs, now the Voioussa. Paus. — L/ycoph. — 
Cic. — Cas. 

Amanus, a mountain separating Syria from 
Cilicia. It is. a branch of the Taurus, and ex- 



AM 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AM 



tends from Cappadocia, on the borders of Arme- 
nia Minor, to the Syriae Pylse, the Gates of Sy- 
ria, on the Sinus Issicus. Above these are the 
Amanicce Pylce, through which defile Darius 
entered Cilicia. D'Anville calls the Amanus 
the Al-Liican. Strab. — Plin. 

Amardi, a people who inhabited the moun- 
tains at the south of the Caspian Sea, near the 
river Amardus. Vossius supposed that the Per- 
sians used that name in general, to signify any 
lawless people who lived a predatory life ; and 
D'Anville observes that they inhabited the coim- 
try which afterwards harboured the famous as- 
sassins. Mela. — Voss. Obs. ad Mela. — D'Aji- 
ville. 

Amardus, a river of Media, now the Kezil 
Ozein. It rises near the beise of the Orontes 
mountains, and pierces the high range that lines 
the southern coast of the Caspian. Pliny, 6, 13. 

Amarynthtjs, a village of Euboea, whence 
Diana is called Amarysia, and her festivals in 
that town Amarynthia. — Euboea is sometimes 
called Amarynthus. Pans. 1, c. 31. 

Amas, a mountain of Laconia, Paus. 3. 

Amasenus, a river flowing through the Pon- 
tine marshes, and said to have a principal effect 
in causmg them. Virg. JSn. — Strai. 

Aausia, a principal city of Pontus on the 
Iris, about the centre of the province north and 
.south. Strabo, who was born there, describes 
it as built in the valley lying between the Lycus 
and the Iris, which unite considerably to the 
north of the town, Strab. — Plin. 

Amastris, a city of Paphlagonia, on the Eux- 
ine Sea. Catull. Most prot)ably the Sesamus 
of Homer. It took the name of Amastris at a 
late period, in honour of the niece of Darius 
Codomanus. It was remarked for its beauty 
m the time of Trajan. Strab. — Plin. 

AMATmjs, I. Limmedon antica, according to 
D'AnviUe, a city on the southern side of the 
island of Cyprus, particularly dedicated to Ve- 
nus. The island is sometimes called Amathu- 
sia, a name not unfrequently applied to the god- 
dess of the place. Virg. JEn. 10, v. 51. — Ptol. 

5, c. 14. II. A fortress at the head of the 

Campus Magnus, east of Jordan, the site of the 
modern Asselt. Here was established by Ga- 
binius, proconsul of Syria, one of the five juri- 
dical con ven tions of Judea. It was remarkable 
for its strength. Jos. 

Amaxu, or Amaxita, a place of Cilicia, 
abounding with wood fit for building ships. 
Plin. 5, c. 9.— Strab. 14. 
Amazonia. Vid. Amazones, Part III. 
Amazonium, a place in Attica, where The- 
seus obtained a victory over the Amazons. 

Ambarri, a people of GaUia Celtica, on the 
Arar, related to the iEdui. Cces. bell. G. 1, c. 
11. The modem name of the place in which 
they dwelt is Bresse, in the department de 
L'Ain. They were surrounded by the Allo- 
broges, the Edui, and the Helvetii ; and, accord- 
ing to Livy, they attempted settlements in Italy 
as early as the age of the Tarquins. Liv. 5, 34. 
Ambenus, a mountain of European Sarmatia, 
on the Euxine, near Ophiusa. Flacc. 6, v. 
85. 

Ambianum, a town of Belgium, now Amiens, 
Its inhabitants conspired against J. Caesar. 
CcBS. bell. G. 2, c. 4. 
Ambiatinum, a village of Germany, where the 



emperor Caligida was born. Sueton. in 
Cal. 8. 

Ambracia, a celebrated city of Epirus, on 
the Arachthus, near the gulf to which it gives 
its name. The period at which it was founded 
is unknown ; but it did not rise to great import- 
ance till the arrival of a Corinthian colony about 
650 years B.C. Its early forms of government 
were various ; but about the time of the Persian 
war it had taken its place among the most re- 
spectable of the smaller republics. In the Pelo- 
ponnesian war it took an active part, and was 
distinguished for its frequent and vigorous at- 
tempts to extend its authority by conquest and 
territorial acquisition. When Philip of Mace- 
don began to turn his arms against Greece, Am- 
bracia appears to have been deprived by him of 
its independence ; soon after which it fell into 
the hands of Pyrrhus, Avho made it the royal 
residence, and enriched and adorned it at a great 
expense. It was always remarkable for the 
spirit and gallantry of the inhabitants ; and 
Thucydides observes that no people of Greece, 
in all the Peloponnesian war, sustained, in the 
same space of time, so great and universal a 
slaughter as the Ambraciots at Olpae. Many 
years afterwards they distinguished themselves 
in a siege which they sustained against the Ro- 
mans with tmequalled perseverance. Augustus 
transferred the inhabitants to Nicopolis, and 
Ambracia speedily fell into decay ; so that as 
early as the time of the Byzantine historians 
Cantacuzenus and Acropolita, the town of Arta 
appears to have already arisen on its site. Di- 
onys. Hal. — Herodot. — Thuc. — Liv. — Polyb. — 
Cram. 

AMBRAcros SINUS, a gulf or bay of that part 
of the Ionian which was called the Sicilian sea, 
lying between Epirus on the north and Acar- 
nania on the south. At its mouth it is but 
about 5-8 of a mile in width, but, expanding in- 
land, it extends about 12 miles, making a circuit 
of 36 miles. The name of Ambracius was ap- 
plied to this basin as early as the time of Or- 
pheus, or the writer of the poems ascribed to 
him. Polyb. 5, &^.— Strab. 7, 325.— Cram. Gr. 

Ambrones, certain nations of Gaul, who lost 
their possessions by the inundation of the sea, 
and lived upon rapine and plunder. They 
were conquered by Marius. Pint, in Mario. 

Ambryssus, a very ancient city of Phocis, to 
the south-west of the mountain Parnassus. It 
was destroyed by the Amphict}'-ons, and rebuilt 
by the Corinthians. Its ruins are stUl visible. 
Paus. — Cram. 

Amenanus, a river of Sicily, near mount 
^tna, now GuidiceUo. Strab. 5. 

Ameria, a city of Urabria. This to^vm, now 
the inconsiderable village of Amelia, was one of 
the finest and most ancient of Umbria. Cicero, 
Virgil, and Silius Italicus have in different 
manners celebrated this place, and secured it a 
lasting memory. It was the birth-place of Ros- 
cius, and could boast a greater antiquity than 
Rome. Strab. — Cic. pro JRos. — Virg. Georg. 
1, A62.—Plin. 3, 14. 

Amestratus, a to■v^^l of Sicily, near the 
Halesus. The Romans besieged it for seven 
months, and it yielded, at last, after a third 
siege, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. 
Polyb. 1, c. 24. 
I Amida, a city of Mesopotamia, besieged and 
23 



AM 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AM 



taken by Sapor, king of Persia. Ammian. 10. 
It stood on a lofty eminence on the Tigris, 
bordering on the Armenian territory, as that 
territory stood curtailed in the middle ages by 
the extension of Mesopotamia on the north. It 
is the modern Kara Amid, in the district of 
Diar-Bekir. It was called Constantia for a 
short time during the reigns of some of the suc- 
cessors of Constantine, and has probably had 
many other names. D'Anville. 

Amilos, or Amilus, I. a river of Mauritania, 
where the elephants go to wash themselves by 

moonshine. Plin, 8, c. 1. 11. A town of 

Arcadia. Paus. in Arcad. 

Amine:, I. a people of Campania, who oc- 
cupied, according to Macrobius, the territory 
subsequently the Falernian. Virgil, however, 
clearly distinguishes between the Falernian and 
Aminean vines ; and Martorelli places both the 
Aminean and Falernian hills above Naples, to- 
wards Puteoli. Those who attribute to the 
Thessalians the introduction of the vine into 
Italy consider the Amioei of Thessalian ori- 
gin. Virg. Geo. 2, 95. — Heyne, ad loc. — Ma- 

crob. Sat. 2, 16. — Martorell. I. Fenici, &c. 

II. A place of Thessaly. 

Amiseus, or Amisenus sinus, a bay of the 
Euxine Sea on the Pontic coast. The encroach- 
ment of the waters of the sea by this bay on the 
north, and a similar inroad of the Issicus Sinus 
on the south, give to the eastern part of Asia 
Minor the character of an isthmus, and to the 
whole the form and name of a peninsula, Strab. 
— Plin. — Cram. 

Amisia, the river Ems. D'Anville writes 
Amisus. 

Amisus, a town of Asia Minor, east of the 
Halys, "a Greek city," says DAnville, "but 
which, subjected in the sequel to the kings of 
Pontus, was aggrandised by Mithridates with a 
quarter called from the surname that he bore, 
Eupatoria ; and Samsoun, as it is now called, 
preserves the ancient site." D^Anville. 

Amiternum, *' whose ruins are to be seen 
near Vittorino, a few miles to the north of 
Aquila, was a Sabine city of great antiquity. 
Under the Rom^ans it became successively a 
praefectura and a colony, as we are informed by 
Frontinus and several inscriptions. In Ptole- 
my's time. Amiternum seems to have been in- 
cluded among the cities of the Vesiini." Cra^ 
mer^s It. 

Ammon. Vid Hammon. 

Ammonii, a nation of Africa, who derived 
their origin from the Egyptians and Ethio- 
pians. Their language was a mixture of that 
of the two people from whom they were des- 
cended. The modern Lantriah probably re- 
presents the ancient Ammonia. D^Anville. — 
Herodot. 2, 3, and 4. 

Ammonis promontorium, a promontory on 
the west side of the Syrtis Minor, to the north 
of Thena. Strab. 834. 

Ammonitis, a country of Arabia Petrssa, oc- 
cupied by the children of Ammon, whence the 
name. The principal city was called Ammon, 
and Rabbath- Ammon, or the Great Ammon, 
before the name of Philadelphia was given to 
it. D'Anville. 

Amnias, a river of Bith)mia. Appian. de bell. 
Mithr. 

Amnisus, the port of Gnossus, at the north of 
Crete, with a small riverof thesamename.near 
24 



which Lucina had a temple. The nymphs of 
the place were called Amnisiades. Callim. 

Amorgos, now Amorgo, one of the Spo- 
rades, situated to the south-east of Naxos. It 
contained three towns, named Arcesine, Egia- 
lus, and Minoa. Minoa was the birth-place of 
Simonides, an Iambic poet mentioned by Stra- 
bo and others. Amorgos gave its name to a pe- 
culiar linen dress manufactured in the island. 
Cram. — Strab. 

Amorium, near the Sangarius in Galatia, 
was a considerable city when it was taken and 
sacked by the Caliph Motasem, A. D. 837. 

Amorrh.eIj or Amorites. Vid Amorrhitis. 

Amorrhitis, the country of the Amorrhaei, 
in Persea of Judea, situate, according to Jose- 
phus, between three rivers, the Arnon on the 
south, the Jabok on the north, and the Jordan 
on the west. 

Ampelus, I. a promontory of the peninsula 
which lies between the Soronaic and Singitic 
gulfs. Pliny calls it the Soronean promontory. 

Herod. 7, 122.— I.zv. 31, 45. II. Another, 

of Crete, now Cape ^acro. Pliny assigns to 
Crete a town of that name ; and there are, in 
fact some ruins between the mouth of the river 

Sacro and the promontory. Cram. III. A 

promontory of Samos. Also a ridge of moun- 
tains that crossed that island. Strah. 

Ampelusia, a promontory of Africa, in Mau- 
ritania, with a town of the same name, not far 
from the river Lixus, near the Straits of Gib- 
raltar. Plin. — Mela, 4. c. 5 and 6. 

Amphaxitis, a district of the Macedonian 
province Mygdonia. It was situated near the 
Axius, and on its left bank, since Strabo, in the 
Epit. states that the Axius separated Bottiaea 
from Amphaxitis. Cram. 

Amphea, a city of Messenia, taken by the 
Lacedsemonians. Paus. 4, c. 5. 

Amphiarai fons, I. a fountain and baths 

named after Amphiaraus, near his temple 

II. Templum, was 12 stadia from Oropus, and 
not far from the sea. The oracle of Amphiaraus 
was of considerable antiquity and reputation. 
It was consulted by Crossus, also by Mardoni- 
us. Livy speaks of the temple of Amphilochus 
near Oropus ; meaning, probably,that of Amphi- 
araus. But it would seem from Pausanias that 
Amphilochus shared the honours paid to the lat- 
ter. Cram.— Herod. 1. 48 ; 8, \M.—Liv. 42, 27. 

Amphic^a, or AMPmcLEA, a town of Phocis, 
sixty stadia from Lilgea. Its name is said to 
have been changed, by a decree of the Amphic- 
tyons, to Ophitea ; but the former appellation is 
always employed by historians. Herodotus 
says Amphicasa was ruined by the Persians. 
Its site is commonly supposed to correspond 
with that of Dadi, a populous Greek town 
standing on a gentle elevation at the foot of Par- 
nassus. Cram. — Paus. — Herod. 8, 33. 

AMPmcLEA. Vid. AmpJiiccea. 

Amphigenia, a towTi which, according to 
Homer, belonged to Nestor, was assigned by 
some critics to Messenia, by some to Triphylia. 
It was situated near the river Hypsoeis, and pos- 
sessed a temple of Latona. Cram. II.— B. 593. 
—Strab. 

AMPHiLOcmA. Vid. Argos. 

Amphipolis, a town on the Strymon, between 
Macedonia and Thrace. An Athenian colony 
under Agnon, son of Nicias, drove the ancien 



AM 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AN 



iahabitants, called Edonians, from the country, 
and built a city, which they called Amphipolis, 
1. e. a town surrounded on all sides, becauiie the 
Strymon flowed all around it. It has been also 
called Acra, Strymon, Myrica, Eion, and the 
town of Mars. It was the cause of many wars 
between the Athenians and Spartans. Thu- 
cyd. 4, c. 102, &LC.~Herodot. 5, c. 126, 1. 7. c. 
lU.—Diod. 11, 12, &C.—C. Nep. in Cim. ' In 
the Peloponnesian war Amphipolis was taken 
by the Lacedaemonians under Brasidas. Many 
circumstances combine, besides its own import- 
ance, to render the name of Amphipolis inte- 
resting. The loss of this place to the Athenians 
caused the banishment of Thucydides ; and the 
loss of Brasidas to Sparta was accompanied by 
the death of Cleon, a cause of scarcely less con- 
gratulations to Athens. TheAmphipolitans from 
this time chose to remain in the interest of 
Sparta, and the Athenians never regained their 
authority among them. When the Romans 
spread their empire over these regions, Amphi- 
polis constituted the chief place of the conquer- 
ed territory. Its ruins are discernible near a 
spot called Jenikevi. •' The position of Amphi- 
polis is one of the most important in Greece. 
It stands in a pass which traverses the mountains 
bordering the Strymonic gulf, and it commands 
the only easy communication from the coast of 
that gulf into the great Macedonian plains. 
The Strymon, after emerging from a large lake, 
makes a half circuit in a deep gorge round the 
hill of Amphipolis, and from thence crosses a 
plain of two or three miles in width, to the 
sea." Leake. — Thuc. — Demosth. 

AMPfflssA, or IssA, I. a to'um of the Brutii on 
the east coast. — -II. A town of the Locri 
Ozote, at the head of the Crissaean gulf. This 
city was destroyed after the Persian v/ar by or- 
der of the Amphictyons, for rebuilding the walls 
of Crissa and cultivating its fields which were 
sacred. Amphissa was but about seven miles 
distant from Delphi. Its citadel or acropolis still 
remains near the modem town of Salona, "clos- 
ing up the great CrissoBan plain, through which 
a defile leads towards the Cephissus and the 
straits of Thermopylae." Hughes. — Pans. — 
Plin. 4, 2. — Cram. 

AMPmssENE, a country of Armenia. 

Amphrysus, a river of Thessaly, near which 
Apollo, when banished from heaven, fed the 
flocks of king Admetus. From this circum- 
stance the god has been called Ampkryssius, 
and his priestess Amphryssia. Ovid. Met. 1, 
V. 580.— 'Lucan. 6, v. 261.— Virg. G. 3, v. 2. 
jEn. 6, V. 398. 

Ampsaga, a river of Numidia, which falls 
into the Mediterranean at Tucca, and sepa- 
rates Numidia from Mauretania. It is now the 
Suffegmar,. a river of Algiers. Mela, 1, 6, 2. 

Amsancti, lacus et vallis, a lake and val- 
ley in Samnimn, by which Virgil represents 
the fury descending to the infernal regions. 
Some antiquaries have confounded this spot 
with the lake of Cutilise ; but Servius distinct- 
ly tells us that it was situated in the country 
of the Hirpini, which is confirmed by Cicero 
and Pliny, The latter writer mentions a tem- 
ple consecrated to the goddess Mephitis on the 
banks of this lake, of which a good description 
is given by Roman elli. Cram,. It. 2. 2.51. — 
.En. 7, 563".— Cic. de Div. I.— Plin. 2, 93. 

Part L— D 



Amygi portus, a place in Pontus, famous 
for the death of Amycus king of the Bebryces. 
His tomb was covered with laurels, whose 
boughs, as is reported, when carried on board 
a ship, caused uncommon dissentions among 
the sailors. Plin. 5, c. 32. — Arrian. 

AMYGLiE, I. a town of Italy between Caieta 
and Tarracina, built by the companions of Cas- 
tor and Pollux. The inhabitants were strict 
followers of the precepts of Pythagoras, and 
therefore abstained from flesh. They were kill- 
ed by serpents, which they thought impious to 
destroy, though in their own defence. Plin. 8, 
c. 29. Once a report prevailed in Amyclse that 
the enemies were coming to storm it; upon 
which the inhabitants made a law, that forbade 
such a report to be credited, and when the ene- 
my really arrived, no one mentioned it, or took 
up arms in his own defence, and the town was 
easily taken. From this circumstance the epi- 
thet of tacitce has been given to Amyclae. Virg. 

^n. 10, V. bU.—Syl. 8, v. 529. II. A city 

of Peloponnesus, built by Amyclas. Castor 
and Pollux were bom there. The country was 
famous for dogs. Apollo, called Amyclseus, 
had a rich and magnificent temple there, sur- 
rounded with delightful groves. Pans. 3, c. 18. 
—Stat. Theb. 4, v. ^2^.—Strab. S.— Virg. G. 3, 
V. 345. — Ovid, de Art. Am. 2, v. 5. ^ The ruins 
of this place are said to be more extensive than 
those of the ancient capital of Laconia. 

Amydon, a city of Paeonia, in Macedonia, 
which sent auxiliaries to Priam during the 
Trojan war. Ho'nier. II. 2. Vid. Part III. 

Anacium, a mountain with a temple sacred 
to the Anaces, in Attica. Polycen. 1, c. 21. 

Anactoria and Anactorium, I. a to'WTi of 
Acarnania, situated on a low neck of land op- 
posite to Nicopolis, of which it was the empo- 
rium. The present site is now called Punta, 
which many antiquaries have erroneously iden- 
tified with Actium. Anactorium was colonized 
jointly by the Corcyreans and Corinthians, the 
latter of whom afterwards obtained sole pos- 
session of the settlement by unfair means. 
They were subsequently ejected by the Acarna- 
nians, who occupied the place in conjunction 
with the Athenians. Augustus carried the in- 
habitants to the city of Nicopolis after the bat- 
tle of Actium. Strai). 10. — Thucyd. 1, c. 55. 

Plin. 4, c. 1, 1. 5, c, 29. II. An ancient 

name of Miletus. 

ANACTORros SINUS, HOW the bay of Prevesa, 
on which the battle of Actium was fought. 

Anagnia, now Anagni, the principal city of 
the Hemici, Here the general assembly of the 
nation was convened. Virgil styles it " dives," 
and Strabo terms it " an important city." In 
its last war with Rome its own laws were set 
aside, and it received in exchange the Roman 
code ; justice being administered by a deputy of 
the praetor. In other words, it became a pra:- 
fectura. Cicero terms it municipium ornatis- 
simnm. It was colonized by Drusus. Cram. It. 
2, Id.—Liv. 9, 43.— ^n. 7, 68i.~Strab. 5.— 
Cic. pro Dom. 30, and Mil. 1. — Front, de Col. 

Anamanni, a people of Cisalpine Gaul, whose 
name is sometimes written Ananes, Anamanes. 
and even Andres. They occupied a small dis- 
trict, intersected by numerous streams flowing 
from the Appenines. Cram. — Polyb. 

Anaphe, an island that rose out of the Cre- 
25 



AN 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AN 



tan sea, and received this name from the Argo- 
nauts, who, in the middle of a storm, suddenly 
saw the new moon, Apollo was worshipped 
there, and called Anaphseus. ApoUonius. 

Anaphlystus, now Anapkiso, a-town of Attica 
of some note, with a harbour and fortifications. 

Anapus, I. a river of Acamania, which emp- 
ties into the Achelous. Cram. II. Of Si- 
cily, near Syracuse. 

Anartes, a people adjoining the Dacians, 
whose territory, answering to part of Transyl- 
vania, bordered on the Tibiscus, now the The- 
iss. Cces. B. G. 6, 25. 

. Anas, now the Guadiana^ a river of Spain, 
which rises in Tarraconensis, and, after flowing 
in a westerly direction past Metallinum and 
Emerita Augusta, turns to the south and dis- 
charges itself into the Atlantic, forming, in the 
latter part of its course, the boundary between 
that part of Lusitania which was called Cu- 
neus, and Bsetica. Pliny informs us, that at a 
short distance from its source this river is lost 
in marshes, then is contracted into a narrow 
stream, after which it flows under ground, till 
re-appearing, it continues its course to the At- 
lantic. Plin. 3, 1. 

Anatolia, a name used to designate that 
part of Asia vulgarly known as Asia Minor. It 
is commonly met with under the corrupted form 
ofNatolia. Under the lower empire, this coim- 
try was divided into prefectures, called Themata; 
and we find a Thema Anatolicum, {fiova dvaTo\yi, 
t/te east,) i. e. easterly from Constantinople, the 
imperial residence. The Turks retain the form 
Anadoli, which, as applied to one of their pa- 
chalics, does not quite fill up the space within 
the limits of Asia Minor. D'Anville. 

Anaurus, I. a river of Thessaly, near the 
foot of mount Pelion, where Jason lost one of 

his sandals. Callim in Dian. II, A river 

of Troas, near Ida. Coluth. 

Ancalites, a people of Britain, near the 
Trinobantes. Cces. Bell. G. 5. c. 21. 

Anchesmus, a mountain of Attica, where 
Jupiter Anchesmius had a statue. 

ANCfflALE, and Anchiala, a city on the sea- 
coast of Cilicia. Sardanapalus, the last king of 
Assyria, built it, with Tarsus in its neighbour- 
hood, in one day. Strab. li.—Plin. 5, c. 27. 

Anchisia, a mountain of Arcadia, at the bot- 
tom of which was a monument of Anchises. 
Paus. 8, c. 12 and 13. 

Anchoe, a place near the mouth of the Cephi- 
cus, where there is a lake of the same name. 
Strab. 

Ancon, and Ancona, a town of Picenum, 
built by the Sicilians, with a harbour in the 
form of a crescent or elbow (ayxwi/), on the 
shores of the Adriatic. Near this place is the 
famous chapel of Loretto, supposed by monkish 
historians to have been brought through the air 
by angels, August 10, A. D. 1291, from Judaea, 
where it was a cottage, inhabited by the virgin 
Mary. The reputed sanctity of the place has 
often brought 100,000 pilgrims in one day to 
Loretto. Although Strabo attributes the foun- 
dation of Ancona to Syracusan exiles in the 
reign of Dionysius, still it is probable the place 
is of greater antiquity, as Scylax mentions it as 
belonging to the Umbri, and Pliny to the Sicu- 
li. In Trajan's time it was a port of importance. 
Its purple dye is celebrated by Italicus. Ac- 
26 



cording to Catullus, Venus was the favourite, 
deity of the place. Cram. — Strab. 5. — Catull. 
36.— Plin. 3. c. IB.-lAican. 2. v. 402.— Ital. 8, 
V. 437. 

Angyra, a town of Galatia among the Tec- 
tosages, or, according to others, of Phrygia. 
Both accounts are, in fact, true ; the error lies 
in not distinguishing between the condition of 
the cotmtry at the period of Alexander's inva- 
sion, when Ancyra was a town of Phrygia Ma- 
jor, and its altered state at tlie time Arrian wrote, 
when part of Phrygia had taken the name of 
Galatia from the Gauls who occupied it about 
250 B. C. According to the testimony of Q.. 
Curtius and Arrian, Alexander marched from 
Gordium to Ancyra ; so that the account of the 
former writer, who represents him as entering 
Paphlagonia, cannot be correct, as he must have 
passed to the right of that region, since he ad- 
vanced by Ancyra to Cappadocia. Ancyra re- 
ceived many favours from Augustus, and the 
modern Angoura still preserves a magnificent 
inscription, reciting the principal circumstances 
of the life of that prince. It was near this city 
that Bajazet was made prisoner by Timour. 
Chaussard. — D^Anville. — Q. Curt. — Arrian. 

Ancyra, a town of Sicily, to the west of 
Agrigentum, on the Halycus, above Heraclea, 
which stood at its mouth. 

Andania, a town of Messenia, on the Arca- 
dian frontier, a capital city before the domina- 
tion of the Heraclidee. Sir W. Gell observed 
its ruins between Salimia and Krano. Cram. 

Andecavi, and Andegavi. Vid. Andes. 

Andes, I. a tribe of Gallia Lugdtmensis, to 
the north of the Ligeris. The Meduana flows 
through their territory, and near its mouth 
stands Juliomagus, the capital. Their territory 
is the modern Anjou. The name is otherwise 
Andecavi and Andegavi. D'Anville. — Cces. 

2, Bell. Gall. c. 35. II. A village of Italy, 

near Mantua, where Virgil was born, hence 
Andinus. Ital. 8, v. 595. 

Andriclus, I. a mountain of Cilicia. Strah, 

14. II. A river of Troas, falling into the 

Scamander. Plin. 5, c. 27. 

Andros, an island in the vEgean Sea, known 
by the different names of Epagrys, Antandros, 
Lasia, Cauros, Hydrussa, Nonagria. Its chief 
town was called Andros. It had a harbour 
near which Bacchus had atemple, with a foun- 
tain, whose waters during the ides of January, 
tasted like wine. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 648— 
Virg. JEn. 3, v. 80.— Juv. 3, v. 10.— Plin. 2. c. 
103. — Mela, I and 2. The Andrians were com- 
pelled by Xerxes to join his armament, and 
were, therefore, after the termination of the war 
in Greece, reduced to the situation of a depen- 
dency by the Athenians. The modern name of 
the island is Andro, and, "though very fertile, 
it contains a population of less than 12,000. It 
is well watered, and its mountains are covered 
with forests." Herodot.— Thuc.—Malte-Brun. 

Anelon, a river near Colophon. Paus. 8,c. 28. 

Anemorea. Vid. Hyampolis. 

Angites, a river of Thrace, falling into the 
Strymon. Herodot. 7, c. 113. 

Angli, a people of Germany, at the north of 
the Elbe, from whom, as being a branch of the 
Saxons, the English have derived their name. 
Tacit. G. 40. They were not among those 
people, by whom, in its decline, the Roman em- 



AN 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AN 



pire was so frequently harassed. Writers of 
those times confounded them generally with the 
Chauci, Catti, and Cherusci, who dwelt on 
either side of the Weser as far as the Elbe or 
the Ems, and consequently west of the Cimbric 
Chersonese, the eastern corner of which (now 
Holstein), by the Little Belt and the gulf of 
Lubeck, was inhabited by the Angli. In the 
5th century they united with the Saxons in the 
conquest of Britain, and settled themselves in 
that part of the island which took from them 
the name of East Anglia, Danv. — Heyl. Cosm. 
— Thierry, Hist. Eng. 

Anguitia, a wood in the country of the Mar- ■ 
ci, between the lake Fucinus and Alba. Ser- 
pents, it it said, could not injure the inhabitants, 
because they were descended from Circe, whose 
power over these venomous creatures has been 
much celebrated. Sil. 8. — Virg. jEn. 7, v. 
759. 

Anicium, a town of Gaul. Cess. Bell. Gal. 7. 

Anigrus, now the Sidero, a river of Elis, 
which rises in the Lapitha mons of Arcadia, 
and has no visible outlet. For want of a de- 
scent to carry off the water, it forms into marsh- 
es, the miasma from which infects the country 
around it. In the time of Pausanias the whole 
district as far as the source of the river, was 
equally impregnated with this malaria. The 
fable of the Centaurs having infected the waters 
of this stream by washing in it the wounds in- 
flicted by the poisoned arrows of Hercules, was 
foimded upon this fact in the physical history 
of the country. The river was nevertheless 
supposed to possess medicinal properties, and to 
De under the protection of the nymphs called 
Anigriades. By some writers this river is 
thought to be the Minyeius, which belongs to 
he same region. Paus. — Horn. H. — Cram. 

Anio, and Anien, now Teverone, a river of 
Italy, flowing through the country of Tibur, and 
falling into the river Tiber about five miles at 
.he north of Rome. At Tibur the Anio forms 
a cataract. This river was formerly made to 
contribute water for the supply of the capitol. 
This was first effected by M. Curius Dentatus, 
the censor, A. U. C. 471, who defrayed the 
undertaking with the spoils of Pyrrhus. The 
aqueduct was called Anio Vetus. The Anio 
Novus or Aqua Claudia, was an improvement 
upon these old works made under the reign of 
Claudian. Cram. — Stat. 1, Sylv. 3, v. 20. — Virg. 
JSn. 7, V. %m.—Strab. b.—Horat. 1, od. 7, v. 13. 
— Plut. de Fort. Rom. 

Anop^a, a mountain and road near the river 
As©pus. Herodot. 7, c. 216. 

Ansibarh, a people of Germany, in the 
neighbourhood of the Chauci, on the lefi; bank 
of the Weser. Cluv. — Tacit. Ann. 13, v. 55. 

Antandros, now St. Dimitri, a city of Troas, 
inhabited by the Leleges, near which Mneas 
built his fleet after the destruction of Troy. It 
has been called Edonis, Cimmeris, Assos, and 
Apollonia. There is a hill in its neighbourhood 
called Alexandreia, where Paris sat, as some 
suppose, when the three rival goddesses ap- 
peared before him when contending for the prize 
of beauty. Strab. 13.— Virg. JEn. 3, v. 6.— 
Mela. 1, c. 18. 

ANTEMNiE, a city of the Sabines on the Anio, 
built by the Aborigines, or, according to Dion. 
Hal. by the Siculi. This city was older than 



Rome, and among those which first resorted to 
arms upon the rape of the Sabine women. 
Near this place the younger Manlius forfeited 
his life by accepting the challenge of the gigan- 
tic Gaul. Dion. Hal. — Virg. jEn. 7. — Liv. 1, 
10, and 7, 6. 

Anthedon, a city of Boeotia, which receives 
its name from the flowery plains that surround 
it. In this place was a temple of Proserpine, 
and also of the most ancient of the deities of 
Greece, the mysterious Cabiri. The inhabit- 
ants were principally fishermen, and are said to 
have pretended that they came from the marine 
god Glaucus. Paus. — Dijcoph. — Cram. Gr. 

Anthele, a small village between the Phoe- 
nix, a stream that falls into the Azopus, and 
Thermopylae. " Close to this spot," says Cra- 
mer, " is the temple of Ceres, that of Amphic- 
tyon, and the seat of the Amphictyons." Hero- 
dot. 7, m).— Strab. l.—Paus. 
■ Anthems, the same as Samos. Strab. 10. 

Anthemusia, a city of Mesopotamia, of com- 
paratively recent date, as its name was borrowed 
from that of the Macedonian Anthemus. Strab. 

Anthene, a town of Argolis. Thucyd. 5, c. 41. 

Anthropophagi, a people of Scythla that fed 
on human flesh. They lived near the cotmtry 
of the Messagetse. Plin. 4, c. 12, 1. 6, c. 30. — 
Mela, 2, c. 1. 

Anthylla, a city of Egypt, on the Canopic 
mouth of the Nile. It maintained the queens 
of the country in shoes, or, according to Athe- 
ncsus 1, in girdles. Herodot. 2, c. 98. 

Anticragus, a mountain of Lycia, opposite 
Mount Cragus. Strab. 4. ' 

Anticyra, two towns of Greece, the one in 
Phocis, and the other near mount Oeta, both 
famous for the hellebore which they produced. 
This plant was of infinite service to cure dis- 
eases, and particularly insanity ; hence the pro- 
verb Naviget Anticyram. Paus. 10, c. 36. — 
Persius, 4, v. 16. — Strab. 9. — Mela, 2, c. 3. — 
Ovid. Pont. 4, ep. 3, v. 53. 

Antigonia, I. an inland town of Epirus. 
Plin. 4, c. 1. II. One of Macedonia, found- 
ed by Antigonus, son of Gonatus. Id. 4, c. 10. 



III. One in Syria, on the borders of the 

Orontes. Strab. 16. IV. Another in Bi- 

thjTiia, called also Nicsea. Id. 12. V. Ano- 
ther in Arcadia, anciently called Mantinea. 

Paus. 8, c. 8. VI. One of Troas in Asia 

Minor. Strab. 13. 

ANTmiBANUs, a mountain of Syria, opposite 
mount Libanus, near which the Orontes flows. 
Strab.— Plin. 5, c. 20. 

Antiochia, Epi-Daphne, I. a city of Syria, 
situated on the Orontes near its mouth, and 
now called Antakia. It was commenced by 
Antigonus, and from him called Antigonia; 
but completed by Seleucus, after he had defeat- 
ed Antigonus at the battle of Issus. It was 
built near the ruins of an ancient city, called 
(2 Kings) Ribbah, in the land of Hameth ; by 
Josephus, Rablata. It was called Epi-Daphne 
from its proximity to Daphne, which was lower 
down on the Orontes, and at length formed a 
suburb to the city. When the Christian reli- 
gion became predominant, Antioch received the 
name of Theopolis, or The Divine City. Here 
the disciples were first called Christians. This 
city was for many ages the royal seat of the 
kings of Syria, and during the prosperity of the 
27 



AN 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AO 



Roman empire, the residence of the prefect of 
the Eastern Province, and afterwards of the 
Praefectus praetorio Orientis, whose jurisdiction 
extended over Thrace, Asia, Pontus, and Egypt. 
It was the residence of many of the Roman em- 
perors, and also the seat of the patriarch. Af- 
ter changing masters frequently during the holy 
wars, it at length fell into the hands of Saladin, 
and thenceforth rapidly declined. Though al- 
most depopulated, a great part of the ancient 
walls still remain as a monument of its former 
grandeur. Heylin. — D'Anville. — 2 Kings, 23, 

33.— Acts, 11, 26. II. A city called also Ni- 

sibis, in Mesopotamia, built by Seleucus, son 

of Antiochus. III. The capital of Pisidia, 

92 miles at the east of Ephesus. IV. A city 

on mount Cragus. V. Another near the river 

Tigris, 25 leagues from Seleucia, on the west. 
VI. Another in Margiana, called Alexan- 
dria and Seleucia. VII. Another near mount 

Taurus, on the confines of Syria. VIII. An- 
other of Caria, on the river Meander. 

Antiparos, a small island in the JEgean Sea, 
opposite Paros, from which it is about six miles 
distant. 

Antipatris, a city of Samaria, built by He- 
rod in memory of his father Antipater, 15 
miles distant from Lydda, and 26 from Caesa- 
rea. The village which existed before the 
Duilding of the city on the same spot, was 
called Chabarzaha. 

Antiphili pgrtds, a harbour on the African 
side of the Red Sea. Strah. 16. 

Antipolis, a city of Gaul, built by the peo- 
ple of Marseilles. Tacit. 2, Hist. c. 15. 

Antirrhium, a promontory of ^Etolia, oppo- 
site Rhium in Peloponnesus, whence the name. 
It was also called Rhium jiEtolicum, and Rhi- 
um Molycrium. Together with the promonto- 
ry of Rhium on the Achaian coast, it closed the 
Sinus Corinthiacus upon the west, allowing but 
a passage of about a mile in width, through 
which the waters of this gulf pass into the Si- 
nus Patrae. On the ^Etolian side stood a tem- 
ple of Neptune, and on both are now erected 
fortresses, whence, according to D'Anville, 
their present name of the Dardanelles of Le- 
panto, Strai). 8. — Thucyd. — Cram. Gr. 

Antitaurus, one of the branches of mount 
Taurus, which runs in a north-east direction 
through Cappadocia, towards Armenia and the 
Euphrates. 

Antium, a maritime town of Italy, built by 
Ascanius, or, according to others, by a son of 
Ulysses and Circe, upon a promontory 32 miles 
from Ostium. It was the capital of the Volsci, 
who made war against the Romans for above 
200 years. Camillus took it, and carried all the 
beaks of their ships to Rome, and placed them 
in the forum on a tribunal, which from ihence 
was called Rostrum. Horat. 1, od. 35. — Liv. 
8, c. 14. The town itself (now Anzo) had no 
harbour ; but all its maritime and naval af- 
fairs were conducted by means of the neigh- 
bouring port Ceno. Antium and the Antiates 
occupy a considerable space in the history of 
Rome. From this city Coriolanus marched 
against this country to punish the ingratitude 
of his countrymen; and here the Roman Se- 
nate conferred on Augustus the prostituted title 
of father of his country. Several of the em- 
perors in later days made Antium their resi- 
28 



dence, and Nero was bom within its walls. It 
did not lay aside its hostility to Rome, notwith- 
standing the frequent Roman colonies that set- 
tled there, till the privileges of citizenship being 
awarded to its inhabitants, it seemed rather to 
share than to be subject to the Roman power 
and empire. Its magnificence and taste are at- 
tested by the remains of antiquity, and particu- 
larly by the Apollo Belvidere discovered among 
its perishing remains. Dion. Hal. 9, 56. — Suet. 
— Cram. Gr. 

Antonia, a castle of Jerusalem, which re- 
ceived this name in honour of M. Antony, It 
*was Herod, who, having fortified this castle so 
that a whole legion might be defended within 
it, assigned to it the name of Antonia in com- 
pliment to Antony. 

Antoniopolis, a city of Mesopotamia. Mar- 
cell. 8. 

Anxur, called also Tarracina, a city of the 
Volsci, taken by the Romans, A. U. C. 348. 
Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 26. Lucan. 3. v. 84. Virg. 
JEn. 7, V. 799. 

Anydros, one of the two summits of mount 
Hymettus, sometimes called also the Dry Hy- 
mettus. 

Anzabas, a river of Assyria near the Tigris. 
Marcel. 18. 

AoNEs, the inhabitants of Aonia, called af- 
terwards Bceotia. They were probably ante- 
rior to that which is called the arrival of Cad- 
mus, and may have been a branch of the primi- 
tive tribes of semi-barbarians who occupied the 
countries of Greece, even at that period with 
which the received traditions of history com- 
mence. The muses have been called Aonides, 
because Aonia was more particularly frequent- 
ed by them. Paus. 9, c. 3. — Ovid. Met. 3, 7, 
10, 13. Trist. el. 5, v. 10. Fast. 3, v. 456, 1. 
4. V. 245.— Hr^. G. 3, v. 11. 

AoNiA, one of the ancient names of Boeotia. 

AoRNOS, Aornus, Aornis, I. a town of India, 
situate upon a high and almost inaccessible rock 
near the springs of the Indus, towards the bor- 
ders of Bactriana the present Cabul, and at the 
base of that part of the Asiatic range of moun- 
tains called by the ancients the Taurus, which, 
with the name of Embodi, stretched to the north- 
east and separated India from the nearer Scy- 
thia. This town cost Alexander great pains 
in its reduction, which, perhaps, would not have 
been of such pressing importance to him, but 
for the tradition which excited his vanity in re- 
porting that Hercules himself had been foiled 
in the attempt to accomplish the taking of the 
place. According to D'Anville it is now Tche- 

hin-kot, or Renas. II. Another, in Bactriana, 

near the source of the Oxus, also taken by 
Alexander. Its modern name is TeLchan. Arr. 
— D'Anville. 

AoTJs, or iEAs, now the Voioussa, a river of 
Illyria, which rises in the Pindus chain of 
mountains, and, passing by Apollonia, empties 
into the Adriatic Sea, not far from the island of 
Saso. The river crosses the defiles of Kleissoura 
the ancient Aoi Stena. " The situation of this 
town is singular in the extreme. It lies at a 
considerable height up the mountain, which is 
a rock totally bare of cultivation, and above it 
appears a large fortress, built upon the very edge 
of a precipice more than 1000 feet in perpendi- 
cular height. Looking down, we beheld the 



AP 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AP 



Aous still chafing its channel between two tre- 
mendous walls of Rock, which scarcely leave 
room for the river and the narrow road that rmis 
along its side." Pouqueville informs us that 
the flames which, according to the ancients, 
used to issue in the midst of streams and ver- 
dant meadows from extensive beds of fossil 
pitch at the confluence of the Aous and the Sa- 
chista are at present very rare. Vid. Nymphd- 
um. Aristot. — Strab. — Hughes. — Malte-Brun. 

Apamia, or Apamea, now Amphio7i Kara- 
hisar, a city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, situate 
either on the Meander, at its confluence with 
the Marsyas, or in that immediate region. Its 
ancient designation of Cibotos, a coffer, was ap- 
plied to it from the quantity of wares which 
were deposited and collected there to be exported 
from Asia Minor, or to be distributed through 
that peninsula. It was, next to Ephesus, the most 
commercial city lying between the Mediterra- 
nean, the Euxine, and the^gean seas. " Its 
modern name, signifying the Black Castle of 
Opium, justifies the belief," says D'Anville, 
" that this narcotic is there prepared." Apamea 
was not a very ancient city, having been found- 
ed by Antiochus Soter (who named it after his 
mother), on the ruin of the more ancient Celae- 

nse.- Another, the earlier name of which was 

Myrlea, in Bithynia. A third, in Syria, of 

which it was a principal city. It was situated 
between the Orontes and a little lake, and there 
it is said that Seleucus Nicator fed his elephants 
of war, the number of which was no less than 

500. Strab.— Plin.—D'Anv. Of Media. 

Mesopotamia. Another near the Tigris. 

Aparni, a nation of shepherds near the Cas- 
pian Sea. Strab. 

Apelaurus mons, a hill in the Stymphalian 
territory, where Philip defeated theEleansand 
^tolians. It was about a mile from the city 
of Stymphalus. Polyb. 

ApENNiNus,a ridge of high mountains through 
the middle of Italy, "branching ofl" from the 
maritime Alps in the neighbourhood of Genoa, 
running diagonally from the Ligurian Sea to the 
Adriatic in the vicinity of Ancona, and from 
thence continuing nearly parallel with the latter 
sea as far as the promontory of Gargano. From 
this point it again inclines to the Mare Infe- 
rum, tni it terminates in the promontory of Leu- 
copetranear Rhegium." Cram. It. Some have 
supposed that they ran across Sicily by Rhe- 
gium, before Italy was separated from Sicily, 
iMcan, % V. 306.— Ovi^. Met. 2. v. 22e.—Ital. 
4, V. lid.—Strab. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 4. 

Aphaca, a town of Palestine, where Venus 
was worshipped, and where she had a temple 
and an oracle. 

Aphar, a city of Arabia Felix, the Saphar 
of Ptolemy and Pliny. From the latter form 
the Sapphoritse derive their name. 

ApHETiE, a part of Thessaly, according to 
Herod. 80 stadia distant from Artemisium, 
though Strabo places it near lolchos. From 
this port the Argonauts are said to have set sail. 
Xerxes' fleet was stationed here previous to the 
engagements ofl" Artemisium. It is now Fetio. 
Cram. 

Aphrodisias, now Gheira, a town of Caria, 
jiacred to Venus. Tacit. Ann. 3, c. 62. 

Aphrodisium, I. a town in the eastern part 
of the island of Cyprus, to the north of Sal amis, 



from which it is distant 70 stadia. II. A 

temple of Venus, on the promontory at the 
south-east extremity of the Pyrenees, and on 
the common boundary of Spain and Gaul. It 

is also called Venus Pyrenaea. III. Another 

in Latium, common to the Latins, situated 
probably between Ardea and Antium. Cram. 

Aphytis, a town of the peninsula Pallene, 
mentioned by Herodotus and Thucydides as 
next to Potidsea. Here was a celebrated tem- 
ple of Bacchus, to which Agesipolis king of 
Sparta, was removed shortly before his death. 
Lysander besieged the town ; but the god of the 
place appeared to him in a dream, and advised 
him to raise the siege,which he immediately did. 
Theophrastus, who speaks of its vineyards, 
makes the name Aphyte, as also Strabo. Cram. 
—Herodot. 7, 123.— Thucyd. 1, 64. 

Apia, an ancient name of Peloponnesus, 
which it received from Apis, sop of Apollo, ac- 
cording to iEschylus, or from ar Argive chief, 
son of Phoroneus. 

Apidanus, now the Vlacho lani, described 
by Herodotus as the largest river of Achaia, 
though its waters were insuflicient to supply the 
Persian army. It joins the Enipeus near 
Pharsalus, and flows with it into the Pe- 
neus. Cram. — Herodot. 7, 197. 

Apina, and Apin^, a city of Apulia, destroy- 
ed with Trica, in its neighbourhood, by Dio- 
medes ; whence came the proverb oi Apina and 
Trica, to express trifling things. Martial. 14 
ep.l.— PZm. 3, c.ll. 

Aptola, and Apiol^, a city of the Latins, 
in the territory of Setia, said to have b een taken 
and burned by Tarquinius Priscus, and to have 
furnished from its spoils the sums necessary for 
the construction of the Circus Maximus. Ac- 
cording to Corradini, the name of Valle Apiole 
is given in old writings to a tract of countr)' 
situated between Sezza and Piperno. Cram.— 
Dion. Hal. 3, 49.— iit?. 1, 35. 

Apollinis Arx, I. a place at the entrance of 

the Sybil's cave. Virg. Mn. 6. II. Pro- 

montorium, a promontory of Africa, hiv. 30, 

c. 24. III. Templum, a place in Thrace. 

IV. In Lycia. Mlian. V. H. 6, c. 3. 



Apollonia, I. a town of Illyria, near the 
mouth of the jEasor Aous, a celebrated colony 
of Corinth and Corcyra. Its laws, commended 
by Strabo for their wisdom, were framed rather 
on the Spartan than the Corinthian model. 
Pyrrhus is said to have contemplated the idea of 
throwing a bridge over the Hadriatic from Apol- 
lonia to the Apulian port Hydrus. Augustus 
spent many years of his early life, which were 
devoted to literature and philosophy, in this 
city. The ruins of the ancient town still bear 
the name of Pollina, but are very inconsider- 
able. Cram. — Strab. — Scymn. ch. 438. — Scy- 
lax. — jElian. Var. Hist. 13, 16. — Aristot. Po- 
lite, L—Thuc. 1, 26.—Diod. Sic. 18.—Pli7i. 

3, 11.— Siiet. II. A town of Mygdonia. 

III. Of Crete. IV. Of Sicily V. 

On the coast of Asia Minor. VI. Another 

on the coast of Thrace, part of which was 
built on a small island of Pontus, where Apollo 

had a temple. VII. A city of Thrace. 

VIII. Another on mount Parnassus. 

Aponus, now Abano, a fountain, with a vil- 
lage of the same name, near Patavium in Italy. 
The waters of the fountain, which Avere hot, 
29 



ACl 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Aa 



were wholesome, and were supposed to have an 
oracular power. Lmcan. 7, v. 194. — Suet, in 
Tiber. 14. 

Appia Via. Vid. Via. 

Apsinthii. Vid. Absynthii . 

Apsus, a river of Macedonia, falling into the 
Ionian Sea between Dyrrachium and ApoUo- 
nia. It is now the Crevasta, and was rendered 
famous by the military operations of Caesar 
and Pompey upon its banks. LMcan, 5, v. 46. 

Aptera, an inland town of Crete. Ptol. — 
Plin, 4, c. 12. 

Apulia, now Puglia, a country of Magna 
Graecia in the south of Italy. If this portion of 
country received its name, as historians believe, 
from the Apuli who early established themselves 
there, it very soon extended itself, with the name 
of Apulia, beyond the little territory occupied by 
that obscure people. In the time of Augustus, 
it comprehended all the region that lay between 
Samnium and Lucania on the west, and the 
Adriatic on the east, having for its northern 
boundary the Tifernus, and terminating on the 
south in the lapygian promontory, on either 
side of which was the Adriatic or the Tarentine 
gulf This tract of country was divided into 
Messapia, or, as the Greeks denominated it, la- 
pygia, Peucetia, and Daunia. The last of these 
may be considered the proper Apulia, at least as 
far as from the Tifernus, which separated it from 
the Ager Frentanus, to the Lacus Urianus. 
Within these narrow bounds the Apuli were 
limited, and the rest of Daunia seems to have 
had no greater right to the name of Apulia than 
had Peucetia and Messapia. The Calabri 
sometimes gave their name to the southern part 
of Messapia, which was called from them Ca- 
labria. The Greek historians extended the 
name of lapygia so £is to make it coextensive 
with the Apulia of the Latins in its greatest 
width. This distinction in the use of the names 
of Apulia and lapygium should be constantly in 
the mind of the reader of Roman history. Apu- 
lia was the scene of many contests between the 
Romans and the Samnites in the early days of 
the former people ; and after the fatal battle at 
Cannae the Apulians took part with the Cartha- 
ginians. After long and patient remonstrance, 
the Apuli obtained from the Roman senate the 
declaration of their civil and municipal rights. 
Strab. — Plin. — Liv. — Polyb.— App. — Cram. 
It. It was famous for its \^ools, superior to 
all the produce of Italy. Some suppose that 
it is called after Apulus, an ancient king of the 
coimtry before the Trojan war. Plin. 3, c. 11. 
Cic. de Div. 1. c. A^.— Strab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. 4. 
— Martial, in Apoph. 155. 

AauA Ferentina, a stream and a spring 
near the ancient Bovillae, " distinguished in the 
early annals of Latium as the place where the 
confederate Latin cities assembled in council." 
Cram. Gr. 

Aquilaria, a place of Africa. Cces. 2, Bell. 
Civ. 23. 

Aquileia, or AauiLEGu, a celebrated city of 
Venetia, between the Alsa and the Natiso, some 
distance from the coast, at the head of the Adri- 
atic. It was built by a party of Gauls about 
187 B.C., and almost immediately fell into the 
hands of the Romans. In the time of Caesar 
it had become of the greatest importance as a 
military post, and was, indeed, the " bulwark of 



Italy on its north-eastern frontier." All the 
trade of Italy with the Illyrians and Pannonians 
passed through this place ; and, as it was situ- 
ate near the easy passage of the Julian Alps, 
and by this means in direct communication with 
the Save, the intercourse with all the nations 
with which the Romans were not at war, be- 
tween the Adriatic and the Danube, was ren • 
dered free to the Aquileienses. It successfully 
resisted the assault of Maximinianus, who, in 
the later days of the empire, sought to gain pos- 
session of it; but it was unable to resist the 
strength of Attila, and was conquered and sack- 
ed by that barbarian. Ausonius had assigned 
it the rank of the ninth city of the whole em- 
pire. It is supposed that some change has taken 
place in the bed of the Natiso, which has left 
the site of Aquileia different from what it was 
in former times as regards its proximity to the 
banks of that river. The modern town, which 
stands near the ruins of the old, has assumed 
the name of Aquileia. Strab, — Herodian.- 
Plin. — Aus. — Cram. It. 

AauiLONiA. There were two towns of this 
name in Samnium, one on the borders of Apulia, 
now Lancedogua, and the other situate at the 
source of the Trinius, east of Samnium. It was 
here that the consecrated army of the Samnites 
encamped to make a last mighty, but, as it 
proved, an unavailing effort against the ambi- 
tious power of Rome. Liv. 10, c. 38. 

Aquinum, a town of Latium. on the borders 
of the Samnites, where Juvenal was bom. A 
dye was invented there which greatly resembled 
the real purple. Horat. 1, ep. 10, v. 27. — 
Strab.— Ital. 8, v. 4Q^.—Jnv. 3, v. 319. 

Aquitania, a third of Gaul as described in 
the commentaries of Caesar. It extended from 
the Pyrenaei montes on the south, as far as the 
Garumna (the Garonne') upon the north, and 
from the Gallic ocean, now Bay of Biscay, on 
the west, to Gallia Provincia or Narbonensis on 
the east. This, though by no means one third 
of Gaul in extent of surface, was considered to 
constitute that proportion in population, and 
still more in importance. On the establishment 
of the empire by Augustus, when all his vast 
dominions were divided again in accordance 
with his views, Aquitania was continued from 
the Garonne to the Loire, which formed the 
half of its eastern limits as well as the whole of 
its boundary upon the north. At a still later 
period, another division of this district of coun- 
try was made. The original Aquitania, with a 
small addition on the north, was called Novem 
Populana ; and the country on that side of the 
Garonne was divided into Aquitania prima on 
the east, and Aquitania secunda on the wesi 
and bordering on the ocean. Aquitania prima 
was an important part of Gaul long before it 
assumed that name, and many centuries before 
the christian era, was formed into a regular mo- 
narchy. Its capital was first Avaricum, after 
which it took the name of the principal inhabi- 
tants, the Bituriges. It is now the city of Bour- 
ses. The capital of Aquitania secunda was 
Burdegala, Bourdeaux; and many modern 
names of that part of France are manifest modi- 
fications of those of the ancient inhabitants, as 
the province of Saintonge from the Santones. 
Aquitania proper, or Novem Populana, was 
overrun by the Vascons in the ruin of the em- 



AR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AR 



pire, and that part of France which is called 
Gascony still bears their name ; while the pro- 
vince of ChiieuTie upon its north still seems, as 
D Anville thinks, to preserve something of the 
former Aquitaine. 

Arabia, a large country of Asia. Its situa- 
tion and boundaries are thus given by Malte- 
Brun. " It occupies an intermediate position 
between the rest of Asia and Africa. Its south- 
east boundary forms a part of the shore of the 
Indian ocean. On the opposite side it is bound- 
ed by Syria, by which it is separated from the 
Mediterranean. On the north-east its variable 
limits follow very much the course of the Eu- 
phrates. From Persia it is separated by the 
Persian gulf From Egypt and Abyssinia in 
Africa, by the Arabian gulf or Red Sea." " An 
important datum for the determination of Arabia 
is contained in the statement that ' the Arabian 
chain of mountains from west to CEist measures 
iwo months' journey, (i. e. 12,000 stadia,) from 
the edge of the valley of the Nile, to the region 
of frankincense.' I say from the edge of the 
valley of the Nile, because the gulf is considered 
as inland, and not as a boundary of the country. 
But according to this, the region of frankincense 
cannot reach farther south than Upper Egypt, 
which does not agree with the former statement 
on the extension of Arabia to the south. It 
may be, moreover, remarked, that no blame can 
be attached to Herodotus for considering the 
whole of Arabia as mountainous as Arabia 
Petraea and the chain of mountains between the 
Nile and. the Arabian gulf were alone known 
to him." Niebuhr. g. The ancient division of 
the peninsula, which in part originated with 
Ptolemy, was into Arabia Petraea, Arabia Fe- 
lix, and Arabia Deserta. The first of these 
extended from the confines of Judse to the 
Arabic gulf, and towards the west it bordered 
on Egypt. The part that touched on Judae 
was called Idumea. It was added by Trajan to 
Palestine, and formed afterwards a province 
apart, by the name of the third Palestine. 
Through the deserts of this part of Arabia the 
Israelites accomplished their miraculous pas- 
sage ; and here arose the mountains of Horeb 
and Sinai. South of the Stony Arabia was 
Arabia Felix, bounded on the east by the Arabic 
gulf, and on the south by the Erythrean Sea. 
A great part of this portion of Arabia is now 
called Yemen, a name analogous, in some mea- 
sure, to that of Felix which it bore among the 
Greeks and Latins. Its principal inhabitants 
were the Sabsei ; but at a later period the in- 
habitants of the southern coast, including the 
SabaBi, were called Homeritge. In this region 
are the more modem cities of Mecca and Me- 
dina on the Sinus Arabicus. The ancients also 
included the western shore of the Persian gulf 
in the happy Arabia, confining Arabia Deserta 
to the region lying between Syria and Babylon 
south of the Euphrates. At a later period, all 
this, confining Arabia Felix within narrow 
bounds on the Arabian gulf, was considered to 
belong to the barren Arabia. A small tribe in- 
habiting, or rather wandering through,-a portion 
of this district east of Arabia Petraea, were called 
Saraceni by Pliny and Ptotemy, who were the 
first that mention them, and gave its origin to 
the wide empire of the Saracens in Asia, Eu- 
rope, and Africa. The people of Arabia are of 



two distinct races, the later of which descends 
from Ishmael, and the earlier from Jectan or 
Kaptan ; and these are the genuine Arabs, dis- 
tinguished from the Ishmaelites in their mode of 
life no less than in their origin. The nomadic 
habits of the latter are proverbial ; but the de- 
scendants of Jectan early formed themselves into 
communities, and lived under the protection of 
laws and the authority of kings. Arabia has 
never been absolutely subdued by any of the 
powerful empires that surrounded it. Alexan- 
der failed to make it the centre of his dominion, 
and the Roman authority was partially felt and 
not widely diffused in this peninsula. Under 
the Caliphs it formed a brilliant empire ; litera- 
ture, science, and the arts flourished among its 
inhabitants, but they have returned to their 
nomadic habits, and now are, generally, but in 
the second stage, not of civilized life, but of the 
rudest society. Plin. — Ptol. — Arr. — D^ Anville. 
— Malte-Brun. — Herodot. 1, 2, 3, and Diod. X 
and 2. — Plin. 12 and 14. — Strab. 16. — Xenoph. 

Arabicus Sinus, the Arabian Gulf, or Red 
Sea. An arm of the sea lying between Egypt 
on the west and Arabia on the east. The Red 
Sea does not answer to the Mare Rubrum of 
the ancient geographers, which lay between the 
Indian peninsula and the coasts of Africa and 
Arabia. " It occupies," says Malte-Brun, " a 
deep cavity, which receives no riv^, and pre- 
sents the appearance of an ancient strait which 
once united the Indian ocean and the Mediter- 
ranean, and which has been filled up at its 
northern extremity. It is filled with sunken 
rocks, sand-banks, &c. which allow but little 
space for free navigation. The name of Red 
Sea seems to be derived from Edom of Idumea, 
which also signifies red." Plin. 5, c. \\.—Slrah. 

Arabis, Arabius, Arbis, a river, which run- 
ning nearly parallel with the Indus, separates 
India from Gedrosia, the south-eastern pro- 
vince of Persia. It emptied into the Erythrean, 
now the Arabian Sea. The borders of this river 
were inhabited by a people from whom it took, 
or to whom, perhaps, it communicated, its 
name. Arr. 

Aracca, and Arecca, a city of Susiana, on 
the eastern side of the Tigris. " It attracts the 
attention of the learned," says D'Anville, "by 
reason of the aflinity in its name with that of 
Erech, mentioned in the Old Testament among 
the cities constructed by Nimrod." Tibul. 4, 
1. — D^ Anville. 

Arachn^eus mons, I. a mountain of Argolis, 
mentioned by jEschylus as the last station of 
the telegraphic fire by which the news of the 
capture of Troy was transmitted to Mycenae. 
The modern name is Sophico. Cram. — Agam. 
299. II. A city of Thessaly. 

Arachosia, a province of Asia, bounded on 
the north by the Paropamisus chain, on the east 
by the mountains which form the western limit 
of India, on the south by Gedrosia, and on the 
west by Drangiana. Its capital, Arachotus, is 
named Rockhage, and the country Mrockhage. 
Chaussard. — D'Anville. 

ARACHTmjs, or ARACTmjs, or Arethan, a 
river of Epirus, which rises in the part of the 
chain of Pindus belonging to the Tymphaei, and 
flowing in a southerly direction, empties into 
the Ambracius Sinus near Ambracia. As the 
Arachthus, according to Lycophron, was consi- 
31 



AR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AR 



dered the boundary of Greece on this side, and 
Ambracia was accounted a city of Grsecia Pro- 

Eria, it must have been situated upon the left 
ank of the river. That the Arachthas w£is a 
considerable stream may be inferred from Livy, 
who relates that Perseus, king of Macedon, was 
detained on its banks by high floods in his way 
to Acarnania. Cram. — Liv. 43, 21. 

Aracynthus, I. a chain of mountains run- 
ning in a south-easterly direction from the Ache- 
lous to the Evenus, by Pliny and other writers 
ascribed to Acarnania ; but by Strabo and Dio- 
nysius Periegetes, to jEtolia. Its present name 

is mount Zigos. II. Another in BcEotia, 

whence Minerva is called Aracijnthia. Cram. 
Aradus, a city of Phoenicia, which formed, 
in very ancient times, an independent state. 
This city was built upon a rock at some distance 
from the coast, and was, perhaps, at one period 
the third in magnitude and importance in the 
country. The modern name is Ruad. The 
rock upon which it stood was so steep that the 
houses seemed to be built one on the top of the 
other. Mela., 2, 7. — Vass. ad Mel. 

A.B.m PmL^NORUM, I. altars erected by the 
Carthaginians near the Syrtis Major, on the 
common boundary of Cyrenaica and the terri- 
tory of Carthage, in commemoration of the ge- 
nerous self-devotion of the Philaeni. Pliny 
says they were of sand, and in Strabo's time 
they had ceased to exist. The surrounding 
region, however, retained the name. Sallust. 

Jug. 19, 79. — Plin. 5, 4. II. Rocky islands, 

off the Carthaginian coast, 230 stadia from the 
city, now called by the natives Zowamoore, and 
laid down in charts under the name of Zim- 
bra. They were anciently called ^gimurus. 
The name of Arae Servius traces to the circum- 
stance of the Romans and Carthaginians hav- 
ing made peace there, and having fixed the 
islands as the limits of their respective domi- 
nions. But, according to Livy, a truce was 
broken here, not peace made ; and in Polybius, 
the limits of empire are otherwise established. 
Some confound the islands in question with the 
iEgates, which lay off Lilyboeum in Sicily. 

Heyne, ^n. Exc. 4, lib. 1. III. An early 

name of the little state of Phlius, which may be 
referred to Argolis, since Homer represents it 
as dependent on the kingdom of Mycenae. 
Cram.— 11. B. 509. 

Arar, a river of Gallia Celtica, which rises 
in mount Vogesus, and flows into the Rhone 
near lyyons, forming in its course the line of 
separation between the JEdui and Sequani. 
Ammianus Marcellinus first called it Sacona ; 
whence the Sancona of later writers and the 
French Saone. It flows with such incredible 
slowness that the eye cannot distinguish the 
direction of its current ; whence Pliny calls it 
the " sluggish river." Cess. L^maire. 

Arbages, I. a name given to several rivers 
of antiquity, supposed by D'Anville to be used 
as an appellative term. In the Anabasis of 
Xenophon it is applied to the Mcsopotamian 

Chaboras, Al-Khabow,. D'Anville. II. A 

river which rises in mount Abus, and flowing 
through Armenia past mount Ararat, holds its 
course easterly to the Caspian, into which it 
empties, having previously, according to Pliny 
and others, fornted a junction with the Cyrus. 
It is now the Arras. Chavssard. -III. The 



same name is also applied to the Rha of Ptole- 
my, the modern Volga. Chaussard. — IV. 
Otherwise called the Oroatis, Arois, and Ares, 
a river which serves as the boundary between 
Persis and Susiana. It was composed of many 
mountain torrents. It is now the Bendemir. 
Chaussard. 

Arbela, (orum,) the principal town of the 
Assyrian province Adiabene, situated between 
the rivers Lycus and Caprus, and still existing 
under the name of Esbil. The final victory of 
Alexander over Darius has rendered this place 
famous, though the actual place of battle was at 
Gaugamela, nearer to the Tigris, and on the 
opposite side of the Zab to Arbela. D'Anville. 
Arcadia, I. " a province of Peloponnesus, oc- 
cupying the central part, and enclosed on all 
sides by lofty mountains. On the north it is 
separated from Achaia by the elevated summit 
of mount Cyilene, extending from the borders 
of Phliasia in Argolis to the chains of Eryman- 
thus, Scollis, and Pholoe, on the confines of Elis. 
From this point another ridge forms the western 
boundary, dividing Arcadia from the latter pro- 
vince and Triphylia, and uniting on the right 
bank of the Neda and on the confines of Mes- 
senia with those mountains which form the 
southern belt of Arcadia ; these, under the names 
of Lycseus, Cerausius, and Maenalus, run from 
east to west along the Messenian and Laconian 
frontiers as far as the bordeis of Argolis and 
Cynuria, where they join mount Parthenius. 
This last mountain, together with Artemisium, 
closes the periphery of the province on the east- 
ern frontier, by reuniting itself with the Stym- 
phalian hills and the more elevated range of 
Cyilene. Within this great quadrangular ba- 
sin other secondary ridges branch off, and inter- 
sect each other in various directions, forming 
several minor valleys, the waters of which, how- 
ever, all finally discharge themselves into the 
Alpheus before it enters the Elean territory. 
Arcadia was, next to Laconia, the largest and 
most populous province of the Peloponnesus." 
The Arcadians had remained in quiet posses- 
sion of their country from time immemorial ; 
whence their claim to an antiquity which ex- 
ceeded that of the moon. Pelasgus was said to 
have been their first king. In the time of Ho- 
mer they were united under one chief; subse- 
quently, till after the battle of Leuctra and the 
buildin g of Megalopolis, they were mere soldiers 
of fortune. The Theban policy of convening 
a general council at Megalopolis, and thus 
uniting the whole people, had the effect of 
checking the power of Lacedaemon. After- 
wards Arcadia became connected with the 
Achaean league, of which Megalopolis was the 
chief city after the death of Aratus. In Stra- 
bo's time the principal cities of this province 
had fallen into decay. Its natural resources 
consisted chiefly in its rich pastures. Cram. 

II. A town of Crete, north-east of Gortys 

Its ruins are now named Arcadioti. 

Arcanum, the name of a villa belonging lo 
Cl. Cicero, between Arpinum and Aqninura. 
It was so called from being situated near an 
ancient city named Arx. Cram. 

Archippe, a city of the Marsi, destroyed by 
an earthquake, and lost in the lake of Fucinus. 
Plin. 3, c. 19. 
Ardea, formerly Ardua, a to^^n of Latium, 



AR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AR 



built by Danae, or, according to some, by a son 
of Ulysses and Circe. It was the capital of the 
Rutuli, and was situated about three miles from 
the sea. Strabo informs us that the country 
about Ardea was marshy, and the climate there- 
fore unhealthy. Ardea was colonized by the 
Romans, and Menenius Agrippa was one of the 
triumvirs M'ho led the colony. It was again co- 
lonized under the emperor Hadrian. This cj.ty 
at an early period contributed to the foundation 
of Saguntmn in Spain. The ruins still bear 
the name Ardea. Tarquin the Proud was 
pressing it with a siege when iiis son ravished 
Lucretia. A road, called Ardeatina, branched 
from the Appian road to Ardea. Cram. — C. 
Nep. in Attic. U.—Liv. 1, c. 57, 1. 3, c. 71, 1. 
4, c. 9, &.~(i.— Virg jEii. 7, v. ^\±—Ovid. Met. 
14, V. bl'i.—Strab. 5. 

Arduenna, now Ardenne^ a large forest of 
Gaul in the time of J. Caesar, which extended 
50 miles from the Rhine to the borders of the 
Nervii. Tacit. 8, Ann. c. 42.— C^s. Bell. Gall. 
6, c. 29. 

Arelatum, now Aries, a town in that part of 
Gallia Narbonensis which bore the name of 
Viennensis. Thither the emperor Honorius 
transferred the seat of the prajtorian prefecture 
of Gaul, when Treves, sacked by the barba- 
rians, was no longer in a state to maintain this 
pre-eminence. A little above Aries the Rlione 
divides itself into two arms, to forin two princi- 
pal mouths called Gradus, now Les Grans du 
Rhone. D'Anville. 

Areopagus, or the Hill of Mars. This emi- 
nence, Avhich rose in the city of Athens a short 
distance north-west of the Acropolis, derived 
its name from the m}^hological tradition Avhich 
reported that Mars "had been the first culprit 
arraigned upon this spot, thenceforward sacred 
to justice. At a period comparatively late, this 
court was roofed in and otherwise enclosed; but 
for a long time after it had been consecrated 
to the trial and adjudication of criminal cases, it 
was but an open space, in which were two rude 
seats for the accused and his accuser, with an 
altar dedicated to Minerva, the tutelar deity of 
the Athenians. In the immediate vicinity was 
the temple of the furies alluded to in the Eu- 
menides of jEschylus and the CEdipus at Co- 
lonos, of Sophocles. Pans. — Att. — jE&ch. 

Arethusa, I. a fountain, now dry, in the 
island of Ortygia near Syracuse. It was neces- 
sary to defend this fountain from the sea, with 
which it would have been confounded but for a 
stone wall that protected it. Here it was that 
the poets fabled the river god Alpheus to have 
overtaken the nymph Arethusa, after having 
followed her, transformed into a fountain, under 
the bed of the sea. Ovid.— Thcoc. — -II. A 
lake of upper Armenia, near the fountains of 
the Tigris. Nothing can sink irader its waters. 
Plin. 2, c. 103. HI. A town of Thrace. 



IV. Another in Syria. 

Argjsus, a mountain of Cappadocia, covered 
with perpetual snows, at the bottom of which is 
the capital of the country called Maxara, from 
the summit of which it is said the Euxine on 
one side, and the Mediterranean on the other, 
are distinctly discernible." Claudian. 

Arcsiathje, a village of Arcadia. Pans. 8. 
c. 23. 

Argenntm, a promontoiT of Ionia. 

Part I.-E 



Argentoratui^i, now Strasdurg, a city of the 
Triboci, on the Rhine. 

Argia. Vid. Argolis. 

Argilus, a town of Thrace, near the Stiy- 
mon, built by a colony of Andrians. Thucvd. 
4, c. 103. Herodot. 7, c. 115. 

ARGiNtJs^, three small islands near the con- 
tinent, between Mitylene and Methymna, Avhere 
the Lacedemonian fleet Avas conquered bj^ Co- 
non the Athenian. Strab. 13. 

Agrippei, a nation among the Sauromatians, 
born bald an d Avith flat noses. They lived upon 
trees. Herodot. 4, c. 23. D'Anville considers 
them, Avith reason, to haA^e been rather a caste 
than a nation. 

Argolicus sinus, a bay on the coast of Argo- 
lis, betAveen that district and Laconia; now the 
Gnlf of Nap oil. D'Anville. 

Argolis, and Argia, a part of the Pelopon- 
nesus, bounded on the north by the country of 
the Corinthians and Sicyonians, and on the 
Avest by Arcadia ; on the south it terminated in 
the territory of C5muria, on the borders of La- 
conia, and on the east it Avas Avashed b)'' the 
Saronic gulf. The southern shore of that part 
of Argolis Avhich lay on the Avestern side of the 
Argolic gulf extended to the Myrtoan sea. All 
Argolis contained, perhaps, an area of nearly 
1100 square miles. The face of the country 
Avas diversified with hills, and the, A'alleys ex- 
tending between them were Avell cultivated and 
fertile. The Pelasgi are supposed to have been 
its earliest colonists ; and the}'' probably gaA'e 
their name to the country, till, on the arrival of 
Danaus, its inhabitants assmned that of Danai. 
For a long time Argolis is supposed to haA'c 
formed but one undiAided dominion ; but about 
the period to AA'hich belongs the historA^ or the 
fable of Acrisius, it was divided into the king- 
doms of Argos and Tir3ms, under the sway of 
Acrisius and Proetus his brother. Perseus, the 
grandson of Acrisius, erected yet another prin- 
cipality, to which he gave the name of Mycenae, 
and which, for a time, assumed the superiority 
among all the cities of Argolis. The partial 
union of the families of Pelops and Hercules in 
the person of Aireus, again united the difierent 
states of Argolis; and Tisamenes, the son of 
Orestes, at the time of the return of the Hera- 
clidse to the Peloponnesus, beheld himself ac- 
knowledged lord of Argolis, and the most influ- 
ential monarch of the south of Greece. Eighty 
years after the destruction of Troy this prince 
was expelled, and the lineal descendant of Her- 
cules, Temenus, the restorer of his race, assum- 
ed the government of a territory equally exten- 
sive, but with poAver greatly curtailed. Some 
time afterAA'ards the ArgiA^es deposed their soA^e- 
reign Meltas, the last of the Temenic family, 
and established republican institutions through- 
out his former dominions. Argolis Avas, for the 
most part neutral during the struggle of the 
Greeks against their Persian enemies; but in 
the Peloponnesian Avar it Avas generally found 
in a state of hostility to Lacedaemonia. Strab. — 
Pans. — Horn. 11. 2, 107. — Thncyd. — Cram. Gr. 
Argo.s {sing. nent. and Argi, niasc. plvr.) 
I. an ancient city, capital of Argolis in Pelo- 
ponnesus, about tAvo miles from the sea, on the 
bay called Argolicus sinvs. Juno Avas the chief 
deity of the place. The kingdom of Argos Avas 
founded bv Inachus 1856 vears before the 
33 



AR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AR 



Christian era, and after it had flourished for 
about 550 years, it was united to the crown of 
My cense. Argos was built, according to Eu- 
ripides, Iphig. in Aulid. v. 152, 534, by seven 
Cyclops who came from Syria. These cyclops 
were not Vulcan's workmen. The nine first 
kings of Argos were called Inachides, in honour 
of ihe founder. Their names were Inachus, 
Phoroneus, Apis, Argus, Chryasus, Phorbas, 
Triopas, Stelenus, and Gelanor. Gelanor gave 
a kind reception to Danaus, who drove him. from 
his kingdom in return for his hospitality. The 
descendants of Danaus were called Belides. 
Agamemnon was king of Argos during the 
Trojan war ; and 80 years after the Heraclidee 
seized the Peloponnesus, and deposed the mo- 
narchs. The inhabitants of Argos were called 
Argivi and Argolici ; and this name has been 
often applied to all the Greeks without distinc- 
tion. Plin. 7, c, 56. — Pans. 2, c. 15, &c. — 
Horat. 1, od. l.—Mlian. V. H. 9, c. \b.—Strab. 
S.—Mela. 1, c. 13, &c. 1. 2, c. 3.— Virg. ^n. 
1, V. 40, &c. This city, which still preserves 
its name, " was generally looked upon," says 
Cramer, " as the most ancient city of Greece. 
The walls were constructed of massive blocks of 
stone, a mode of building generally attributed to 
the cyclops. It was protected by two citadels, 
and surrounded by fortifications equally strong. 
The principal one was named Larissa." The 
government of Argos, after the expulsion of the 
kings, was that of a republic ; and one cause of 
her frequent wars with Sparta was the essential 
difference of principle that actuated her repub- 
lican institutions, contrasted with the aristocra- 
tic character of the Spartan laws. The popula- 
tion was divided into three classes, of which one 
consisted of the free inhabitants of the city, the 
surrounding people or Perioikoi constituted the 
second, and the Gametes or slaves were the 
third ; amounting in all, perhaps, to about 

110,000 souls. II. Another in Macedonia, 

called Oresticum. III, Another in Thessa- 

ly, by some supposed to be the same as Larissa. 

IV. Another in the country of the Am- 

philochi, founded, according to tradition, by 
Amphilochus the son of Amphiaraus,and thence 
called Argos Amphilochium. Thucydides in- 
forms us that it was once the most powerful 
town of the region to which it belonged ; but 
that, being much disturbed by the Ambraciots, 
it was obliged to seek the protection of the 
Acarnanians, and so sunk into a comparative 
dependence. A great extent of wall is still re- 
maining, together with other ruins sufficient to 
manifest its former strength and to prove its Cy- 
clopean origin. Thuc. 2, 68. — Holland, Trav. 

Argyrtpa, a town of Apulia, built by Dio- 
medes after the Trojan war, and called by Po- 
lybius Argifana. Only ruins remain to show 
where it once stood, though the place still pre- 
serves the name of Arpi. Virg. Mn. 11, v. 246. 

Aria, the name of a country in Asia, by ex- 
tension from a particular province. It was the 
same, very nearly, as the modern Khorasan,but 
in its greatest extent, taking in a part of the 
modern Cabul, it was bounded on the north by 
Hyrcania and Parthia, on the east by Bactria 
and India on this side of the Indus, by Gedrosia 
on the south, and on the west by Media. Aria 
Proper was confined, perhaps within the Paro- 
pamisus. Its chief town Aria, or Artacoana, 
34 



on the Arius, now Heri Rud^ is Herat. Dionys. 
Perieg. 918,— Mela, 1. c. 2, 1. 2, c. 7. 

Ariani, and Arieni, the inhabitants of Aria. 

Aricia, a very ancient town of Italy, now 
Riccia, built by Hippolytus, son of Theseus, 
after he had been raised from the dead by ^Es- 
culapius, and transported into Italy by Diana. 
In a grove, in the neighbourhood of Aricia, 
Theseus built a temple to Diana, where he es- 
tablished the same rites as were in the temple 
of that goddess in Tauris. The priest of this 
temple; called Bex, was always a fugitive, and 
the murderer of his predecessor ; and went al- 
ways armed with a dagger, to prevent whatever 
attempts might be made upon his life by one 
who wished to be his successor. The Arician 
forest, frequently called nemorensis, or nemoro/- 
lis sylva, was very celebrated; and no horses 
would ever enter it, because Hippolytus had 
been killed by them. Egeria, the favourite 
nymph and invisible protectress of Numa, ge- 
nerally resided in this famous grove, which was 
situated on the Appian way, beyond mount Al- 
banus. Ovid. Met. 15 ; Fast. 3, 2 63. — Ijucan. 
6, V. 1 A.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. 761, &c. 

Arimaspi, a people sometimes referred to 
Scythia in Europe, and sometimes to Asiatic 
Scythia. It is difficult, of course, therefore, to 
fix the country of this fabulous people ; but it 
seems, from all authority, that the region about 
the Palus Mseotis and the Tanais was supposed 
to be inhabited by them. They are said to 
have had but one eye in the middle of their fore- 
head, and waged continued war against the grif- 
fins, monstrous animals that collected the gold 
of the river. Plin. 7, c. 2. — Herodot. 3 and 4. 
— Strah. 1 and 13, 

Ariminum, (now Rimini^ an ancient city of 
Italy, near the Rubicon, on the borders of Gaul, 
on the Adriatic, founded by a colony of Umbri- 
ans. When the Romans established a colony 
in this place, it rose to the highest importance; 
and in all the Punic wars, and afterwards in the 
Gallic, a military force was stationed in Arimi- 
num, which was looked upon as commanding 
the entrance into Italy upon that side. Lnican. 
1, V. 231.— PZm3,c. 15, 

Ariminus, a river of Italy, rising in the Ap- 
penine mountains, and falling into the Adri- 
atic just above Ariminum. Plin. 3, c. 15, 

Arimph^i, a people of Scythia, near the Ri- 
phgean mountains, who lived chiefly upon ber- 
ries in the woods, and were remarkable for their 
innocence and mildness, Plin. 6, c. 7. 

Aris a river of Messenia. Paus. 4, c. 31. 

Arisba, I. a town of Lesbos, destroyed by an 

earthquake. Plin. 5, c. 31. II. A colony 

of the Mityleneans in Troas, destroyed by the 
Trojans, before the coming of the Greeks. 
Virg. jEn. 9. v. 264. — Homer. 11. 7. 

ARisTiEUM, a city of Thrace, on the summit 
of mount Haemus. Plin. 4, c. 11. 

Arister^e, an island on the coast of Pelo- 
ponnesus. Paus. 2, c. 34. 

Aristonautje, the naval dock of Pellene, said 
to have been so called from the Argonauts hav- 
ing touched there in their expedition. Paus. 2. 

Arius, a river of Asia. The inhabitants in 
the neighbourhood are called Arii. 

Armenia, a large country of Asia, divided 
into upper and lower Armenia. Upper Arme- 
nia, called also Major, has Media on the east, 



AR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AS 



Iberia on the north, Mesopotamia on the south, 
and the Euphrates, which separates it from 
Armenia Minor, on the west. Lower Arme- 
nia or Armenia Minor, which was but a part of 
Cappadocia, lay along the Euphrates from Sy- 
ria, which was separated from it on the south by 
the Taurus mountains as far as the borders of 
Pontus, which bounded it on the north. A 
branch of the same mountain divided from the 
rest of Cappadocia on the west. The history of 
Armenia is always that of a province. A part 
of the Assyrian empire, it passed with that into 
the power of the Medes, and fell with them into 
the hands of the Persians. For a short time, on 
the overthrow of the Seleucidse, the governors 
of Armenia exercised a kind of independent 
rule ; but in the reign of Trajan it was reduced 
in form, as it had long been in fact, to the mere 
condition of a province of the empire. They 
borrowed the names and attributes of their dei- 
ties from the Persians. Armenia Major is now 
called Turcomania, and Minor, Aladulia. He- 
rodot 1. c. 194, 1. 5. c. ^9.— Curt. 4, c. 12, 1. 5, 
c. l.—Strab. 1 and \\.—Mela, 3, c. 5 and 8.— 
Plin. 6, c. 4, &c. — Lmcan. 2. 

Armoric^ CiviTATEs, Certain districts of 
Gaul, principally maritime ; whence the name, 
the Celtic Ar-Mor, signifying by the sea. The 
Armorica of Caesar was situate between the Se- 
quana, the Liger, and the sea, including the 
modern provinces of Normandy and Bretagne. 
The name Armorica was at last confined to Bre- 
tagne exclusively. The Armorici were an inde- 
pendent people, united in confederacies, without 
much superiority of power or of right. They 
were of Celtic origin, and even after the decline 
of Roman power had witnessed the exclusion 
of Roman influence from the British Isles, the 
Armoricans and the Britons continued to look 
upon themselves and on each other as of one 
stock, and the latter received from the continent 
very timely aid against their Saxon enemies. 
The Armoricans hold a conspicuous place in 
romantic tradition and fable; prince Arthur 
himself was an Armorican, and miDre than half 
the story of his times relate to the chivalry of 
Britany . C(bs. Bell. G. — Turn. Aug. Sax. 

Arne, I. a city of Lycia, called afterwards 
Xanthus. II. A town of Umbria, in Italy.. 

Arnus, now Amo, the principal river of 
Etruria. It rises in the Appenines, passes 
through the cities of Florence and Pisa, and 
empties into the Mediterranean at the Portus 
Pisanus, or harbour of the latter city, Liv. 22, 
2.—Strab. 

Aromata, or Aromatum, " the most eastern 
land of the continent of Africa, and of which 
the modem name is Guardafui." D^Anville. 

Arpi. Vid. Argyripa. 

Arpinum, now Arpino, a town of the Vol- 
sci, famous for giving birth to Cicero and Ma- 
tins. The words of ArpincB Chartce are some- 
times applied to Cicero's works. Arpinum 
did not pass from the possession of the Volsci 
to that of the Romans ; it was for some time a 
town of the Samnites, and from these the Ro- 
mans conquered it. Cicero enlarges on the pri- 
mitive simplicit}'- of manners that prevailed there 
so late as the time in which he himself flourish- 
ed. Liv. 9, 44. 

Arretium, now Arezzo, a town of Etruria, 
and constituting one of its principal states in 



the early time of the Romans. The Romans 
placed there a force to repel the incursions of 
the Gauls ; and there the consul Flaminius was 
posted to contest with Annibal the entrance into 
Etruria. It was a muncipium, and always 
held a high rank among the cities of Italy. In 
the middle ages it again became conspicuous for 
its wars with Florence during the factious years 
of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. It was like- 
wise famous for its porcelain vases mentioned 
by Pliny. Uv- 22, ^.—Strab. 

Arsamosata, a town of Armenia Major, 70 
miles from the Euphrates. Tacit. Ann. 15. 

Arsanias, a river of Armenia, which accord- 
ing to some, flows into the Tigris, and after- 
wards into the Euphrates. Plin. 5, c. 24. 

Arsena, a marsh of Armenia Major, whose 
fishes are all of the same sort, Strab. 

Arsia, a small river between Illyricum and 
Istria, falling into the Adriatic. 

Arsinoe, a town of Egypt, situated near the 
lake of Moeris, on the western shore of the Nile, 
where the inhabitants paid the highest venera- 
tion to the crocodiles. They nourished them 
in a splendid manner, and embalmed them af- 
ter death, and buried them in the subterraneous 

cells of the labyrinth. SiraJ). A town of 

Cilicia of JEolia of Syria ofCj'prus 

of Lycia of Crete, Cram. of -^- 



tolia. Vid. Conope 

Artabri, and Artabritje, a people of Lusi- 
tania, who received their name from Artrabum, 
a promontorv on the coast of Spain, now called 
Finisterre. " Sil. 3, v. 362. 

Artace, I. a town and sea-port near Cyzicus. 
It did not exist in the age of Pliny. There 
was in its neighbourhood a fountain called Ar- 
tacia. Herodot. 4, c, 14. — Procop. de. Bell. 

Pers. 1, c. '2b.— Strab. 13.— Plin. 5, c. 32. 

II. A city of Phrygia. -III, A fortified place 

of Bithynia. 

Artatus, a river of Illyrifi. Liv. 43, c. 19. 

Artaxata, {orum,) now Ardesh, a strongly 
fortified town of Upper Armenia, the capital of 
the empire, where the kings generally resided. 
It is said that Annibal built it for Artaxias, the 
king of the country. It was burnt by Corbulo, 
and rebuilt by Tiridates, who called it Neronea 
in honor of Nero. Strab. 11. 

Artemisitjm, I. a promontory of Euboea, 
where Diana had a temple. The neighbouring 
part of the sea bore the same name. The fleet 
of Xerxes had a skirmish there with the Gre- 
cian ships. Herodot. 7, c. 175, &c. II. A 

lake near the grove Aricia, with a temple sacred 
to Artemis, whence the name. 

Aremita, I. a cit}' at the east of Seleucia, 

II. An island opposite the mouth of the 

Achelous. Strab. 

Aru^, a people of Hyrcania, where Alex- 
ander kindly received the chief oflicers of Da- 
rius. CuH. 6, c. 4. 

Arverni, a powerful people of Gaul, now 
Auvergne, near the Ligeris, who took up arms 
against J. Caesar. They were conquered with 
great slaughter. They pretended to be descend- 
ed from the Trojans as well as the Romans, 
C(BS. Bell. Gal. l.—Strab. 14. 

AsBEST^:, and Asbyst^e, a people of Libya 
above Cyrene, where the temple of Ammon is 
built, Jupiter is sometimes called on that ac- 
count A^stius. Herodot. 4, c. llO.-^Ptol 4, c. 3. 
35 



AS 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AS 



AscALON, a rown of Syria near the Mediter- 
ranean, about 520 stadia from Jerusalem, still 
in being. Joseph, de Bell. Jud. 3, c. 2.— T/ico- 
jphrast. H. PL 7, c. 4. 

AscRA, a town of Bosotia, built, according to 
some, by the giants Otus and Ephialtes, on a 
summit of mount Helicon. Its celebrity arises 
from Hesiod's long residence there; whence he 
is often called the Ascrcan poet, and whatever 
poem treats on agricultural subjects, Ascrccum 
Carmen. The town received its name from 
Ascra, a nymph, mother to CEoclus by Nep- 
t^me. Strab. 9. — Pans. 9, c. 19. — Pater c. 1. In the 
age of Pausanias, a single tOAver of this town 
remained ; and, according to Sir W. Gell, there 
are still the remains of a tower, probably the 
same, that mark its site, upon abarren rock a few 
miles from the ancient Thespioe. He$. Oper. 

Asia, one of the great divisions of the earth, 
separated on the south-west by the straits of 
Babelmandel and the Arabian gulf from Africa, 
from Europe on the west by the Mediterranean, 
the Archipelago, the Dardanelles, the Euxine, 
the straits of Caffa, the Kooma, the Caspian 
Sea, and the Ural river and mountains. The 
Indian ocean and the Frozen sea confine the 
continent of Asia on the south and north. A 
very small portion of this immense extent of 
country was knoAvn to the ancients, and of that 
which was known, the name of Asia was ap- 
plied to but a part. The Asia of Homer and 
Herodotus signified only the region about the 
Cayster, but by degrees the whole of what we 
now call Asia Minor, the Turks Natclia, and 
the later Greeks Anatolia, received the name of 
Asia, Avhich was afterwards gradually extended 
over the continent. The Nile was sometimes 
made a boundary of Asia by ancient authors, 
and Egypt was considered by them to be a part 
of this geographical division. The natural di- 
visions of Asia are formed by her extensive 
mountain ranges, and the political and mor j^ 
divisions correspond, in a great measure to thoto 
marked out by the hand of nature. The first 
of these, comprising the Russian province of 
Siberia, was known but by the most uncertain 
tradition to the polished nations of antiquit}^, 
who yet were aware that those wild regions Avere 
inhabited by a race as rugged as the climate and 
the soil. South of the Altain chain began the 
second division ; and the extensive prairies of 
this country Avere peopled by nomadic tribes, to 
whom they afforded pasture for their flocks and 
herds, and Avho sought from them nothing else. 
The third division south of the Taurus Avas a 
civilized and populous country, thickly covered 
with cities, and even with empires. The coun- 
tries of peninsular Asia do not exactlj^^ corres- 
pond to these distinctions; but east of the Cas- 
pian Sea these lines in general separated people 
differing in the manner just described. South- 
ern Asia, best knoAvn at all times, and particu- 
larly in antiquity, was subject again to a tAvo- 
foki subdivision. Thus the Indus formed the 
first great boundary between the eastern and 
the Avestern nations of Asia, and the Euphrates 
and the Tigris attain separated the latter into 
three. These divisions, though understood, 
were not geographically recognized by the an- 
cients, AA^ho, after the name of Asia had attain- 
ed with them its Avidest signification, divided it 
into Citerior, the peninsula, and Ulterior or 
36 



Magna. The former was called also by the 
Romans Intria Halyn and Intra Taurum, or 
CisTaurum; and this contained (avc may here 
observe) the territory of the Lydian Croesus. 
The Romans, hoAve\Tr, applied the term Asia 
absolutely, in many instances, to a small portion 
of the peninsula, including the Phrygias, My- 
sia, CEolia, and Ionia, Caria and Lydia. To 
QEolia and Ionia the name was most peculiarly 
proper, and many suppose that to this narroAV 
region, it originally belonged, and that it ex- 
tended thence o\'er the continent. The Ro- 
mans kncAv it generally by that name alone. 
It Avas called Proconsularis by Augustus, from 
the title of the officer Avhom he set over it. The 
mythologists have referred the origin of the 
name of Asia to Asius, an ancient Lydian hero, 
and to Asia the daughter of Oceanus, and The- 
tis the Avife of Japetus and mother of Prome- 
theus; but, says Mahe-Brun, "it appears pro- 
bable that the Greeks extended this name by 
little and little from the district to Avhich it Avas 
first applied, till it embraced the AA^hole of Asia 
Minor, and ultimately the other extensiA^e re- 
gions of the east." The political constitution 
of the Asiatic governments in all ages distin- 
guished the people of Asia from those of the 
European countries, and placed them general- 
ly in a hostile position to each other, until the 
difference betAveen them became settled by the 
ascendency of the Greeks and Romans, and 
the triumph of the more liberal policy of the 
west. Until the time of Alexander, Avhen the 
differences that had begun to display themselves, 
perhaps in the Argonautic expedition, and cer- 
tainly in the Trojan war, Avere terminated by 
the A'ictory at Arbela, four great empires had 
flourished m succession in Asia, perpetuating 
the original political character, and striving for 
its universal supremacy. The first Avas the 
Ass3"rian, Avhich terminated about 700 before 
^ ^he Christian era, and Avas succeeded by that 
/ of the Medes, which in the 6th generation 
merged in that of the Persians, even after the 
representative of the Asiatic system and the 
engrosser of all dominion in Asia. Contempo- 
rary AAdth the later Assyrian em^^ire, out of 
w-hich it grcAV, Avas the Babylon i an empire, Avhile 
in Asia Minor the Lydian kingdom of Croesus 
may almost compare Avitli the kingdom of Me- 
dia. The conquests of Alexander, and the di- 
\dsion of his empire among his generals, effected 
a division in the Asiatic states, and ncAV king- 
doms attained a temporaiy importance under 
the different soA'^ereigns AA'ho assumed the names 
Antigonus, Antiochus, Seleucus, &:c. ; but the 
extension of the Roman arms reduced all to its 
former uniformity, and made of many kingdoms 
a dependent province. Over different parts of 
this province different officers were placed by 
the Romans, and the prefects of the East exer- 
cised a poAver and authoritA'' little inferior to that 
of the emperor in his immediate capital. Sfrah. 
—Just.— Mel.— Malte-Brun. — Heercn.—D'An- 
ville. — Hcyl. 

Asius campus, or Asia pauus, ('Ao-ia Att/aor) 
a tract of Ioav land along the Cayster, not far 
from mount Tmolus. There is a diversity of 
opinion among critics,as to the genuine reading 
in Homer, {11. 11. 461,) some contending for 
'AfTicj h >.£Lfiwvi "in the meadoAvs of Asias;" 
others for 'Acico h yttnuvi, " in the Asian mea- 



AS 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



dows." Those who follow the former reading 
adopt the Lydian tradition, and trace the origin 
of the name Asia to Asias, the son of Cotys, or 
of Atys. But, as Heyne well remarks, the lat- 
ter reading is more poetical, and is supported by 
the Asia Praia, and Asia Pains of Virgil. 
Heync. Exce.—Il. 2, 4Sl.— Virg. Geo. I, 383. 
jEn. 7, 701. 

AsNAUS, a mountain of Macedonia, near 
which the river Aous flows. Liv. 32, c. 5. 

Asopus, I. a river of Thessaly, falling into the 
bay of Malia at the north of Thermopylae. 

Strab. 8. II. a river of Bogotia, which rises 

in mount Cithseron, separates the territories of 
Plataea and Thebes, and, after traversing the 
whole of southern Boeotia, empties itself into 
the Euripus near Oropus. On its banks the 
battle of Platgea was fought, 479 B. C. It still 
retains the name of Asopo. Cram. — Herodot. 

9, AZ.— Strab. 9— Pans. 9, 4. III. A river 

of Asia, flowing into the Lycus near Laodicea. 

IV. A river of Peloponnesus, now Basi- 

lico ; which rises in the mountains of Argolis, 
and empties into the Corinthiacus Sinus below 

Sicyon. Crccvi. V. Another of Macedonia, 

flowing near Heraclea. Strab. 

AsPKNDUs, a lownof Pamphylia, at the mouth 
of the river Eurymedon. Cic. in Ver. I, c. 20. 
The inhabitanis sacrificed swine to Venus. 
AsPLEDON, a town of Boeotia, tw'enty stadia 
from Orchomenus beyond the Melas. Its name 
was changed to Eudielos, from its advantageous 
situation. Cram. 

Assos, a town of Phrj^gia Minor, by Pliny 
called Apollonia. 

AsTA, a city in Spain, near the Baetis. 

Assyria, properly so called, a province of 
Asia, boimded, according to Ptolemy, on the 
north by part of Armenia and mount Niphates, 
on the east by a part of Media and the moun- 
tains Choatras and Zagrus, on the south by 
Susiana, and on the west by Mesopotamia, from 
which it was separated by the Tigris. Its ca- 
pital was Nineveh. The country was very- 
plain, fruitful, and abounding in rivers tributary 
to the Tigris. It is thought to owe its name to 
Ashur, the son of Shem ; and what this name 
has in common with that of Syria, caused it to 
be sometimes transferred to the Syrian nation, 
whose origin refers to Aram, also descended 
from Shem. The name of Kurdistan, which 
modem geography applies to Assyria, comes 
from a people who, under that of Carduchi or 
Gordyaei, occupied the mountains by which the 
country is covered on the side of Armenia 
and Atropatene. Among the Jews, Assyria 
was the name of a particular conquering nation, 
while among the Greeks it was applied indiscri- 
minately to the nations who ruled on the Euphra- 
tes and Tigris before Cyrus. The Jewish ac- 
counts refer to Assyria properly so called, and 
give a chronological history of the empire be- 
tween B. C. 800 and 700. The Grecian authors 
include, under the designation of Assyrian, not 
only the ruling nation, but also its dependencies ; 
whence the frequent confusion of Syria and 
Assyria. Assyrian history, according to Gre- 
cian sources, contains nothing more than mere 
traditions of ancient heroes and heroines, who, 
in the countries on the Euphrates and Tigris, 
once founded large empires. The events are 
not chronologically ascertained, but there are 



accounts, in the spirit of the east, of Ninus, 
Semiramis, Ninyas, and Sardanapalus. Ac- 
cording to Hei'odotus an Assyrian empire lasted 
520 years, from 1237—717. Heeren.—D'Ati- 
viLle. — Chaussard. — JHeylin. — Herod. — Diod. — 
aes. 

AsTACCENi, a people of India, near the Indus. 
StraJ). 15. 

AsTACUs. I. a town of Bithynia, in the vicini- 
ty of Nicomedia, on the Sinus Astacenus, built 
by Astacus, son of Neptune and Olbia, or rather 
by a colony from Megara, and Athens. Lysi- 
machus destroyed it, and carried the inhabitants 
to the town of Nicomedia, which was then lately 
built. Pans. 5, c. 12. -Arrian. — Strab. 17. 
II. A city of Acarnania. Plin. 5. 



AsTAPA, a town of Hispania Bactica, now 
Estepa-la- Vieja. Liv. 38, c. 20. 

AsTAPUs, a river of Ethiopia, falling into the 
Nile. It is the Abarvi of the Abyssinians, the 
sources of Avhich since their discoveiy in the 
beginning of the last century, have been mista- 
ken for those of the Nile. {Vid. Bruce' s Tra^ 
vels.) Ptolemy makes the Astapus issue from 
a morass or lake named Coloe, the Bohr Dam- 
bea, into which the Abarvi, pours its rivulet. 
D'Anville. 

AsTERusius, I. a mountain at the south of 
Crete. II. A town of Arabia Felix. 

ASTR.EUS, a river of Macedonia, now the 
Vistritza, which rises in the mountains of an- 
cient Orestis and Eordeea, and flows, according 
to iElian. between BenhcEa and Thessalonica. 
Cram. 

AsTU, a Greek word which signifies citij, ge- 
nerally applied by way of distinction to Athens, 
which was the most capital city of Greece. The 
word ^trbs is applied with the same meaning of 
superiority to Rome, and noXig to Alexandria, 
the capital of Egypt, as also to Troy. 

AsTiJRA, an island and river of Latium. 
{Pliny.) It is, however, more properly a penin- 
sula, situated at the mouth of the river which 
Strabo calls Storas, Festus says it was some- 
times called Stura as well as Astura. It is inte- 
resting for the proximit}'- of Cicero's villa, where 
Circaei and Antium could be distinguished. It 
was the residence at one time of Augustus, and 
also of Tiberius. Cram. 

AsTijRES, a people of Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, who signalized themselves by their resist- 
ance to the Pv,omans. Their capital was Asturica 
Augusta, Astorga ; hence Asturias. D'Anville. 

AsTYPAL^A, one of the Cyclades, between 
Cos and Thera, called after Astyapalaea, the 
daughter of- Phoenix, and mother of Ancaeus, 
by Neptune. Pans. 7, c. 4. — Strab. 14. 

Atabyris, a mountain in Rhodes, where Ju- 
piter had a temple, whence he was surnamed 
Atabyris. Strab. 14. 

Atarantes, a people of Africa, ten days' 
journey from the Garamantes. There was in 
their country a hill of salt, with a fountain of 
sweet water upon it, Herodot. 4, c. 184. 

ATARBEcms, a town in one of the islands of 
the Delta, where Venus had a temple. 

Atarnea, a part of Mysia, opposite Lesbos, 
with a small town in the neighbourhood of the 
same name. Poms. 4, c. 35. 

Atella, a town of the Osci in Campania. 
The earliest scenic representations of the Ro- 
mans were borrowed from those of the Atellani 
37 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



and were called Fabulas Alellanse . From these 
were derived, as many think, the celebrated 
names which delighted the emperors and the 
people after the Fabulse Atellanse were pro- 
scribed. On their first representation they were 
received with such favour, that the actors in 
them were allowed privileges refused to every 
other class of histriones ; and the first youth of 
Rome were often among the performers, Atel- 
la took part with the Carthagenians in Anni- 
bal's expedition against Italy, for which it was 
reduced to a prefecture ; but Cicero speaks of it 
as a municipium. The ruins of this town are 
said to be still discernible by the village of Sant 
Arpino, near Aversa. Liv. 22, 61 ; and 26, 34. 
— Cic. — Strab. 

Athamanes. " The Athamanes were a peo- 
ple of Epirotic origin. Pliny, however, classes 
them with the jEtolians. The earliest mention 
of this people occurs in Diodorus, who mentions 
their having taken part in the Lamiac war in 
favour of the Athenians. They were at this 
time apparently of little importance from their 
numbers or territorial extent ; it was not til] 
many years after that they acquired greater 
power and influence, as it would seem by the 
subjugation and extirpation of several small 
Thessalian and Epirotic tribes, such as the 
iEnianes, the jEthices, and Perrhasbi; they 
subsequently appear in history as valuable allies 
to the jiEtolians, and formidable enemies to the 
sovereigns of Macedon. Little further is known 
of the Athamanes ; and Strabo, who hardly con- 
sidered them as Greeks, informs us that they 
had ceased to exist as a nation in his time, 
The rude habits of this people may be inferred 
from a custom which, we are assured by an an- 
cient historian, prevailed among them, of assign- 
ing to their females the active labours of hus- 
bandry, while the males were chiefly employed 
in tending their flocks. Stephanus reports that 
some considered them to be Illyrians, others 
Thessalians. The four principal towns of 
Athamania were Argithea, Tetraphylia, Hera- 
clea, and Theodoria, as we learn from Livy in 
his account of the revolution by which Amy- 
nander was replaced on the throne. That part 
of Athamania which was situated near the 
Achelous was called, from that circumstance, 
Paracheloitis. It was annexed to Thessaly by 
the Romans, a circumstance which gave offence 
to Philip of Macedon." Cram. 

ATHEN.E, a celebrated city of Attica, founded 
about 1556 years before the christian era, by 
Cecrops and an Egyptian colony. It was called 
Cecropia from its founder, and afterwards Atlie- 
ncB in honour of Minerva, who had obtained the 
right of giving it a name in preference to Nep- 
tune. [ Vid. Minerva.] It was governed by 17 
kings in the following order ; — after a reign of 
50 years, Cecrops was succeeded by Cranaus, 
who began to reign 1506 B. C. ; Amphictyon, 
1497; Erichthonius, 1487; Pandion, 1437; 
Erichtheus, 1397; Cecrops 2d, 1347; Pandion 
2d, 1307; iEgeus, 1283; Theseus, 1235; Me- 
nestheus, 1205; Demophoon, 1182; Oxyntes, 
1149; Aphidas, 1137; Thymoetes, 1136: 
Melanthus, 1128; and Codrus, 1091, who 
was killed after a reign of 21 years. " "We have 
little or no information respecting the size 
of Athens under its earliest kings; it is ge- 
nerally supposed, however, that even as late 
38 



as the time of Theseus the town was almost 
entirely confined to the acropolis and the adjoin- 
ing hill of Mars. Subsequently to the Trojan 
war, it appears to have increased considerably, 
both in population and extent, since Homer ap- 
plies to it the epithets of evKTifxevos and eipvi- 
yviog. These improvements continued probably 
during the reign of Pisistratus ; and as it was 
able to stand a siege against the Lacedaemo- 
nians under his son Hippias, it must evidently 
have possessed walls and fortifications of suffi- 
cient height and strength to ensure its safety. 
The invasion of Xerxes, and the subsequent 
irruption of Mardonius, effected the entire des- 
truction of the ancient city, and reduced it to 
a heap of ruins; with the exception only of 
such temples and buildings as were enabled, 
from the solidity of their materials, to resist the 
action of fire and the work of demolition. 
When, however, the battles of Salamis, Pla- 
taea, and Mycale, had averted all danger of in- 
vasion, Athens, restored to peace and security, 
soon rose from its state of ruin and desolation ; 
and, having been furnished by the prudent 
foresight and energetic conduct of Themisto- 
cles with the military works requisite for its de- 
fence, it attained, under the subsequent admi- 
nistrations of Cimon and Pericles, to the high- 
est pitch of beauty, magnificence and strength. 
The former is known to have erected the temple 
of Theseus, the Dionysiac theatre, the Stoae, 
and Gymnasium ; and also to have embellished 
the Academy, the Agora, and other parts of the 
city at his own expense. Pericles completed 
the fortifications which had been left in an un- 
finished state by Themistocles and Cimon; he 
likewise rebuilt several edifices destroyed by the 
Persians, and to him his country was indebted 
for the temple of Eleusis, the Parthenon, and 
the Prbpylsea, the most magnificent buildings, 
not of Athens only, but of the world. It 
was in the time of Pericles that Athens at- 
tained the summit of its beauty and prosperity, 
both with respect to the power of the republic 
and the extent and magnificence of the archi- 
tectural decorations with which the capital was 
adorned. At this period the whole of Athens with 
its three ports of Piraeus, Munychia, and Phale- 
rum, connected by means of the celebrated long 
walls, formed one great city enclosed within a 
vast peribolus of massive fortifications. The 
whole of this circumference, as we collect from 
Thucydides, was not less than 174 stadia. Of 
these, forty-three must be allotted to the circuit 
of the city itself; the long walls taken together 
supply seventy-five, and the remaining fifty-six 
are furnished by the peribolus of the three har- 
bours. Xenophon reports that Athens con- 
tained more than 10,000 houses which, at the 
rate of twelve persons to a house would give 
120,000 for the population of the city. From 
the researches of Col. Leake and Mr. Haw- 
kins, it appears that the former city conside- 
rably exceeded in extent the modern Athens, 
and though little remains of the ancient works 
to afford certain evidence of their circumference, 
it is evident from the measurement furnished by 
Thucydides, that they must have extended con- 
siderably beyond the present line of wall, es- 
pecially towards the north. Col. Leake is of 
opinion that on this side the extremity of the 
city reached to the foot of mount Anchesmus 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



and that to the westward its walls followed the 
small brook which terminates in the marshy 
ground of the Academy, until they met the 
point where some of the ancient foundations 
are still to be seen near the gate Dipylum ; 
while to the eastward they approached close to 
the Ilissus, a little below the present church of 
the Mologitades, or confessors. The same an- 
tiquary estimates the space comprehended with- 
in the walls of Athens, the longomural enclo- 
sure, and the peribolus of the ports, to be more 
than sixteen English miles, without reckoning 
the sinuosities of the coast, and the ramparts ; 
but if these are taken into the account, it could 
not have been less than nineteen miles. We 
know from ancient writers that the extent of 
Athens was nearly equal to that of Rome with- 
in the walls of Servius. Plutrach compares it 
also with that of Syracuse, which Strabo esti- 
mates at 180 stadia, or upwards of twenty-two 
miles. The number of gates belonging to ancient 
Athens is uncertain, but the existence of nine 
has been ascertained by classical writers. The 
names of these are Dipylum, (also called Thria- 
SI.E, Sacr^, and perhaps Ceramicje,) Diomei^:, 

DiOCHARIS, MelITIDES, PiraIC^, AcHARNICiE, 

Itoni^, HippADEs, Heri^. The Dipylum, as 
we learn from Livy, was the widest, and led di- 
rectly to the Forum. Without the walls, there 
was a path from the Dipylum to the Academy, a 
distance of nearly one mile. It was also called 
Thriasian, and deemed sacred from its lying in 
the direction of the Thriasian plain and Eleusis. 
There are-still some traces of the Dipylum on the 
north-west side of the acropolis. TheDioMEi^ 
were probably so called from Diomeia, one of 
the Attic demi, and situated to the north-east of 
Athens ; the Diomeian gate must therefore have 
been on this side of the town. The gate of Dio- 
CHARES was opposite to the entrance of the Ly- 
ceum, and near the fountain of Panops. The 
Melitensian gate was to the south, towards the 
sea and Phalerum. Near it was the monument of 
Cimon and the tomb of Thucydides. There are 
some remains of this gate, as well as of the Pirai- 
cas, which led, as the name sufficiently implies, to 
the Piraeus. The Acharnic^ doubtless were so 
named from Acharnas, one of the most consider- 
able of the Attic demi, and therefore must have 
been in that direction. The Itonian gate, men- 
tioned in the Dialogue of Axiochus, is placed by 
Col. Leake about half-way between the Ilissus 
and at the foot of the hill of Museium ; it seems 
to have been on the road to Phalerum. The 
gate called Hippades is conjectured by the 
same antiquary to have stood between Dipy- 
lum and the Piraicse. Plutarch is the only wri- 
ter who mentions it ; he states that the tombs of 
the family of the orator Hyperides were situated 
in its vicinity. The Heri^ was so called from its 
being usual to convey corpses through it to the 
burying-ground. Its precise situation cannot 
now be discovered, since, as Col. Leake observes, 
' Athens was on every side surrounded with an 
immense cemetery, there being a continued suc- 
cession of sepulchres on the north-west and 
north from the northern long wall to mount 
Anchesmus ; and there were burying-grounds 
also on the outside of the southern long wall.' 
Pausanieis begins his description of Athens ap- 
parently from the Piraic gate. On entering 
the city, the first building which he notices is 



the Pompeium, so called from its containing the 
sacred vessels {rroiirreTa) used in certain proces- 
sions some of which were annual, while others 
occurred less frequently. These vessels, toge- 
ther with the Persian syoils, were estimated, as 
we know from Thucydides, in the beginning of 
the Peloponnesian war, at 500 talents. Near this 
was a temple of Ceres containing statues of that 
goddess, of Proserpine, andoflnachus, by Praxi- 
teles. Pausanias next visits the Ceramicus, 
which was one of the most considerable and im- 
portant parts of the city. Its name was derived 
from the hero Ceramus, or perhaps from some 
potteries which were formerly situated there. It 
included probably the Agora, the Stoa Basileios. 
and the Pcecile, as well as various other temples 
and public buildings. Antiquaries are not de- 
cided as to the general extent and direction of 
this part of the ancient city, since scarcely any 
trace remains of its monuments and edifices ; 
but we may certainly conclude, from their re- 
searches and observations, that it lay entirely on 
the south side of the acropolis ; in this direction 
it must have been limited by the city walls, 
which, as we know, came close to the fountain 
Callirhoe or Enneacrounos. The breadth of 
the Ceramicus, according to Mr. Hawkins, be- 
ing thus confined on one side by the walls of the 
city, and on the other by the buildings imme- 
diately under the acropolis, could not have ex- 
ceeded one half of its length. It was divided 
into the outer and inner Ceramicus. The for- 
mer was without the walls, and contained the 
tombs of those who had fallen in battle, and 
were buried at the public expense. From Plu- 
tarch it appears that the communieation from 
the one Ceramicus to the other was by the gate 
Dip)'-lum. Philostratus, however, speaks of the 
Ceramic entrance ; and though I think it pro- 
bable that he alludes to the Dipylum, I would 
not look upon this as certain. We shall now 
give some account of the buildings of the inner 
Ceramic, reserving the outer portion for our de- 
scription of the suburbs of the city. The first 
edifice mentioned by Pausanias is the Stoa 
Basileios, so called because the archon Basi- 
leus held his court there. There is here a 
picture representing the achievements of the 
Athenian cavalry sent to assist the Lacedse- 
monians at the battle of Mantinea. This paint- 
ing was by the celebrated Euphranor. The por- 
tico here described by Pausanias is probably that 
which Harpocration calls the Stoa of Jupiter 
Eleutherius, since Pausanias himself places a 
statue of this god in the immediate vicinity. 
He next mentions the temple of Apollo Pa- 
trons, in which was a statue by Euphranor, 
two other statues by Leochares, and Calamis 
adorned the front : this latter temple was dedi- 
cated to Apollo Alexicacus, as having put an 
end to the pestilence which caused such a dread- 
ful mortality during the Peloponnesian war. 
The Metroum was a temple consecrated to the 
mother of the gods, whose statue was the work 
of Phidias. Here the archives of the state 
were deposited ; it served also as a tribunal for 
the archon eponymus. Adjacent to the Me- 
troum was the senate house (jSov'Xevrriipov') of the 
Five Hundred who formed the annual council of 
the state. It contained statues of Jupiter Coim- 
sellor, {l3ov\aTos,) of Apollo, and the Athenian 
demos. Close to the council-hall stood tlie 
39 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



Tholus, where the Prytanes held iheir feasts 
and sacrifices; this building was also called 
Scias. Somewhat above were the statues of 
the eponymi, or heroes who gave their name to 
the Athenian tribes ; also statues of Amphia- 
raus, Lycurgus the orator, and Demosthenes. 
Near the latter was a temple of Mars, having 
several statues within, and around it those of 
Hercules, Theseus, and Pindar, who was thus 
honoured for the praise he bestowed on the 
Athenians. Near these stood the figures of 
Harmodius and Aristogiton. All the statues 
here mentioned were carried away as spoils by 
Xerxes, when he possessed himself of Athens, 
but they were afterwards restored by Antiochus. 
Above the Stoa Basileios, Pausanias notices 
a temple of Vulcan, containing statues of that 
god and of Minerva, also the temple of Venus 
Urania, with a statue of the goddess in Parian 
marble, the work of Phidias. These buildings 
stood probably towards the western end of the 
ridge of Areopagus. The Stoa Pcecile was so 
called from the celebrated paintings it contained ; 
its more ancient name is said however to have 
been Peisianactius. The pictures were by Polyg- 
notus, Micon, and Pamphilus, the most famous 
among the Grecian painters, and represented the 
battles of Theseus against the Amazons, and 
that of Marathon and other achievements of 
the Athenians. Here were suspended also the 
shields of the Scionceans of Thrace, and those of 
the Lacedsemonians, taken in the isle of Sphac- 
teria. It was in this portico that Zeno first 
opened his school, which from thence derived 
the name of Stoic. No less than 1500 citizens 
of Athens are said to have been destroyed by the 
thirty tyrants in the Pcecile. Col. Leake sup- 
poses that some walls which are still to be seen 
at the church of Panaghia Fanaromeni are the 
remains of this celebrated portico. Near the 
Stoa Poecile was a statue of Mercury Ago- 
raBus, which, from its position close to a small 
gate, was sometimes termed 'Ep/if?? rrpd? Tr\ 
m\i6i. From the name of Agoraeuswe must 
conclude also that this brazen figure stood in the 
ancient Agora, which is known from various 
passages in classical writers to have formed part 
of the Ceramicus. Xenophon also informs us, 
that at certain festivals it was customary for the 
knights to make the circuit of the Agora on 
horseback, beginning from the Hermes, and, as 
they passed, to pay homage to the temples and 
statues around it. The Agora was afterwards 
removed to another part of the town, which for- 
merly belonged, according to Strabo, to the de- 
mus of Eretria, and where it still continued to 
be held in the time of Pausanias. Mr. Haw- 
kins conceives that this change took place sub- 
sequently to the siege of the city by Sylla, since, 
after ' the Ceramicus had been polluted with 
the blood of so many citizens, the Agora was 
removed to a part of the city which was at this 
period in every respect more central and conve- 
nient for it, and where it is remarkable that the 
market of the modern Athenians still continues 
to be held at the present day.' Col. Leake also 
observes, ' that as ihe city stretched round the 
acropolis, the Agora became enlarged in the 
same direction, until at length the best inha- 
bited part of the city, being on the north side 
of the acropolis, the old Agora having been de- 
filed by the massacre of Sylla, and its buildings 
40 



falling into decay, the Agora became fixed, 
about the time of Augustus, in the situdftion 
where we now see the portal of that Agora.' 
There was a street lined with Mercuries in 
the Agora, Avhich communicated between the 
Stoa Basileios and the Poecile. The Macra 
Stoa was a range of porticoes extending from 
the Peiraic gate to the Poecile. Behind it rose 
the hill called Colonus Agor^us, v/here Me- 
ton erected a table for astronomical purposes. 
At a later period it was the resort of labourers, 
who came there to be hired. We hear also of 
an altar consecrated to the twelve gods in the 
Agora. The Leocorium, which probably no 
longer existed in the time of Pausanias, since he 
has omitted all mention of it, stood also in the 
Ceramicus. It was a monument in honour of 
the daughters of Leos, who had devoted them- 
selves for their country. Near this spot Hippar- 
ehus was slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
The Ceramicus contained also the Agrippei- 
um or theatre of Agrippa, and the Palcestra of 
Taureas. The Stoce of the Thracians and of 
Attains were likewise in the same quarter. 
The Agora was divided into sections, distin- 
guished from each other by the means of the 
several articles exhibited for sale. One quarter 
was called Cyclus, where slaves were bought, 
and also fish, meat, and other provisions. We 
hear of the ywaiKua dyopa where they sold wo- 
men's apparel, the ixSvoTzwXig dyopa, or fish-mar- 
ket, the iixa-idnoXig dyopa, clothes-market, also, 
the dyopix 'Apy€io)v, Qecoy, J^epKcjTTwv ; in the lat- 
ter stolen goods were disposed of. A peculiar 
stand was allotted to each vender, which he was 
not allowed to change. In the Ceramicus was 
the common hall of the mechanics of Athens, 
This quarter Avas also much frequented by cour- 
tesans. In the New Agora Pausanias notices the 
altar of Pity, worshipped by the Athenians 
alone. Not far from thence was the Gymnasi- 
um, called Ptolemoeum, from its founder Ptole- 
my, son of Juba the Libyan. Cicero speaks of 
another Gymnasium also named Ptolemceum, 
which is supposed to have been established by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. Near it was the cele- 
brated temple of Theseus, erected to that hero 
after the battle of Marathon. This noble struc- 
ture, which has suffered but little from the m- 
juries of time, has been converted into a Chris- 
tian church. It is formed entirely of Pentelic 
marble, and stands upon an artificial foundation 
formed of large quadrangular blocks of lime- 
stone. Pausanias next passes on to the Ana- 
CEiuM, or temple of the Dioscuri, a building of 
great antiquity, and containing paintings of Po- 
lygnotus and Micon. The name of Anaceium 
was derived from that of "A )'««■£?, applied by 
the Athenians to Castor and Pollux. Above 
the Anaceimn, which, from the passages refer- 
red to, must have stood at the foot of the acro- 
polis, was the sacred enclosure of Aglaurus, 
by which the Persians ascended to the citadel, 
and scaled its ramparts. Near this spot was 
situated the Prythaneium, where the written 
laws of Solon were deposited. Here were se- 
veral statues, among others that of Vesta, be- 
fore which a lamp was kept constantly burning. 
There were also the statues of Good Fortime, 
of Miltiades, and of Themistocles. Pausanias 
then proceeds to notice the temple of Serapis, 
whom Ptolemy had introduced among the Athe- 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



nian deities. Some remains of this building 
are supposed to exist near the church of Pa- 
naghia Vlasiiki. Not far from it wels another 
temple, consecrated to Lucina. He next points 
out several buildings erected in this part of the 
city by Hadrian, which from that circumstance, 
as we learn by an inscription, was sometimes 
called Hadrianopolis. The Olympeium was 
one of the most ancient of the sacred edifices of 
Athens, since it is said to have beeen originally 
founded by Deucalion. A more magnificent 
structure was afterwards raised by Pisistraluson 
the site of the old building, but he did not live 
to accomplish his undertaking ; and during the 
numerous wars in which the Athenians were 
afterwards engaged, it remained in a neglected 
state. In the reign of Augustus it is said that 
the different kings in alliance with that emperor 
had jointly undertaken to complete the unfinish- 
ed structure of the Olympeium. But it is cer- 
tain that it was not finally terminated until the 
time of Hadrian, who, as we learn from Spar- 
tianus, was present at the dedication. The 
whole peribolus was four stadia in circuit, and 
was crowded with statues of Hadrian, each of 
the Grecian cities having supplied one ; but 
the Athenians surpassed all in the very re- 
markable Colossus they had raised behind the 
temple. In the peribolus were several antiqui- 
ties, such as a Jupiter in brass, the temple of 
Saturn and Rhea, the temenus of Olympia, and 
the chasm through which the waters of Deuca- 
lion's flood are said to have retired. To Deu- 
calion is attributed the most ancient temple of 
Jupiter Olympius ; and his tomb was shown not 
far from the present building. Hadrian also 
embellished Athens with other edifices ; name- 
ly, a temple of Juno, another of Jupiter Pan- 
hellenius, and a temple com.mon to all the gods. 
But the most remarkable of these was a build- 
ing in which were 120 columns of Phrygian 
marble. There was also a gymnasium erected 
by that emperor, in which were to be seen 100 
columns of African marble. The site of this 
building is now occupied probably by the church 
of Panaghia Gorgopiko. From the Prytaneium 
a street led towards the Olympeium after di- 
verging to the west of that edifice ; it was 
called the street of the Tripods, from the cir- 
cumstance of its being lined with small tem- 
ples, where prize tripods were usually deposit- 
ed : of this description was the beautiful little 
choragic monument of Lysicrates, vulgarly 
called the Lantern of Demosthenes, which 
serves as an excellent illustration of this pas- 
sage of Pausanias, and points out accurately the 
site and direction of the street to which he re- 
fers. One of the temples contained a satyr, 
which was regarded by Praxiteles himself as 
his chef d'oBuvre. Near this quarter was the 
Len«um, "a most ancient sanctuary of Bacchus, 
and probably the same to which Thucydides 
alludes as the temple of that god in Limnis. 
Near the Lenaeum stood the celebrated Diony- 
siac theatre, in which, as we learn from Pau- 
sanias, were many statues of tragic and comic 
poets ; among the latter, Menander is the most 
celebrated. Here were also the effigies of the 
famous tragic writers Euripides, Sophocles, and 
-ffischylus ; that of the latter wels done long 
after his death. In this theatre, which, accord- 
ing to Dicsearchus, was the most beautiful in 
Part' I.— F 



existence, dramatic contests were decided. From 
Plato we may collect that it was capable of con- 
taining 30,000 spectators. The situation of the 
Dionysiac theatre is a disputed point among the 
writers on Athenian topography; but Col. 
Leake, I think, has satisfactorily proved that it 
must have stood near the south-eastern angle of 
the acropolis. Like the other theatres of Greece, 
its extremities were supported by solid piers of 
masonry, while the middle of it was excavated 
on the side of the hill. Not far from thence 
was the Odeium of Pericles, said to have been 
constructed in imitation of the tent of Xerxes, 
Plutarch informs us it was richly decorated with 
columns, which terminated in a point. Xeno- 
phon states, that during the tyranny of the 
Thirty the Odeium was generally occupied by 
their satellites. It was afterw^ards set on fire 
by Aristion, general of Mithridates, who de- 
fended Athens against Sylla. We learn how- 
ever from Vitruvius, and an inscription cited by 
Col. Leake, that the building was afterwards 
restored at the expense of Ariobarzanes king of 
Cappadocia. No vestiges have yet been dis- 
covered which can be ascribed to this building, 
nor are there any remains of the Lenaeum and 
the temples which it once enclosed; but this 
may be accounted for by the evident accumula- 
tion of soil which has taken place under this end 
of the acropolis. The Cecropian Citadel, which 
forms so conspicuous a feature in the topography 
of Athens, was situated on an elevated rock, 
abruptly terminating in precipices on every side, 
with the exception of its western end, from 
whence it was alone accessible. Here stood the 
magnificent Propyl^a of the acropolis, erected 
by Pericles, which, though intended only as an 
approach to the Parthenon, were supposed to ri- 
val that edifice in beauty and dimensions. This 
work was probably designed as well for the pur- 
poses of security and defence as that of orna- 
ment, from the massive solidity of its construc- 
tion. The whole was of Pentelic marble, and, 
as Pausanias informs us, the size of the blocks 
surpassed all that he had ever seen. It consist- 
ed of a great vestibule, with a front of six Doric 
columns ; behind which was another supported 
by as many pillars of the Ionic order; these 
formed the approach to the five gates or entran- 
ces to the citadel. On each side were two wings 
projecting from the great central colonnade, 
and presenting a wall simply adorned with a 
frieze of triglyphs. This great structure is said 
to have been five years in progress, and to have 
cost 2000 talents. Pausanias informs us that 
the Propylaea were ornamented with equestrian 
statues. On the right stood a temple of Victo- 
ry Apteros. On the left a building containing 
several paintings representing diiFerent events 
which occurred at the siege of Troy. Near 
the entrance to the acropolis were the statues of 
Mercury Propylseus, and the three Graces, said 
to be the work of Socrates. The Parthenon, 
or temple of Minerva, was placed on the sum- 
mit of the acropolis, being far elevated above the 
Propylaea aud the surrounding edifices. It oc- 
cupied apparently the site of an older temple 
called Hecatompedon, also dedicated to Miner- 
va, and which had been destroyed in the Persian 
invasion. In beauty and grandeur it surpassed 
all other buildings of the kind, and was con- 
structed entirely of Pentelic marble. The ar- 
41 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



chitect was Ictinus. Those who have studied 
its dimensions inform us that it consisted of a 
cell, surrounded with a peristyle, having eight 
Doric columns in the two fronts, and seventeen 
in the sides. These were six feet two inches 
in diameter at the base, and thirty-four feet in 
height, standing upon a pavement, to which 
there was an ascent of three steps, the total 
elevation of the temple being 65 feet from the 
ground; the length was 238, and the breadth 
102 feet. It was also enriched both within and 
without with matchless works of art by the first 
sculptors of Greece. We learn from Pausanias, 
that those which decorated the pediment in front 
related to the birth of Minerva, and those be- 
hind to the contest between the goddess and 
Neptune for Attica. The statue of Minerva 
was of ivory and gold. On the sunmiit of the 
helmet was placed a sphinx, with griffins on 
each of the sides. The statue itself was erect, 
and clothed in a robe reaching to the feet. On 
the breast was a head of Medusa wrought in 
ivory, and a figure of Victory about four cubits 
high. She held a spear in her hand, and a 
shield lay at her feet; near the spear was a ser- 
pent, which might be supposed to represent that 
of Erichthonius. According to Pliny the figure 
was twenty-six cubits high. The whole was 
executed by Phidias, who had further contrived 
that the gold with which the statue was en- 
crusted might be removed at pleasure. The 
sculpture on the pedestal represented the birth 
of Pandora. Pausanieis also notices the statues 
of Iphicrates, Pericles, and his father Xantip- 
pus, Anacreon, and a brazen Apollo, by Phidi- 
as. On the southern wall were sculptured the 
war of the giants who inhabited Pallene, and 
the battle of the Athenians and Amazons ; also 
that of Marathon, and the defeat of the Gauls 
in Mysia, presented by Attains. Here was 
likewise the statue of Olympiodorus, who freed 
the Athenians from the Macedonian yoke in 
the time of Cassander. On the northern side 
of the acropolis stood the Erechtheium, or 
temple of Erechtheus, a building of great an- 
tiquity, since it is alluded to by Homer, and ad- 
joining it was the temple of Minerva Polias, 
the tutelary deity of the city, whose statue is 
said to have been a common offering of the demi 
before they were collected into one metropolis 
by Theseus. The lamp which was suspended 
in the sanctuary was never suffered to be extin- 
guished. Another part of this compound build- 
ing was the PANDROsroM, or chapel, sacred to 
Pandrosus, one of the daughters of Cecrops. 
The Erechtheium contained the olive tree, 
and the well of salt water, produced by Minerva 
and Neptune during their contest for Attica, 
also the serpent of Erichthonius. In the tem- 
ple of Minerva Polias was a wooden Hermes, 
said to have been presented by Cecrops, a chair, 
made by Daedalus, and some spoils of the 
Medes, such as the silver-footed seat of Xerxes, 
the sword of Mardonius, and the breastplate of 
Masistius. Cecrops was said to have been 
buried in the acropolis ; and it is probable that 
a chapel was consecrated to him under the name 
of Cecropium. We are informed by Xeno- 
phon that the temple of Minerva was burnt in 
the twenty-third year of the Peloponnesian war, 
but it is not known by whom it was subsequent- 
ly restored. The whole of the acropolis was 
42 



surrounded by walls raised on the natural 
rock, of which the entire hill is composed. The 
most ancient part of these fortifications was 
constructed by the Tyrrheni Pelasgi, who, in 
the course of their migrations, settled in Attica, 
and, being probably skilled in works of this na- 
ture, were employed by the Athenians in the 
erection of these walls. Pausanias mentions 
the names of Agrolas and Hyperbius as being 
probably the chiefs of the colony. The ram- 
part raised by this people is often mentioned in 
the history of Athens under the name of Pe- 
LASGicuM, which included also a portion of 
ground below the wall at the foot of the rocks 
of the acropolis. This had been allotted to the 
Pelasgi whilst they resided at Athens, and, on 
their departure, it was forbidden to be inhabited 
or cultivated. It was apparently on the northern 
side of the citadel as we are informed by Plu- 
tarch that the southern wall was built by CimoD, 
from whom it received the name of Cimonitjm. 
Another portion appears from Thucydides to 
have been constructed under the administration 
of Themistocles ; and there is still great evi- 
dence of the haste with which the historian de- 
scribes that work to have been performed on the 
termination of the Persian war. From the 
acropolis Pausanias proceeds to the Areopa- 
gus, or hill of Mars, which rises at a little dis- 
tance from thence to the north-west. It was so 
called in consequence, as it was said, of Mars 
having been the first person tried there for the 
murder of Halirrhothius son of Neptune. The 
Pnyx was, in the days of Athenian greatness, 
the usual place of assembly for the people, es- 
pecially during elections. It appears to have 
been situated on rising ground opposite the 
Areopagus, and in a line with the Propylaea of 
the acropolis, which faced it to the east. It was 
also close to the walls of the city, as we learn 
from the scholiast to Aristophanes. The cele- 
brated Bema, from which the orators addressed 
the people, was a simple pulpit of stone, which 
at first looked to the sea, but in the time of the 
thirty Tyrants it was turned towards the inte- 
rior of the country. Some traces of this ancient 
structure are still to be seen on a hill, the situa- 
tion and bearings of which answer perfectly in 
all respects to what has been collected from an- 
cient authorities relative to the Pnyx. The 
MusEroM was another elevation in the same vi- 
cinity, to the south-west of the acropolis, and, 
like the Pnyx, included also within the ancient 
periphery of the city wall. It is said to have 
been named from the poet Musaeus, who was 
interred there. At a much later period a monu- 
ment was erected here by Philopappus, a de- 
scendant of the kings of Commagene, and who, 
having been consul under the reign of Trajan, 
retired to Athens, as we learn from the inscrip- 
tion on this structure. Pausanias, who curso- 
rily notices the monument, simply says it be- 
longed to a Syrian. After speaking of the Are- 
opagus, the same writer proceeds to mention 
some other courts of judicature of less note. 
The Parabvstum, where petty causes were 
tried : the Trigonum, so called from its shape : 
Batrachium and Phcenicium, from their co- 
lour. The Helicea, a tribunal of much greater 
importance, which is often alluded to by Aristo- 
phanes and other classical writers, was situated 
near the Agora, and so named from its bemg 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



held in the open air. The Palladium was a 
court in which persons accused of murder were 
tried J those who confessed its perpetration, but 
■were prepared to defend the act, were judged in 
the Delphinicm, which tribunal was probably- 
near the temple of Apollo Delphinius. Having 
now noticed the prmcipal buildings and monu- 
ments within the city, we must proceed to re- 
mark upon those in its suburbs and environs. 
The quarter called Ccele was appropriated to 
sepulchres, and consequently must have been 
without the to'wn, since we are assured that no 
one was allowed to be interred within its walls. 
Cimon and Thucydides were both entombed in 
this quarter. Coele is classed by Hesychius 
among the Attic demi. Col. Leake places with 
great probability this hollow way or valley, 'to 
the south of the acropolis, near the gate of 
Jju'inbardhari, which answers to the Portae Me- 
litenses.' Melite, of which Pausanias makes 
no mention, is supposed by the same judicious 
antiquary to have been principally within the 
walls. Here also was the place of rehearsal for 
the tragic actors, the Eurysaceum or sanctua- 
ry of Eury'saces son of Ajax, and the temple 
of MenaUppus. Melite was a demus of the 
tribe CEneis, but, according to Harpocration, of 
the Gecropian. Colyttus was anotlier suburban 
demus. it was remarked that the children of 
this place were ver)- precocious in their speech. 
Plato, according to some writer quoted by Diog. 
Laert. in his life of the philosopher, was a native 
of Colyttus, as also Timonthe man-hater, ^s- 
chines the orator was said to have resided here 
for forty-five years. It is sometimes written 
Collyttus, as maybe seen from some inscriptions 
cited by Spon, t. II. p. 427. Near the Ilissus 
stood another Odeium, as Pausanias informs us, 
■which was adorned with various statues of the 
Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, as well as of Phi- 
lip and Alexander, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. 
This was apparently one of the minor theatres, 
and probably erected by some prince of the 
Macedonian djmasty. In the same "vicinity was 
the Eleusinium, or temple of Ceres and Pro- 
serpine, set apart for the celebration of the less- 
er Eleusinian mysteries. It stood probably in 
an island formed by the Ilissus, which is v*-ell 
adapted for so sacred Eind retired a sanctuary^, 
and where the foundations of an ancient build- 
ing are still observable. Near the Eleusinium, 
and on the left bank of the Ilissus, was the 
Stadii:m erected for the celebration of games 
during the Panathenaic festival by Lycurgus, 
the son of Lycophron, as we find in Plutrach's 
life of that orator. Antiquaries afiirm that the 
area of this building remains entire, together 
■with other vestiges. Higher up the river v\-as 
Agras and the temple of Diana Agrotera. He- 
rodotus reports that a temple was erected to Bo- 
reas by the' Athenians, to commemorate the 
storm which destroyed so many^ of the Persian 
ships on the coast of Magnesia. Beyond was 
the Lyceiijm, a sacred enclosure dedicated to 
Apollo, where the polemarch formerly kept his 
court. It was decorated with fountains, planta- 
tions, and buildings by Pisistratus, Pericles, and 
Lycurgns, and became the usual place of exer- 
cise for the Athenian youths who devoted them- 
selves to military pursuits. Nor was it less fre- 
quented by philosophers and those addicted to 
retirement and study. We know that it was 



more especially the favourite walk of Aristotle 
and his followers, who thence obtained the name 
of Peripatetics. Here was the fountain of the 
hero Panops, and a plane-tree of great size and 
beauty mentioned by Theophrastus. The posi- 
tion conmaonly assigned to the Lyceium is on 
the right bank of the Ilissus, and nearly op- 
posite to the church of Petros Stuuromenos, 
which is supposed to correspond with the temple 
of Diana Agrotera on the other side of the river. 
Ardettus was a judicial court on the banks of 
the Ilissus, and not far removed from the Sta- 
diima. Cynosarges was a spot consecrated to 
Hercules, and possessed a g)-mnasium and 
groves frequented by philosophers. Here was a 
tribunal, which decided upon the legitimacy of 
children in doubtful cases. After the victory of 
Marathon the Athenian army took up a position 
at Cynosarges, when the city was threatened 
by the Persian fleet, which had sailed round the 
promontory of Sunium. Cynosarges is sup- 
posed to have been situated at the foot of mount 
ABchesmus, now the hill of St. George, and to 
the south-west of Asomato. In the same vi- 
cinity we must place the demus of Diomeia, 
which, according to Steph. Byz. appertained to 
the tribe .^geis. From Aristophanes we col- 
lect that a festival was celebrated here in honour 
of Hercules. Pausanieis speaks of Anches- 
Mus as an inconsiderable height, with a statue 
of Jupiter on its summit. It now takes its 
name from the church of St. George, which has 
replaced the statue. Pioceeding beyond this 
hill round the walls of the city, we shall arrive 
at the outer Cera^hcus, which contained the 
remains of the most illustrious w^arriors and 
statesmen of Athens. Here were interred Pe- 
ricles, Phormio, Thrasy^bulus, and Chabrias ; 
the road, iu fact, was lined as far as the Acade- 
my on either side with the sepulchres of Athe- 
nians who had fallen in battle. Over each 
tomb was placed a pillar with an inscription 
recording the names of the dead, and those of 
their demi and tribes. One column commemo- 
rated the names of those who had fallen in 
Sicily ; that of Nicias, however, was excepted, 
in consequence of his having surrendered him- 
self to the enemy; while Demosthenes was 
adjudged worthy of having his name inscribed 
for this reason, that having capitulated for his 
army, he refused to be included in the treat}", and 
made an attempt on his own life. Here were 
also the cenotaphs of those who fell in the naval 
fight at the Hellespont, in the battle of Chsero- 
nea, and during the Lamiac war. Beyond 
were the tombs of Cleisthenes, who increased 
the number of the Attic tribes; of Tolmides ; 
of Conon and Timotheus, a father and son, 
whose exploits are only surpasssed by those of 
Miltiades and Cimon. Here were interred 
Zeno and Chrysippus, celebrated Stoics, Har- 
modius and Aristogeiton, and the orators Ephi- 
altes and Lycurgus. The latter is said to have 
deposited in the public treasury 6500 talents 
more than Pericles had been able to collect. It 
was in the outer Ceramicus that the games 
called Lempadephoria were celebrated. The 
Academy was at the extremity of this burial 
ground, and about six stadia from the gate 
Dipylum. ' A few scattered olives grow on it, 
and some paces further west we saw a number 
of gardens and rinevards, which contained 
43 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



fruit-trees of a more exuberant growth than 
in any other part of the plain.' A little to 
the north-west of the Academy was the de- 
mus of CoLONUs, named Hippeios from the al- 
tar erected there to the Equestrian Neptune, 
and rendered so celebrated by the play of Sopho- 
cles as the scene of the last adventures of CEdi- 
pus. From Thucydides we learn that Colonus 
was distant ten stadia from the city, and that 
assemblies of the people were on some occa- 
sions convened at the temple of Neptune. The 
celebrated long walls which connected Athens 
with its several ports were first planned and 
commenced by Themistocles after the termina- 
tion of the Persian war ; but he did not live to 
terminate this great undertaking, which was 
continued after his death by Cimon, and at 
length completed by Pericles. Sometimes we 
find them termed the legs, (o-x:£'X/7,) and by La- 
tin writers the arms, (brachia,) of the Pirseus. 
One of these was designated by the name of 
Piraic, and sometimes by that of the northern 
wall, ^opeXov TEX'x^oi ; its length was forty stadia. 
The other was called the Phaleric, or southern 
wall, and measured thirty-five stadia. The in- 
termediate wall, {6iaiiiaov reXxos,^ spoken of by 
some ancient writers, may have been that portion 
which was enclosed between the two longomural 
arms. In the Peloponnesian war, the exterior 
or Piraic wall alone was guarded, as that was 
the only direction in which the enemy could ad- 
vance, there being no passage to the south and 
east of Athens, except through a difficult pass 
between the city and mount Hymettus, or by 
making the circuit of that mountain, which 
would have been a very hazardous undertaking. 
The long walls remained entire about fifty-four 
years after their completion, till the capture of 
Athens by the Peloponnesian forces, eleven 
years after which, Conon rebuilt them with the 
assistance of Pharnabazus. Col. Leake informs 
us that some vestiges of this great work are still 
to be seen. ' They are chiefly remarkable to- 
wards the lower end, where they were connect- 
ed with the fortifications of PiraBUs and Phale- 
rum. The modern road from Athens to the 
port Drako, at something less than two miles 
short of the latter, comes upon the foundations 
of the northern long wall, which are formed of 
vast masses of squared stones, and are about 
twelve feet in thickness. Precisely parallel to 
it, at the distance of 550 feet, are seen the foun- 
dations of the southern long walls ; the two 
walls thus forming a wide street, running from 
the centre of the Phaleric hill exactly in the di- 
rection of the entrance of the acropolis.' Mari- 
time Athens may be considered as divided into 
the three quarters of Pir.eus, MuNYcmA, and 
Phalerum. ' PiR^us,' says Pausanias , ' was 
a demus from the earliest time, but it did not be- 
come a port for ships before the administration 
of Themistocles. Hitherto Phalerum had been 
the usual harbour, as it was nearest the sea ; 
and Menestheus is said to have sailed from 
thence for Troy, and Theseus for Crete. But 
Themistocles perceiving that the Piraeus pre- 
sented greater advantages for the purposes of 
navigation, and contained three ports instead of 
one, when he was placed at the head of the go- 
vernment, caused it to be adapted for the recep- 
tion of shipping. And now there are still re- 
maining the covered docks, and the tomb of 
44 



Themistocles, close to the largest of the har- 
bours ; for it is said that the Athenians having 
repented of their conduct towards him, his rela- 
tives conveyed thither his remains from Mag- 
nesia.' Strabo compares the maritime part of 
Athens to the city of the Rhodians, since it was 
thickly inhabited, and enclosed by a wall, com- 
prehending within its circuit the Piraeus and 
the other ports which could contain four hun- 
dred ships of war. These lines being connect- 
ed with the long walls, which were forty stadia 
in length, united the Pirseus with the city. But, 
during the many wars in which the Athenians 
had been engaged, they were demolished, and 
the Piraeus is now reduced to a few habitations, 
which stand round the ports and the temple of 
Jupiter Soter. The temple alluded to by the 
geographer is doubtless the same described by 
Pausanias as the temenus of Minerva and Ju- 
piter, in which were deposited the statues of 
these iwo deities in brass. That of Minerva 
was an admirable work by Cephissodotus. The 
arsenal, erected and supplied by the architect 
Philo, was said to suffice for the equipment of a 
thousand ships. It was destroyed by Sylla. 
The maritime bazar or emporium was called 
Macra Stoa, and was situated near the sea. 
The agora named Hippodameia was at a great- 
er distance from the coast ; it was so called from 
Hippodamus, a Milesian, who had been em- 
ployed by Themistocles to fortify the Pirseus, 
and to lay out its streets as well as those of the 
capital. The place called Deigma seems to 
have answered the purpose of an exchange or 
mart, where goods were exhibited for sale. The 
Serangium WEis a public bath. The Phreat- 
TYs was a court of justice which took cogni- 
zance of murders when the party accused, hav- 
ing been acquitted for an involuntary act, was 
now tried for a voluntary crime. The defend- 
ant in this case was ordered to plead on board a 
ship, while the judges heard him from the shore. 
The port of Pirseus was subdivided into three 
lesser havens, named Cantharus, Aphrodi- 
siuM, and Zea. The former was appropriated 
to dock-yards for the construction and repairs 
of ships of war. This was probably the inner- 
most of the three basins. Aphrodisium seems 
to have been the middle or great harbour, and 
Zea the outermost, so called from the grain 
which the Athenians imported from the Helles- 
pont and other parts, and deposited in store- 
houses erected there for that purpose. The en- 
trance to the Piraeus was formed on one side by 
the point of land called Eetioneia, on the other 
by Cape Alcimus. Eetioneia was fortified 
towards the close of the Peloponnesian war 
by the council of Four Hundred, with a view of 
commanding the entrance of the harbour, and 
admitting, if necessary the Peloponnesian fleet. 
They erected also a large building, in which 
they caused all imported corn to be deposited. 
Eetioneia, according to Col. Leake, was that 
projecting part of the coast which runs west- 
ward from the north side of the entrance into 
the Piraeus, and is now called Trapezona. Pi- 
raeus itself is kno"WTi by the name of Port Drako, 
or Leone, derived from a colossal figure of a 
lion in white marble, which once stood upon the 
breach, but was removed by the Venetians in 
1687. The port of MuNYcmA was so called, 
as it is said, from Munychus, an Orchomenian, 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY, 



AT 



who, having been expelled from Boeotia by the 
Thracians, settled at Athens. Strabo describes 
it as a peninsular hill, connected with the conti- 
nent by a narrow neck of land, and abounding 
with hollows, partly natural and partly the work 
of art. When it had been enclosed by fortified 
lines, connecting it with the other ports, Muny- 
chia became a most important position from the 
security it afforded to these maritime dependent 
cies of Athens, and accordingly we find it al- 
ways mentioned as the point which was most 
particularly guarded when any attack was ap- 
prehended on the side of the sea. The whole 
peninsula abounds with remains of walls, exca- 
vations in the rocks for the foundations of build- 
ings, and other traces of ancient habitations. 
Cape Alcimus, according to Plutarch, was a 
headland near the entrance of Pirgeus, close to 
which was to be seen the tomb of Themisto- 
cles, built in the shape of an altar. Phale- 
rum was the most ancient of the Athenian 
ports; but after the erection of the docks in 
the Piraeus it ceased to be of any importance 
in a maritime point of view. It was, how- 
ever, enclosed within the fortifications of The- 
mistocles, and gave its name to the southern- 
most of the long walls, by means of which it 
wa^ connected with Athens. Pausanias no- 
tices in this demus, belonging to the tribe An- 
tiochis, a temple of Ceres, and another of Mi- 
nerva Sciras ; also a temple of Jupiter at some 
distance from the shore. Here were, besides, 
altars sacred to the Unknown Gods, the sons of 
Theseus, .the hero Phalerus, and Androgens 
son of Minos, and the tomb of Aristides. Pha- 
lerum supplied the Athenian market with abun- 
dance of the little fish named aphyse so often 
mentioned by the comic writers. The lands 
aroimd it were marshy, and produced very fine 
cabbages. The modem name of Phalerum is 
Porto Fanari?'' Cro.mer. The ancients, to 
distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, 
called it Astu, one of the e^'es of Greece, the 
learned city, the school of the world, the com- 
mon patroness of Greece. The Athenians 
thought themselves the most ancient nation of 
Greece, and supposed themselves the original 
inhabitants of Attica ; for which reason they 
were called avro;^;(5ov£s produced from the savie 
earth which they inhabited, yvyeveis sons of the 
earth, and rertryej grasshoppers. They some- 
times wore golden grasshoppers in their hair as 
badges of honour, to distinguish them from 
other people of later origin and less noble ex- 
traction, because those insects are supposed to 
be sprung from the ground. The number of 
men able to bear arms at Athens in the reign 
of Cecrops was computed at 20,000, and there 
appeared no considerable augmentation in the 
more civilized age of Pericles; but in the time 
of Demetrius Phalereus there were found 21,000 
citizens, 10,000 foreigners, and 40,000 slaves. 

ATHEN.EUM, I. a place at Athens, sacred to 
Minerva, where the poets, philosophers, and rhe- 
toricians generally declaimed and repeated their 
compositions. It was public to all the professors 
of the liberal arts. The same thing was adopted 
at Rome by Adrian, who made a public building 
for the same laudable purposes. II. A pro- 
montory of Italy. III. A fortified place be- 
tween jEtolia and Macedonia. Liv. 38, c. 1, 
1. 39, c. 25. 



Athesis, now Adige, a river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, rising in the mountains of Tyrol, and, 
after flowing nearly 200 miles, emptying north 
of the Po into the Adriatic. Virg. ^n. 9, v. 680. 
Athos, a mountain of Macedonia, 150 miles 
in circumference, projecting into the ^gean 
Sea like a promontory. When Xerxes invaded 
Greece, he made a trench of a mile and a half 
in length at the foot of the mountain, into wkuch 
he brought the sea-water, and conveyed his fleet 
over it, so that two ships could pass one another; 
thus desirous either to avoid the danger of sailing 
round the promontory, or to show his vanity 
and the extent of his power. — A sculptor, called 
Dinocrates, offered Alexander to cut mount 
Athos, and to make with it a statue of the king 
holding a town in his left hand, and in the right 
a spacious basin, to receive all the waters which 
flowed from it. Alexander greatly admired the 
plan, but objected to the place; and he observed 
that the neighbouring country was not suffi- 
ciently fruitful to produce corn and provisions 
for the inhabitants which were to dwell in the 
city in the hand of the statue. Athos is now 
called Monte Santo, famous for monasteries, 
said to contain some ancient and valuable ma- 
nuscripts. Herodot. 6, c. 44, 1. 7, c. 21. &c. — 
Jjucan. 2, v. 672. — yElian. de Anim. 13, c. 20, 
&c. — Plin. 4, c. 10. — jEschin. contra Ctesiph. 
ATmiULLA, a town of Arabia Felix. Strab. 
Athyi/IBra, a city of Caria, afterwards called 
Nyssa. Strab. 14. 

Atina, 1. one of the most ancient cities of the 
Volsci, situated to the south-east of Arpinum, 
a considerable to-v^n as early, as the Trojan war 
according to Virgil. Its situation, among the 
loftiest summits of the Appenines, is marked by 
Silius Italicus. It was taken by the Romans 
A. U. C. 440. According to Cicero it was a 
prsefectura, and one of the most populous in 
Italy. It is now Atins. Cram. — jEn. 7, 629. 

— Cic. Pro. Plane. II. A town of Lucania, 

not far from the Tanager, now Atena. 

Atlantes, a people of Africa in the neigh- 
bourhood of mount Atlas, who lived chiefly on 
the fruits of the earth, and Vv'-ere said not to have 
their sleep at all disturbed by dreams. They 
daily cursed the sun at his rising and at his set- 
ting, because his excessive heat scorched and 
tormented them. Herodot. 

Atlantides, a people of Africa, near mount 
Atlas. They boasted of being in possession of 
the country in which all the gods of antiquity 
received their birth. Diod. 3. 

Atlantis, an island mentioned by the an- 
cients, particularly by Plato in his Timaeus and 
Critias, generally placed in the Atlantic ocean. 
Much diversity of opinion has existed in regard 
to it. It is commonly considered an island of 
the Atlantic, but some {Vid. Lempriere, Art. 
Atlantis, 6th American edition,) by " a diligent 
examination" of ancient writers, discover it to 
have been an extensive region, somewhere or 
other " engulphed by some subaqueous convul- 
sion of nature." 

Atlas, a mountain of Africa, of poetical ce- 
lebrity. It is at present obscurely known to 
Europeans. M. Desfontaines considers it as 
divided into two leading chains. " The south- 
em one adjoining the Desert, is called the 
Greater Atlas ; the other, lying towards the 
Mediterranean, is called the little chain. Both 
45 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AT 



run eajst and west, and are connected together 
by several intermediate mountains running 
north and south, and containing between them 
both valleys and table lands. But it is worthy 
of remark, that the great and little Atlas of 
Ptolemy, the one of which is terminated at 
Cape FelTieh, and the other at Cape Cantin, 
difler from the chains of the French traveller, 
being lateral branches which go off from the 
main system to form promontories on the sea- 
coast." — " The great height of mount Atlas is 
proved by the perpetual snows that cover its 
summits ia the east part of Morocco, under the 
latitude of 32°. According to Humboldt's prin- 
ciples, these summits must be 12,000 feet above 
the level of the sea." — M. Desfontaines found in 
the mountains large heaps of shells and marine 
bodies at a great distance from the sea, a pheno- 
menon noticed by all modern travellers. Ac- 
cording to Pliny, " the sides of the Atlas which 
look to the western ocean, that is, the south 
sides, raise their arid and dark masses abruptly 
from the bosom of a sea of sand ; while the 
more gentle northern declivity is adorned with 
beautiful forests and verdant pastures." M. 
Ideler denies that the mountains above described 
were the Atlas of the ancient poets. He is of 
opinion, that the Phoenicians, who frequented 
the Archipelago of the Canaries, were astonished 
at the height of the Peak of Teneriffe; and 
that the Phoenician colonies " brought to Greece 
some information respecting that mountain 
which towered above the region of the clouds, 
and the happy islands over which it presides, 
embellished with oranges or golden apples." 
Hence Homer's Atlas, with its foundations in 
the depths of the ocean, and the Elysian fields, 
situated somewhere in the west. Hesiod adds 
to this, that Atlas was a neighbour of the Hes- 
perian nymphs ; to which later poets have added 
the embellishments of the Hesperides, their 
golden apples, and the islands of the Blessed. 
When the Greeks passed the columns of Her- 
cules, they looked for Atlas on the western coast 
of Africa. It is thus that Strabo, Ptolemy, and 
other geographers, have altered its position. — 
To this opinion Malte-Brun objects. He is of 
opinion that the name Atlas was first applied to 
an isolated promontory, and cites a passage in 
Maximus Tyrius in support of this hypothesis. 
" The Ethiopian Hesperians worshipped mount 
Atlas, who is both their temple and idol. The 
Atlas is a mountain of moderate elevation, con- 
cave, and open towards the sea in the form of an 
amphithearre. Halfway from the mountain a 
great valley extends, which is remarkably fer- 
tile, and adorned with fruit trees. The most 
wonderful thing is to see the waves of the ocean 
at high water overspreading the adjoining 
plains, but stopping short before mount Atl as, and 
standing up like a wall, without penetrating into 
the hollow of the valley. Such is the temple 
and the god of the Libyans ; such is the object of 
their worship and the witness of their oaths." 
" In the physical delineations," says Malte- 
Brun, " contained in this account, we perceive 
some features of resemblance to the coast be- 
tween Cape Tefelneh and Cape Geer, which re- 
sembles an amphitheatre crowned with a series 
of detached rocks." Vid. Part III. Malte-Brun. 
— Plin. 5, 1. — Horn. Od. II. 4. — Hesiod. Theos;. 
5, 517. O. et D. \G1.—Max. Tijr. Diss. 37th. 
46 



Atrax, I. "an ancient colony of the Per- 
rhasbi, was ten miles from Larissa, higher up the 
Peneus, and on the right bank of that river. It 
was defended by the Macedonians agamst T. 
Flaminius. Dr. Clarke was led to imagine 
that this city stood at Ampelakia, from the cir- 
cumstance of the green marble, known to the 
ancients imder the name of Atracium Marmor. 
being found there ; but it is evident from Livy 
that Atrax was to the west of Larissa, and only 
ten miles from that city; whereas Ampelakia is 
close to Tempe and distant more than fifteen 

miles from Larissa." Cram,. II. A city of 

Thessaly, whence the epithet of Atracius. 



III. A river of .^tolia, which falls into the 
Ionian Sea. 

Atrebates, a powerful people of Gallia 
Belgica, contiguous to the Morini and Nervii. 
Strabo styles them 'ArptParoi (Atrebati), and 
Ptolemy 'ATpePdnot (Atrebatii), and calls their 
chief city 'OpiyiaKov, a name cited by no other 
ancient writer. Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, 
now Arras, or, as the Flemings call it, Atrecht, 
was their city. In the Nervian war they 
pledged themselves for 15,000 armed men. Till 
the time of Caesar they were independent. He 
set over thern Commms. Their territory is in- 
cluded in the modern VAriois, or, more pro- 
perly, at the present time, Departement du Pas- 
de-Calais. D^Anville. — Cces. Lemaire, Ind. 
Geog. 

Atrebatii, a people of Britain, north of the 
Belgse, towards the Thames. Otherwise called 
Atrebati, Atrebatse. 

Atropatene, or Atropatia, a province of 
Armenia, contiguous to Media, so called from 
Atropates, its satrap, who, in the dissensions 
which reigned among the Macedonian generals, 
after the death of Alexander, rendered himself 
independent, and took the title of king, which 
his successors enjoyed for many ages. The 
name now given to this country is Aderbigian, 
from the Persian term ^^^er, signifying fire, ac- 
cording to the tradition that Zerdust, or Zoro- 
aster, lighted a pyre or temple of fire in Urmi- 
ah, a city of this his native country. We find 
also in an Arabian geographer Atrib-Kan, in 
which it is easy to recognise Atropatena. The 
capital is named Gaza or Gazaca, and its posi- 
tion is that of Tebriz, or, as it is more com- 
monly pronounced, Tauris. D'Anville. 

Attalia, a city of Pamphylia, built by king 
Attains. The modern site is called Palaia 
Antalia. The present city of Antalia, or, as it 
is commonly called, Satalia, corresponds with 
the ancient Olbia. D'Anville. 

Attica, a country of Greece, to the south of 
Boeotia. Its name is said to have been derived 
from that of Atthis, daughter of Cranaus. Pre- 
vious to the reign of Cranaus, however, it was 
called Acte, either from a chief Actaeus, or from 
its extent of coast {dKTf}). Its more obscure ap- 
pellation of Mopsopia was deduced from the 
hero Mopsopus or Mopsops. From Cecrops the 
country was called Cecropia, and it was not till 
the reign of Erechtheus that it assumed its pre- 
sent appellation. Attica was remarkable for the 
poverty of its soil, in consequence of which, ac- 
cording to Thucydides, it never changed its in- 
habitants. To this fact we are to attribute the 
pride of the Athenians in regard to their antiqui- 
ty, which indulged itself in the h}'perbolical 



AT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AV 



assertion of their being sprmig from the earth. 
" Attica may be considered as forming a trian- 
gle, the base of which is common also to Bceo- 
tia, while the two other sides are washed by the 
sea, having their vertex formedby Cape Smiium. 
The prolongation of the western side, till it 
meets the base at the extremity of Cithseron, 
served also as a common boundary to the Athe- 
nian territory as well as that of Megara. The 
whole surface of the comitry contained within 
these limits, according to the best modern maps, 
furnishes an area of about 730 square miles, al- 
lowing for the very hilly nature of the ground. 
It appears that the whole population of Attica, 
about 317 B. C, at which time a census was 
taken by Demetrius of Phalerum, was estimated 
at 528,000 ; of these, 21,000 were citizens, who 
had a vote in the general assembly of the people. 
The ^sToiKoc, or residents, who paid taxes but 
had no vote, amotmted to 10,000; and the 
slaves to 400,000 ; which, with a proportionate 
allowance of women and children, furnishes the 
number of souls above-mentioned." '' The 
whole of Attica had been divided, as early as 
the time of Cecrops, into four tribes or wards 
{(pv\ai,) but these were afterwards increased to 
ten by. Cleisthenes, which were severally named 
after some Athenian hero, who was considered 
as its apx'^iydi OY ap'xnyirr)^. Each tribe had also 
its president or chief, distinguished by the title 
of Phylarch {(hvXapxos)] these commanded also 
the cavalry. The word (pvUms denoted an in- 
dividual belonging to one of the ten tribes." 
" The names of these wards we collect from an- 
cient writers to have been as follows : 1. Erech- 
theis, named after Erectheus. — 2. ^Egeis, from 
jEgeus, father of Theseus. -3. Pandionis, from 
Pandion, son of Erechtheus. — 1. Leontis, after 
the three daughters of Leos, who were said to 
have devoted themselves to avert a pestilence 
from their country. — 5. Acamantis, from Aca- 
mas, son of Theseus. This was the tribe of 
Pericles. — 6. CEneis, from CEneus, grandson of 
Cadmus. — 7. Cecropis, from Cecrops. —8. Hip- 
pothoontis, from Hippothoon, son of Neptune 
and Alope. — 9. Mantis, from Ajax, the son of 
Telamon. — 10. Antiochis, from Antiochus, the 
son of Hercules. Antigonis and Demetrias 
were added to the number, in honour of Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes and his father Antigonus. But 
the names of these two tribes were afterwards 
changed to those of Attalis and Ptolemais, in 
compliment to kings Attalus and Ptolemy, son 
of Lagus. Each tribe was subdivided into demi 
or boroughs, the head officer of which was called 
demarch (Sfijiapxos) ; this arrangement is by 
some ascribed to Solon, by others to Cleisthenes. 
The number of the Attic demi is stated to have 
been 170 or 174, and most of their names are 
preserved to us." Cram. 

Atdatici, or Aduatici, a people of Belgie 
Gaul, contiguous to the Nervii on the one hand 
and the Eburones on the other. They were of 
Celtic origin. The situation of the town of the 
Atuatici, taken by Caesar, is a disputed point. 
Some make it to have been Namurcum (Na- 
mur) : but D'Anville disproves this, and con- 
ceives it to be Falais sur la Mehaigne, the si- 
tuation of which agrees well with the descrip- 
tion of Caesar. Cces. Lem. Ind. Geog. 

Aturia, a name sometimes applied to the 
whole of Assyria, though proper only to a par- 



ticular canton of the country in the environs of 

Nineveh. D'Anville. 

Aturus, a river of Gaul, now the Admir, 
which runs at the foot of the Pyrenean moun- 
tains into the bay of Biscay. Lucan. 1, v. 420. 

AvALiTES SINUS, a gulf of the Erythraean 
sea. Its port, now Zeila, corresponds with the 
emporium of the Avalites, with whom a Nubian 
nation was associated. D^Anvillc. 

AvARicuM, the chief city of the Bituriges 
Cubi, in Gallia Celtica. It was situated on the 
Avara, a southern branch of the Ligeris. In 
the course of time it received the names of Cas- 
trum Mediolanense and Bituriga; the latter 
from the name of the people ; and this, assum- 
ing in charts the form of Biorgas, has at length 
been changed into Bourges. The modern town 
is in the province le Berry, now depariement du 
Cher. — Cces. Lem. Ind. Geog. 

Avella. Vid. Abella. 

AvENio, a rich to^un of Gallia Narbonensis, 
on the Rhone, now Avignon, the chief city of 
the Befartment of Vaucluse. From 1305 to 
1377 it was the residence of the popes. Avig- 
non is dear to the lover of romance, from its as- 
sociation with the memory of Petrarch and Lau- 
ra. The fountain of Vaucluse is in its vicinity. 

AvENTicuM, or AvANTicuM, uow Avcuche, 
the chief town of the Helvetii. 

AvENTiNus, one of the seven hills of Rome, 
which, together with the space intervening be- 
tween its base and the Tiber, composed the thir- 
teenth region of the city. " The origin of the 
name Aventine seems quite undetermined, 
though it was currently reported to be derived 
from Aventinus Silvius, king of Alba, who was 
buried here. One part of this mount was knoT^oi 
by the name of Saxum ; the other, of Remuria, 
from Remus, who is said to have taken his sta- 
tion there when consulting the aiispices with a 
view to founding Rome. The ascent to the 
Aventine was called Clivus Publicius, having 
been made by two brothers named Publicii, with 
certain sums of money which they had embez- 
zled as Curule iEdiles, and which they were 
compelled to expend in this manner. The Pub- 
licii are said to have erected also a temple of 
Flora on this site. In the same vicinity Roman 
antiquaries place the baths of Decius ; a temple 
of Diana, which faced the Circus Maximus ; 
and a temple of Liuia. That of Juno Regina 
was built and consecrated by Camillus, after the 
capture of Veil. The church of St. Maria 
Aventina, which belongs to the knights of Malta, 
is supposed to stand on the site of an ancient 
temple sacred to Bona Dea. Antiquities are 
not agreed on which side of moimt Aventine to 
place the cave of the robber Cacus ; but that is 
a question too much allied to fiction to be treat- 
ed of seriously. The other antiquities connect- 
ed with this hill are, the altar of Evander ; the 
sepulchre of Tatius, in a grove of laurels ; the 
Armilustrum, a place in which soldiers were 
exercised on certain holidays ; a temple of Mi- 
nerva. The altar of Laverna, the tutelary god- 
dess of thieves, was near the Porta Lavernalis. 
The altar of Jupiter Elicius, dedicated by Nu- 
ma, was also on the Aventine. At the foot of the 
hill issued a ri^iilet, called the fountain of Picus 
and Faunus. It is not certain on which part of 
the hill the temple of Liberty was placed. This 
edifice, which was constructed by the father of 
47 



AU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AU 



Tib. Sempronins Gracchus, is often mentioned 
in the history of Rome on accomit of the hall 
contiguous to it. That building contained the 
archives of the censors, and was the place in 
which those officers transacted a great part of 
their business. Having been consumed by fire, 
it was rebuilt on a much larger scale by Asinius 
Pollio, who also annexed to it a library, which 
was the first building of the kind opened to the 
public at Rome. The house of Ennius the 
poet was on the Aventine. At the foot of the 
Aventine, and close to the Tiber, were the an- 
cient Navalia, or docks, of Rome. The river 
was here adorned with several porticoes, and an 
emporium was established outside the Porta 
Trigemina. Besides these porticoes, Livy men- 
tions the temples of Hercules, of Hope, and of 
Apollo Medicus, as being near the Tiber. The 
public granaries stood in this quarter, on ac- 
count of the convenience, probably, which the 
river afibrded of landmg the wheat, which came 
from Sicily, Egypt, and Africa." Cram. 

AvERNUs LACUs, now Lago d^Averno, a lake 
of Campania, in the vicinity of Cumae, connect- 
ed by a narrow passage with the Lucrine lake, 
which intervened between it and the bay of 
Baise. It was surrounded on every side, except 
this outlet, by steep hills ; its depth was report- 
ed to be unfathomable. The story of birds be- 
coming stupified by its exhalations, whence it 
is said to have obtained its name (dopuoj,) is 
well known from Virgil ; but Strabo expressly 
states the whole story to be fabulous ; nor is he, 
of course, more inclined to attach credit to the 
accounts which placed here the scene of Ulys- 
ses' descent to the infernal regions, and his 
evocation of the dead, as described in the Odys- 
sey, together with the subterraneous abodes of 
the Cimmerians. According to Heyne, how- 
ever, the vicinity of Avernus abounded in caves, 
occupied by Troglodytse, whence the fables of 
the Cimmerians; and the dense woods which 
covered the neighbouring hills, adding to the 
gloomy nature of the place, made it an appro- 
priate scene for the necromantion, or invocation 
of the manes. If we further take into consider- 
ation the volcanic character of the surrounding 
coimtry, it will not appear wonderful that the 
imagination of the Greeks, excited by the ex- 
aggerated tales of navigators, fixed here the 
Phlegraei Campi, and the place of punishment 
of the rebellious giants : and finally established 
a connexion between the mysterious Avernus 
and the infernal regions. " The groves and fo- 
rests which covered the hills around the Aver- 
nus, were dedicated, it seems, to Hecate ; and 
sacrifices were frequently offered to that god- 
dess. These groves and shades disappeared 
when M. Agrippa converted the lake into a har- 
bour, by opening a commimication with the sea 
and the Lucrine basin. This harbour, which 
was called Portus Julius in honour of Augus- 
tus, served for exercising the galleys ; and it is 
to this circumstance that he is said to have been 
indebted for his victory over Sextus Pompeius," 
Cram. — Mn. 6. — Heyne. Ezc. 2, 3. 

AuFiDENA, now Alfiden^, the principal town 
of the Caraceni, in Samnium, on the Sagnis or 
Sarus, now Sangro. It was taken by a Roman 
consul, A. U. C. 454, and became a military 
colony and a municipal toAvn. Cram.. 

AuFiDUS, now Ofanto^ a river of Apulia, 



which rises in the Appenines and empties into 
the Hadriatic. The plain between this river 
and Cannae was the scene of Hannibal's signal 
victory. Polybius remarks, that this river is the 
only one, which, rising on the western side of 
the Appenines, finds its way through that con- 
tinuous chain into the Adriatic. But the Aufi- 
dus cannot be said to penetrate entirely through 
the chain of these mountains, since it rises on 
one side of it, while the Silarus flows from the 
other. Cram.'] 

AuGEiE, the homeric name of .^gise, a town 
of Laconia, situated 30 stadia from Gythium. 
In its vicinity was a small lake, with a temple 
of Neptune on the shore. Cram. 

Augusta, I. Ausciorum, the metropolis of 
the Ausci, a people of that part of Aquitania 
called Novem populana. Vid. Ausci. D'Arv- 

ville. II. Emerita, a colony of veterans or 

pensioners, founded by Augustus, on the Anas 
in Lusitania. It was the residence of the pro- 
praetor or governor of the province, and the ca- 
pital of a conventus. It is now Merida, on the 

GuadioMa. III. -PRiETORiA, a city in the 

territory of the Salassi, built upon the spot oc- 
cupied by the camp of Terentius Varro during 
the exterminating war carried on against that 
people by order of Augustus, who gave his name 
to the new city. It is now Aoste^ from which 
the fine valley in which it lies is called, and 
where several remains of the ancient city are 
still to be seen. According to Pliny, Augustus 
Prsetoria was reckoned the extreme point of 

Italy to the north. Cram. IV. Rauraco- 

rum, now Augst, a colony founded under the 
auspices of Augustus, and sometimes called 
simply Rauraci, from the people in whose ter- 
ritory it is situated. It is on a bend of the Rhine, 

a little above Basle. D'Anville. V. Sues- 

sioNUM, the capital of the Suessiones, in Bel- 
gica, on the Axona. By some supposed to be 
the Noviodunum Suessionum of Caesar. It is 

now Soissons. — Cas. Lem. Ind. Geog. VI, 

Taurinorum, the capital of the Taurini, plun- 
dered by Hannibal soon after his descent of the 
Alps. Appian calls it Taurasia. As a Roman 
colony it was named as above, and is now To- 
rino or Turin., the present capital of Piedmont. 

Cram. VII. Trevirorum, now Treves, the 

metropolis of Belgica Prima. It served as the 
residence of several Roman emperors, whom 
the care of superintending the defence of this 

frontier retained in Gaul. D'Anville. VIII. 

Trioastinorum, a town of the Tricastini, on 
the Rhone, now St. Paul- Trois-Cluiteaux: 



IX. Vagiennorum, the capital of the Vagienni, 
now Vico, according to D Anville ; more pro- 
bably, according to Durandi, the modern Bene. 

Cram. X. Veromanduorum, the capital of 

the Veromandui, now 5'^. Quiniin. XI. Vin- 

delicorum, a powerful colony established in 
the angle formed by the two rivers Vindo and 
Licus. It is now Augsburgh, between the ri- 
vers Lech and Wertach ; the former of which 
separated Suabia from Bavaria. D'Anville. 

AuGusTOBONA, the capital of the Tricasses, 
on the Sequana, now Troyes, formed by the 
gradual corruption of the ancient name, 

AuGUSTODUNUM, Vid. Biiracte. 

AuGusTORiTUM, now Limoges, the capital of 
the Lemovices in Aquitania. 

Aulerci, a people of Gaul, inhabiting that 



AU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



AX 



part which was called Lugdunensis. They were 
divided into the Brannovices, the Cenomani, the 
Diablintes, and the Eburo vices. The district of 
country inhabited by the first is not precisely 
known, but it is pretty well ascertained that they 
dwelt upon the banks of the Loire ; or, like the 
rest of the Aulerci, between that river and the 
Seuie,in thatwhich was afterv\'ards the province 
of Maine. The Cenomani occupied a tract of 
country belonging alterv\-ards to Maine and Or- 
leans. They were among the most eminent of 
the Gallic tribes, and are mentioned by name 
among the Celtae who passed the Alps in the 
reign of the Tarquins. The Diablintes dwelt 
upon the west and north-west of the Cenomani, 
having upon their north the Eburovices, who 
occupied so much of that part of the country 
which was afterwards conquered by the North- 
men, and took from them the name of Norman- 
dy, as has since been formed into the depart- 
ment de VEure. They have been confounded 
with the Eburones, and their name became af- 
.terwards by corruption Ebroici. Cas. B. G. 7, 
75, and 3, 17. — Liv. 5, 34. 

AuLis, a town of Boeotia, on the Euripus, 
nearly opposite to Chalcis. The harbour, ac- 
cording to Strabo, was so small that not more 
than fifty vessels of the Grecian fleet could be 
moored in it ; from whence he infers that not the 
port of Aulis, but that of Bathys,' must have 
been the true rendezvous of the Greeks when 
about to sail for Troy. Diana seems to have 
been peculiarly an object of worship at Aulis ; 
and Pausanias observes that though the place 
was greatly reduced and almost depopulated in 
his day, the temple of that goddess was still in 
existence. The harbour is now called Megalo- 
Vathi. Eurip. Iph. in Aul. 120. — Horn. 2, 496 
and 303. — D^Anville. Vid. Iphigenia. 

AuLON, I. the name of a fertile ridge and val- 
ley of Apulia, on the left bank of the Galsesus. 
Its beauty and fertilit}'' are celebrated by Horace 
and Martial ; the former of whom compares the 
wine produced in this region to the famous Fa- 
lernian. It is now Terra di Melone. Hor. 2, 6. 

—Mart. 13, ep. 125. II. The name of that 

part of Messenia which lay on the Neda near 
its mouth, and was separated by that river from 
Triphylia of Elis and from Arcadia. Pans. — 

Messen. 36. — Strab. III. Cilicius, the strait 

lying between Cilicia in Asia Minor and the isl- 
and of Cyprus was called Aulon Cilicius.- 



IV. A name of the Magnus Campus, or plain 
lying along the course of the Jordan, from the 
Tiberian lake to that of Asphaltides. It is 
called by the Arabs el Gmir. 

AuRANiTis, now Belad-Hauran, a tract of 
country, having, as some suppose, a towTi of the 
same name, on the confines of Syria and the de- 
sert of Arabia, with which its limits were con- 
founded, on the east. It had Iturea on the north, 
which formed a part of the same boundary. 
Josephus. — D'Anville. 

AuRASius MONs, now Gebel Auras, a moun- 
tain of Numidia. It is represented as offering 
a rugged and uncultivated appearance, but with 
extensive fields and fertile spots upon its top. 
Procop. — D'Anville. 

AuRUNCi, an ancient people of Latium, some- 
times confounded with the Ausones, but distin- 
guished by Livy. They occupied at first the 
northern part of this region bordering on the 
^ PartL— G 



Volsci, but were driven by that people towards 
the south, and settled near the borders of Cam- 
pania and the Ausones. " Some vestiges of their 
principal XGvni, Aurunca, it is said, may still be 
traced near the church of Santa Croce, situated 
on the elevated ridge which rises in the vicinity 
of Rocca Monfina." Liv. 2, 16 and 17. — Virg. 
7.725. — Cram. Anc. Gr. 

Ausci. the inhabitants of a part of Aquitaine, 
among the bravest of the various races that 
dwelt in that region. Their capital was Clem- 
berris till the time of Augustus, when it assrmaed 
the name of Augusta in compliment to that sove- 
reign. At a later period it was known by the 
name of the people who dwelt in it, and was 
called Ausci; whence its modern name of Ausch 
in Gascony and the modern department of the 
Gers. Ptol.—Plin. 

AusER, AusERis, and Anser, now the Ser- 
chio, a river of Etruria. It rises in the Appe- 
nines, towards the borders of the northern duchy 
of Modena, and, running south-west after pass- 
ing by the city of Lucca, it empties into the Arno 
between the city of Pisa and the sea. 

Ausones, a people of Italy of remote anti- 
quity, and whose origin is unkno"v\Ti. It is be- 
lieved by some, who consider them to have been 
originally a powerful tribe, that they extended 
over a wider region ; but at the period at which 
they are found in connexion with Roman his- 
tory they were confined to the narrow region 
lying between the Liris and the coast. In poetry 
the name of Ausonia is often intended to signify 
the whole of Italy. This may have arisen from 
the fact, that Ausonia was among the parts of 
the peninsula first known to the Greeks, from 
whom it may have come as a poetical designa- 
tion of their country to the Italians themselves. 
A part of this region sail bears the ancient 
name ; and here it is pretended the early Au- 
sona, the capital of the Ausones, was situate. 
This place is known in history but from the ac- 
count which Livy gives of the massacre of the 
inhabitants. The principal ancient authorities 
on this subject are Dion. Hal. 1, 11. — StraJ?. 
Vid. also Cram. An. It. 

Ausonia. Vid. Ausones. 

AuTARUTffi, an Illyrian tribe, at one time 
the most powerful of all the semi-barbarous peo- 
ple residing in those parts. They were fre- 
quently engaged in war with the Ardisei of Dal- 
matia, whose territory they bounded on the 
south. They were conquered at last by the 
Scordisci. Diod. Sic. — Strab. 

AUTOLOL.E, a people of Mauritania, descend- 
ed from the Gastuli. 

Automata, one of the Cyclades, between the 
islands of Therae and Therasia. It arose from 
beneath the water, probably from the action of 
submarine fire, in the time of Pliny the natural- 
ist. It was called also Hiera. 

AuTURA, the Eure, a river of Gaul which 
falls into the Seine. 

AuxiNUM, now Osimo, a Roman colony, and 
one of the strongest towns of Picenum. It stood 
not far from Ancona, on the Flaminian Way. 
Vel. Pat. 1, 15. 

AxENus, the ancient name of the Euxine Sea. 
The word signifies inhospitable. Ovid. 4, Trist. 
4, v. 56. 

Axius, a river of Macedonia. It rises in the 
chain of moimt Scardus, and empties into the 
49 



BA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



B^ 



gulf of Thessalonica. Its present name is the 
Vardar, derived from that of Bardarus, which it 
bore in the middle ages. All the principal rivers 
of Macedonia, except the Strymon and its tribu- 
taries, fall into this stream. Herodot. 7, c. 123. 

AxoNA, a river of Belgic Gaul, now the 
Aisne. It rises in the lands of the ancient Remi, 
and discharges itself into the Oise^ the ancient 
Isara. 

Axus, a town about the middle of Crete. 
ApoUod. 

AzAN, a tract of country lying between the 
Ladon and the Alpheus. It is so named, ac- 
cording to the mythologist, from Azan, the son 
of Areas, who gave his name to Arcadia. Pans. 
— Arcad. 25. 

AziRis, a place of Libya, surrounded on both 
sides by delightful hills covered with trees, and 
watered by a river where Battus built a town. 
Herodot. 4, c. 157. 

AzoTUs, nov7 Ashdod, a large town of Judaea, 
near the borders of the Mediterranean, Joseph. 
Ant. Jud. 15. 



B 



Babylon, I. a celebrated city, the capital of 
the Assyrian empire, on the banks of the Eu- 
phrates. It had 1(X) brazen gates ; and its walls, 
which were cemented with bitumen, and greatly 
enlarged and embellished by the activity of Se- 
miramis,measured 480 stadia in circumference, 
50 cubits in thickness, and 200 in height. It 
was taken by Cyrus, B. C. 538, after he had 
drained the waters of the Euphrates into a new 
channel, and marched his troops by night into 
the toMm through the dried bed ; and it is said 
that the fate of the extensive capital was un- 
known to the inhabitants of the distant suburbs 
till late in the evening. Babylon became famous 
for the death of Alexander, and for the new em- 
pire which was afterwards established there un- 
der the Seleucidae. Vid. Syria. Its greatness 
was so reduced in succeeding ages, according to 
Pliny's observations, that in his time it was but 
a desolate wilderness, and at present the place 
where it stood is miknown to travellers. The 
inhabitants were early acquainted with astrolo- 
gy. Plin. 6, c. 26. — Herodot. 1, 2, 3. — Justin. 
1, &c. — Diod. 2. — Xenoph. Cycrop. 7, &c. — 
Propert. 3, el. 11, v. 'il.— Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 2. 

— Martial. 9, ep. 77. II. There is also a town 

of the same name near the Bubastic branch of 
the Nile, in Egypt. 

Babylonia, I. the surname of Seleucia, 
which rose from the ruins of Babylon under the 

successors of Alexander. Plin. 6, c. 26. II. 

A country of Asia, forming once a portion of 
the Assyrian monarchy. It was bounded on the 
east by Susiana, on the north by Mesopotamia, 
on the west by Arabia Deserta, and on the south 
by a part of the Sinus Persicus and the Happy 
Arabia. This was the country known as Chal- 
daea, and was of greater extent than that which 
was generally included mider the name of 
Babylonia. The capital was Babylon. 

Babylonh, the inhabitants of Babylon, fa- 
mous for their knowledge of astrology, first di- 
vided the year into 12 months and the zodiac 
into 12 sighs. 

Babtrsa, a fortified castle near Artaxata, 
50 



where Tigranes and Artabazus kept their trea- 
sures. Steph. Byz. 

Bacenis, a part of the great Hercynian fo- 
rest, described by Caesar in the 6th book of his 
Bell. Gall. These woods, according to the best 
authorities, constituted the natural separation 
between the Suevi on the east and the Cherus- 
ci on the west. All authors, however, do not 
agree upon this point ; and it may be considered 
as doubtful still what portion of the great wil- 
derness -to which it belonged was intended by 
ancient writers m the name of Bacenis. It is a 
part of the famous Hartz, according to the au- 
thority followed above. 

Bactra, and Zariaspe, now Balk, the capi- 
tal of Bactriana. It was divided by the Bac- 
trus, which ran through it, and from which it 
took its name. Ancient authors themselves are 
at variance in regard to the real site of this 
capital city. Plin. — Strab. — Ptol. 

Bagtri, and Bactriani, the inhabitants of 
Bactriana, who lived upon plunder, and were 
always under arms. They were conquered by 
Alexander the Great: Vid. Bactriana. Curt. 
4, c. 6, &c. — Plin. 6, c. 23.— Plut. in.vitios. 
ad infell. suff.-Herodot. 1 and 3. 

Bactriana, a country of Asia, forming a 
part of the Persian empire. It was bounded on 
the north by the river Oxus, on the west by 
Margiana, on the south by the mountains called 
Parapamisus, and on the east by the chain that 
connects those mountains with the Imaus. Ac- 
cording to D'Herbelot, the name is derived from 
Bacter, which signifies the East. The extent 
of this country was not at all periods the same, 
and, to consider it properly, we must treat of it 
as it stood in the time of Alexander ; and sepa- 
rately, as it existed under the empire of his suc- 
cessors. At the latter period it included a por- 
tion of India. The inhabitants had early ad- 
vanced in civilization ; and Zoroaster, the 
law-giver of Persia, is pretended by some to 
have flourished in Bactriana. Strab. — Q. 
Curt. — Arr. 

Bactros, now Dahesh, a river from which 
Bactriana receives its name. Like the other 
rivers of that country it runs almost in a straight 
line from south to north, and empties into the 
Oxus, w4iich separates Bactriana from Sog- 
diana. Jjiican. 3, v. 267. 

Bacuntius, a river of Pannonia, which falls 
into the Save above Sirmium. Some writers 
suppose it to be the Bosna, from Avhich the pro- 
vince of Bosnia takes it name, and of which it 
is a principal stream. According to D Anville 
it is now the Bozzuet. 

Badia, a town of Spain, by some supposed to 
be the modern Badajoz, on the Guadiana. 
Val. Max. 3, 7. 

Baduhenn^, a sacred grove in the country 
of the Frisii, where 900 Romans were killed. 
Tacit. 4. Ann. c. 73. 

B^TiCA, a part of Spain, corresponding, for 
the most part, to the present Andalusia. It 
formed, at first, apart of the division of Hispa- 
nia Ulterior ; and a province apart, when, after 
having completely reduced the whole peninsula, 
the Romans divided all Spain into Tarraconen- 
sis, B^tica, and Lusitania. Bcetica was confin- 
ed by the Anas ( Guadiana) and the Mediterra- 
nean on the north and south, on the west it was 
washed by the Atlantic, and on the east, though 



BA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BA 



its boundary was not so well defined, it may be 
considered to have extended to the Orospeda 
mons. All the region contained between the 
Anas and the Bstis was called Baeturia ; and 
that which bordered on the left of the latter ri- 
ver, inhabited by the Bastetani, Bastuli, and 
Turdetani, a name applied, perhaps, to the 
whole country by the natives before the Roman 
dominion. The surname of Paeni, by which the 
Bastuli were distinguished, continued to mark 
the connexion of Baetica with the empire of the 
Carthaginians in Europe. It derived its name 
from the river Bsetis, which flowed completely 
through it, almost east and west. It was consi- 
dered by the Romans as the most important part 
of their Spanish proviuces, and is said to have 
contained no less than eight Roman colonies, 
the same number of municipal cities, and at 
least 29 others enjoying the privileges of the 
Italian towns. It submitted earlier than the rest 
of Spain to the yoke of the despotic republic, 

BjETis, a river of Spain, from which a part of 
the country has received the name of Bcctica. 
It was formerly called Tartessus, and now bears 
the name of Guadalquiver, The wool produced 
there was so good, that Batica was an epithet 
of merit applied to garments. Vid. Bcctica. 
Martial. 12, ep. 100. 

B^TURU, a part of Baetica. The inhabit- 
ants were of two distinct origins : the Celtici, 
who border on Lusitania, and the Turduli, who 
border on Lusitania and Tarraconensis. Vid. 
Bcdica. 

Bagrada, now Megerda, a river of Africa, 
now Utica, where Regulus killed a serpent 120 
feet long. Towards its mouth it stagnates, 
and, overflowing its banks, is formed into pools 
and lakes which overspread the adjacent coim- 
try. Plin. 8, c. 14. 

Bai^se, a city of Campania near the sea, be- 
tween the promontory Misenum and Puteoli, 
the name of which, according to the mytholo- 
gists, was from Baius, a follower of Ulysses. 
It was famous for its delightful situation and 
baths, where many of the Roman senators had 
country-houses. Its ancient grandeur, however, 
has now disappeared, and Baiae, with its mag- 
nificent villas, has yielded to the tremendous 
earthquakes which afflict and convulse Italy, 
and it is no longer to be foimd. Martial. 14, 
ep. 81. — Horat. 1, ep. 1. — Strab.b. 

Baleares, tw'o islands in the Mediterranean, 
modernly called Majorca and Minorca, on the 
coast of Spain. They were Carthaginian co- 
lonies before the wars of Carthage with the Ro- 
man republic, but were subjected to the latter 
by Metellus, thence called Balearicus. The 
chief town of Majorca retains its ancient name 
of Palma ; and the Portus Magonis of the small- 
er island is yet extant in the modern Port Ma- 
hon. The island of Ivica, which lies near these, 
was not considei'ed to belong to the Baleares, 
but, together with Ebusus and Ophiusa, was 
called in Greek " Pityusae, the IsUs of Pines." 
The Baleares were included in the province of 
New Carthage by their Roman conquerors. 
Mel. 2, 7, l^'^.—Liv.—D'Anville. By Apollo- 
nius, the Baleares are called Choerades ; and 
by Strabo, Choeradades. The word Baleares 
Is derived from PaWeiv, to throw, because the in- 
habitants were expert archers and slingers, be- 
sides great pirates. We are told by Florus, that 



the mothers never gave their children breakfast 
before they had struck with an arrow a certain 
mark in a tree. Sirab. 14. — Flor. 3, c. 8. — 
Diod. 5. 

Balista, a mountain of Liguria, correspond- 
ing with the Appenines about S. Pellegrino and 
Monte Balestra. Cram. — Liv. 40, c. 41. 

Balla, also Valla, a town of Macedonia, 
not far from the foot of Olympus. It command- 
ed the passage from Macedonia into Thessaly. 
Its site is now occupied by the town of Servit- 
za. Plin. 4, 10. — iitefli. Byz. — Cra'tn. 

Balyras, a river of Messenia. It was a prin- 
cipal branch of the Pamisus, and is now the 
Mauro Zoumena. Paus. 4, c. 33. 

Bantia, now St. Maria de Vanse, a town of 
Apulia, whence Bantinus. Horat. 3, od. 4, v. 15. 

Baphyrus, a river of Macedonia, called by 
Ptolemy Pharybas. Pausanias informs us that 
the first part of this stream from its fountain 
was called Helicon ; that, after flowing some 
distance, it was lost, and running under ground 
a course of about 75 stadia, it rose again, as- 
sumed the name of Baphyrus, and discharged 
itself by that name into the Thermaic gulf. It 
belonged to that little district of Roumelia which 
w£Ls by the ancients called Pieria. Paus. Bccot. 
30. — L/ycoph. 273. — Cram. 

Barathrum, a deep and obscui;e gulf at 
Athens, where criminals were thrown. — The 
word is applied to the infernal regions by Val. 
Flacc. 2, V. 86 and 192. 

Barbaria, a name given to that part of the 
African coast which extends northward from 
Cape Gardafni. It was otherwise called Aza- 
nia, now Ajan. D'Anville. 

Barbosthenes, a mountain of Peloponnesus, 
10 miles from Sparta. Liv. 35, c. 27. 

Barge, a city of Cyrenaica, about nine miles 
from the sea, founded by the brothers of Arce- 
silaus king of Cyrene, 515 years before the 
Christian era. Strabo says that in his age it 
was called Ptolemais ; but this arises because 
most of the inhabitants retired to Ptolemais, 
which was on the sea-coast, to enrich themselves 
by commerce. Strab. 17. — Ptol. 4, c. 4. 

Barcino, now Barcelona, the capital of Ca- 
talonia, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis. It 
was a Roman colony. 

Bardine, a river in the vicinity of Damas- 
cus, called by the Greeks Chrysorroas. It di- 
vides into many streams, of w^hich some flow 
through the city, others through its environs. 
D'Anville. 

Bargyli^, a town of Caria, on the Sinus Ja- 
sius. 

Barium, a town of Apulia, on the Adriatic, 
now called Bari. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 97. 

Basili A, atown of the Rauraci, on the Rhine, 
now Basle, the capital of a Swiss canton of 
the same name. 

Basilia, or Baltia. Vid. Abalus. 

Basilipotamos, the ancient name of the Eu- 
rotas. Strab. 6. 

Basilis, a city of Arcadia, built by Cypselus 
near the river Alpheus. Paus. 8, c. 29. 

Bass.e, a village of Arcadia, near mount 
Cotylius. " Here was a temple of Apollo Epi- 
curius. It was the most beautiful edifice of the 
kind in all Peloponnesus, with the exception of 
that at Tegea: the architect was Ictinus, who 
built also the Parthenon at Athens. A great 
51 



Bfe 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BE 



part of this temple is yet standing ; it was 125 | 
feet in length, about 48 in breadth, and deco- ' 
rated with 48 columns of the Doric order, of 
which 36 are still in their places. The sculp- 
tures of the frieze, representing the battle with 
the Amazons, and that of the Lapithse and 
Centaurs, were discovered in 1812, and have 
been deposited in the British Museum, and are 
called the Phigalean marbles. Vid. Phigalea. 
The site occupied by the ruins of that interesting 
edifice is now known by the name of the Co- 
l\min?,P Cram. 

BASTARNiE, and BASTERN.E, a people of Eu- 
ropean Sarmatia, destroyed by a sudden storm 
as they pursued the Thracians. lAv. 40, v. 58. 
— Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 198.—Stra3. 7. 

B ATA VI, a people of German origin, who 
separated from the Catti in consequence of do- 
mestic commotion, and migrating to Gaul, set- 
tled in the island enclosed by the ocean, the 
Vahalis ( Waal), and the main branch of the 
Rhine. From them the island was called Ba- 
tavorum Insula, and also Batavia; whence the 
modern Batavian RepiMic took its name. The 
Batavi, according to Tacitus, were peculiarly 
distinguished for their valour, and were for this 
reason exempt from paying tribute to the Ro- 
mans, who used their services in war. Tacit. 
Germ. 29. 

Bauli, a town of Campania, near the pro- 
montory of Misenum. According to tradition it 
was originally called Boaulia, from the circum- 
stance of Hercules having landed there with 
the oxen of Geryon on his return from Spain. 
It was one of the most attractive spots on the 
coast. Bauli was the scene of Nero's suc- 
cessful plot against Agrippina, his mother. 
Cram. 

Bebriagum, or Bedriacum, a village of Gal- 
lia Cisalpina, near Cremona, which witnessed 
both the success of Vitellius over Otho, and the 
defeat of his generals by Antonius, lieutenant 
of Vespasian. It was situated on the Via Post- 
humia, the road which led from Cremona to 
Mantua, about 15 miles from the former city, 
and at no great distance from the Po. Cluve- 
rius imagined that Caneto, on the river Oglio, 
might represent the situation of Bedriacum ; 
but D'Anville is more accurate in fixing its po- 
sition at Cividale. There was a temple and 
grove sacred to Castor between Cremona and 
Bedriacum. Cram. 

Bebrycia, Vid. Bithynia. 
Belg^. Vid. Belgica. 
Belgica, a third part of Gaul in the Cassa- 
rian distribution, having on the west the ocean 
from the Seine to the principal mouth of the 
Rhine, and on the north the latter river as far 
as the territory of the Ubii, near the capital city 
Colonia Agrippina. Here the river makes an 
angle in coming from the south, and from hence 
it may be considered, together with the Vosges 
chain of hills, as the eastern boundary of Bel- 
gica as far as the Brigantinus Lacus {Lake of 
Constance^ The Alps continue the line as far 
as the source of the Rhone, which carries it 
around the south-east corner of this province as 
far as its junction with the Arar or Saone. 
The Seine and the Mame upon the south di- 
vided Belgica from Celtic Gaul. Within the 
limits thus defined this part of Gaul contained 
the modern countries of Holland south of the 
52 



Rhine, the Netherlands, together with so much 
of Germany as lies upon the left bank of the 
same river, and contains the cities of Cleves, 
Cologne, Coblentz, and Worms, which all with 
other names were on the western boundary of 
Belgica in the time of Augustus, Tiberius, and 
Constantine. In addition to these were the 
French side of Switzerland and the provinces of 
Picardy, Artois, French Flanders, part of the 
Isle of France, Champaigne, Lorraine, Alsace, 
and Burgundy in France. A vast people in- 
habited this region, divided and subdivided into 
innumerable tribes. When the Romans effect- 
ed its complete subjugation, they divided it at 
different times into smaller provinces. Augus- 
tus divided it into four, and the subdivision of 
one of these into Germania Prima and Germania 
Secunda remained so late as the era of Con- 
stantine. The early division into Belgica Pri- 
ma and Belgica Secunda was formed by the 
course of the Mosa, Meuse, which traversed 
nearly the whole length of the province from 
south to north. Belgica Prima was possessed 
by the Luci, the Mediomatrici, and the Tre- 
veii ; whose capital,, after having for a period 
borne the name of Augusta, assumed at last that 
of the people, and became the capital' of this 
subdivision, being also frequently the abode of 
the emperors during their residence in Gaul. 
Throughout the whole of that country the 
names of its different inhabitants have been in a 
great measure preserved in those of the mcdern 
towns of France, &c. while the names of the 
ancient places have been for the most part lost. 
Thus, in Belgica Secunda, Durocotorum, the 
capital of the Remi, was lost in the gentilitious 
name of Rheims, and Augusta of the Suessones 
in that of Soissons. So the Veromandui of the 
same province have transmitted their name in 
VermoMdois, the Bellovaci in Beauvais, and 
the Ambiani, who had called their capital Sa- 
maro-Briva, have left their name to modern 
times in that of the city of Amiens. This part 
of Gaul was more properly called Belgium ac- 
cording to Caesar's account ; and its inhabitants, 
i. e. the Atrebates, the Ambiani, and the Bel- 
lovaci, may be considered as the Belgae distinctly 
from the other people of Belgica. Their corner 
of the province lay upon the Fretum Gallicum, 
now Dover straits, extending inland to the 
Axona, now the Aisne, and the Oise, which 
empties into the Seifie, a little below the present 
city of Paris. This, it will be seen, corresponds 
to the limits of the new kingdom of the Nether- 
lands, exclusive of the disputed Luxemburgh. 
Besides these provinces, in the distribution of 
Augustus was the Great Seqiimiois, Maxima 
Sequanorum, lying south of the second Belgica, 
between Celtica upon the west and Italy upon 
the east, with the Province specially so called 
upon the south. Here the .Jura chain of moun- 
tains formed a natural division between the Se- 
quani and the Helvetii, the latter of which peo- 
ple extended themselves over the country lying 
along that mountain from Lake Constance to 
the Lake of Geneva. The subdivision into the 
two Germanies mav be referred to the time of 
Tiberius, and is said by D'Anville to have been 
the earliest made in any part of Gaul after the 
division of the whole into four parts by Augus- 
tus, which succeeded the threefold division de- 
scribed in the Commentaries. Germania prima 



BE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BE 



joined upon the south the Maxima Sequano- 
rum. Its principal inhabitants were the Triba- 
ci, the Nemetes, and the Vaugiones, who sup- 
planted the Leuci and the Mediomatrici upon 
the eastern frontier of Belgicabordering on Ger- 
many. The city of Strasburgh may be consi- 
dered the capital. Between Germania prima 
and Germania secunda was the famous forest 
of Ardennes. The people of both these districts 
resembled the Germans in manners,appearance, 
and habits ; but those of the second Germany 
in a greater degree than those of the first. Tribes 
from the right bank of the river were continu- 
ally crossing to the Gallic side, and thus main- 
tained the German characteristics, introduced 
at the early mingling of the strange tribes with 
the first Celts of those regions ; and which, in 
the other parts of Belgica, had been more equal- 
ly blended with those of the earlier inhabitants. 
In the remote corner of Belgica, between the 
Vahalis, now the Waal, and the proper Rhine, 
were situated the Batavi, considered the last of 
the Gauls. It may here be observed, that the 
first settlers of this portion of Gaul were Celts; 
but tribe after tribe, in subsequent years, having 
incorporated themselves with the first posses- 
sors, they together constituted the people after- 
wards called by ancient authorities Belgffi. 
Belgium. Vid. Belgica. 
Bellovaci. Vid. Belgica. 
Benacus, a lake of Italy, now Lago di Gar- 
d,a, from which the Mincius flows into the Po. 
Virg. G. 2, V. 160. Mn. 10, v. 205. It formed 
the division between Venetia, and Cisalpine 
Gaul from the borders of Rhaetia, which lay 
upon its northern extremity, to the ^mylian 
Way, which passed along its southern border ; 
that is to say, a distance of about 30 miles from 
north to south, or 35 Roman miles. Its great- 
est width did not exceed 12 miles by the same 
ancient scale. 

BENDinroM, a temple of Diana Bendis at 
Munychia. 

Beneventum, a town of the Hirpini, built by 
Diomedes, 28 miles from Capua. Its original 
name was Maleventum, changed into the more 
auspicious word of Beneventum when the Ro- 
mans had a colony there. It abounds in remains 
of ancient sculpture above any other town in 
Italy. Plin. 3, c. 11. Though tradition and 
mytholog}'- confer upon Diomedes the honour of 
founding the city of Beneventum, more certain 
guides have traced its origin to the ancient Au- 
sones. It received a Roman colony in the time 
of Augustus, consisting of the veterans of the 
emperor's army ; and Nero supplied it in part 
with a new population. But the importance of 
this place commenced with the era of the Lom- 
bard conquests and rule in Italy. With a por- 
tion of surrounding country it was one of the 
dukedoms erected by those conquerors in Italy ; 
and depending in name for a time upon the 
Lombard sovereign in the north, it quickly be- 
came a powerful independent state, and sur- 
vived the ruin of the monarchy when Deside- 
rius,the last of the Lombard kings, surrendered 
to the arms of Charlemagne. The German 
emperor Henry, some generations afterwards, 
conferred it on the Pope, and it became a part 
of the patrimony of the church. It is now a 
principal city of the kingdom of Naples, on the 
VoUurno, the Vulturnus of antiquity. 



BfiRiEA, the same as Beroea. 

Berenice, I. the name of a tovm in Egypt, 
on the Arabian gulf. It was called Epidires, 
because it was situated on that contracted part 
of the Arabicus Sinus by which it communi- 
cated with the iErythrean Sea. This was the 
last towTi of Egypt, south, on the Arabian gulf, 
and was placed in the region called Cinnamo- 
nofera, from the quantity of cinnamon which 
that country produced. It was a place of trade 
with India, and was named after the mother of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. Plin. 6, 27. — D^Anville. 
II. Another of Cyrenaica in Libya, called 



also Hesperis, the fabled abode of the Hespe- 

rides. III. Another, surnamed Panchrysos, 

on a bay of the Arabicus Sinus. IV. A town 

in Arabia, at the head of the .^lanites Sinus, 
mentioned by Moses under the name of Ezion 
Geber, " From this place," says D'Anville, 
" the fleets of Solomon took their departure for 
Ophir, and the Arabic name of Minet ed-dahab, 
signifying the port of gold, had reference to the 
riches that were there debarked on the return 
from Ophir." 

Bergistani, a people of Spain, at the east of 
the Iberus. Liv. 34, c. 16. 

Bergomum, now Bergamo, a town of the 
Orobii in Cisalpine Gaul on the ^mylian 
Way. It stood nearly midway between the 
Umatinus {Serio) and the Ubartus (^7-e7?i^o), 
and is supposed to have been founded by some 
early Gallic tribes. Plin. 3, 17. — Jiist. 20. 

Bermius mons, now Xero Livado, a moun- 
tam forming " a continuation of the great chain 
of Olympus." The mountain was said to be 
impracticable from the intensity of the cold, 
yet in its vicinity were fabled to have been the 
fruitful and flourishing gardens of Midas that 
bloomed spontaneously. Here the Temenidae 
first established themselves-in Macedonia. He- 
rod. 8, 138. — Cram. 

Bernus, or Bora mons, the southern extre- 
mity of the Scardus Mons, which separated II- 
lyria from Macedonia. 

Bergba, I. a city of Syria, which received 
this name in the time of theMacedonian princes. 
It is now Aleppo, the richest and most powerful 

city of Syria. D'Anville. II. A town of 

Macedonia, now Kara Veria. This town of a 
very great antiquity, was situated at the foot of 
the Bermius Mons, and was distant from Pella, 
the capital of the country, about 30 miles. It is 
particularly mentioned in the Acts of the Apos- 
tles, and its inhabitants are commended for the 
readiness with which they received the gospel 
on the preaching of St. Paul. Thuc. 1, 61. — 

Acts, 17, 11. III. A town " on the confines 

of the province of Thrace proper and Moesia. 
This city, when re-established by the empress 
Irene, assumed her name." D Anville. 

Berrhcea. Vid. Beroea. 

Berytus, now Berut, an ancient toT\Ti of 
Phoenicia on the coast of the Miditerranean, 
famous in the age of Justinian for the study of 
law. Plin. 5, c. 20. 

Besippo, a town of Hispania Bostica, where 
Mela was born. Mela. 2, c. 6. 

Bessi, a people of Thrace, who lived upon ra- 
pine. Ovid. Trist. 4, el. 1, v. 67. They inha- 
bited the district of country called Bessica to- 
wards the borders of Macedonia, and formed, as 
it is thought, a portion of the tribe called Salrjp, 
62 



BI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BCE 



wMch could boast that of all the Thracian peo- 
ple they alone had never been subdued. Bessi- 
ca is believed to have extended from the sources 
of the Hebrus to the Nestus ; but the Haemus 
was the favourite resort of this predatory but 
spirited race. They were finally subdued by 
Augustus. — Flor. 12, 4. Herodot. 7, 110. 

Betis, a river in Spain. Vid. Batis. 

Beturia, a country in Spain. Vid. Batica. 

Bibracte, a large town of the ^dui in Gaul, 
where Csesar often wintered. Cces. Bell. G. 7, 
c. 55, &c. Ptolemy calls it Augustodunum, 
which of course it assumed after its subjugation 
by Caesar and the accession of his successor. 
The corruption of this name gives the modern 
Autun. 

Bigerrones, a people of Aquitaine, at the 
foot of the Pyrenees. The town of Bigorre 
occupies, it is supposed, the site of their capital. 

BiLBiLis, a town of Celtiberia, where Mar- 
tial was born. It stood near a river named 
Salo, now Xalon ; but Justin calls this river also 
Bilbilis, Its water,s were " famous for tem- 
pering steel, which Martial accounts the best 
in the world." The town is now " known 
only," says D'Anville, " by the name of Baubo- 
la, in the vicinity of a new city constructed by 
the Moors called Calalayud." Just. 44, 3. — 
Mart. 1, ep. 50. 

BiNcroM, a town of Germania Secunda, in 
Belgica. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 70. 

BisALTiA, " that part of Macedonia between 
the lake Bolbe and the Strymon," says Cramer, 
"appears to have been called Bisaltia, from 
the Bisaltge, a Thracian nation, who were gov- 
erned by a king at the time of the invasion of 
Xerxes," and who fell under the rule of the 
Macedonians not long afterwards. Herodot. 7, 
llS.— Thucyd.2,99. 

BisANTHE, a town of Thrace, upon the Pro- 
pontis. It is now Rodosto, by corruption from 
the name of Rhcedestus, which it also bore with 
the ancients. 

BisTONis, a lake of Thrace, near Abdera. 
Herodct. 7, c. 109. It is so called from the 
Bistones, a Thracian people, who dwelt upon its 
shores and ruled over the neighbouring inhabit- 
ants. The poets sometimes bestow the name 
of this people upon Thrace in general. Cram. 

BiTHYNiA, a country of Asia Minor, accord- 
ing to Strabo first peopled by the Mysiani, to 
whom succeeded the Thyni and Bithyni from 
Thrace. From these people the whole region 
took its name, having until the era of their set- 
tlement, been called Bebrycia. It was bounded 
on the north by the Euxine and the Thracian 
Bosphorus, on the east by Paphlagonia, on the 
south by the Galatae, Tectosages, and a part of 
Phrygia, and on the west by the Propontis and 
Mysia, from which mount Olympus separated it. 
The principal towns of Bilhynia were the royal 
city of Prusa, Nicomedia, and Nice. This coun- 
try underwent various changes under its differ- 
ent possessors and masters. Thus, D'Anville 
remarks, " there was a time when the depen- 
dencies of Pontus extending to Heraclea, con- 
fined Bithynia within narrow bounds ; and under 
the lower empire, the principal part of Bithynia, 
in the vicinity of the Propontis, assumed the 
name of Pontica, and the part adjacent to Paph- 
lagonia composed a separate province named 
Honorias. The north-eastern corner, washed I 
54 



by the Euxme and the Propontis, was the pe- 
culiar seat of the Thyni," Strab. 12. — Hero- 
dot. 7, c. 75. — Mela, 1 and 2, According to 
Paus. 8, c, 9, the inhabitants were descended 
from Mantinea in Peloponnesus. 

BiTHYNiUM, a town of Bythynia on the Bil- 
baeus, in the country of the Caucones. It was 
the capital of the province of Honorias in the 
east of Bithynia, and became famous as the 
birth place of the beautiful Antinous, the favour- 
ite of the emperor Adrian. 

BiTURiGEs, a people of that part of Gallia 
Celtica which was added to the original Aqui- 
tania in the time of Augustus. They were 
among the principal of all the Gallic people be- 
fore the arrival of Cassar, and were under the 
government of a powerful king in the time of the 
Tarquins. They were placed between the Car- 
nutes and Senones on the north, the Boii and 
Arverni on the east, the Lemovices on the south, 
and the Turones and Pictones on the west. 
These were the Bituriges Cubi. Another tribe 
of the same people, distinguished as the Vibis- 
ci, belonged to Aquitania Secunda, in which 
they were the principal tribe, as the Cubi were 
in Aquitania prima.- Their capital was Bur- 
digala, Bourd^anx. Vid. Aquitania. 

BiziA, a citadel near Rhodope, belonging to 
the kings of Thrace. Tereus was born there. 

Blandusia, a fountain in Apulia, " situated 
near Venusia, about six miles from Venosa, on 
the site named Palazzo." The more proper 
name was Bandusia. Cram. 

Blemmyes, a people of Africa, near the ca- 
taracts of the Nile, who, as is fabulously re- 
ported, had no heads, but had the eyes and 
mouth placed in the breast. Mela. 1, c. 4. 

Blucium, a castle where king Dejotarus kept 
his treasures in Bithynia. Strab. 12. 

BoAGRius, a river of Locris, sometimes called 
also Manes. It was rather a torrent than a ri- 
ver, and depended almost entirely on the seasons 
for its waters, being often quite dry. Strab. 9. 

BocALiAS, a river in the island of Salamis. 

BoDOTRiA fretum. The Frith of Forth. 

BoDUNi, a people of Britain, who surrender- 
ed to Claudius Caesar. Die. Cass. 60, 

BoE^, a town of Laconia, now perhaps Pa- 
l(Bo Castro, on the Sinus Bceoticus. 

Bgeoticus sinus, at the southern extremity 
of the Peloponnesus, lying opposite the island 
of Cythera, and taking its name from the town 
of Boeoe, on its northern shore. Now the Gulf 
of Vatilca. 

BcEBEis, a lake of Thessaly, near mount Os- 
sa, from which the Anchestus derives its 
waters. The name was taken from the town 
Boebe, which stood upon its banks. It is now 
Carlos. Lnican. 7, v. 176, 

BcBOTiA, a province of Greece, bordering on 
Phocis to the west and north-west. On the north 
its confines reached to the territory of the Locri 
Opuntii ; it was bounded by the shore of the 
Euripus, from Halae to the mouth of the Asopus, 
on the east ; while to the south it was separated 
from Attica by the chain of Cithseron and the 
continuous range of Mount Pames, The ear- 
liest inhabitants of this region were the Aones, 
Hyantes, (fee. who formed, perhaps, a part of the 
great family to which belonged also the Leleges. 
Under Cadmus, Boeotia received a Phoenician 
colouy, who, after being expelled at one time by 



BO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BO 



the Thracians ana Epigoni, and afterwards by 

Eowerful hordes of Pelasgi, succeeded in esta- 
lishing themselves in this most fertile district 
of all Greece, and in conferring on it the name 
of Boeotia, from that which they had them- 
selves assumed about the period of their second 
expulsion. When, like the other provinces of 
Greece, Boeotia rejected the monarchical form 
of government, the institutions established in 
their room were aristocratical, though not withj 
out a mixture of the democratical in their form; 
but the aristocracy greatly preponderated in the 
administration of the government and laws. 
This, and the natural jealousy of a powerful and 
arrogant neighbour, begot an early hostility be- 
tween the Boeotians and Athenians, who, in eve- 
ry struggle of the democratic interest in Bceo- 
tia, were ready to lend their aid against the aris- 
tocracy of Thebes. Hence, in the Persian war, 
the Boeotians, with the exception of those of 
Plataea, were found assisting earnestly the Per- 
sian arms. The same feeling arrayed them on 
the side of the Lacedaemonians in the Pelopon- 
nesian war ; and when the battle of ^gospo- 
tamoi determined the war in favour of the Spar- 
tans, the Boeotians zealously urged their victo- 
rious allies to perfect their conquest by the 
absolute destruction of Athens. When nothing 
was left for the Boeotians to fear on the side of 
their ancient enemy, they soon conceived an 
equal jealousy of that power which they had 
been greatly instrumental in forming ; and an 
hostility of twelve years that thereupon ensued, 
was terminated only by the battles of Leuctra 
and Mantinea, " when Sparta saw a formidable 
army occupied in freeing Arcadia and Messenia 
from her chains, and menacing her own walls 
and existence." " After the last stand," says 
Cramer, " made by the Achaeans for the liber- 
ties of Greece, Boeotia ceased to exist, and be- 
came included under the general name of 
Achaia, by which Greece was designated as a 
province of the Roman empire." The inhabit- 
ants were reckoned rude and illiterate, fonder 
of bodily strength than of mental excellence ; 
yet their country produced many illustrious 
men, such as Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, &c. 
Boeotia is celebrated, moreover, for the port of 
Aulis, whence the Greeks departed for the siege 
of Troy ; for the battle of Platasa, that estab- 
lished the liberties of Greece ; and for the fatal 
field of Cheronsea, in which they expired for 
ever. Herod. 3, c. 49, 1. 5, c. 51.— Ovid. Met. 
3,v. 10.— Pans. 9, c. 1, &c.— C. Nep. 7. c. 11.— 
Strah. 9.— Justin. 3, c. 6, 1. 8, c. 4.—Horat. 2, 
ep. 1, V. 2i4:.—Diod. 19.— Liv. 27, c. 30, &c. 

Bon, a people of Celtic origin, coming ori- 
ginally from the neighbourhood of the Helvetii, 
and occupying a large district of Cisalpine Gaul, 
between the Po, the Tarus (Taro,) and the 
Appenines, corresponding, in some measure, to 
the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the 
Ecclesiastical state north of Tuscany. They 
waged the most destructive wars with the Ro- 
mans, who were at length obliged to expel them 
from their ancient seats. They then appear to 
have taken up their residence in the tract of 
country lying within the Hercynian mountains, 
which separated them on the north-west from 
the Hermanduri, on the north-east from the 
Marsigni of the modern Silesia, on the south- 
east from the Gluadi, who inhabited the present 



Moravia, and on the south-west from the Nasl- 
ci, who dwelt between the hilly country and the 
left side of the Danube. " In the name of this 
country," observes D'Anville, " that of the more 
ancient people who occupied it is followed by a 
term in the German language which signifies 
habitation ; and this name has continued to the 
same country in that of Bohemia, although the 
Boii had given place to the Marcomans, and 
these to a Sclavonic people who have possessed 
it since." On the entrance of the Marcomanni, 
the Boii " abandoned these their native seats," 
continues the same author, " and carried the 
same name with them into that now called 
Boiaria, Bagaria, or Bavaria.^' A small tribe of 
the Boii settled in the time of Csesar in that 
part of Gaul which is now the Bourdonais ; but 
De Mandajor places them in Le Bas-Forest. 

BoLA, a town of the jEqui in Italy. Virg. 
jEn. 6, V. 775. 

BoLBE, a marsh near Mygdonia. Thucyd. 
1, c. 58. 

BoLBiTiNUM, one of the mouths of the Nile, 
with a town of the same name. Naucratis was 
built near it, Herodot. 1, c. 17. 

BoLissus, a town and island near Chios. 
Thucyd. 8, c. 24. 

BoMiENSES, a people in .^tolia. Thucyd. 3, 
c. 96. 

BoNoNiA, I. now Bologna, was an Etruscan 
city before the incursion of the Boii, and was 
known by the name of Felsina. It stood about 
midway between Ravenna on the coast of the 
-Adriatic, Mutina now Modena, the -Appenines, 
and the Po ; and was exactly on the ^mylian 

Way. II. A city on the Danube, below the 

mouth of the Save, on the site of which is Elok. 

III. Another on the Danube, now Bidin. 

IV. Another in Belgica Secunda, supposed 

to be the Itius Portus of Caesar, and by many 
the modern Witsand. Liv. 33, 37. — Mela. — 
Plin. — D'Anville. V. A town on the bor- 
ders of the Rhine. Val. Max. 8, c. 1, — Ital. 8, 
V, 599. 

BoosuRA, {bovis cauda) a town of Cyprus, 
where Venus had an ancient temple. Strab. 

BoRYSTHENEs, a large river of Scythia, fall- 
ing into the Euxine Sea, now called the Dnie- 
per, and inferior to no other European river but 
the Danube, according to Herodotus, 4, c. 45. 
Above the city Kiov, in the modern province 
of Volhynia, the principal branches of this river 
unite. Of these the southern is now called the 
Prypec. It assumed, in the middle ages, the 
name of Denapris, which by corruption has be- 
come the Dnieper. The proper division of Po- 
land and Russia was formed by this river be- 
fore the dismemberment of the former unfortu- 
nate country. Very little of this river, or of the 
basin through which it flows, was known with 
accuracy by the people of antiquity. D'An- 
ville. 

BosPHORUs, and Bosp6RUS,two narrow straits, 
situated at the confines of Europe and Asia. 
One was called Cimmerian, and joined the Pa- 
lus MoBotis to the Euxine, now known by the 
name of the straits of Caffa ; and the other, 
which was called the Thracian Bosphorus,and 
by the moderns the strait of Constantinople, 
made a communication between theEuxine Sea 
and the Propontis. It is sixteen miles long, 
and one and a half broad ; and, where narrow- 
55 



BR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BR 



est, 500 paces or stadia, according to Herodotus. 
The word is derived from Booanopos, bovis mea- 
tus, because, on account of its narrowness, an 
ox could easily cross it. Cocks were heard to 
crow, and dogs to bark, from the opposite banks ; 
and in a calm day persons could talk one to 
another. Plin. 4, c. 13, 1. 6, c. 1. — Ovid. Trist. 
3, el. 4, V. i9.—Mela. 1, c. l.—Strab. 12— He- 
rodot. 4, c. 85, 

BoTTiA, a colony of Macedonians in Thrace. 
The people were called Bottiai. Plin. 4, c. 1. 
—Herodot. 7, c. 185, &LC.— Thucyd. 2, c. 99. 

BoTTiJEis,a country at thenorth of Macedonia, 
onthebayof Therma. Herodot. 7, c. 123, &c. 

BouiANUM, an ancient colony of the Sam- 
nites, at the foot of the Appenines not far from 
Beneventum. Liv. 9, c. 18. 

BoviLLiE, I. a town on the Appian Way, 
about ten miles from Rome. It was one of the 
first towns reduced by the Romans, and was 
among the conquests of Coriolanus. At Bo- 
villse took place the meeting of Milo and Clo- 
dius, which terminated in the death of the latter 
and in the perpetual banishment of his murder- 
er. Flor. 1, 2.— Dion. Hal. 8, 20.— Cic. Orat. 

pro Mil. II. Another, also in Latium, in 

the country of the Hernici, mentioned by Flo- 
rus, 1. 2. 

Brauron, a town of Attica, where Diana 
had a temple. The goddess had three festivals, 
calledBrauronia, celebrated every fifth year by 
ten men, who were called upunoioi. They sa- 
crificed a goat to the goddess, and it was usual 
to sing one of the books of Homer's Iliad. The 
most remarkable that attended were young vir- 
gins in yellow gowns, consecrated to Diana. 
They were about ten years of age, and there- 
fore their consecration was called SsKaTsvsii', from 
SsKa decern ; and sometimes apKr^vsiv, as the 
virgins themselves bore the name of apKroi, 
bears, from this circumstance. There was a 
bear in one of the villages of Attica, so tame 
that he ate with the inhabitants, and played 
harmless with them. This familiarity lasted 
long, till a young virgin treated the animal too 
roughly, and was killed by it. The virgin's 
brother killed the bear, and the country was 
soon after visited by a pestilence. The oracle 
was consulted, and the plague removed by con- 
secrating virgins to the service of Diana. This 
was so faithfully observed, that no woman in 
Athens was ever married before a previous con- 
secration to the goddess. The statue of Diana 
of Tauris, which had been brought into Greece 
by Iphigenia, was preserved in the town of 
Brauron. Xerxes carried it away when he in- 
vaded Greece. The ruins of Brauron are 
pointed out by modern travellers near the spot 
now called Palaio Braona. Chandler calls the 
modern site Vrouna. Cram. — Paus. 8, c. 46. 
—Strab. 9. 

Brigantes, I. the most powerful people of 
Britain. They occupied the whole breadth of 
the island, from the mouth of the Abus, or 
Humber., to the wall of Hadrian. Their terri- 
tory is now Yorkshire^ Lancashire, BishopricJc 
of Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. 

D^Anville. — Camden. II. A people of Hi- 

bernia. 

Brigantia, now Bregentz, a town situated 
at the eastern extremity of the Brigantinus La- 
cus, now Lake Constance. D^Anville. 
56 



Brigantinus lagus, now the lake of Coti- 
stance or Border-Zee, a lake belonging equally 
to Vindelicia and Rhaetia, or the latter alone, 
if, with Tacitus, we consider Vindelicia as a 
part of Rhsetia. 

Brilessus, a mountain of Attica. Thucyd. 
2, c. 23. 

Britannia, now Great Britain, the largest 
island known to the people of antiquity ; the 
sea north of Britannia was entirely tmknown to 
them. On the east the island was bounded by 
the Oceanus Germanicus, now the North Sea 
or German Ocean ; on the south by the Fretum 
Gallicum, Pas de Calais or Straits of Dover, 
and the Brittanicus Oceanus, the English Chan- 
nel ; and on the west it was separated from 
Hibernia by the Verginium Mare, St. George's 
Channel, and the Mare Internum vel Hiberni- 
cum, now the Irish Sea. " At the time of the 
Roman occupation of this island, its population 
comprised about forty tribes. The long tract 
of land to the south of the Severn and Thames 
was unequally portioned among ten nations, of 
which the principal were the Cantii, men of 
Kent ; the Belgae, or inhabitants of the present 
counties of Hampshire and Wilts; and the 
Damnonii, who, from the river Ex, had gra- 
dually extended themselves to the western pro- 
montory. Across the arm of the sea, now the 
Bristol Channel, the most powerful was the 
tribe of the Silures. From the banks of the 
Wye, their original seat, they had carried their 
arms to the Dee and the ocean ; and their 
authority was acknowledged by the Ordovices 
and the Dimetse, the inhabitants of the northern 
mountains and of the western district of Wales. 
On the eastern coast of the island, between the 
Thames and the Stow, lay the Trinobantes, 
whose capital v/as London ; and from the Stour 
to the Hii'rnber stretched the two kindred na- 
tions of the Iceni, called Cenimagni and Cor- 
tanni. The Dobunii and Cassii, confederate 
tribes under the rule of Cassibelan, extended 
along the left bank of the Thames, from the Se- 
vern to the Trinobantes ; and above them dwelt 
the Carnabii, and several clans of minor conse- 
quence. The Brigantes were the most power- 
ful of all the British nations. They were bound- 
ed by the Humher on the south, and by the 
Tyne on the north ; and had subdued the Vo- 
lantii and Sistuntii of the western coast. To 
the north of the Brigantes were five tribes, 
known by the general appellation of the Maae- 
tas ; and beyond these wandered, amid the lakes 
and mountains, various clans, among which the 
Caledonians claimed the praise of superior cou- 
rage or superior ferocity." " When the Roman 
conquests of Britain had reached their utmost 
extent, they were irregularly divided into six 
provinces, under the government of praetors ap- 
pointed by the prsefect. The long tract of land 
which runs from the western extremity of Corn- 
wall to the Sonth Foreland in Kent, is almost 
separate from the rest of the island by the arm 
of the sea now called the Bristol Channel, and 
by the course of the river Thames. This form- 
ed the most wealthy of the British provinces; 
and from priority of conquest or proximity of si- 
tuation, was distinguished by the name of Bri- 
tannia Prima. Britannia Secunda comprised the 
present principality of Wales, with the addition 
of that tract which is included by the Severn in 



BR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BR 



its circuitous course towards St. George^s Chan- 
nel. Flavia CaBsariensis was the next in order 
but the first in extent. It was bounded on two 
sides by the former provinces, and on the two 
others by the Humber, the Don, and the Ger- 
man Ocean. To the north of ihe Humber lay 
the province of Maxima. It reached to the 
Eden and T\ine, and its opposite shores Avere 
washed by the western and eastern seas. Va- 
LENTu followed, including the Scottish low- 
lands, as far as the Friths of Clyde and Forth. 
The tribes beyond the Friths formed the sixth 
government of Vesp^siana, divided from the 
independent Caledonians by the long chain of 
mountains.which, rising near Du^nharton, cross- 
es the two counties of Athol and Badenoch^ 
and stretches beyond the Frith of Murray. But 
the greater part of this province was wrested, at 
so early a period, from the dominion of Rome, 
that it is seldom mentioned by writei's ; and the 
pretentura of Agricolahasbeen generally consi- 
dered as the northern limit of the empire in Bri- 
tain." Throughout these provinces was scatter- 
ed a great number of inhabited towTis and mili- 
tary posts, partly of British and partly of Ro- 
man origin. They were divided into classes, 
gradually descending in the scale of privilege 
and importance. 1. The iirst rank was claim- 
ed by the colonies, of which there were nine, 
among them London. Each colony was a 
miniamre representation of the parent city, both 
as regarded customs, laws, and government. 
2. Second in rank were the municipia, or mu- 
nicipal cities, which enjoyed privileges nearly, 
if not quite, equal to those conferred on the co- 
lonies. These were but two, Verulam and 
York. 3. The Latian cities were next in order, 
and were ten in number ; enjoying the privilege 
of electing their own magistrates, who became 
citizens of Rome at the expiration of their oflice. 
4. The remaining towns were stipendiaiy, and 
governed by Roman otficers. It seems most 
reasonable to conclude that Britain was origi- 
nally peopled by the Celtse, who were first in or- 
der of those nations that occupied gradually and 
successively the western regions of the ancient 
world. Next to the Celtoe came the Belgas, who 
were either a branch of the Celtas that migrated 
at a later period than the first occupants of Bri- 
tain, or the van of the Gothi who followed the 
Celtae in their progress westward. These new 
invaders drove the first settlers of the isle in- 
ward from the coast. Accordingly Caesar repre- 
sents the Britons on the coast whom he encoun- 
tered as of Belgic descent, by whom the inhabit- 
ants of the interior were considered the spon- 
taneous production of the soil. Britain, or more 
properly, the staple commodity of the adjacent 
islands, was first made kno\^Ti to the Euro- 
peans of the south by the Phoenicians of Cadiz, 
who, by keeping its situation secret, monopolized 
the tin trade. At length Himilco, the Cartha- 
ginian, discovered the CEestrynanides, as he calls 
them ; and afterwards Pytheas of Massilia was 
equally successful. The Cassiterides, or Scilly 
Isles, were henceforth the sole attraction to these 
seas. Till Caesar's time the island was known 
to the Romans only by fame. In the reign of 
Claudius, A. D. 43, the Romans first prepared 
seriously for the conquest of Britain, and to this 
were directed the exertions of Aulus Plautius 
and Vespasian ; and also of Ostorius Scapula, 
Part I.— H 



who made captive Caractacus. The next ge- 
neral of great abilities in this service was Sue- 
tonius Paulinus, who reduced Anglesey and de- 
feated Boadicea. After Vespasian had assumed 
the purple, Petilius Cerealis subdued the Bri- 
ganies, and Julius Frontinus nearly conquered 
the warlike Silures, In the year 78 Agricola 
became commander of Britain. Tribe after tribe 
submitted, and the victor, in the fourth summer, 
built a line of forts from the Frith of Forth to 
that of Clyde, to check the inroads of the north- 
ern Britons, whose territories he invaded with 
success in the eighth and last year of his com- 
mand. Agricola was the first who taught the 
Britons to cultivate the arts of peace, and in- 
spired them with a love of Roman manners. In 
A. D. 120, the inroads of the Caledonians com- 
pelled Hadrian to repair to Britain, where, in 
defence of southern Britain, he drew a rampart 
and a ditch across the island, from the Solway 
Frith on the western, to the mouth of the Tyne 
on the eastern, coast, Severus, the better to 
protect the southern provinces, raised a solid wall 
of stone a few paces to the north of the Vallum 
of Hadrian. The wall was twelve feet high, 
and in front of it was sunk a ditch of the same 
dimensions with that of Hadrian. This wall is 
called by the historian of Severus " the glory of 
his reign." Towards the beginning of the 5th 
century, the irruptions of the Picts and Scots be- 
came more and more formidable ; till at length 
the emperor Honorius wrote to the states of 
Britain " to provide for their own defence." 
Thenceforward Britain was independent of Ro- 
man power. It is remarkable, that in the 4th 
century the Caledonians and Maetae disappeared 
from history, the Picts and Scots taking their 
place. Dr. Lingard thus accounts for it : 
" To me it seems manifest that, the Picts were 
under a new denomination the very same people 
whom we have hitherto called Masetae and Ca- 
ledonians. The name of Caledonians properly 
belongs to the nations of that long but narrow 
strip of land which stretches from Loch Finn 
on the western, to the Frith of Tayne on the 
eastern coast : but it had been extended by the 
Romans to all the kindred and independent 
clans which lay between them and the northern 
extremity of the island. In the 4th century the 
mistake was discovered and rectified : and from 
that time not only the Caledonians, but their 
southern neighbours,thefive tribes of the Maae- 
tse, began to be known by the generic appellation 
of Picts ; a word derived, perhaps, from the na- 
tural custom of painting the body, or more pro- 
bably from the name which they bore in their 
own language. 2. The Scots came undoubted- 
ly from Ireland, which, like its sister island, ap- 
pears to have been colonized by adventurers 
from different countries. It is not improbable 
that the Scoti were the most numerous tribe in 
the interior of the island, and a division of the 
great Celtic family of the Cotti. At last the 
strangers acquired so marked a superiority over 
the indigenous tribes, as to impart the name of 
Scotland to the northern division of Britain." 
After the abandonment of Britain by the Ro- 
mans, the Picts and Scots still continued their 
incursions against the more civilized Britons, to 
such a degree that, in the year 449, Vortie:ern, 
the most powerful of the British kiners, called in 
the aid of the Saxons Henjrisl and Horsa. Kent 



BR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BXJ 



was abandoned to Hengist, A. D. 455, and thus 
the way was paved to Anglo-Saxon sway. 

Lingard's England. — Camden. Heylyn. 

D^Anville. 

Brixellum, now Bresello, a town of Gallia 
Cispadana, to the right of the JEmilian Way, 
on the Po, where Otho slew himself after his 
defeat at Bedriacum. It was a Roman colony. 
Cram, 

Brixia, now Brescia^ on the Mela, the ca- 
pital of the Cenomani, was a Roman colony, 
and also a mmiicipium. 

Bructeri, a people of Germany, inhabiting 
the country at the east of Holland. Tacit. 
Ann. 1, c. 51. 

BRUNDUsroM, or BRUNDisroM, now Brindisi, 
the most ancient and celebrated town of Cala- 
bria, on the Adriatic side of the lapygian pe- 
ninsula. — By the Greeks the town was called 
BpcvTsaiov a word which in the Messapian lan- 
guage signified a stag's head, from the resem- 
blance which its different harbours and creeks 
bore to the antlers of that animal. The advan- 
tageous position of its harbour for communicat- 
ing with the opposite coast of Greece naturally 
rendered Brundusium a place of great resort, 
from the time that the colonies of that country 
had fixed themselves on the shores of Italy. 
Large fleets were always stationed there for the 
conveyance of troops into Macedonia, Greece, 
or Asia ; and for the convenience of its harbour, 
and its facility of access from every other part 
of Italy, it became a place of general thorough- 
fare for travellers visiting those countries. Here 
Caesar blockaded Pompey, and, according to his 
account, it possessed two harbours, one called 
the interior, the other the exterior, communicat- 
ing by a very narrow passage. Cram. 

Bruttii, a people occupying the southern ex- 
tremity of Italy. On the south, west, and east 
their country was enclosed by the sea, being se- 
parated from Sicily by the Siculum Fretum. 
On the north it was separated from Lucania by 
the rivers Crathis and Laus. The origin of the 
Brutti or Bpemoi is neither remote nor illustri- 
ous. " They were generally looked upon as de- 
scended from some refugee slaves and shepherds 
of the Lucanians, who, having concealed them- 
selves from pursuit in the forests and mountains 
with which this part of Italy abounds, became, 
in process of time, powerful from their numbers 
and ferocity." " The Greek towns on the 
western coast, from being weaker and more de- 
tached from the main body of the Italiot con- 
federacy, first fell into the hands of the Bruttii." 
The principal cities of this league now sought 
the aid of Pyrrhus against the now united Brut- 
tii and Lucanians, who were effectually checked 
during the life of that prince ; but, after his 
death, they soon reduced the whole of the pe- 
ninsula between the Laus and Crathis, except 
Crotona, Locri, and Rhegium. At this period 
Rome put an end at once to their conquests and 
their independence. Both the Lucani and 
Bruttii submitted to L. Papirius Cursor, A. U. 
C. 480, which was two years after Pyrrhus had 
withdrawn his troops out of Italy. On the ar- 
rival of Hannibal, the Bruttii flocked eagerly 
to the victorious standard of that general, who 
was by their aid enabled to maintain his ground 
in this comer of Italy when all hope of final 
success seemed to be extinguished. But the 
58 



consequences of this protracted warfare proved 
fatal to the country in which it was carried on; 
many of their towns being totally destroyed, 
and others so much impoverished, as to retain 
scarcely a vestige of their former prosperity. To 
these misfortunes was added the weight of 
Roman vengeance. A decree was passed, re- 
ducing this people to a most abject stale of de- 
pendence : they were pronounced incapable of 
being employed in a military capacity, and their 
services were confined to the menial oflices of 
couriers and letter carriers." Cram. 

Bryges, a people of Thrace, afterwards called 
Phryges. Strad. 7. 

Brygi, an Illyrian people, whom Strabo 
seems to place in the vicinity of the Taulantii 
and Parthini, to the north of Epidamnus. The 
town of Cydrise is assigned to them. Cram. 

BuBASTis, a city of Egypt, in Scripture called 
Pibeset, now Basta, in the eastern parts of the 
Delta, where cats were held in great venera- 
tion, because Diana Bubastis, who is the chief 
deity of the place, is said to have transformed 
herself into a cat when the gods fled into Egypt. 
Herodot. 2, c. 59, 137 and Ib^.—Ovid. Met. 9, v. 
690. 

BuBAsus, a country of Caria, whence Bvba- 
sides applied to the natives. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 643. 

BucA, a sea-port town of the Frentani, the 
position of which is now subject to much un- 
certainty. Strabo places it near Teanum, on 
the confines of Apulia ; and again states that it 
was separated from Teanum by an interval of 
200 stadia or 25 miles. It is probable that there 
is an error in one of the passages. Romanelli 
informs us that the ruins are to be seen at a 
place named Penna. Cram. 

BucEPHALA, a city of India, near the Hydas- 
pes, built by Alexander, in honour of his favour- 
ite horse Bucephalus. Curt. 9, c. 'i.— Justin. 
12, c. S.—Diod. 17. 

BucHETiuM, or BucHETA, or BucENTA, a 
town of Epirus, situated close to the Acherusian 
lake, and at no great distance from Ephyre or 
Cichyrus. The remains of this town are thus 
spoken of by Mr. Hughes: " Leaving the Ache- 
rusian lake, we bent our steps to the ruins of 
Buchetium, which are about one mile distant. 
They are situated upon a beautiful conical rock, 
near the right bank of the Acheron ; and the 
Cyclopean walls, constructed with admirable 
exactitude in the second style of ancient mason- 
ry, still remain in a high state of preservation." 
Cram. 

BuDiNi, a people of Scythia, mentioned by 
Herodotus in his account of the expedition of 
Darius Hystaspes. By a detail which Herodo- 
tus furnishes of the canton of the Budinians, we 
think we discover it on the Borysthenes, a little 
below Kiow. D'Anville. 

BuDoRUM, or BuDORUs, a promontory of Sa- 
lamis, opposite to Megara, with a fortress upon 
it, which was taken by a Lacedeemonian fleet 
under Brasidas. Strabo mentions it as a moun- 
tain of Salamis. Sir W. Gell must be mistaken 
in supposing Budorus to be opposite to .^gina. 
He himself informs us, that " opposite the ferry 
to Megara are the remains of a very ancient 
fortress or city, whence there is a fine view to- 
wards Corinth." This, no doubt, was Budorus. 
Cram. 

Bulls, a town of Phocis, " which Pausanias 



BY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



BY 



seems to assign to Boeotia, at the same time that 
he allows it had joiaed the Phocian confederacy 
in the Sacred War under Philomelus and Ono- 
marchus. Steph. Byz. calls it a Phocian town ; 
as do likewise Pliny and Ptolemy. Pausanias 
states that Bulls was on a hill, and only seven 
stadia from its port, which is doubtless the same 
as the Mychos of Strabo and the Nautochus of 
Pliny. Cram. 

BuPHRASiuM, a town of Elis, often mentioned 
by Homer as one of the chief cities of the Ep6- 
ans. It had ceased to exist in the time of Stra- 
bo, but the name was still attached to a district 
situated on the left bank of the Larissus, and 
on the road leading from Dyme to Elis. This 
seems to answer to what is now called the plain 
of Bakouma. Cram. 

BuRA, " one of the twelve original Ach^an 
cities, which stood formerly close to the sea, but 
having been destroyed, with the neighbouring 
to-vvn of Helice, by a terrible earthquake, the 
surviving inhabitants rebuilt it afterwards, about 
40 stadia from the coast, and near the small ri- 
ver Buraicus. Bura was situated on a hill, and 
contained temples of Ceres, Venus, Bacchus, 
and Lucina ; the statues were by Euclidas of 
Athens. On the banks of the river Buraicus 
was a cave consecrated to Hercules, and an ora- 
cle, usually consulted by the throwing of dice." 
Sir W. Gell discovered its ruins close to the road 
from Megastelia to Vostitza, and visited the cave 
of Hercules Buraicus. Cram. 

Buraicus. Vid. Bura. 

BuRDiGALA, now Bourdeaux, the capital of 
the Bituriges Vibisci, in Aquitania Secunda. 
It was situated at the mouth of the Garumna, 
and was the birth-place of Ausonius. D^An- 
ville. 

BuRGUNDioNEs, a branch of the ancient Vin- 
dili. Their original seat is not easy to ascer- 
tain, but they were probably established first be- 
tween the Oder and the Vistula, whence they 
were compelled to migrate, and settled near the 
Alemanni. Finally they passed to Gaul, and 
from them is derived the modern Burgundy. 

BusiRis, a to\\Ti of Lower Egypt, on a branch 
of the Nile called Busiriticus. It was siyled 
the city of Isis, from its having a famous tem- 
ple sacred to that deity. The modern Busir 
occupies the site of the ancient town, which 
was destroyed by Dioclesian. 

BuTHROTUM, a iawrv of Epirus, situated on 
a peninsula formed by the Pelodes Portus, into 
which emptied the Xanthus, and a bay connect- 
ed with the sea by a narrow channel. Buthro- 
tum was occupied by Caesar in the civil wars, 
and was afterwards colonized by the Romans. 
It was opposite the island of Corcyra. Cram. 

BuTOs, a to-um of Egypt, where there was a 
temple of Apollo and Diana, and an oracle of 
Latona. It was situated on a lake or basin, 
to the west of the Ostium Sebennyticum. He- 
rodot. 2, c. 59 and 63. 

BuxENTUM, or Pyxus, a town of Lucania, 
near the promontory of Pyxus, now Capo degV 
Infreschi. Policastro is generally considered 
the site of the ancient town. It became a Ro- 
man colony A. U. C. 558. There was a river 
Pyxus, now Busento. Cram. 

Byblus, a town of Syria, not far from the sea, 
where Adonis had a temple. It was situated 
between Berytus and Botrus, and the Adonis 



flowed into the Mediterranean in its vicinity. 
Strab. 16. 

Byrsa, Vid. Carthago. 

Byzacium, a country of Africa, adjacent to 
the Syrtis Minor, also named Emporia. Its 
great fertility of corn might have caused it to be 
regarded as a magazine of provisions, which was 
resorted to by sea. There was a city of the 
same name with that of the country, whose po- 
sition Arabian geographers make known under 
the name of Beghni. D'Anville. 

Byzantium, a town situate on the Thracian 
Bosphorus, founded by a colony of Megara, un- 
der the conduct of Byzas, 658 years before the 
Christian era. Paterculus says it was founded 
by the Milesians, and by the Lacedaemonians 
according to Justin, and according to Ammia- 
nus by the Athenians. The Spartan claim 
owes its origin to the occupation of Byzantium 
by the Lacedaemonians, under Pausanias, with 
the view of holding in check the threatening 
power of the Persians. Philip of Macedon in 
vain attempted to take this city ; and so flou- 
rishing was it during the period of Roman do- 
minion, that, when it sided with Niger against 
Severus, it yielded to the victor only after an 
obstinate siege of three years. The pleasant- 
ness and convenience of its situation was ob- 
served by Constantine the Great, who made it 
the capital of the eastern Roman empire, A. D. 
328, and called it Constantinople. ^ Constan- 
tine endowed Constantinople with all the privi- 
leges of Rome, whence at a late period it was 
styled Nova Roma. Nor did it rival Rome only 
in its civil and political privileges. In the second 
ecclesiastical council held here, it was decreed 
that the patriarch of ConstaWinople should be 
second in dignity only to the bishop of Rome, 
This so excited the jealousy of the Pontiffs, that 
in after times they strove, inefficiently however, 
to reduce the power of the patriarchs; who,main- 
taining their privileges and independence, were 
therefore accounted schismatics by the church 
of Rome. John, Patriarch of Constantinople in 
the time of Gregory the Great, first assumed the 
title of Universal or (Ecumenical Bishop, Pas- 
tor General, as it were, of the Christian church. 
The limits of Byzantium were more contracted 
than those of Constantinople ; the latter city 
having been extended to include the seven hills, 
which have given it also a claim to the title of 
Urbs Septi-Collis. Within the limits of the 
ancient Byzantium stand, at the present day, 
the seraglio of the Turkish sultans and the fa- 
mous temple of Saint Sophia. The ancient ci- 
ty occupied a point of land contracted between 
the Propontis and a long cove, named Chryso- 
ceras, or the Horn of Gold. This extremity of 
Thrace and of Europe, contracted between two 
seas,was enclosed by a long wall called Macron- 
tichosfiommendmg a little beyond Heraclea,and 
terminating on the shore of the Euxine, near a 
place named Derkon, or Derkous. This bar- 
rier, of which there are only some vestiges re- 
maining, was constructed by the emperor Anas- 
tasius, at the beginning of the sixth century, to 
resist the incursions of many foreign nations 
who had penetrated even to the environs of the 
city. Constantinople fell into the hands of the 
Turks under Mahomet 2d A. D. 1453. The 
modem city is called Stamboul, by some consi- 
dered a corruption of the ancient name,by others 
59 



CM 



GECGRAPHY. 



CA 



Ganges 



as an abbreviation of els rnv ttoXiv. A num- 
ber of Greek writers, who have received the 
name of Byzantine historians^ flourished at 
Byzantium after the seat of the empire had 
been translated thither from Rome. Their 
works were published in one large collection, 
in 36 vols, folio, 1648, &c. at Paris, and recom- 
mended themselves by the notes and supple- 
ments of Du Fresne and Du Cange. They 
were likewise printed at Venice, 1729, in 28 
vols, though perhaps, this edition is not so valu- 
able as that of the French. A new and supe- 
rior edition of this collection was commenced 
by the late Mr. Niehbuhr in 1828. Strab. 1.— 
Pater c. 2. c. 15. — C Nep. in Pans. Alcib. &. 
Timoth. — Justin. 9. c. 1. — Tacit. 12. Ann. c, 
62 and QZ.—Mela, 2, c. ^.—Marcel. 22, c. 8. 

C. 

Cabalinus. Vid. Aganippe. 

Caballinum, a town of the ^dui, now Cha- 
lons^ on the Saone. Cces. 7, Bell. G. c. 42. 

Cabira, a town of Pontus, though only a 
castle under Mithridates. It was enlarged un- 
der Pompey. It was called Sebaste, (the Greek 
word answering to the Latin Augusta,) in ho- 
nour of Augustus, by the queen-dowager of 
Polemon, king of Pontus. D'Anville. 

CACUTms, a river of India flowing into the 
Arrian. Indie. 

Cadmea, a citadel of Thebes, built by Cad- 
mus ; whence the Thebans are often called Cad- 
means. Stat. Theb. 8, v. 601. — Pans. 2, c. 5. 
CADMEis,an ancient name of Boeotia, 

Cadurgi, a people of Gallia Celtica, accord- 
ing to the division of Ceesar. They were next 
to the Ruieni, along the Garumna, and had for 
their capital Divona, now Cahors. Lemaire. 

Cadytis. Vid. Hierosolyma. 

C^cuBus ACER, a tract of country near Caie- 
la in Latium, famous for the excellence and 
plenty of its wines. According to Pliny, the 
cultivation of this vine was considerably injur- 
ed, in consequence of some works undertaken 
by Nero. Cram. — Strab. 5. — Horat. 1, od. 20. 
1. 2, od. 14, &c. 

C^NEOPOLis, or C^NE, I. a town now Kene 
in the Thebaid, on the right bank of the Nile, 

nearly over against Tentyra. II. Another, 

called also Taenarum. Vid. Tanarum. 

C^NiNA, a town of the Sabines on the Anio. 
Liv. 1, c. 9. 

C^Nis, a promontory of Italy, opposite to Pe- 
lorus in Sicily, a distance of about one mile and 
a half, and forming the narrowest part of the 
strait that lies between Italy and the island of 
Sicily. 

C^RATus, an ancient name of Gnossus, ac- 
cording to Strabo. 

CiERE, C^RES. Vid. Agylla. 

Cesar Augusta, more anciently Salduba, 
a town on the river Iberus, in the territory of 
the Edetani and province of Tarraconensis. It 
stood a little below the mouth of the Bilbilis, 
and is now Saragossa. Mel. — Ptol. — D'An- 
ville. 

CiESAREA, the ancient name of the island of 
Guernsey. — Another, called Ad Argeum from 
its situation at the foot of the mons Argseus. 
Its proper denomination was Mazaca. to which 
in the time of Tiberius, was superadded that of 
60 



Caesarea. It was a capital town of Cappado- 
cia, near the source of the Halys river, and oc- 
cupied a site not distant irom that of the mo- 
dern Kaisarieh. A town of Samaria,named, 

on its becoming the residence of the Roman 
governorSjCsBsarea Palaestinae. Its earlier name 
was Turris Stratonis, but standing on the sea, 
" it was chosen," says D'Anville, " by Herod, 
for the site of a magnificent city and port." It 
was this prince that gave it the name of Coesa- 
rea, in honour of the emperor Augustus. It 
belonged to the province of Palestine first, and 
became the residence of a patriarch. There re- 
main but a few ruins to mark the spot on which 
it stood. This name was also given by Philip, 
the son of Herod, to the town of Paneas, on the 
division of his father's dominions ; and to dis- 
tinguish it, the surname of Philippi was aitach- 
ed to it. The name of Paneas is derived from 
its position at the foot of mount Panium, at the 
sources of the waters of Jordan. It afterwards 
resumed this name, and was known as Belines 

to the Crusaders. There are many small 

insignificant towns of that name, either built 
by the emperors, or called by their name in 
compliment to them, " 

C^SENA, " the last town of Cisalpine Gaul 
on the Via JEmylia, retains its ancient name. 
It is situated on the river Savio, anciently the 
Sapis." The name of Curva is sometimes giv- 
en instead of Ceesena. Cram. 

CaicinuSj a river separating the territories of 
Rhegium and Locri. It was believed that the 
grasshoppers beside this river, on the Locrian 
side, were continually singing, and that those on 
the opposite bank were continually mute. It is 
thought to be the present Amendolea. Cram. 

Caicus, a river of Mysia, falling into the 
^gean Sea opposite Lesbos. Virg. G. 4, v. 
310.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 243. 

Caieta, a town, promontory, and harbour of 
Campania, which received its name from Caie- 
ta, the nurse of ^neas, who was buried there. 
Virg. uEn. 7, v. 1. 

Calabria, a country of Italy in Magna Grae- 
cia. It has been called Messapia, lapygia, Sa- 
lentinia, and Peucetia. The poet Ennius was 
born there. The country was fertile, and pro- 
duced a variety of fruits, much cattle, and ex- 
cellent honey. This was the country of the 
Calabri, who, however, were confined almost to 
that part of Messapia and lapygia between 
Brundusium and Hydrunturn which is now 
Terra di Lecce. Virg. G. 3, v. 425. — Horat. 
1, od. 31. Epod. 1, V. 27, 1. 1, ep. 7, v. 14.— 
StraJb. 6.— Mela, 2, c. i.—Plin. 8, c. 48. 

Calagurris, a capital of the Vascones, in 
that which is now Navarre. It stood on the 
southern side of the Iberus, considerably above 
the town of Ceesar Augusta. 

Calamos, I. a town of Asia, near Mount Li- 
banus. Plin. 5, c. 20. II. A towTi of Phoe- 
nicia. III. Another of Bab)donia, 

Calaon, a river of Asia, near Colophon. 
Pans. 7, c. 3. 

Calathion, a mountain of Laconia. Pans. 
3, c. 26. 

Calates, a town of Thrace, near Tomus, on 
the Euxine Sea. Strab. 7 — Mela, 2, c. 2. 

Calatia, a town of Campania, on the Ap 
pian Way. It was made a Roman colony m 
the age of Julius Caesar. Sil. 8, v. 543. 



CA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CA 



Calaurea, and Calauria, an island near 
TrcEzene in the bay of Argos. The tomb of 
Demosthenes was there. Paus. 1, c. 8, &c. — 
Strab. 8.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 

Gale, (es,) Gales, (imn,) and Galenum, 
now Calvi, a town of Campania. Horat. 4, od. 
12. — Tuv. 1, V. m.—Sil. 8, V. 413.— Virg, ^n. 
7, V. 728. 

Caledonia, a name applied properly to a 
long but narrow strip of land, which stretches 
from Loch Finn on the western, to the Frith of 
Tayne on the eastern, coast of Scotland. It is, 
however, very frequently made to include all 
Scotland, except the Maaetse, and sometimes 
used as a generic term for Northern Britain. 
Camden traces the name to Kaled, " rough," 
plural Kaledion; whence Galedonii, "the rude 
nation," In the article Britannia we gave a so- 
lution of the question concerning the disappear- 
ance of the Caledonians from history about the 
middle of the 4th century. Heylyn considers 
that the word Scot denoted a body aggregated 
into one, out of man)'' particulars ; that Scoti, 
therefore, implies a union by which that nation 
was formed; hence Scotland, " the land of the 
united people." This would lead us to infer 
that the Galedonii and Masetas united formed 
the ScQti ; and that the Picts were a distinct 
body of North Britons. Mac Bean considers 
the Picts as a branch of the Galedonii, and de- 
clares the proper form of the name to be Pecht, 
" freebooters." The same writer traces Cale- 
donia to Gael-doch, " the country of the Gael or 
highlander ; " and concurs with Lingard in re- 
presenting the Scoti as a distinct people, who 
settled at a comparatively late period in the 
southern part of Scotland. 
Gales. Vid. Cale. 

Galetes, a people of Gaul. They dwelt in 
that part of Normandy which is called the Pays 
de Caux, a peninsula formed by the Seine and 
the sea. Caesar assigns them to the Belgas. 
There is reason, however, to believe, that 
though situated in Belgica, the Galetes had 
some affinity with the Armorici. Cccs. Bell. 
Gall. 2, i; and 8, 7; and 7, 75. 

Callaicia, a district of Hispania, extending 
over that part of Portugal which lay between the 
Douro and Minho, with the greater part of Ga- 
licia. The Lusitanian Gallaici, or those south 
of the Minho, were called Bracarii, and those on 
the north, Lucenses. Ovid. 6, Fast. v. 461. 

Galle, " a town on the Douro, near its 
mouth, called now Porto. It is remarkable by 
the combination of its ancient and modern name, 
for giving the denomination of Portugal to a 
kingdom which, being limited before to the ex- 
tent of a county or earldom, was conferred on 
a French prince by a king of Leon." It was in 
the country of the Calliaci. D'Anville. 

Callichorus, a place of Phocis, where the 
orgies of Bacchus were yearly celebrated. 

CALLmROMus, a place near Thermopylae. 
Thucyd. 8, c. 6. 

Callipolis, I. a city of Thrace, on the Hel- 
lespont. Sil. 14, V. 250. II. A town of Sici- 
ly, near .^tna. III. A city of Calabria on the 

coast of Tarentum, on a rocky island, joined by 
a bridge to the continent. It contains 6000 in- 
habitants, who trade in oil and cotton. All 
these places retain their ancient names in the 
slightly altered form GallipoM. 



Callirhoe, or Enneacrounos, a fountain 
near the city of Athens, from which the Athe- 
nians still, as in ancient times, derive their sole 
supply of water. Some authors place it within 
the circuit of the ancient town. The natives 
have preserved its name in that of Kalliroi. 
Paus. Att. 14. — Thucyd. 2, 15. — Leake's To- 
pog. 

Galliste, an island of the iEgean Sea, called 
afterwards Thera. Plin. 4, c. 12. — Paus. 3, 
c. 1. Its chief town was founded 1150 years 
before the christian era, by Theras. 

Gallium, a town of the Ophionenses in 
jEtolia, upon the road from Heraclea Trachi- 
nia, by way of mount Corax to Naupactus. The 
Gauls of Brennus having crossed the mountains 
that lie between iEtolia, Doria, and Thessaly, 
laid waste the town of Gallium ; but their re- 
treat was intercepted by the iEtolians, who had 
assembled to revenge the Callienses, and out of 
40,000 barbarians who had entered this district, 
it is said one half were destroyed before the de- 
tachment could rejoin the army of Brennus. 
The name is written also Callipolis and Callioe. 

Galpe, a lofty mountain in the most southern 
parts of Spain, opposite to mount Abyla, on the 
African coast. These two mountains were call- 
ed the pillars of Hercules. The name of Gi- 
braltar, by which it is at present known, is a cor- 
ruption of Gebel Tarik, given to it about the 
year 710, from Gebel, a mountain, and Tarik, 
the name of the Moorish leader, whd, crossing 
this strait, effected the conquest of Spain for 
his nation. " At the bottom," says DAnville, 
"there existed heretofore a town called Carteia, 
which appears to have been confounded with 
that mentioned in antiquity under the name of 
Galpe." 

Galydon, a city of iEtolia, where (Eneus, 
the father of Meleager, reigned. The Evenus 
flows through it, and it receives its name from 
Galydon, the son of ^tolus. Augustus re- 
moved the inhabitants to Nicopolis, and so com- 
pleted the ruin of the place, which had, in the 
time of his uncle, still retained something of its 
ancient importance. In poetry and mythology, 
the name of Galydon is famous for the chase of 
the boar, in which nearly all the princes of 
Greece are reported to have joined. The tusks 
were shown for a long time at Rome. One of 
them was about half an ell long, and the other 
was broken. Apollod. 1, c. 8. — Paus. 8, c. 45. 
—Strab. 8. — Homer. 11. 9, v. bll.—Hygin. fab. 
\lL—Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 4, &c. 

Camaloduntjm, a Roman colony in Britain, 
supposed Maiden, or Colchester. 

Camarina, a lake of Sicily, with a town of 
the same name, built B. C. 552. It was de- 
stroyed by the Syracusans, and rebuilt by a cer- 
tain Hipponous. The lake was drained con- 
trary to the advice of Apollo, as the ancients 
supposed ; and the words Camarinam movere 
are become proverbial to express an unsuccess- 
ful and dangerous attempt. Virg. jEn. 3, v. 
1^\.— Strab. e.—Herodot. 7, c. 134. 

Cambunii montes, mountains separating Thes- 
saly and Macedonia, intersecting almost at 
right angles the chains of Pindus on the west 
and Olympus on the east. They were called 
also Volustana, and retain that name in the 
modification of Volutza. 

Gamerinum, and Camertium, a iovrn of Um- 
€1 



CA 



GEOGRAPPIY. 



CA 



bria, on the borders of Picenum. Ciuverius 
supposes it to have been the same as the Ca- 
merte mentioned by Strabo ; but this is proved 
by Cramer to be impossible. It may be the 
same as the modern Camerino. Liv. 9, c. 36, 

Campania a country of Italy included in the 
dominion of the Osci. It was bounded on the 
south by the waters of the Tyrrhene Sea ; the 
mountains Callicula and Tifata divided it from 
Samnium on the north ; it was separated by the 
Liris from Latium, and by the Silarus from Lu- 
cania. Into this district of country, celebrated 
for its fertility by the poet and the historian, the 
Etruscans, during the period of their military 
superiority, introduced themselves, and brought 
with them the civilization and the arts which 
had been unknown to the earlier Osci, and 
which afterwards became characteristics of the 
Campanians. But the influence of the climate 
affected in their turn the Etruscans, and the 
hardier Samnites dispossessed them of their best 
provinces in Campania. Greeks, Sabines, and 
Volsci, at different periods estalDlished them- 
selves in these regions ; and from the frequent 
contests between the actual possessors and the 
new comers, was imagined, says Strabo, the fic- 
tion of the mythological wars that illustrate the 
Phlegrsean plains. The Sanmites in Campa- 
nia were, however, if perhaps we except the 
Etruscans, by far the most imposing of the con- 
querors of Campania ; and for a time appeared 
among the boldest and most respected of the 
Italian nations. The boundaries which we 
have designated above were not at a later period 
proper to define the limits of Campania ; and 
the Massic hills became the dividing line be- 
tween that region and Latium w'hen the latter 
extended beyond the banks of the Liris. The 
name of Campania was not used to designate 
this tract of country till the establishment there 
of the Samnites, and the dispossession of the 
Etruscans. In the Carthaginian wars, when 
the victories of Hannibal began to render it pro- 
bable that the Roman empire over the Italian 
cities was about to expire, the Campanians re- 
volted from their allegiance ; " an offence which 
they were made to expiate by a punishment, 
the severity of which has few examples in the 
history, not of Rome only, but of nations." 
Under the Etruscans the scattered Osci were 
collected into villages, and Vulturnus became 
after a time the capital of this commingled race. 
The same city under the Samnitic Campania 
was afterwards the capital of those people who 
changed its name to Capua. About the year 
421 or 422 U. C. Campania became by conquest 
subject to Rome, but the inhabitants were ad- 
mitted to the honours of citizenship, without, 
however, being permitted to exercise the right 
of suffrage. Dion. Hal. — Micali. Italia. — 
Cram. — Strab. 5. — Cic. de Leg. Ag. c. 35. — 
Justin, 20, c. 1. 1. 22, c. l.—Plin. 3, c. 5.— 
Mela, 2, c. ^.—Flor. 1, c. 16. 

Campi Diomedis. Vid. Canna. Laborini, 

the present Terra di Lavoro. Taurasini, 

in Samnium, famous for the total defeat of Pyr- 
rhus by Curius Dentatus, A. U. C. 477. — Rau- 
dii, where Marius defeated the Cimbri. They 
were in Cisalpine Gaul, and vaguely described 
by Plutarch as being near the town of Vercel- 

Ige. Rosci. These plains were sometimes 

called Tempe ; and the name of Dewy Plains. 
62 



by which the Romans designated them, was in- 
tended to convey the notion of their freshness 
and verdure. They were situated about the 
valley of the Velinus, and were often overflow- 
ed by its waters. 

Campus Martius, a large plain at Rome, 
without the walls of the city, where the Roman 
youths performed their exercises, and learnt to 
wrestle, and box, to throw the discus, hurl the 
javelin, ride a horse, drive a chariot, &c. The 
public assemblies were held there, and the offi- 
cers of state chosen, and audience given to fo- 
reign ambassadors. It was adorned with sta- 
tues, columns, arches, and porticoes, and its 
pleasant situation made it very frequented. It 
was called Martius, because dedicated to Mars. 
It was sometimes called Tiberinus, from its 
closeness to the Tiber, It was given to the Ro- 
man people by a vestal virgin ; but they were 
deprived of it by Tarquin the Proud, who made 
it a private field, and sowed corn in it. When 
Tarquin was driven from Rome, the people re- 
covered it, and threw away into the Tiber the 
corn which had grown there, deeming it unlaw- 
ful for any man to eat of the produce of that 
land. The sheaves which were thrown into the 
river stopped in a shallow ford, and by the ac- 
cumulated collection of mud became firm 
ground, and formed an island, which was 
called the Holy Island, or the island of ^scu- 
lapius. Dead carcasses were generally burnt 
in the Campus Martius. Strah. 5.— Liv. 2, c. 
5, 1. 6, c. 20. 

Campus EsauiLiNus, a piece of ground with- 
out the city walls, in which the lower orders of 
Romans were buried during the early ages of 
the Republic. It appears to have been used also 

as a place of execution. Sceleratus, a spot 

near the Porta Collina on the CLuirinal hill, 
where the vestals who had violated their vows 
were buried alive, 

CaNa, a city and promontory of ^Eolia. Me- 
la, 1, c. 18. 

Canarit, a people who received this name 
because they fed in common with their dogs. 
The islands which they inhabited were called 
Fortunate by the ancients, and are now known 
by the name of the Canaries. Plin. 5, c. 1. 

Canathus, a fountain of Nauplia, where Ju- 
no yearly washed herself to receive her infant 
purity. Paus. 2, c. 38. 

Candavia, a mountain of Epirus, which se- 
parates Illyria from Macedonia, Lnican. 6, v, 
331, 

Caninefates, a people near the Batavi, 
dwelling where modern Holland now is situate. 
Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 15. 

Cann^, a small village of Apulia near the 
Aufidus, where Hannibal conquered the Roman 
consuls P. ^mylius and Terentius Varro, and 
slaughtered 40,000 Romans, on the 21st of 
May, B.C. 216. " The field of battle was the 
plain between Cannae and the Aufidus." These 
plains were once known by the appellation of 
the Campi Diomedis. Liv. 22, c. 44. — Flor. 
2, c. 6. — Plut. in Annib. 

Canopicum ostium, one of the mouths of the 
Nile, 12 miles from Alexandria. Paus. 5, c. 21. 

Canopus, a city of Egypt, twelve miles from 
Alexandria, celebrated for the temple of Sera- 
pis. It was founded by the Spartans, and there- 
fore called Amycleea, and it received its name 



CA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CA 



from Canopus, the pilot of the vessel of Mene- 
.aus, who w£is buried in this place. The inha- 
bitants were dissolute in their manners. Virgil 
bestows upon it the epithet of Pellceus, because 
Alexander, who was born at Pella, built Alex- 
andria in the neighbourhood. Ital, 11, v. 433. 
—Mela, 1, c. d.—Strad. 11— Plin. 5, c. 31.— 
Virg. G. 4, V. 287. 

Cantabri, a ferocious and warlike people of 
Spain. Their country is now called Biscay. 
Liv. 3, V. 32d. —Horat. 2, od. 6 and 11. 

CantabrijE lacus, a lake in Spain, where a 
thunderbolt fell, and in which twelve axes were 
found. Suet, in Galb. 8. 

Cantium, a country in the eastern parts of 
Britain, now called Kent. Cces. Bell. G. 5. 

Canusium, now Canosa, a town of Apulia, 
whither the Romans fled after the battle of Can- 
nse. The wools and the cloths of the place 
were in high estimation. Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 
20.— Mela, 2, c. 4.— Plin. 8, c. 11. 

Capena, a gate of Rome. Ovid. Fast.b,y. 192. 

Capeni, a people of Etruria, in whose terri- 
tory Peronia had a grove and a temple, Virg. 
jEn. 7, V. 691.— Liv. 5, 22, &c. 

Caphareus, a lofty mountain and promontory 
of EubcEa, where Nauplius, king of the coun- 
try, to revenge the death of his son Palamedes, 
slain by Ulysses, set a burning torch in the 
darkness of night, which caused the Greeks to 
be shipwrecked on the coast. Virg. yEn. 11, 
V. 2Q0.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. ASl.—Propert. 4, 
el. l,v. 115. 

Capitolium, a celebrated temple and citadel 
at Rome, on the Tarpeian rock, the plan of 
which was- made by Tarquin Priscus. It was 
begun by Servius Tullius, finished by Tarquin 
Superbus, and consecrated by the consul Hora- 
tius after the expulsion of the Tarquins from 
Rome. It was built upon four acres of ground ; 
the front was adorned with three rows of pil- 
lars, and the other sides with two. The ascent 
to it from the ground was by an hundred steps. 
The magnificence and richness of this temple 
are almost incredible. All the consuls succes- 
sively made donations to the capitol, and Au- 
gustus bestowed upon it at one time 2000 
pounds weight of gold. Its thresholds were made 
of brass, and its roof was gold. It was adorned 
with vessels and shields of solid silver, with 
golden chariots, &c. It was burnt during the 
civil wars of Marius, and Sylla rebuilt it, but 
died before the dedication,which was performed 
by (X. Catulus. It was again destroyed in the 
troubles under Vitellius ; and Vespasian, who 
endeavoured to repair it. saw it again in ruins 
at his death. Domitian raised it again, for the 
last time, and made it more grand and magni- 
ficent than any of his predecessors, and spent 
12,000 talents in gilding it. When they first 
dug for the foundations, they found a man's 
head, called Tolius, sound and entire, in the 
ground, and from thence drew an omen of the 
future greatness of the Roman empire. The 
hill was from that circumstance called Capito- 
lium, a capite Toli. The consuls and magis- 
trates offered sacrifices there when they first en- 
tered upon their offices, and the procession in 
triumphs wels always conducted to the capitol. 
Virg. Mn. 6, v. 136, 1. 8, v. Ul.— Tacit. 3. 
Hist. c. 72. — Plut. in Poplic. — Liv. 1, 10, &c. 
— Plin. 33. &c. — SvMon. in Aug. c. 40. 



Cappadocia, a country of Asia Minor, sepa- 
rated on the Avest from Phrygia by the Halys 
towards its source, and by the Euphrates from 
Armenia Major. It had upon the north Gala- 
tia and Pontus, and on the south the Taurus 
mountains, which divided it from Cilicia and 
the coast. In these limits, on the east, was in- 
cluded Armenia Minor. The capital of Cap- 
padocia proper, or Magna,otherwise calledCap- 
padocia by the Taurus, was Masaca, afterwards 
Caesarea Vid. Cccsarea. The country named 
Pontus was, in fact, a part of Cappadocia, and 
the people of both regions were the same. Till 
this large district was formed into a separate 
country, it carried the boundary of Cappadocia 
on the north quite to the Euxine Sea. It re- 
ceived its name from the river Cappadox, which 
separates it from Galatia. The inhabitants 
were called Syrians and Leuco-Syrians by the 
Greeks. They were of a dull and submissive 
disposition, and addicted to every vice according 
to the ancients, who wrote this virulent epigram 
against them : 

Viper a Cappadocem nocilura momordit : at ilia 
Gustato periit sanguhie Cappadocis. 

When they were offered their freedom and in- 
dependence by the Romans, they refused it, and 
begged of them a king, and they received Ario- 
barzanes. It was some time after governed by 
a Roman proconsul. Though the ancients have 
ridiculed this country for the unfruitfulness of 
its soil and the manners of its inhabitants, yet 
it can boast of the birth of the geographer Stra- 
bo, St. Basil, and Gregory Nazianzen, among 
other illustrious characters. The horses of this 
country were in general esteem, and with these 
they paid their tributes to the king of Persia, 
while under his power, for want of money. The 
kings of Cappadocia mostly bore the name of 
Ariarathes. Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 39. — Plin. 6, c. 3. 
— Curt. 3 and 4. — Strab. 11 and 16. — Herodot. 
1, c. 73, I. 5, c. 49.— MeZa, 1, c. 2, I. 3, c. 8. 

Cappadox, a river of Cappadocia. Plin.6, c. 3. 

Capraria, now Cabrera, a mountain island 
on the coast of Spain, famous for its goats. 
Plin. 3, c. 6. 

CAPREiG, now Capri, an island on the coast 
of Campania, abotmding in quails, and famous 
for the residence and debaucheries of the empe- 
ror Tiberius during the seven last years of his 
life. The island, in which now several medals 
are dug up expressive of the licentious morals of 
the emperor, was about 40 miles in circumfe- 
rence, and surrounded by steep rocks. Ovid. Met. 
15, V. lOd.—Suet. in Tib.— Stat. Sylv. 3, v. 5. 

Capre^ palus, a place near Rome, where 
Romulus disappeared. Plut. in Rom. — Ovid. 
Fast. 2, V. 491. 

Capsa, " a town of Africa, in the province of 
Byzacium, which from its difficulty of access, 
was judged by Jugurtha a proper deposit for 
reserved treasure. The position of it is known, 
and its name is pronounced CafsaP H'Awnlle. 

Capua, the chief city of Campania, of Etrus- 
can origin. Its first founders called it Vultur- 
nus, by which name they also designated the 
river upon which it stood. Its change of name 
was effected by its Samnite conquerors. Under 
these people it established an aristocratic form 
of government, and by the aristocracy of this 
place the Romans were invited to extend their 
63 



CA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CA 



authority over the country of Campania ; thus 
gaining, says Micali, ta this fertile and well-de- 
fended region, more than they had been able to 
wrest from the people of Tuscany and Latium 
in four centuries of war. From this time for- 
ward the nobility of Capua were greatly favour- 
ed by the Roman senate, and the lower orders 
became still more to this body an object of con- 
tempt. Accordingly, on the approach of Han- 
nibal, he found a population ready to receive 
him with open arms. The vengeance of Rome, 
on the departure of Hannibal, reduced this beau- 
tiful place, with the adjacent country, almost to 
a desert ; and it was not till the time of Julius 
Caesar that the senate thought of restoring it. 
From this time it began to recover its former 
magnificence, and continued to flourish till, on 
the invasion of the barbarians, it fell with the 
rest of the exhausted empire. It is supposed to 
have contained at one time a population of at 
least 800,000, and its amphitheatre was built 
to entertain 100,000 spectators. This city was 
very ancient, and so opulent that it even rivalled 
Rome, and was called altera Roma. The sol- 
diers of Annibal, after the battle of Canna, 
were enervated by the pleasures and luxuries 
which powerfully prevailed in this voluptuous 
city and under a soft climate. Virg. jEn. 10, 
V. Ub.—Liv. 4, 7, 8, &c.—Paterc. 1, c. 7, 1. 2, 
c. 44. — Flor. 1, c. 16. — Cic. in Philip. 12, c. 3. 
— Plut. in Ann. 

Caraca, supposed to be Caravaggio^ in the 
Milanese. 

Car AGATES, a people of Germany. 

Caralis, (or es, mm,) the chief city of Sar- 
dinia, now Cagliari, on a bay in the south of 
the island, Paus. 10, c. 17. 

Carambis, now Kerempi, a promontory of 
Paphlagonia, pointing towards Taurica. Mela. 

Carchedon, the Greek name of Carthage. 

Cardia, a town of Thrace, near the isthmus 
which connects the Chersonesus with the main 
land. Eumenes, one of Alexander's most able 
generals and Hieronymus the historian, were 
natives of Cardia. When Lysimachus took 
possession of the Chersonese, he founded a city 
called Lysimachia, near the site of Cardia, and 
transferred to it the greater part of the Cardians. 
Lysimachia suffered greatly from the Thra- 
cians, and was nearly in ruins when it was re- 
stored by Antiochus, king of Syria. In the mid- 
dle ages its name was lost in that of Hexamilion, 
a fortress constructed probably out of its ruins, 
and so called, doubtless, from the width of the 
isthmus. Cram. 

CARDUCffl, a people of Assyria, who occu- 
pied the mountains by which that country is 
covered on the side of Armenia and Atropatene. 
From their names is derived that of the Kurdes ; 
also that of Kurdistan^ which modern geogra- 
phers apply to Assyria. D^Anville. 

Caria, a country of Asia Minor, south of Io- 
nia, at the east and north of the Icarian Sea, and 
at the west of Phrygia Major and Lycia. It 
has been called Phoenicia because a Phoenician 
colony first settled there ; and afterwards it re- 
ceived the name of Caria, from Car, an ancient 
king of the country. A confederacy of Dori- 
ans from Greece were established on the west- 
ern coast. 

Cariate, a town of Bactriana, where Alex- 
ander imprisoned Callisthenes. 
64 



Carilla, a town of the Piceni, destroyed by 
Annibal for its great attachment to Rome. Sil. 
Ital. 8. 

Carina, a quarter in the fourth region of 
Rome, so called, as Nardini not improbably sup- 
poses, from its being placed in a hollow between 
the CoBlian, Palatine, and Esquiline hills. Ac- 
cording to the same writer it corresponds with 
that portion of the modern city which is known 
by the appellation of Pantani. From the pas- 
sage of Virgil (.<E%. 8, 359,) we may infer, that 
this quarter was distinguished by an air of su- 
perior elegance and grandeur. It appears that 
the Carinee were contiguous to the forum. 
Cram. 

Carisiacum, a town of ancient Gaul, now 
Cressy in Picardy. 

Carmania, now Kerman, a country of Asia, 
between Persia and India. Its capital, now 
Kerman or Sirjan, was anciently Carmana. 
Arrian. — Plin. 6, c. 23. 

Carmelus mons, a mountain of Syria, bor- 
dering on the shore to the north of Caesarea. 
The respect of the Jews for this mountain was 
communicated also to the Pagans. Several ma- 
ritime cities are still recognized under mount 
Carmel. D'Anville. 

Carmentaus porta, one of the gates of 
Rome, in the neighbourhood of the capitol. It 
was afterwards called Scelerata, because the 
Fabii passed through it in going to that fatal 
expedition where they perished. Virg. ^E7i. 8, 
V. 338. 

Carmona, a town of Hispania Boetica, not 
far from Hispalis, Seville. Now Carmone in 
Andalusia. Lemaire. 

Carnasfum, in Messenia, situated at the 
end of the Stenyclerian plain, was a thick grove 
of C3^resses, containing statues of the Carneian 
Apollo, Mercury, Criophorus, and Proserpine. 
It was here that the Messenians celebrated the 
mystic rites of the great goddesses. Cram. — 
Paus. — Mess. 33. 

Carni, a people at the head of the Hadriatic, 
below the Alps, to a part of which they gave 
the name of Carnicse, also called Juliae. Their 
name now subsists in what is called Carniola, 
though more contracted in limits than the ter- 
ritories of the Carni. D^Anville. 

Carnion, " a small stream of Arcadia, which 
had its source in the district of ^gys in Laco- 
nia, near the temple of Apollo Cereates. Pliny 
seems to speak of a town of this name." Crara. 
—Plin. 4, 6. 

Carnuntum, an important town of Panno- 
nia, situated on the Danube, below Vindobona, 
Vienna. As to the exact position of its site at 
the present day, opinions vary between Petro- 
nel, Haimbourg, and Altenimrg, (Old Town) 
situated between the two former. D'Anville 
inclines to the latter. D'Anville. 

Carnus, one of the Taphian islands, now 
either Calamo or Kastoni. Cram. 

Carnutes, one of the most powerful nations 
of Gallia Celtica, known before Caesar's expedi- 
tion, and mentioned by Livy among those tribes 
that crossed the Alps in the reign of Tarquinius 
Priscus. Notwithstanding their flourishing 
condition, they were dependent on the Remi. 
Ceesar represents their country as in the middle 
of Gaul : not that this was the fact in regard to 
their geographical relation, but that there was 



CA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CA 



the principal seat of the Druids, and the supreme 
tribunal of confederate Gaul. The Carnntes 
had on the north the Aulerci, Eburovices, and 
Parisii ; on the east, the Senones ; on the south, 
the Bituriges and Turones ; and on the west, 
the Anlerci Cenomani. Their chief to\VTis were 
Autricum, Chartres, and Genabum, Their ter- 
ritory forms the provinces called le pays Char- 
train, and VOrleanoAs, more properly at the 
present time Departement d' Eure-et-Loir and 
Dep. du Loiret. Lemuire. Ccbs. B. G. 2, cf5; 
5,25; 29,54; 6,4; 7,6. 

Carpathus, an island in the Mediterranean 
between Rhodes and Crete, now called >Scar- 
panto. It has given its name to a part of the 
neighbouring sea, thence called the Carpathian 
Sea, between Rhodes and Crete. It was 20 miles 
in circumference, and was sometimes called 
Tetrapolis, from its four toT\Tis, the principal 
one of which was called Nisgrus. Ptolemy calls 
the southern promontor}'' of the island Thoan- 
T.inm, the modern Ephialtium. Plin. 4, c. 12. 
—HerodM. 3, c. Ab.—Diod. b.—Strab. 10. 

Carpetani, a people in the centre of Spain, 
on either side of the Tagus. Their capital was 
Toletnm. 

Carpi, a people who inhabited the Carpa- 
thian mountains. Aurelian subdued them, for 
which the senate offered him the title of Carpi- 
cus. This he declined accepting. 

CARR.E, and Carrh.e, a town of Mesopota- 
mia, between the Chaboras and Euphrates. 
Here Crassus was defeated'. It is the Charan 
or Haran to which Terah and his sons re- 
moved from Ur of the Chaldees ; and whence 
Abraham and Lot subsequently removed to the 
land of Canaan. This city must be distin- 
guished from another of the same name in Ara- 
bia Felix, named in Ezekiel 27, 23, probably 
the same mentioned in Plin. 5, 24. L/acan. 1, 
107. — Genesis, 11, 31. — Rosenmuller ad loc. 

Carseoli, a town of the Mqxxi, on the Via 
Valeria, about 15 miles from Varia. It became 
a Roman colony A. U. C. 451. It was one of 
the 30 cities which refused their assistance to 
the state at the most pressing period of the se- 
cond Punic war. The site is now II piano di 
Carsoli, and its ruins, that of Celle di Carsoli. 
Cram.—Strab. 5, 238.— /.it". 10, 3 ; 27, 9. 

Carsul^, a town of the Umbrians, on a 
branch of the Flaminian Way, the ruins of 
which are to be seen between San Gemino and 
Acqua Sparta. It still retains the name of Co.r- 
soli. It is noticed by Strabo among the princi- 
pal touTLs of Umbria. Cram. — Strab. 5. 227. 

Carteia. Vid. Calpe. 

Cartenna, a town of Mauritania, now Te- 
nez, on the shores of the Mediterranean. 

Carthago, I. an ancient city of Africa Pro- 
pria, situated on a peninsula, in the north-east- 
ern part of the province. This peninsula ter- 
minated in .Cape Carthage, and was connected to 
the main land by an isthmus about three miles 
wide, which is no longer to be distinguished, the 
sea having retired from the adjoining beach. 
D'Anville remarks that " the circuit of 300 sta- 
dia given to this peninsula, must be of the short- 
est measure to be commensurate with the 24 
miles assigned by another authority to the vast 
enclosure comprehending the city with its ports." 
Another writer, of distingtiished learning, seems 
to apply the latter measurement to the circum- 
Part. 1.— I 



ference of the city itself, and the former to that 
of the peninsula. The town, he tells us, is " in 
compass 24 miles, but, measuring by the outward 
wall, it was 45. For, without the wall of the 
city itself there were three walls more, betwixt 
each of which there were three or four streets, 
with vatilts under ground of 30 feet deep." It 
had a citadel, named Byrsa, on an eminence ; a 
harbour, still called el-Marza, or the port, but 
now some distance from the sea ; and an inte- 
rior port, excavated by human labour, and called 
Cothon. The foundation of Carthage is gene- 
rally attributed to Dido, whom Virgil makes a 
contemporary of jEneas. In point of fact, Car- 
thage was more than once fotmded, if we may 
use the expression before the Roman conquest. 
In the ancient writers, not only were those said 
condere urbem, " to found a city," who laid its 
first foundations, but also those who repaired, or 
fortified it, or planted in it a new colony. Car- 
thage was first founded, according to Appian, 
by Tzorus and Carchedon, 50 years before the 
fall of Troy, B. C. 1198 ; or, as Eusebius com- 
putes, B. C. 1217. It is said to have been again 
founded, or rebuilt, 173 years after the former 
epoch, i. e. B. C. 1025, {Euseb. 1044). Still 
later, by nearly 190 years, a third foimdation is 
recorded, 143 years after the building of Solo- 
mon's temple, B. C. 861, before the building of 
Rome 108. Dido is said to have given the city 
the name of Carthadt, or Cartha-Hadath, " the 
new city," either because built anew by her, or 
to distinguish it from Utica, on the opposite 
shore of the intervening bay, v.'hich had been 
founded at an earlier period . From the Phoeni- 
cian name comes the Gr.ecian ILapxri^^^v and the 
Latin Carthago. Carthag'e was distinguished 
for the commercial enterprise of its inhabitants, 
and its consequent wealth and power ; which 
excited to such a degree the jealousy of Rome, 
that nothing but her rival's extinction would 
satisfy the destined mistress of the world. ( Vid. 
Punicum Bellum.') Among the navigators of 
Carthage were, Hanno, who wrote the Peri- 
plus, and Himilco, the first Carthaginian who 
reached the Cassiterides, or CEstr}^mnides, as he 
calls them. Among her warriors were Hamil- 
car, Mago, Asdrubal, and Hannibal. Scipio 
Africanus Minor destroyed the city 146 B. C. ; 
its re-establishment, projected by Csesar, was 
executed by Augustus; and Strabo, writing 
under Tiberius, speaks of Carthage as one of 
the most flourishing cities of Africa. It became 
the residence of the emperor's Vicarius, or Lieu- 
tenant-General ; and the see of the chief pri- 
mate of the African churches. During the 
greater part of the 5ch and part of the 6th cen- 
turies it was occupied by the Vandals. Having 
been destroyed by the Saracens, it revived again, 
and had the reputation of a city of no mean im- 
portance till the year 1270, when, being forced 
by the French under Lewis the 9th, and there- 
upon deserted by its old inhabitants, it began to 
languish, and was at last reduced to nothing but 
a few scattered houses. The final ruin of Car- 
thage contributed to the rise of Tunis, now the 
capital city. The remains of the ancient city 
are still visible near a fort, now called " the fort 
of the Goulette,'' from the pass which connects 
the gulf, at the head of which stands Tunis, 
with the sea without. Heyne, Ezc 1. ad JEn, 
lib. 4.— D'Anville.— Heyl. Cosm.—Burnouf.— 
65 



CA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CA 



de Brasses. — Justin. II. Nova, a town in 

the south-eastern part of Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, built by 
Asdrubal the Carthaginian general. It was 
taken by Scipio when Hanno surrendered him- 
self after a heavy loss. It now bears the name 
of Carthagenu. Polyb. 10. — Liv. 26, c. 43, &c. 
—Sil. 15, V. 220, &c. 

Carta, I. a town of Arcadia. II. A city 

of Laconia. Paus. 3, c. 10. Here a festival 
was observed in honour of Diana Caryatis. At 
that time the peasants assembled at the usual 
place, and sang pastorals, called BovKoXw/zot, 
from QovKoXos a Tveatherd. From this circum- 
stance some suppose that bucolics originated. 
Stat. 4, Theb. 225. 

Caryanda, a town and island on the coast of 
Caria, now Karacoion. 

CARYATiE, a people of Arcadia, According 
to Vitruvius, the statues called Caryatides de- 
rived their name from this place ; but the anec- 
dote that pretends to explain the connexion is 
improbable. 

Carystus, a maritime town on the south of 
EuboBa, still in existence, famous for its marble. 
The spot at which it was obtained was called 
Marmarium. Stat. 2, Sylv. 2, v. 93. — Martial. 
9, ep. 76. 

Casilinum, a town of Campania. When it 
was besieged by Hannibal, a mouse sold for 
200 denarii. The place was defended by 540 
or 570 natives of Praeneste, who, when half 
their number had perished either by war or fa* 
mine, surrendered to the conqueror. Liv. 23, 
c. 19.— Strab. b.—Cic. de Inv. 2, c. bl.—Plin. 
3, c. 5. 

Casius mons, I. a mountain at the east of 
Pelusium, where Pompey's tomb was raised by 
Adrian. Jupiter, surnamed Casius, had a tem- 
ple there. iMcan. 8, v. 258. II. Another in 

Syria, from whose top the sun can be seen ri- 
sing, though it be still the darkness of night at 
the bottom of the mountain. Plin. 5, c. 22. — 
Mela, 1 and 3. It is watered the whole length 
of its course upon the east by the Orontes. 

Caspi^ PYLffi, a defile of mount Taurus, 
aflfording a passage from Media into Hyrcania. 
" The Tapusi, inhabiting this country, have 
given it the name of Taharistan, though it is 
otherwise called Mazanderan. Its principal 
town Zadracarta has not entirely lost this name 
in that of Sari." D'Anville. — Diod. 1. — Plin. 
5, c. 27, 1. 6, c. 13. 

Casph, a Scythian nation near the Caspian 
Sea. Such as had lived beyond their 70th year 
were starved to death. 'Their dogs were re- 
markable for their fierceness. Herodot. 3, c. 92, 
&c. 1. 7, c. 67, &c.— C. Nep. 14, c. S.— Virg. 
jEn. 6, V. 798. 

Caspium mare, or Hyrcanum, a large sea in 
the form of a lake, which hsis no communica- 
tion with other seas, and lies between the Cas- 
pian and Hyrcania n mountains, at the north of 
Parthia, receiving in its capacious bed the tri- 
bute of several large rivers. Ancient authors 
assure us, that it produced enormous serpents 
and fishes, different in colour and kind from 
those of all other waters. The eastern parts 
are more particularly called the Hyrcanian Sea, 
and the western the Caspian. It is now called 
the sea of Sala or Baku. The Caspian is 
about 680 miles long, and in no part more than 
66 



260 in breadth. There are no tides in it, and 
on account of its numerous shoals it is naviga- 
ble to vessels drawing only nine or ten feet wa- 
ter. It has strong currents, and, like inland 
seas, is liable to violent storms. Some naviga- 
tors examined it in 1708, by order of the Czar 
Peter; and, after the labour of three years, a 
map of its extent was published. Its waters 
are described as brackish, and not impregnated 
with salt so much as the wide ocean. lierodot. 
1, c. 202, &L(i.—Curt. 3, c. 2, 1. 6, c. 4, 1. 7, c. 
2.~Strab. n.—Mela, 1, c. 2, 1. 3, c. 5 and 6. 
— Plin. 6, c. 13. — Dionys. Perieg.Y. 50. 

Caspius mons, a branch of the Taurus in 
Media, parallel with the southern coast of the 
sea. At mount Coronus, near the southern ex- 
tremity, were the Caspiae Pylag. 

Cassandria. Vid. Potidaa. Paus. 5, c. 23. 

Cassiope, I. a city of Epirus, which termi- 
nated the coast of Chaonia on the south. II. 

Another, nearly opposite, in the island of Cor- 
cyra. Near it was a cape of the same name, 
now the cape of Santa Caterina. Cram. 

Cassiterides, islands in the western ocean, 
where tin was found, supposed to be the Scilli/ 
Islands, the Land's End, and Lizard Point, ot 
the moderns. Plin. 5, c. 22. Vid. Britannia. 

Castabala, a city of Cilicia, whose inhabit- 
ants made war with their dogs. Plin. 8, c. 40. 

Castalius pons, or Castalia, a fountain of 
Parnassus, sacred to the muses. It pours 
from between the summits of Parnassus, called 
Hyampeia and Naupleia, and was fed by the 
perennial snows of the mountain. At the bot- 
tom of the valley it begins to flow in a stream, 
and joins the little river Pleistus. Cram. — 
DodweWs Travels. The muses have received 
the surname of Castalides from this fountain. 
Virg. G. 3, V. 293.— Martial. 7, ep. 11, 1. 12, ep. 3. 

Castanea, a town near the Peneus, whence 
the nuces Castanece received their name. Plin. 
4, c. 9. 

Castellum Menapiorum, I. a town of Bel- 
gium on the Maese, now Kessel. II. Mori- 

norum, now Mount Cassel, in Flanders. III. 

Cattorum, now Hesse Cassel. 

Castra Alexandri, I. a place of Egypt 
about Pelusium. Curt. 4, c. 7. — II. Corne- 
lia, a maritime town of Africa between Car- 
thage and Utica. Mela, 1, c. 7. The name 
Cornelia was bestowed upon this spot in honour 
of the first Scipio, who was of the Cornelian 
family, and who had there established his camp, 
when in imitation of Hannibal's policy, he had 
carried the war of Rome and Carthage into Af- 
rica. III. Annibalis, a town of the Brutii, 
now Roccella. IV. Cyri, a country of Cili- 
cia, where Cyrus encamped when he marched 

against Croesus. Curt. 3, c. 4. V. Julia, a 

town of Spain. VI. Posthumiana, a place 

of Spain. Hirt. Hisp. 8. " The termination 
Chester, applied to many cities in England, is 
a depravation of the Latin term Castrum, which 
the Roman domination had established and ren- 
dered familiar in Britain; and which, under 
the Anglo Saxons, having taken the form of 
Ceaster, has become Cester or Chester indif- 
ferently." D'Anville. 

Castitj.o, a town of Spain, where Annibal 
married one of the natives. It belonged to the 
Oretani, and stood on the Baetis. Pint, in 
Sert.—Liv. 24, c. A\.—Ital. 3, v. 99 and 391. 



CA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CA 



Catabathmos, a great declivity near Cyrene, 
fixed by Sallust as the boundary of Africa on 
the side of Asia. It was the ]ast point of Mar- 
marica on the limits of Cyrenaica, and is now 
Abaket-assolom. Sallust. Jug. 17 and 19. — 
Plin. 5, c. 5. 

Catadupa, the name of the large cataracts of 
the Nile, whose immense noise stmis the ear of 
travellers for a short space of time, and totally 
deprives the neighbouring inhabitants of the 
power of hearing. Cic. de Somn. Scip. 5. " 

Catana, a town of Sicily, at the foot of 
mount iEtna, founded by a colony from Chal- 
cis, 753 years before the christian era, Ceres 
had there a temple, in which none but women 
were permitted to appear. It was large and 
opulent, and it is rendered remarkable for the 
dreadful overthrows to which it has been sub- 
jected from its vicinity to ^Etna, which has dis- 
charged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of 
lava 4 miles broad and 50 feet deep, advancing 
at the rate of 7 miles in a day. Catana con- 
tains now about 30,000 inhabitants. Cic. in 
Verr. 4, c. 53, 1 5, c. M.—Diod. 11 and 14.— 
Strab. 6—Thucyd. 6, c. 3. 

Cataonia, a country above Cilicia,near Cap- 
padocia. C. Nep. in Dot. 4. 

Cataractes, a river of Pamphylia, now Do- 
densoui. It rose in the mountains which lined 
that province tovv^ards Phrygia, and crossing 
nearly its whole width from north to south, it 
emptied into the bay that washed the southern 
coast of Pamphylia and the south-eastern cor- 
ner of Lycia. 

CYTH.EA, a country of India, the precise situa- 
tion of which is not known. 

Catti, a people of Germany. Caesar calls 
them Suevi, of which they were in reality a 
powerful iribe. The territory which they pos- 
sessed it would not be easy to define, as it pro- 
bably varied with the result of their conflicts 
with the other Germanic families. They had, 
if considered in their narrowest bounds, the 
Sicambri on the west and the Cherusci on the 
north ; the Maine, within which they were not 
strictly confined, forming their southern boun- 
dary towards that triangular tract of country, 
which, l5ang between the Danube and the 
Rhine, forms now the kingdom of Wurtemburg 
and duchy of Baden. The name of Cassel is 
supposed by D'Anville to retain something of 
that of Castellum, a position of the Catti; and 
Marburg is believed by him to represent Mat- 
tium,their capital. Tacit Ann. 13, v. 57. 

Cattjriges, a people of Gaul, now Charges, 
near the source of the Durance. Cess. B. G. 
1, c. 10.— PZm. 3, c. 20. 

Cavares, a people of Gaul, who inhabited 
the present province of Comtat in Provence. 

Caucasus, a chain of mountains which close 
the northern from the southern regions of Asia, 
between the Euxine and the Caspian seas. 
" On the south Caucsisus joins the numerous 
chains of mount Taurus ; to the north it bor- 
ders on the vast plains where the Sarmatce once 
wandered, and where the Cossacks and Kal- 
mucks now roam ; towards the east it bounds 
the narrow plain that separates it from the Cas- 
pian Sea ; on the west the high chain terminates 
abruptly towards Mingrelia, by rugged moun- 
tains, called the Montes Ceraunii by the an- 
cients. The two principal passes are' mention- 



ed by them under the name of the Caucasian 
and Albanian gates. The first is the defile 
which leads from Mosdok to Tiflis. It is the 
narrow valley of four days' journey, where, ac- 
cording to Strabo, the river Aragon, now called 
Arakui, flows. It is, as Pliny calls it, an enor- 
mous work of nature, who has cut oiU a long 
opening through the rocks which an iron gate 
would almost be sufficient to close. It is by 
this passage that the barbarians of the north 
threatened both the Roman and the Persian 
empires. The ancients gave different names to 
the strong castle which commanded this pas- 
sage. It is now called Dariel. The Albanian 
passes of the ancients were, according to com- 
mon opinion, the pass of Derbend, along the 
Caspian Sea : but if we compare with care all 
the records which the ancients have left us ; if 
we reflect that in no descriptions of this pass is 
the Caspian Sea mentioned; if we remember 
that Ptolemy expressly placed the gates on the 
entrances of Albania, near the sources of the 
river Kasius, which, according to the whole 
tenor of his geography must be the modern 
Koisu ; that the same geographer makes the 
Diduri neighbours to the Tusci, near the Sar- 
matian passes ; and that these two tribes, under 
the names of Didos and Tushes, still dwell 
near a defile passing through the territory of 
Ooma Khan, along the frontier of Daghestan, 
and then traversing the district of Kagmam- 
sharie ; we shall conclude that to be the place 
where we must look for the Albanian or Sar- 
matian passes which have hitherto been misun- 
derstood. The name of the Caspian pass, be- 
longing properly to the defile near Teheran in 
Media, is vaguely applied by Tacitus and some 
other writers to diflerent passes of mount Cau- 
casus. But we must distinguish from all these 
passes which traverse the chain from north to 
south, the Iberian passes or defile of Parapaux. 
now Shaoorapo, by which they pass from Sme- 
ritia into Kartalinia, a defile in which,according 
to Strabo, there were precipices and deep abyss- 
es ; but which, in the 4th century, the Persians 
rendered practicable for armies. The breadth of 
the isthmus over which these mountains extend, 
is about 400 miles between the mouths of the 
Don and the Kooma ; about 756 betu'een the 
straits of Cafia and the peninsula of Absheron ; 
and about 350 between the mouths of the Pha- 
sis and the city of Derbend. It contains an ex- 
traordinary number of small nations. Some 
are the remains of Asiatic hordes, which, in the 
great migrations, passed and repassed these 
mountains ; but the greater number are com- 
posed of indigenous and primitive tribes. The 
etymology of the name is not agreed upon, but 
it is probably a compound of a Persian word, 
Caw a mountain, and a Scythian word Cawpi, 
white mountain. Eratosthenes informs us that 
the natives called it Caspios ; but Pliny says 
that the native name was Graucasus, which 
may be considered as Gothic." Malte-Brun. 

Caucones, a people of Paphlagonia, original- 
ly inhabitants of Arcadia, or of Scythia accord- 
ing to some accounts. Some of them made a 
settlement near Dvmse in Elis. Herodot. 1, 
&c.— Strab. 8, «fec. " 

Caudi, and Caudium, a town of the Sam- 
nites, near which, in a place called Caudina 
FhiTcula, the Roman army under T. Veturius 
67 



CE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



C£ 



Calvinus and Sp. Posthumius was obliged to 
surrender to the Samnites, and pass under the 
yoke with the greatest disgrace. Liv. 9, c. 1, 
&c. — Lmcan. 2. v. 138. 

Caulonia, or Caulon, a town of Italy near 
the country of the Brutii, founded by a colony 
of Achaeans, and destroyed in the wars between 
Pyrrhus and the Romans. Pans. 6, c. 3. — 
Virg. JEn. 3, v. 553. 

Caunus, a city of Caria, opposite Rhodes, 
where Protogenes was born. The climate was 
considered as unwholesome, especially in sum- 
mer. Cic. de Div. 2, c. i.—Strab. 14. Herodot 
1, c. 176. 

Cauros, an island with a small town, former- 
ly called Andros, in the uEgean Sea. Plin. 
4, c. 12. 

Cayster, now KitchecJcMeinder, which sig- 
nifies Little Meander, a rapid river of Asia, 
rising in Lydia, and after a meandering course, 
falling into the ^gean Sea near Ephesus. Ac- 
cording to the poets, the banks and neighbour- 
hood of this river were generally frequented by 
swans. Ovid. Met. 2. v. 253, 1. 5. v. 386.— 
Mart. 1, ep. 54. — Homer. II. 2, v, 461. — Virg. 
G. 1, v. 384. 

Ceba, now Ceva^ a town of modern Pied- 
mont, famous for cheese. Plin. 11, c. 42. 

Cebenna, mountains, now the Cevennes, se- 
parating the Averni from the Helvii, extend- 
ing from the Garonne to the Rhone. Cces. B. 
G. 7, c. 8.— Mela, 2, c. 5. 

Cebrenia, a country of Troas, with a town 
of the same name, called after the river Cebre- 
nus, which is in the neighbourhood. CEnone, 
the daughter of the Cebrenus, receives the pa- 
tronymic of Cebrenis. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 769. 
—Stat. 1, Sylv. 5, v. 21. 

Cecropia, the original name of Athens, in 
honour of Cecrops, its first founder. The Athe- 
nians are often called Cecrofidce. 

Celjen^, or Celene, a city of Phrygia, of 
which it was once the capital. Cyrus the young- 
er had a palace there, with a park filled with 
wild beasts, where he exercised himself in hunt- 
ing. The Meander arose in this park. Xerxes 
built a famous citadel there after his defeat 
in Greece. The inhabitants of Celsenae were car- 
ried by Antiochus Soter to people Apamea when 
newly founded. StraJb. 12. — Liv. 38, c. 13. — 
Xenoph. AnaJb. 1. Marsyas is said to have con- 
tended in its neighbourhood against Apollo. 
Herodot. 7, c. 2Q.—lMcan. 3, v. 206. 

Celendr^, Celendris, and Celenderis, 
a colony of the Samians in Cilicia, Lmcan. 8, 
V. 259. 

CelennA; or Cel^na, a town of Campania, 
where Juno was worshipped. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 
739. 

Celt«, a name given to the nation that in- 
habited the country between the ocean and the 
Palus Mseotis, according to some authors men- 
tioned by Pint, in Mario. This name, though 
anciently applied to the inhabitants of Gaul, 
as well as of Germany and Spain, was more 
particularly given to a part of the Gauls, whose 
country, called Gallia Celtica, was situate be- 
tween the rivers Sequana and Garumna, mo- 
dernly called la Seine and la Garonne. The 
Celtae seemed to receive their name from Cel- 
tus, a son of Hercules or of Polyphemus. The 
promontory which bore the name of Celticum 
68 



is now called Cape Finisterre. The name of 
Celta3 was bestowed in antiquity upon nume- 
rous tribes of men, called by the Romans, in imi- 
tation of the Greeks, Barbarians, and inhabit- 
ing a;t diflferent periods difierent parts of the 
" orbis veteribus notus." At the dawn of his- 
tory they were found residing, in various fami- 
lies, through all the north and north-east of Eu- 
rope, and by the Palus Maeotis, extending from 
the Asiatic side. Every possible theory has been 
imagined and exhausted in regard to their ori- 
gin ; and the sturdiest antiquarians are only sa- 
tisfied with seeing clearly their descent from the 
offspring of Noah. With these theories we 
have nothing here to do. History, however, 
traces their gradual progress towards the west, 
as the Cimbric and Gothic races pressed on 
them from behind from the same forests proba- 
bly from which they had still earlier migrated 
themselves. Their connexion with the Cimbri 
is probable, as with an intermediate race ; but 
their establishment in Gaul, while the Cimbri 
still occupied the western banks of the Rhine 
and extended to the Chersonese that bore their 
name, marks out the chronological order of their 
progress towards the west. As the northern ex- 
tremity of this region became likewise subject 
to the pressure of the later barbarians, the Cel- 
tae passed across the Seine, established them- 
selves between that river and the Loire, and 
gave their name to the comparatively narrow 
tract that lay between. In reference to later 
ages, the people of this region are more special- 
ly alluded to when the Roman historians name 
the Celts. Other bodies, however, crossed over 
to the British Isles, where they were still sub- 
ject to the same invasion of their territory, un- 
til they appear to have retreated at last to the 
verge of the western ocean. Then it is that 
poetry, if not history, drives them even across 
the Atlantic, and claims for them the discovery 
of America. When first the Gauls began to 
find themselves restrained in their settlements 
about the Rhine, or probably allured by the in- 
ducements of a milder climate, they passed the 
Alps on one side and the Pyrenees on the other, 
establishing in Italy the name of Gaul from the 
Alps and the Adige to the Appenines and the 
Po ; and in Spain, the name of Celts in that of 
Celtiberi. Vid. Gallia, Celtica, Celtiberi, Bri- 
tannia. Cces. Bell. G. 1, c. 1, &c. Mela, 3, 
c. 2. — Herodot. 4, c. 49. 

Celtiberi, a people of Spain, descended from 
the Celtse. Vid. Hispania. Their country, 
called Celtiberia, is now known by the name of 
Arragon. Diod. 6. — Flor. 2, c. 17. — Strab. 4. 
—Lucan. 4, v. 10.— Sil. It. 8, v. 339. 

Celtica, a third of Gaul in the division ot 
the Commentaries ; its northern boundary was 
formed by the rivers Seine and Marne, and the 
territory of the Leuci ; its eastern, by the Rhse- 
tian, Pennine, Graian, and Cottian Alps ; its 
southern, by the Province, a part of the Ceven- 
nes, and the river Garonne ; while the ocean 
bathed it on the western shore. Within these 
limits was a Celtic population, divided into at 
least 43 separate people. This was not, how- 
ever, the line which, under the empire, includ- 
ed Celtic Gaul. Augustus extended Aquitania 
to include that portion of Celtica which lay be- 
tween the Garonne and the Loire ; and what 
remained of this province assumed the name of 



CE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CE 



Lugdunensis, Lionois. It is as thus reduced, 
that Gallia Celtica is most frequently consider- 
ed. When the Gauls of the Province assumed 
in a measure the dress and manners of the Ro- 
mans, their country was designated as Gallia 
Braccata, from the garment which they wore ; 
and Celtic Gaul was, from the inhabitants suf- 
fering their hair to grow, called Gallia Comata. 

Celtici, a people of Lusitania, between the 
Anas, the Tagus, and the ocean. Their prin- 
cipal city was Pax Julia, now Beja, according 
to D'Anville, who observes, that a body of this 
people " having crossed the Anas, was canton- 
ed far distant in the neighbourhood of Finis- 
terre^ which, besides the name of Artabrum, 
was also called Celticum." 

CELTOscYTHiB, a uorthcm nation of Scy- 
thians. Strab. 10. 

Censum, a promontory of Eubosa, where Ju- 
piter CencEus had an altar raised by Hercules. 
Ovid. Met. 9, v. 136.— Thucyd. 3, c. 93. 

Cenchre^, I. now Kenkri^ the port or har- 
bour of Corinth, on the Saronic gulf. It stood 
from nine to ten miles distant from the capital, 
and the road which led to it is said by Pausa- 
nias to have been lined with temples and sepul- 
chres. The bath of Helen near this place, 
according to the account of Dr. Clarke, is a 
spring, boiling up with force enough to turn a 
mill. — —II. Another of Argolis, from which the 
road to Tegea passed by mount Parthenius 
which formed the limit between Argolis and 
Arcadia. Paus. — Corinth. 24. — Arcad. 6, 54. 
— Ovid. TVist. 1, el. 9, v. 19.— Plin. 4, c. 4. 

CENCHRros, a river of Ionia, near Ephesus, 
where some- suppose that Latona was concealed 
after she had brought forth. Tacit. Ann. 3, c. 61. 

Cenimagni, a name of the Iceni, according 
to Caesar and Tacitus. Camb. Brit. 

Cenomani. Vid. Aulerci. 

Centrites, a river between Armenia and 
Media, now the Khabour. D'Anville consi- 
ders it to be the same as the Nicephorius, which 
flowed beneath the walls of Tigranocerta. 

Centrones, a people of Gaul inhabiting the 
Graian Alps about the sources of the Isara, be- 
tween the Salassi and the Allobroges, the mo- 
dern Dauphine and department of Isere. A 
small town under the Romans, Forum Claudii, 
preserves the name of Centron, and was, per- 
haps, at one time the capital of the Centrones; 
but Monstier, which formerly weis known by 
the name of Darantasia, and was certainly at 
one period a capital, imparted its name in that 
of Tarantois to the country of the Centrones. 

Centum Cell«, a sea-port town of Etruria 
built by Trajan, who had there a villa. It is 
now Civita Vecchia. 

Centuripa, (es, or ce, arum,) now Centorhi, 
a town of Sicily at the foot of mount JEtna. 
Cic. in Verr. 4, c. 23.—Ital. 14, v. 205.— PZm. 
3, c. 8. 

Ceos, and Cea, a principal island of the Cy- 
clades. It was supposed to have been torn by 
some convulsion from the southern coast of 
Euboea. The inhabitants were lonians from 
Attica, and are said to have fought for the liber- 
ty of Greece at Artemisium and at Salamis. 
It stood within five miles of the promontory of 
Sunium. There w^ere at one time four flou- 
rishing towns on this island, lulis, Carthsea, 
Coressia, and Poeessa ; but before the time of 



Strabo the population of the two latter had been 
transferred to the former. The modem name 
is Zia.—Plin. 4, 12. — Herodot. 8. 1.— Strab. 

Cephalas, a lofty promontory of Africa, near 
the Syrtis Major. Stra^. 

Cephallena, and Cephallenia, an island 
in the Ionian Sea, ofi" the coast of Acarnania, 
about 120 miles in circumference by modern 
measurement, though Strabo and Ptolemy re- 
present it at much less. The name of Cephal- 
lenia, as derived by mythologists from Cepha- 
lus, who received it from Amphitryon, was later 
than that of Teloboas, or than that of Samos, 
by which it is designated b}^ Homer, Od. 4, 671, 
and 2,634; though the same poet refers to the 
inhabitants by the name of Cephallenians. II. 
2, 631, and 4, 329. It was sometimes called 
likewise Tetrapolis from its four principal ci- 
ties, Palle or Pale, Cranii, Same, and Proni. 
The modem name of Cephalonia has succeed- 
ed, with a slight change, to that which desig- 
nated the island as a part of the dominions of 
Ulysses almost 3000 years ago. 

Cephaloedis, and Cephaludium, now Ce- 
phalu, a town at the north of Sicily. Sil. 14, 
V. 253.— Cic. 2, in Verr. 51. 

Cephisia, a part of Attica, through which the 
Cephisus flows. Plin. 4, c. 7. 

Cephisus, and Cephissus, I. a celebrated ri- 
ver of Greece, that rises at Liloea in Phocis, and, 
after passing at the north of Delphi, and mount 
Parnassus, enters Boeotia, where it flows into 
the lake Copais. The Graces were particularly 
fond of rhis river, whence they are called the 
goddesses of the Cephisus. Strab. 9. — Plin. Ay 
c. l.—Paus. 9, c. "M.-Homer. 11. 2, v. 29.— 
Lnican. 3, v. 175.— Om<^. Met.- 1, v. 369, 1. 3, v. 

19. II. Another of Attica, which arose not 

far from Colonos, and passing through the plains 
to the west of the city, flowed under the Long 
"Walls, and fell into the sea near Phalerum. 
Though in the GEdipus at Colonos the Cephis- 
sus is represented by Sophocles as a perennial 
stream, it now scarcely reaches the harbour, 
the water being drawn off" by the inhabitants of 
the city and the plains for domestic purposes, 

or for the irrigation of the ground. III. 

Another, called Eleusinius, to distinguish it from 
that at Athens called Atticus. Near this w^as 
Erineus, w-hich the poets have rendered known 
by the fable of Pluto's descent through the 
earth at this spot with Proserpine. Soph. (Ed. 
Cot. 68b.—Geirs Itiner.—Paus. Att. 38. 

Cer amicus, I. now Keramo, a bay of Caria, 
near Halicarnassus, opposite Cos, receiving its 
name from Ceramus. Plin. 5, c. 29. — Mela, 1, 
c. 16. II. A place in Athens. Vid. Athena. 

Ceramus, a town of Caria, on.-the south side 
of the Sinus Ceramicus, now Ceramo. 

Cerasus, now Keresoun, a city of Pontus, on 
a bay of the Euxine, afterwards called Phar- 
nacia. It was a colony of Sin ope. Hence Lu- 
cull lis brought the Cerasus cherry-tree into Eu- 
rope. D^Anville. 

Ceraunia, and Ceraunii. Vid. Acroceraunit. 

Ceraunii, mountains of Asia, opposite the 
Caspian Sea. Mela, 1, c. 19. 

Ceraunus, a river of Cappadocia. 

Cerbalus, a river of Apulia. Plin. 3, c. 11. 

Cercasorum, a town of Eg}'pt, where the 
Nile divides itself into the Pelusian and Cano- 
pic mouths, Herodot. 2, c. 15. 
69 



CH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CH 



Cercina, I. now Kerkeni, a small island of 
the Mediterranean, near the smaller Syrtis, on 
the coast of Africa. Tacit. 1, Ann. 53, — Strab. 

n.—Liv. 33, c. 48.—Plin. 5, c. 7. II. A 

mountain of Thrace, towards Macedonia. Tku- 
cyd. 2, c. 98. 

Cercinium, a town of Macedonia, near lake 
BcEbe. Liv. 31, c. 41. 

Ceretani, a people of Spain that inhabited 
the modern district of Cerdana in Catalonia. 
Plin. 3, c. 3. 

Cerilla, or C^RiLL^, now Cirella Vecchia, 
a town of the Brutii near the Laus. Strad. 6. 

Cerinthus, probably now Geronda, a town 
of Euboea. Cram. 

Cerne, an island without the pillars of Her- 
cules, on the African coast, probably now Ar- 
guin, which the Maures call Ghir. D'Anville. 
— Strab. 1. — Plin. 5 and 6. 

Ceron, a fountain of Histiaeotis, whose wa- 
ters rendered black all the sheep that drank of 
them. Plin. 3, c. 2. 

Cetius, I. a river of Mysia. II. A moun- 
tain which separated Noricum from Pannonia. 

Chaboras, a river of Mesopotamia, now al- 
Khabour, which joins the Euphrates at Circe- 
sium. The name Araxes, by which it is called 
in the Anabasis of Xenophon, appears to be an 
appellative term, as we find it applied to many 
other rivers in antiquity^ D^Anville. 

CH.asRONEA, a city of Bceotia, to the north- 
west of Lebadea, celebrated for a defeat of the 
Athenians by the Boeotians, B. C. 447, and for 
the victory which Philip of Macedonia obtained 
there over the confederate army of the Thebans 
and the Athenians, B. C. 338. This town wit- 
nessed another bloody engagement, between the 
Romans under the conduct of Sylla, and the 
troops of Mithridates commanded by Taxiles and 
Archelaus, 86 B. C. Chaeronea is now called 
Kaprena, and is still a populous village, with 
many vestiges of the ancient town. It was 
the birth-place of Plutarch. Cram. — Pans. 9, 
c. 40. — Plut. in Pelops. &c. — Strab. 9. 

CHALiEON, a maritime town of Locris, on 
the Crisssean gulf. Its harbour apparently stood 
where the Scala of Salon/i is now laid down in 
modern maps. Cram. 

Chalcedon, an ancient city of Bithynia, op- 
posite Byzantium, built bv a colony from Me- 
gara, headed by Argias, B. C. 685. " Chalce- 
don was called the city of the blind, in derision 
of its Greek founders for overlooking the more 
advantageous situation of Byzantium. A coun- 
cil against the Eutychian heresy, in the middle 
of the fifth century, has illustrated Chalcedon 
which has taken under the Turks the name of 
Kadi-Keni, or the Burgh of the Kadi." D'Ati- 
ville.— Strab. l.—Plin. 5, c. 2Q.—Mela. 1, c. 19. 

ChalcidTce, I. "a country of Macedonia, 
south and east of Mygdonia, so named from the 
Chalcidians, an ancient people of Euboean ori- 
gin, who appear to have formed settlements in 
this part of Macedonia at an early period. Thu- 
cydides always terms them the Chalcidians of 
Thrace, to distinguish them apparently from the 
Chalcidians of Euboea."— " The whole of Chal- 
cidice may be considered as forming one great 
peninsula, confined between the gulf of Thes- 
salonica and the Strymonicus Sinus. But it 
also comprises within itself three smaller penin- 
sulas, separated from each other by inlets of the 
70 



-11. A district of Syria. Vid. 



sea." Cram. 
Chalcis. 

Chalcis, I. the principal city of Euboea, situ- 
ate on the Euripus, nearly opposite Aulis, was 
founded by a colony of lonians from Athens, 
conducted by Cothus. " The Chalcidians hav- 
ing joined the Boeotians in their depredations on 
the coast of Attica, soon after the expulsion of 
the Pisistratidae, afforded the Athenians just 
grounds for reprisals." They therefore passed 
over into Eubcea in great force, and, after defeat- 
ing the Chalcidians, " seized upon the lands of 
the wealthiest inhabitants, and distributed them 
among 4000 of their own citizens. These, how- 
ever, were obliged to evacuate the island on the 
arrival of the Persian fleet under Datis and Ar- 
taphemes. The Chalcidians, after the termina- 
tion of the Persian war, became again depen- 
dent on Athens with the rest of Euboea, and did 
not regain their liberty till the close of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, when they asserted their free- 
dom, and, aided by the Boeotians, fortified the 
Euripus and established a communication with 
the continent by throwing a wooden bridge 
across the channel. Towers were placed at each 
extremity, and room was left in the middle for 
one ship to pass. Pausanias informs us, that 
Chalcis no longer existed in his day. "Procopi- 
us names it among the towns restored by Justi- 
nian." Cram.— 11. B. b^l .—Hero dot. 5, 77.— 
Diod. Sic. 13, 355. II. A town of the dis- 
trict Chalcidice, in Syria, to which it probably 
communicated its name. This town was situ- 
ated- on the river Chains, which loses itself in a 
lake below the city. The Greek name Chalcis 
" had supplanted the Syriac denomination Kir- 
mesrin, little known at present in the vestiges 
of a place which the Franks call the Old Alep." 
D'Anville. 

CHALD.EA, a countr}' of Asia, between the 
Euphrates and Tigris. Its capital is Babylon, 
whose inhabitants are famous for their know- 
ledge of astrology. " The name of Chaldaea, 
which is more precisely appropriated to the part 
nearest the Persian gulf, is sometimes employed 
as a designation of the whole country; and the 
greater part of it being comprehended between 
the rivers, has given occasion to extend to it the 
name of Mesopotamia. It is this country which 
the Arabs name properly Irak ; and it is by the 
extension that this name has taken in penetrat- 
ing into ancient Media, that the part contiguous 
to Babylonia is called Irak Araby. D'Anville. 

Chalybes, and Calybes, a people of Asia Mi- 
nor, near Pontus. They attacked the ten thou- 
sand in their retreat, and behaved with much 
spirit and courage. They were partly conquer- 
ed by Croesus, king of Lydia. Some authors 
imagine that the Calybes are a nation of Spain. 
Virg. JEn. 8, v. 4QI.— Strab. 12, &c.—Apollon. 
2, V. 375. — Xenoph. AnaJb. 4, &c. — Herodot. 1, 
c. 28. — Justin. 44, c. 3. 

Chalybon, now supposed to be Aleppo, a 
town of Syria, which gave the name of Chalibo- 
nitis to the neighbouring country. 

Chalybonitis, a country of Syria, so famous 
for its wines that the king of Persia drank no 
other. 

Chalybs, a river in Spain, where Justin. 44, 
c. 3, places the people called Calybes. 

Chaones, a people of Epirus. 

Chaonu, a mountainous part of Epirus, which 



CH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CH 



receives its name from Chaon, a son of Priam, 
inadvertently killed by his brother Helenus. 
There was a wood near, where doves {Chaonia 
aves) were said to deliver oracles. The words 
Chaonius victus are by ancient authors applied 
10 acorns, the food of the first inhabitants. Lm- 
can. 6, V. 426. — Claudian. de Pros. rapt. 3, v. 
n.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 335.— Pro^er^. 1, el. 9.— 
Ovid. A. A. 1. 

Charadros, a river of Phocis, falling into the, 
Cephisus. Stat. Theb. 4, v. 46. 

Charonium, a cave near Nysa, w^here the 
sick were supposed to be delivered from their 
disorders by certain superstitious solemnities. 

Charybdis, a dangerous whirlpool on the 
coast of Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called 
Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dan- 
gerous to sailors, and it proved fatal to a part of 
the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of 
the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, 
as no whirlpool sufficiently tremendous is now 
found to correspond to the description of the an- 
cients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vult 
vitare Charybdim, became a proverb, to show, 
that in our eagerness to avoid one evil we often 
fall into a greater. It is supposed that Charyb- 
dis was an avaricious woman, who stole the 
oxen of Hercules, for which theft she w^as struck 
with thunder by Jupiter, and changed into a 
whirlpool. L/ycophr. in Cass. — Homer. Od. 12. 
— Propert. 3, el. 11. — Ital. 14. — Ovid, in Rid. 
de Ponto, 4, el. 10, Amor. 2, el. 16. — Virg. Mn. 
3, v. 420. 

Chaubi, and Chauci, a people of Germany, 
dwelling on the western coast, between the 
Amisia, (the Ems) and the Albis (the Elbe)^ 
that is to say, in a great measure the territory 
included in the kingdom of Hanover. They 
were divided by the Visurgis (the Wcser') into 
the Chauci Majores on the east, and the Mi- 
nores on the west ; and are mentioned particu- 
larly by Tacitus as among the greatest of the 
Germanic nations, and remarkable for their 
virtues. 

Chelidoni^ INSUL.E, Small islands opposite 
the Sacrum Promontorium, which formed the 
western extremity of the great Taurus range. 
The promontory itself was also called Chelido- 
nium, of which the modern name is Cape Keli- 
doni. 

Chelidonium. Vid. Chelidonice InsulcB. 

Chelonatas, a promontory of Elis, below 
Cyllene, and forming the northern point of land 
which lies upon the bay of the same name. The 
opposite point upon the south was the promon- 
tory Pheia. The cape is now called Tornese. 

Chelonophagi. a people of Carmania, who 
fed upon turtle, and covered their habitations 
with the shells. Plin. 6, c. 24. 

Chelydoria, a mountain of Arcadia. 

Chemmis, an island in a deep lake of EgyTpt. 
Herodot. 2, c. 156. 

Cheron^ea. Vid. Chceronea. 

Chersonesus, a Greek word, rendered by the 
Latins Peninsula. There were many of these 
among the ancients of which five are the most ce- 
lebrated; the Peloponnesus, and the Thra- 
ciAN in the south of Thrace, and west of the Hel- 
lespont, where Miltiades led a colony of Athe- 
nians, and built a wall across the isthmus. From 
its isthmus to its further shores, it measured 420 
stadia, extending between the bay of Melas and 



the Hellespont. Next to the Peloponnesus, 
and scarcely less noted, was the Chersonesus 
Cimbriga, now Eolstein and Jutland. It was 
formed by the waters of the Sinus Codanus, 
which surrounded it on the east and separated 
it from Scandinavia; and on the west by the 
ocean, which lay between it and the British 
Isles. There is no portion of the ancient world 
of greater interest than this. All Europe be- 
came acquainted with the various people who 
at different times obtained an establishment in 
it, and who rarely departed from it, except to 
carry slaughter and devastation into more civi- 
lized regions; In the earliest ages it is thought 
to have been occupied by the Celts; and to- 
wards the close of the Roman republic, in the 
time of Marius, it sent forth another popula- 
tion, the Cimbri, that seemed to threaten even 
the pride of the conquerors of Carthage, and, 
as they boasted themselves, masters of the world. 
Many centuries afterwards a new race of men, 
the followers and worshippers of Odin left its 
narrow bounds to trouble the new countries that 
arose upon the ruins of the dismembered em- 
pire. The Saxons, Jutes, and Angli, were the 
principal inhabitants of this region, fertile in 
warriors, before the passage of a great propor- 
tion of the first and last of these to establish 
themselves in the conquered provinces of Bri- 
tain. The Chersonesus Taurica, now Crim 
Tartary. It had been, like all the regit)n of the 
Maeotis Palus, in the possession of the Cimme- 
rians. The name Crim or Crimea, which re- 
mains to it, is, however, in the opinion of D'An- 
ville, a Cimmerian derivative ; though the Tau- 
ri or Tauro-Scythas, at a very .early period dis- 
possessed them of these their fijst European 
abodes. From these latter people came the 
name of Taurica. They in turn were for the 
greater part reduced by Mithridates before the 
overthrow of his power; and afterwards the 
Chersonese became a tributary kingdom, ac- 
knowledging the superiority of the emperors. 
On the second coming of the barbarians, towards 
the last years of the empire, this region was 
again the prey of new conquerors and the es- 
tablishment of Gothic tribes, about the Crimea 
and the northern part of the Euxine Sea, gave 
to the Chersonese the name of Gothia. The 
situation of this singular peninsula is too well 
known to require more than a brief notice of its 
form and boundaries. It stands at the northern 
head of the Euxine Sea, and forms the Sea of 
Azof, by stretching over towards the eastern 
shore, and blocking up the passage to the mouth 
of the Tanais. On the north, the morass of 
the Palus Meeotis, extending inland, formed the 
peninsula ; and on the opposite side, the Euxine, 
makiag there a bay called Carcinites, contract- 
ed to an extreme narrowness the isthmus that 
joined it to the shores of the main land. The 
principal city was Panticupseum. It was of 
Grecian origin, and is now perhaps Kerche. 
The fifth, surnamed Aurea, lies in India, be- 
yond the Ganges. Herodot. 6, c. 33, 1. 7, c. 58. 
—lAv. 31, c. 16.— Cic. ad Br. 2. 

Cherusci, a German people dwelling upon 
the Albis above the Chauci, and extending be- 
yond the Visurgis towards the Amisia and comi- 
try of the Catti. These were all of one com- 
mon race ; and some time after the defeat of Va- 
. rus, by which the Cherusci and their leader Ar- 



CH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



^Ct 



minius attained the highest honour and the 
greatest glory, this people are supposed to have 
become subject to their neighbours, the Chauci. 

Chidorus, a river of Macedonia, near Thes- 
salonica, not sufficiently large to supply the army 
of Xerxes with water. Herodot. 7, c. 127. 

Chios, now Scio, an island in the jEgean 
Sea, between Lesbos and Samos, on the coast of 
Asia Minor, which receives its name, as some 
suppose, from Chione, or from %iwi', snow, 
which was very frequent there. It was well in- 
habited, and could once equip a hundred ships ; 
and its chief town, called Chios, had a beauti- 
ful harbour, which could contain eighty ships. 
The wine of this island, so much celebrated by 
the ancients, is still in general esteem. Chios 
was anciently called -^thalia, Macris, and Pi- 
tyasa. There was no adultery committed there 
for the space of 700 years. Plut. de Virt. Mul. 
—Horat. 3, od. 19, v. 5, 1, Sat. 10, v. 24.— 
Pans. 7, c. 4:.— Mela, 2, c. %—Strab. 2. 

Choaspes, I. a river of Asia, running from 
north to south, and falling into the Persian gulf. 
The water of this river was sacred to the use of 
the Persian kings, who carried with them a 
supply of it in all their expeditions. It rose near 
the mountains Orontes in Media, and crossed 
the Satrapy of Susiana, passing by the royal 
city of Susa. The part of this river which be- 
longs to Media was called Eulseus, the Ulai of 

the prophet Daniel. II. Another, called also 

Choes, which Chaussard believes to be the pro- 
per name. III. Another, which rose in the 

north-west of the Paropamisus mons, and, after 
joining the Cophes near the town of Nysa, 
emptied into the Indus on the- nearer side. 
Herod. 1, 188.— PZiw. 6, 25.— ^rr. 

Chorasmii, a Scythian tribe, of the great na- 
tion of the Sacse, dwelling upon the Oxus from 
the Caspian Sea to the borders of Sogdiana. On 
the south and south-west they had the Parthi- 
ans. Their country is now called Khoaresm. 
Its present inhabitants are the Usbecks, or 
Chinese Tartars. 

Chronus, a river of European Sarmatia 
(^Lithuania), now the Memel, or, as the Poles 
denominate it, the Niemen. It rises in the same 
country, in regions remote from the knowledge 
and civilizations of the Romans, and, after pass- 
ing in a winding course through the forests 
which the arms of the conquering Republic had 
not subdued, and which were little subject to 
the ambition of the emperors, it falls into the 
Baltic between the gulf of Dantzig and the gulf 
of Livonia, scarcely better known to the people 
of antiquity. 

Chrysa, and Chryse, a town of Mysia, in 
that part which constituted the Troad. It was 
south of the island of Tenedos, upon the Sinus 
Adramyttenus, and appears in the time of Ho- 
mer to have been peculiarly dedicated to Apol- 
lo, surnamed Smintheus. Mela. — Ham. 1,37. 

Chrysas, a river of Sicily, falling into the 
Simcethus, and worshipped as a deity. Cic. in 
Verr. 4, c. 44. 

Chrysop5lis, a promontory and port of Asia, 
opposite Byzantium, now Scutari. 

Chrysorrhoas, I. a river of Syria. It pass- 
ed by Damascus, and streamed through the city 
divided into several currents. The modern 
name of Baradi is derived from another name, 
Bardine, by which it was also known in anti- 
72 



quity. 11. Another of Argolis, that flowed 

through the city of Trcezene. 

CiBALJE, now Swilei, a town of Pannonia, 
where Licinius was defeated by Constantine. 
It was the birth-place of Gratian. Eutrop. 10, 
c. 4:.—Marcell. 30, c. 24. 

Cibyra, now Buruz, a town of Phrygia on 
the Lycus, towards the borders of Lycia. It 
was called Magna, to distinguish it from Cyba- 
RA Parva in Pamphylia. The latter of these 
towns stood near the coast, on the banks of the 
Melas. Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 33. — Cic. in Verr. 
4, c. 13.— Attic. 5, ep. 2. 

CicoNEs, a people of Thrace, near the He- 
brus. Ulysses, at his return from Troy, con- 
quered them, and plundered their chief city 
Ismarus, because they had assisted Priam 
against the Greeks. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 83, 1. 15, 
V. 313.— Virg. G. 4, v. 520, SiC— Mela, e. 2. 

CiLiciA, I. a country of Asia Minor, on the 
south, said by the poets and mythologists to have 
been founded by Cilix, the son of Agenor. On 
the north mount Taurus divided it from Pisi- 
dia, Lycaonia in Phrygia, and Cataoniain Cap- 
padocia ; Pamphylia bordered on it towards the 
north-west ; on the south-west it had the open 
Mediterranean ; on the east the Amanus mons. 
which separated it from Comagene ; and on the 
south the Aulon Cilicius lay between it and 
Cyprus, and formed with the Issicus Sinus its 
boundary in that direction. The entrance by 
land into this mountain-bound comitry was on 
the side of Cappadocia, through the Ciliciae or 
Tauri Pylag, through which Alexander effected 
his passage, and the Armanicaj, or Syriae Pylae, 
which gave entrance to the Persian Darius. 
Cilicia was geographically divided into Cilicia 
Aspera and Cilicia Campestris. The chief 
towns of the former were, Selinus, afterwards 
Trajanopolis, and now Selenti, Seleucia, and 
Tarsus the common capital ; in the latter were 
Anazarbus an d Issus, famous for the defeat of 
the Persian king. In the historians of the east- 
ern empire the name of Isauria extended over 
the Taurus, and was often applied to the first di- 
vision of Cilicia. The whole, at a still later pe- 
riod, that is to say, in the ages of the Crusades, 
was known as the kingdom of Leon. The ori- 
gin of the Cilices is obscure ; but those who pos- 
sessed the country in the time of the Romans 
do not seem to have been of a date anterior to 
the Trojan war, from which they are supposed 
to have wandered to Syria, and to have received 
then permission to fix themselves in the coun- 
try called afterwards Cilicia. They fell succes- 
sively into the hands of the Persians, of Alex- 
ander, and of his successors. In the time of the 
Seleucidae the people of Cilicia became greatly 
addicted to piracy, and were only reduced by the 
efforts of the Romans, who appointed three 
leaders against them at different times ; Servi- 
lius surnamed Isauricus for his victories obtain- 
ed in these parts, Cicero, and Pompey. The 
modern name of Cilicia is Itshil, which occupies 
very nearly the extent of country between the 

mountains and the sea. II, A part of the 

Troad, about the Sinus Adramyttenus, was also 
called Cilicia from the Cilices, who, together 
with the Leleges in Homer's time, inhabited that 
region. From these Cilices the name of Cilicia 
was given to the country between the Taurus 
and the Mediterranean, in which, after the Tro- 



CI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CI 



jan war, they fixed themselves. The same name 
was given to that part of Cappadocia which lay- 
about the sources of the Halys, and was by the 
Romans erected into a prefecture. It contained 
the city of Mazaca, the capital of the province. 
Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Varro. R. R.2, c. 11. — Siceton. 
in Vesp. 8. — Herodot. 2, c. 17, 34. — Justin. 11. 
c. \l.—Curt. 3, c. A.—Plin. 5, c. 27. 

CiMBRi, a people of Germany, who invaded 
the Roman empire with a large army, and were 
conquered by Marius. Flor. 3, c. 3. Vid: 
CeltcB and Chersonesus Cimbrica. 

CiMiNUs, now Viierbe, a lake and mountain 
of Etruria. Virg. AJyii. 7, v. 691.— Liv. 9, c. 36. 

CiMMERii, I. a people near the Palus Mso- 
tis, who invaded Asia Minor, and seized upon 
the kingdom of Cyaxares. After they had been 
masters of the country for 28 years, they were 
driven back by Alyattes, king of Lydia. The 
history of these people is wrapt in the same ob- 
scurity as that which envelopes the accounts of 
the Celtee, Cimbri, and Teutones. By some 
antiquarians they are consiaered to have been 
of Cimbric origin, and by others of Celtic ; and 
though it would be unsafe to assert that such 
was the case, it does not seem improbable that 
they may have been originally that portion of 
the Celtae which continued in the north-eastern 
regions w^hen the greater part roamed onward 
towards the west. In this case, and, perhaps, at 
any rate, they must have greatly ditfered in the 
lapse of ages from the other Celts, as well from 
the mixture which the latter admitted in their 
migrations, as from similar changes which they 
must themselves have been subject to on the 
passage of the numberless Asiatic and more 
northern tribes that passed on their way to the 
south, the region of the Tanais and the Palus 
Maeotis, the gates of Europe tow'ards A sia. He- 
rodot. 1, c. 6, &c. 1. 4, c. 1, &c. II. Another 

nation on the western coast of Italy, generally 
imagined to have lived in caves near the sea- 
shore of Campania, and there, in concealing 
themselves from the light of the sun, to have 
made their retreat the receptacle of their plun- 
der. In consequence of this manner of lining, 
the country which they inhabited was supposed 
to be so gloomy, that, to mention a great obscu- 
rity, the expression of Cimmerian darkness has 
proverbially been used. Homer, according to 
Plutarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto 
from this gloomy and dismal country, where also 
Virgil and Ovid have placed the Styx, the Phle- 
gethon, and all the dreadful abodes of the infer- 
nal regions. Hom£r. Od. 13. — Virg. Mn. 6. — 
Ovid. Met. 11, v. 592, &c.—Strah. 5. Vid. 
CeltcB and Avernus. 

CiMMERiuM, now Crim, a Xovm. of Taurica 
Chersonesus, whose inhabitants are called Cim- 
merii. Of this Chersonese, says D'Anville, 
" the mountainous part towards the south pre- 
served the name of mons Cimmerius, in which 
an ancient place is discovered, called Eski 
Krim, or the Old Krim.^' Mela, 1, c. 19. 

CiMoLUs, now Argentiera, an island in the 
Cretan Sea, producing chalk and fuller's earth. 
Ovid. Met. 7, v. 463.— Plin. 35, c. 16. 

CiKGA, now Cinea, a river of Spain, flowing 
from the Pyrenean mountains into the Iberus. 
iMcan. 4, v. ^\.—Ccp.s. B. C. 1, 48. 

CiNGUi.uM, now Cingoli, a town of Picenum. 
Ccrs. Bell. Civ. 1, c. 15.— Cic. AU. 7, ep. 11. 
Part L— K 



CiNTPs, and Cinyphus, a river of Africa, in 
the country of the Garamantes. It rose in the 
mons Chaiitum, and fell into the Sinus Syrticus. 
On its banks was the town of Cinyps. Hero- 
dot. 4, c. 198. — Plin. 5, c. 4. — Laican. 9, v. 787. 

Cios, I. a river of Thrace. Plin. 5, c. 32. 

II. A commercial place of Phrygia. 

The name of three cities in Bith}'TLia. 

CiRCEn, now Circello, a promontory of La- 
tium, near a small town of the same name at 
the south of the Pontine marshes. The people 
were called Circeienses. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 248. 
— Virg. ^n. 7, v. 19d.—Liv. 6, c. 11.— Cic. 
N. D. 3, c. 19. 

CiRRHA, and Cyrrha, a iGwa of Phocis, at 
the head of the Crisssean gulf at the mouth of 
the Pleistus. It was only 10 miles from Delphi, 
and was used as its port. Cyrrha is famous for 
the Sacred War excited against it for the vio- 
lence offered by the Cyrrhaeans to a Phocian 
maid returning from Delphi. The Amphic- 
tyons, under w^hose protection all those were in 
some measure considered who visited the Del- 
phic oracle, denounced an exterminating war 
against the inhabitants of the devoted place ; 
and the oracle having seconded the denuncia- 
tion of this body, the whole Cyrrhasan territory 
was held accurst, and all the cities of Greece, 
which belonged to the Amphictyonic league, 
were called upon to take arms against Cyrrha, 
For ten j'ears the little state held out against the 
combined influence of violence and 6f supersti- 
tion; but, at last, being overcome, the whole 
country was laid under an interdict, the walls 
of the city demolished, the surrounding habita- 
tions were razed, and it was forbidden ever after 
to cultivate the land which they had occupied. 
These events took place in the time of the seven 
sages ; and Solon, the greatest among them, took 
part in this extirpating contest. " The Cyr- 
rhsean plain and port, which are now accursed, 
were formerly inhabited by the Cyrrhsei and 
Acragallidse, a nefarious race, v/ho violated the 
sanctity of the temple of Delphi, and ransacked 
its treasures." The ruins of this place are said, 
by Sir W. Gell, to be still discernible near the 
village of Xeno Pegadia. Pans. — Phoc. 37. 
— JEiSch. in Ctes. 

CiRTA, a to-^Ti of Numidia, the residence of 
the kings of that country. It stood about mid- 
way between the coast and the Aurasius mons, 
on the river Ampsagas, towards the source. In 
the time of Caesar it assumed the name of Sitia- 
norum Colonia, but this was changed into Co7h- 
stantina, w^hich it has retained to modern times. 

CisALPiNA Gallia. Vid. Gaul. 

CisPADANA Gallia. Vid. Gaul. 

CissA, one of the Absyrtides, on the coast of 
Liburnia, above Dalmatia ; it is now Pago. 

CissiA, a country of Susiana, of w^hich Susa 
was the capital, Herodot. 5, c. 49. 

Cissus, a mountain of Macedonia, near which 
was a towm of the same name. 

CiTHiBRON, a lofty ridge that lay between the 
territories Boeotia and Megaris, and united 
with mount Pames, which, stretching out to the 
north-east, separated Bceotia from Attica. No 
spot in Greece is more famous among the poets ; 
and the scene of the tragical stories of Actaeon's 
fate, of the death of Pentheus, and of the expo- 
sure of GEdipus, which, in its result, afforded 
matter for the two greatest efforts of the genius 
73 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



CL 



of Sophocles, was on this celebrated mount. 
Pans. Baot. 2.— Soph. (Ed. Tijr. 1451. " It is 
now shrouded by deep gloom and dreary de- 
solation ; and covered only with dark stinted 
shrubs. Towards its summit, however, it is 
crowned with forests of fir, from which it derives 
its modern name of Elatea." DodwelVs Travels. 

CiTHARisTA, a promontory of Gaul. La 
Ciotat, near Cereste. D'Anville. 

CiTHiM, now Chitti, a town of Cyprus, where 
Cimon died in his expedition against Egypt. 
Plut. in dm. — Thucyd. 1, c. 112. 

Cladeus, a river of Elis, passing near Olyra- 
pia, and honoured next to the Alpheus. Paus. 
6, c. 7. 

Clanius, or Clanis, I. a river of Campania. 

Virg. G. 2, V. 225. II. of Etruria, now CMa- 

na. Sil. 8, v. ^U.— Tacit. 1, An. 79. 

Claros, or Clarus, a town of Ionia, with a 
fountain, grove, and temple of Apollo, on which 
account he was surnamed Clarius, It is situated 
near Colophon, and was founded, according to 
mythologists, by Manto, the daughter of Tire- 
sias. Nearchus says it received its name from 
kMqos, sors. — (^Facciolcbti.) — Plin. 1, 2, c. 103. 
— Ovid. 1, Met. v. 51.5. 

Clastidium, a town of Liguria, now Chias- 
teggio, celebrated as the place where Claudius 
Marcellus gained the spolia opima by slaying 
Viridomarus, king of the Gsesata. Clastidium 
was betrayed to Hannibal after the battle of Ti- 
cinus, with considerable magazines which the 
Romans had laid up there ; and it formed the 
chief depot of the Carthaginian army while en- 
camped on the Trebia. It was afterwards burnt 
bv the Romans in a war with the Ligurians. 
Cram.—Strab. 5, 21.—Polyb. 2, 34; 3, 69.— 
Plut. vit. Marc— Val. Max. 1, l.—Liv. 21,48; 
32, 29, 31.-Cic. Tiisc. Disp. 4, 32. 

Claterna, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, about 
nine miles from Bononia. 

Claudiopolis. a town of Cappadocia. Plin. 

5, c. 24. Another of Pontus, of Dacia, 

of Isauria, into which the emperor Clau- 
dius introduced a Roman colony. Heyl. Cosm. 

CLAzoMENiE, a city of Ionia in Asia Minor, 
situated on a small peninsula projecting into 
the Smyrnseus Sinus from a larger one. It was 
celebrated as being the birth-place of the philo- 
sopher Anaxagoras, for its wines, and for a 
beautiful temple of Apollo in its neighbourhood. 
The modern Vourla is near the site of the an- 
cient city. Heyl. Cosm. — Plin. 1, 14, c. 7. — Cic. 
3, de Orat. 34. 

Cleon^, I. a town of Argolis, to the north- 
east of Nemea and mount Tretus. Strabo places 
it 120 stadia from Argos on the one side, and 
80 from Corinth on the other : he adds that its 
situation fully justifies the epithet EVKTifitvai 
applied to it by Homer. The ruins of CleonsB 
are to be seen on the site now called Courtese. 

Cram. Gr. II. B. 570. II. A town in the 

peninsula of Chalcidice, said to have been found- 
ed by a colony from Chalcis. Herodot. 7, 22. 
—Plin. 4, 10.— flferac. Pont. Polit. 30, 216. 

Cleopatris. Vid. Arsinoe. 

Clepsydra, a fountain on mount Ithome, 
whence water was conveyed to the city of Mes- 
sene. Cram. 

Clibanus mons, a part of the Appenines 
south of the river Neathus, now called Monte 
Visardo. Cram. 

74 



Climax, I. a celebrated pass in the neigh- 
bourhood of Phaselis, leading from Lycia into 
Pamphylia. This pass is so much contracted 
by a brow of mount Taurus, that Alexander, in 
entering Pamphylia, was forced to lead his 

troops through the sea. D^Anville. II. A 

defile through which the road from Argolis to 
Mantinea runs. The modern Scala Ton Bey, 
or the Bey's Causey, probably answers to the 
ancient pass. Cram. 

Climberris. Vid Augusta Ausciorum. 

CuTJE, I. a wild and savage people of Cilicia, 
addicted to plunder. They assembled under 
Trosobor, a warlike chief, and pitched their 
camp on a craggy and almost inaccessible moun- 
tain in the range of Taurus, whence they sal- 
lied against the neighbouring cities, plundered 
the people and merchants, and utterly ruined 
navigation and commerce. They laid siege to 
the city of Anemurium, and routed a body of 
horse, sent from Cyria, under Curiius Severus, 
to the relief of the place. They were at length 
ruined by dissension among themselves, and 
their leader, Trosobor, was put to death. Ta^ 

cit. Ann. 12, 55. II. Livy (44, 2.) notices a 

spot named Clitae, m the immediate vicinity of 
Cassandrea. Cram. 

Clitor, I. a town of Arcadia, situated on 
the Aroanius, said to have been founded by Cli- 
tor, the son of Azan. The site is now called 
Katzanes. There was at Clitor, according to 
Pliny, a fountain which rendered those who 
tasted its waters averse to wine. Cram. — Paus. 
Arcad. 21.— Plin. 4, 19, S.—Strab. 8, 388.— 

Ovid. Met. 15, 322. -II. Pausanias likewise 

mentions a river Clitor, whose fishes were said 
to sing like thrushes. Cram. 

Clitumnus, a small but noted river of Um- 
bria, rising in the neighbourhood of Trebia, 
which, with several small streams, unites in 
forming the Tinia, modern Timia. The vici- 
nity of this river is celebrated by many Roman 
poets, as affording suitable victims to be offered 
up on the solemn occasions of their country's 
triumphs. This stream now bears the name 
of Clitunno. Cram. — Plin. 8, ep. 8. 

Cloacae. Vid. Cloasina, Part III. 

Clupea, a maritime town of Africa Propria, 
called by the Greeks Aspis, by the Romans 
Clupea, or Clypea, so called from the figure of 
the hill or eminence on which it was situated. 
It was built by the Sicilians in the expedition of 
Agathocles. Vestiges of this town are still 
known to exist under the name of Aklibia. Liv. 
27, 29. 

Clusini pontes, baths in Etruria. Horat. 1. 
ep. 15, V. 9. 

Clusium, now Chiusi, one of the principal 
towns of Etruria, the capital of Porsenna. It is 
supposed to have borne the name Camera, and 
to have belonged to the Camertes in ages ante- 
rior not only to the founding of Rome, but even 
to the occupation of Etruria by that race of 
men, who, under the name of Tyrrheni. pos- 
sessed it at the era assumed for the mythologi- 
cal account of the Trojan settlement in Italy. 
The Clanis flowed near it on the north-east, ly- 
ing between it and the city of Perusia and the 
Thrasymenian lake. This city was taken by the 
Gauls under Brennus; and it was here that the 
Roman ambassadors had an interview with that 
conquering barbarian, and by their pride impel- 



CO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CO 



led him to the sack of Rome. Modem Chiusiis 
represented as occupying the site of the Clusium, 
which we have just described ; but a more recent 
city of the same name, called for distinction No- 
vum, was built under the Appenines, north of 
Arretium, and towards the borders of Cisalpine 
Gaul. Of the magnificent mausoleum which 
Porsenna is said to have erected for himself at 
Clusium, no vestige remains to confirm the im- 
probable account. Liv. 2, 9, and 5, 33, and 10, 
'25.—Plin. 36, 13.— Cram. At the north of 
Clusium there was a lake, called Clnsina lacus, 
which extended northward as far as Arretium, 
and had a communication with the Arnus. 
Diod. U.— Virg. jEn. 10, v. 167 and 655. 
CLUsros, a river of Cisalpine Gaul. Polyb. 2. 
Cnemis, a mountain connected with the hills 
of Bosotia, which now belongs to the chain 
called Talanta. It imparted its name to the 
Epicnemidian Locri. Cram. — Strab. 9. 

Cnidus, and Gnidus, a tower of Doris in Ca- 
ria, on the Triopian promontory. Venus was 
the chief deity of the place, and had there a fa- 
mous statue made by Praxiteles. The place is 
now a mass of ruins. Horat. 1, od. 30. Plin. 
36, c. 15. 

Cnosus. Vid. Gnossus. 
CoccYGius, a mountain, or rather hill, of Ar- 
golis, on the road from Halice to Hermione, 
opposite another called Thornax. The more an- 
cient name of this mount was Pron, which was 
changed to Coccygius from the fabled metamor- 
phosis of Jupiter into the bird called Coccyx by 
the Greeks. On its summit was a temple sacred 
to that god, and another of Apollo at the base. 
That of Juno was situated on the opposite hill. 
Cram. — Pans. Cor. 36. 

CociNTUM, I. apromontory of the Brutii, now 
Capo di Stilo, which according to Polybius, 
marked the separation of the Ionian from the 

Sicilian Sea. II. " A to"«Ti probably named 

Cocintum, but which is written Consilinum 
Castrum, and Consentia, in Pliny and Mela, 
accords apparently with Stilo, from which the 
cape now derives its appellation." Cram. 

CocYTUs, I, a river of Epirus, which blends 
its waters with the Acheron. It is one of the 
fabled rivers of hell. The word is derived from 

KOiKveiv^ to lament. Vid. Aclieron. II. A 

river of Campania, flowing into the Lucrine 
lake. 

CoDANiJs SINUS, one of the ancient names of 
the Baltic, which Tacitus calls Mare Suevi- 
cum, from the Suevian nations that bordered 
upon it. He did not know that it was a gulf, 
but imagined that it environed Scandinavia, 
which he supposed to be an island or a collec- 
tion of islands. D'Anville. 

CcELA EuBCB^, that part of the coast of 
Euboea which lay between Aulis and Gersestus. 
It was dangerous to navigators in stormy wea- 
ther. Cram.—Strab. \0.—Liv. 31, ^1.— He- 
rod. 8. 13. 

CcELE, a quarter of Athens. Vid. Athena. 

CcELiMONTANA. Vid. Roma. 

CcELros MONs, one of the hills of Rome. Vid. 
Roma. 

CoKAJON MONS, a mouutaui of Dacia, re- 
markable as having been the residence of a pon- 
tiff, in whose person the Getes believed the deity 
was incarnate. D'Anville. 

CoLcms, andCoLCHOs, a country of Asia, at 



the south of Asiatic Sarmatia, east of the Euxine 
Sea, north of Armenia, and west of Iberia, now 
caQed Mingrelia. It is famous for the expedi- 
tion of the Argonauts, and the birth-place of 
Medea, It was fruitful in poisonous herbs, and 
produced excellent flax. I'he inhabitants were 
originally Egyptians, who settled there when 
Sesostris, kingofEg5'pt, extended his conquests 
in the north. In the time of the Lower Em- 
pire Colchis was called Lazica ; and the name 
of Colchi appears to have been replaced by that 
of Laza, which was formerly only proper to a 
particular nation,comprised in the limits of what 
is now named Guria on the southern bank of 
the Faz. That which is now known under the 
name of Mingrelia, on the Black Sea, from the 
mouth of the Phasis ascending towards the 
north, is only a part of Colchis, as is that more 
inland towards the frontier of Georgia, and 
called Imeriti. D'Anville. — Juv. 6, v. 640. — 
Flacc. 5. V. 4A.Q.— Horat. 2, od. 13, v. S.—Strab. 
II.— Pt'ol. 5, c. 10.— Orz^. Met. 13, v. 24. Amor. 
2, el. 14, V. 2^.— Mela, 1, c. 19, 1.2, c. 3. 

CoLiAS, a promontory about 20 stadia from 
Phalerum, whither the wrecks of the Persian 
fleet were said to have been carried after the 
battle of Salamis. Here was a temple of, Venus 
Colias. This promontory still retains its an- 
cient name, though it is occasionally designated 
by that of Trispyrgoi. Cram. — Herod. 8. 96 ; 
9, 398. 

CoLLATiA, a town of Latium, to ^the north 
of Gabii, a colony of Alba, celebrated by the 
sacrifice of Lucretia. The road which led from 
Rome to this to^um was called Via CoUatina. 
Cram. — Strab. 5, 229. II. Another in Apu- 
lia, near mount Garganus, now CoUatina. Cram. 
—Plin. 3, 11. 

CoLLiNA, the name of one of the four regions 
into which Rome was divided by Servius. Vid. 

Roma. Cram. — Varro. Porta, one of the 

gates of ancient Rome, more anciently called 
Agonensis, supposed to answer to the present 
Porta Salara. It was by this gate that the 
Gauls entered Rome. Cram. — Liv. 5, 41. 

CoLONiE, a town in the territory of Lamp- 
sacus, a colony of Miletus. 

CoLomA, I. now Colchester, in the county 
of Essex. This is not allowed by Cambden, 
who derives the present name from that of the 
river Colne. In the geography of the Roman 
empire, no name will be more frequently found 
than that of Col onia, if we except Augusta and 
Castra. This name, when applied to a city, 
indicated that on its reduction the Romans had 
sent thither a colony from the capital ; and that 
it had been invested with certain privileges, for 
the most part municipal, though sometimes also 
political. Such towns were designated gene- 
rally by a surname, from some circumstance at- 
tending their settlement. II. Equestris, a 

colony planted by Caesar on the Lacus Lema- 
nus, at a place called pre^dously Noviodunum, 
It is nov7 Ny on, near the comer of the lake at 

which the Rhone resumes its course. III. 

Trajana, called also Ulpia, instead of Colonia. 
It was a town of Belgica, and is now Kellen in 

Cleves, about a mile from the Rhine. IV. 

Agrippina, a town of Belgica in Germania Se- 
cunda, of which it was the capital. The daugh- 
ter of Germanicus was born in this place, and 
when at her request the emperor Claudius esta- 
75 



CO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CO 



blished in it a colony, the name of its patroness 
was bestowed on the new settlement. It is now 

Cologne upon the Rhine. L/wc. — Suet. V. 

MoRiNORUM, a town of Gaul, now Terrouen in 

Artois. VI. NoRBENsis, a town of Spaia, 

now Alcantara. VII. Valentia, a town of 

Spain, which now bears the same name. 

CoLONOs, an eminence near Athens. Vid. 
Athence. 

Colophon, a town of Ionia, at a small dis- 
tance from the sea, first built by Mopsus the 
son of Manto, and colonized by the sons of Cod- 
rus. It was the native country of Mimnermus, 
Nicander, and Xenophanes, and one of the cities 
which disputed for the honour of having given 
birth to Homer. Apollo had a temple there. 
Strab. U.—Plin. 14, c. ^.—Paus. 7, c. 3.— 
Tacit. An7i. 2, c. 54. — Cic. pro Arch. Poet. 8. — 
Ovid. Met. 6, v. 8. 

CoLOssE, and Colossis, a large town of Phry- 
gia, near Laodicea, between the Lycus and the 
Meander. The government of this city was 
democratical, and the first ruler called archon. 
One of the first Christian churches was esta- 
blished there, and one of St. Paul's epistles was 
addressed to it, Plin. 21, c. 9. 

CoLUBRARiA, uow Monte Colvire, a small 
island at the east of Spain, supposed to be the 
same as Ophiusa. Plin. 3. c. 5. 

C0LUMN.E Herculis. Vid. Abila. Pro- 

tei, the boundaries of Egypt, or the extent of 
the kingdom of Proteus. Alexandria was sup- 
posed to be built near them, though Homer 
places them in the island of Pharus. Odys. 4, 
V. 2b\.— Virg. Mn. 11, v. 262. 

CoMAGENA. A small portion of Syria was 
distinguished by this name, having Cappadocia 
and Armenia Minor on the north, on the east 
and south the Euphrates, which separated it 
from Mesopotamia, and on the west the narrow 
district of Cilicia. The capital was Samosata, 
now Semisat, and the whole region is now called 
Aladuli. After the fall of the Persian empire, 
a part of the family called Seleucidae are thought 
to have established themselves as sovereigns in 
this coantry, and to have maintained themselves 
there till Vespasian reduced it to a province of 
his mighty empire. It was afterwards incorpo- 
rated in the Euphratesian province. Strab. 11 
and 17. — D'Anville. 

CoMANA, («, and orum,) 1. a town of Pon- 
tus towards Armenia Minor, near the source of 
the Iris. It had a famous temple of Bellona, 
for an account of which see Comana Cappado- 
cia, where the worsliip of that goddess was the 
same as at this place. In this city Iphigenia is 
said to have made the votive offering of her hair. 
The modern name of this Comana is thought to 

be Tabackza, in the district called Amasia. 

II. Another in Cappadocia. According to 
D'Anville its present name is El Bostan, but 
others call it Arminacka. It was situate at the 
head of the Sarus, near, or perhaps upon, the 
hilly country of the Taurus mons and the bor- 
ders of Syria. Comana was famous for a tem- 
ple of Bellona, where there were above 6000 
ministers of both sexes. The chief priest among 
them was very powerful, and knew no superior 
but the king of the country. This high office 
was generally conferred upon one of the royal 
family. Hirt. Alex. 66.— Mace. 7, v. 636.— 
S^ab. 12. 

76 



CoALvRiA, the ancient name of Cape Conio- 
rin in India. 

CoMARus, a port in the bay of Ambracia, near 
Nicopolis. 

CoMBREA, a town near Pallene. Herodot. 7, 
c. 123. 

CoMED.E, a Scythian people, being a branch 
of the Sacse. They belonged to Scythia intra 
Imaum, and dwelt upon those mountains on the 
north of Sogdiana, about the springs of the 
laxartes. Ptol. 

CoMMAGENE. Vid. Comagena. 

CoMPSA, now Consa^ a town of the Hirpini 
in Italy. This town revolted to Hannibal after 
his victory at Cannse, and was made the deposi- 
tory of his baggage and munitions when on his 
march towards Campania. It was before this 
city that Milo, the assassin of Clodius, was kill- 
ed, according to VeU. Paterc. ; but others read 
Cossa for Compsa. The territory of Lucania 
was just south of this place ; and on the south- 
east was the nearest frontier of Campania. 

CoMPSATUs, a river of Thrace, falling into 
the lake Bistonis. Herodot. 7, c. 109. 

CoMUM, now Como, on the lake called by 
the ancients Larius, in the Milatiese. It wets 
situate at the north of Insubria, at the bottom 
of the lake and was one of the most flourish- 
ing municipia in the time of the younger 
Pliny, a native of that idghland town. It was 
afterwards called Novum Comum by Caesar, 
who established there a colony. Plin. 3, c. 18. 
— Liv. 33, c 36 and 37. — Suet, in Jul. 28.—^ 
Plin. 1, ep. 3. — Cic. Fam. 13, ep. 3.5. 

CoNCANi, a people of Spain, who lived chief- 
ly on milk mixed with horse's blood. Their 
chief town, Concana^ is now called Sa7itillana. 
Virg. G. 3, V. 463.— ;SiZ. 3, v. Z6\.—Horat. 3, 
od. 4, V. 34. 

CoNDATE, a name common to many places 
in Gaul. D'Anville says it denotes a situation 
in a corner between two rivers. The principal 
one is the capital of the Rhedones, still a popu- 
lous city bearing the name of Rennes. 

CoNDiviENUM, the chief town of the Nam- 
netes, situated on the river Liger near its mouth ; 
its modern name is Nantes. 

CoNDOCHATEs, a rivcr of India, falling into 
the Ganges. The modern name assigned to 
this stream is Kandak, which flows into the 
Ganges on the left side. 

CoNDRUsi, a nation of Gallia Belgica, whose 
name is retained in the modern canton of Coti- 
dros, situated, according to Lemaire, on either 
side of the river Z' Ourtlie, ancient Ultra. 

CoNFLtJENTES, a towu at the confluence of the 
Moselle, and the Rhine, now Coblentz, the sta- 
tion, anciently, of the first legion. Heyl. Cosm. 

CoNiACi, a people of Spain at the head of the 
Iberus. Strcu). 8. 

CoNiMBRiGA, a town of Lusitania, the modem 
Coimbra, is celebrated in Portugul for its uni- 
versity. D^Anville. 

CoNSENTiA, situated near the source of the 
river Crathis, is designated by Strabo, (6, 255,) 
as the capital of the Brutii. It was taken by- 
Hannibal after the surrender of Petilia, but 
again fell into the hands of the Romans to- 
wards the close of the war. The modern Cwt- 
senza answers to the old town. Cram. — Liv, 
23, SO.—Plut. 3, b.—Ptol. p. 67. 

CoNSTANTiNOPOLis. Vid. Byzautium. 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



CO 



CoNTADESDus, a rivei of Thrace, rising in 
mount Hasmus, and discharging itself into the 
Agrianes some distance above its confluence 
with the Hebrus. 

CoNTOPORiA. This name was given to the 
route from Mycaene to Corinth, by way of Te- 
nea. Polyb. 16, 16. 

Contra- AciNUM, a Roman post in Dacia, 
on the Danube. It received this name from its 
situation opposite Aquincum, Buda, on the 
Pannonian side, and is now Pest. 

Cop^E, a small but ancient town of Bceotia, 
on the northern bank of the lake to which it 
gives its name. Near it was the Athamanian 
plain, which takes its name from Athamas. so 
famed in ancient traditions, who is supposed to 
have dwelt there. North of Acraephia " is a 
triangular island " in the lake, " on which are 
the walls of the ancient Copse ; and more dis- 
tant, on another island, the village of Topolias. 
which gives its present name to the lake. Paus. 
B(Bot. 23. — GelVs Itiner. 

CoPAEs PALUS, now Limne, a lake in Bceo- 
tia, towards the northern borders and the Opun- 
tian bay. Its circuit was, according to Strabo, 
not less than 47 miles, and it received the waters 
of almost all the principal streams in that sec- 
tion of coimtry. Although the name of Co- 
pais, derived from that of Copae on the northern 
shore, was generally given to this lake, it was 
also frequently designated by the name of some 
important town upon its bank, or on the rivers 
that emptied themselves into its bosom. Thus, 
at Haliartus it was called Haliartus Lacus, and 
Orchomenian at Orchomenus. Homer and Pin- 
dar call it Cephisus. From the mouth of this 
river to the town of Copae, the water was navi- 
gable for ancient vessels in the time of the geo- 
grapher Pausanias. As no visible channel car- 
ried off the waters of this lake, the surrounding 
country was frequently threatened with inun- 
dation ; and it was said that, on the draining of 
the plains in the time of Crates, the ruins of 
an ancient city were discovered between the 
sites of Copae and Orchomenus. The da,nger, 
however, was greatly diminished by the number 
of subterranean passages that communicated 
with the Opuntius Sinus and the Euripus. Of 
these there were fifteen known to the suriound- 
ing people ; and a modem traveller " observed," 
says Cramer, " four at the foot of mount Ptoos, 
near xlcraephia, which convey the waters of 
Copais to lake Halica, a distance of two miles. 
The other Katabathra are on the north-eastern 
side of the lake." The Copaic eels, of great ce- 
lebrity among the Grecian epicures, appear to 
have been, in ancient times as at present, an ar- 
ticle of trade to the surrounding countries ; and 
the Boeotian in the Achamae of Aristophanes, 
presents among the greatest luxuries of the mar- 
ket, his Copaic eel : 

'I>cri(5as evvSpovg iy^iXti^ Kw;rai(5af. 

Paus. Baot. 24:.—Plin. 16, 36.—Dodweirs 
Travels. 

CoPHES, a river of Asia, which, rising in the 
Paropamisus moimtains and the eastern parts 
of Aria, after receiving the waters of the Choes 
at Nysa, discharges itself into the Indus on the 
borders of Scythia, which it separates from In- 
dia. Plin. 

CoPHOs, the name of the harbour of To- 



rone in Macedonia ; so called because it was 
said the noise of waves was never heard there ; 
whence the proverb Kw^^drcpoj rov Topcovaiov Xi- 
[levos. strati. — Mela, 2, 3. 

CoPi^. Vid. Thurii. 

CoPRATES, a river of Asia, falling into the 
Tigris. Diod. 19. 

CoPTUs, and Coptos, now Kypt, a town of 
Egypt, about 100 leagues from Alexandria, on 
a canal which communicates with the Nile. 
Plin. 5. c. 9, 1. 6, c. 2X—Strab. 16. — Juv. 15, 
V. 28. From this place to Berenice Epidires, 
on the Arabian gulf, a road was carried across 
the desert by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
It was upwards of 250 miles m length, and ren- 
dered the communication between the sea-port 
and the Nile easy and secure. By means of 
this road the commodities of India and the east 
were received at Coptus, which thus became 
the great inland mart for India and the south. 
The intermediate towns or ports upon this road 
have long since been buried beneath the sands 
of the desert. The communication with Ara- 
bia was from this city by Myos-Hormus, at the 
commencement of the Sinus Heropolites. From 
the name of this town some etymologists derive 
the name of the whole country on the Nile. 
Vid. JEgyptus. 

Cora, a town of Latium, on the confines of 
the Volsci, built by a colony of Dardanians be- 
fore the foundation of Rome. Lucan. 7, v. 
392.— Fir^. ^71. 6, V. 775. 

CoRAX, that part of the Caucasus which 
extended to the Palus Maeotis, and covered the 
narrow strip of land which belonged to Colchis, 
north of the Euxine Sea. 

CoRCYRA, I. an island in .the Ionian Sea, 
about 12 miles from Buthrotum, on the coast of 
Epirus ; famous for the shipwreck of Ulysses 
and the gardens of Alcinous. It has been suc- 
cessively called DrepaTie, Scheria, and Phaa- 
cia, and now bears the name of Corfu. " The 
principal city of the island was situated pre- 
cisely where the town of Corfu now stands." 

Cram. II. Nigra, an island in the Illyrian 

gulf, near the islands of Salo and Pharus. Cas. 
Bell. Civ. 3, 10. 

CoRDiJBA, now Cordova, b. famous city of 
Hispania Baetica. This was the capital city 
of the Turduli, and, under the ancient inhabit- 
ants, of the whole of Baetica. The first colony, 
which was led there by one of the Marcelli, 
was called Colonia Patricia, U. C. 621. Cor- 
duba is, however, much more famous as the 
seat of the Moorish empire in Spain during the 
middle ages, than for its superiority as a colony 
of Rome; and the names of Avicenna and 
Averrois cast little less glory upon this celebrat- 
ed place than the births of Lucan and Seneca. 
Martial. 1, ep. 62.— Mela, 2, c. 6.— Cas. Bell. 
Alex. 57. — Plin. 3, c. 1. 

CoRDYLA, a port of Pontus, supposed to 
give its name to a peculiar sort of fishes caught 
there (Cordyla.) Plin. 9, c. 15.— Martial. 13, 
ep. 1. 

CoRFiNiuM, was the chief cit}'' of the Peligni. 
It enjoyed for a short time only the honour of 
being styled the capital of Italy, under the 
name of Italica, as it appears to have seceded 
from the confederacy before the conclusion of 
the war. In later times we find it still regard- 
ed as one of the most important cities of this 



CO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CO 



part of Italy, and one which Caesar was most 
anxious to secure in his enterprise against the 
liberties of his country. It surrendered to him 
after a short defence, when Cn. Domitius, the 
governor, was allowed to withdraw with his 
troops to Brundusium. Cram. 

CoRiNTHiAcus SINUS, a bay of the Ionian 
Sea, between the Peloponnesus and the main 
land of Greece. On the east it washed rhe 
shores of the isthmus of Corinth, which sepa- 
rated its waters from those of the Saronic gulf 
and the .^gean ; upon its northern side were a 
small portion of Boeotia, and the whole length 
of Phocis ; and on the south it had Achaia from 
Corinthia to the promontory of Rhium. This 
point of land jutting out into the bay, and al- 
most meeting the opposite promontory of An- 
tirrhium on the side of Phocis, terminated the 
gulf on the west, and left it but a narrow pas- 
sage for its waters through the Sinus Patros to 
the Ionian Sea. It is now the gulf of Lepanto. 

CoRiNTHUs, " Placed on an isthmus where 
it commanded the Ionian and .^gean seas, and 
holding as it were, ihe keys of Peloponnesus, 
Corinth, from the pre-eminent advantages of its 
situation, was already the seat of opulence and 
the arts, while the rest of Greece was sunk in 
comparative obscurity and barbarism. Its ori- 
gin is, of course, lost in the obscurity of time ; 
but we are assured that it already existed, under 
the name of Ephyre, long before the siege of 
Troy, when Sisyphus, Bellerophon, and other 
heroes of Grecian mythology, were its sove- 
reigns." The name of Corinth was assumed 
by this city before the expiration of the mytho- 
logical era of Grecian history ; and Corinthus, 
the son of Jove, was, according to the Corinthi- 
ans, the author of their name. During all these 
ages the family of Sisyphus continued in pos- 
session of the sovereignty, which was only 
transferred from them when the return of the 
Heraclidae established a new population and 
new masters in the Peloponnesus. After five 
generations the Bacchiadae obtained the supreme 
power, which they kept until the abolition of 
royalty in the Corinthian state. " The Corin- 
thian district was bounded on the north by the 
Geranean chain, which separated it from Me- 
garis ; on the west it was divided from Sicyonia 
by the little river Nemea ; on the east it border- 
ed on Argolis, the common limit of the two re- 
publics, being the chain of mount Arachmeus." 
A description of Corinth naturally divides itself 
into that of the city and that of the territory. 
The isthmus, the harbours on the Corinthian 
and Saronic gulfs, and the Acrocorinthus, are 
principal objects to be described under the se- 
cond head. The width of the isthmus in the 
narrowest part is, perhaps six miles ; and at 
this point was the portage for the transporta- 
tion of vessels from one sea to the other. Many 
efforts were made by the Greeks, and after- 
wards by the Romans, to effect a communication 
between the waters of tjie iEgean and the 
Adriatic, by cutting across the isthmus; and 
traces still remain of these attempts, and of 
others to fortify this narrow gate of the Penin- 
sula. The celebration of the Isthmian games, 
which were founded in honour of Neptune, and 
continued after all the other gymnastic contests 
of Greece had fallen into disuse, imparted a sa- 
credness as well as an interest to this peculiar. 



spot ; and here, during a celebration of these 
festivals, the independence of Greece weis pro- 
claimed by order of the senate and people of 
Rome. On this little spot stood also the thea- 
tre, the marble stadium, and the temple of Nep- 
tune. The ruins of these and other buildings 
are thus described by Dr. Clarke : " We rode 
directly towards the port and the mountain, and 
crossing an artificial causeway over a foss, we 
arrived in the midst of the ruins. It was evi- 
dent we had discovered the real site of the 
Isthmian town, with the ruins of the temple of 
Neptune, the stadium, and the theatre. I'hese, 
together with walls and other indications of 
a town, surround the port, and are, for the 
most part, situated upon its sides, sloping to- 
wards the sea. Pine trees are still growing in 
a line near the temple as mentioned by Pausa- 
nias." On the Corinthian gulf the port of Co- 
rinth was Ijcchseum, from which the trade of 
the Corinthians was carried on with western 
Greece ; it stood about a mile and a half from 
the city, and, at a distance of about nine miles, 
on the Saronic gulf, they had the port of Cen- 
chrese, from which they communicated with 
Asia and the east. - " The Acrocorinthus," says 
Strabo, as translated by Cramer, " is a lofty 
mountain, the perpendicular height of which is 
three stadia and a half; but by the regular road 
the ascent is not less than thirty stadia. The 
side facing the north, in which direction stood 
the city, is the steepest. It is situated in the 
plain below, in the form of a trapezus, and was 
surrounded with walls wherever, it was not de- 
fended by the mountain. Its circuit was esti- 
mated at forty stadia. Walls had been con- 
structed up the ascent as far as it was practic- 
able; and as we advanced, we could easily per- 
ceive traces of this species of buildings ; so that 
the whole circuit was more than eighty-five sta- 
dia. From the summit are seen to the north 
the lofty peaks of Helicon and Parnassus cover- 
ed with snow ; below, towards the west, extends 
the gulf of Crissa ; beyond, are the Oneian 
mountains, stretching from the Scyronian rocks 
to Cithaeron and Bcsotia." The whole slope of 
this ascent was diversified with temples erected 
in honour of different deities ; but the Acroco- 
rinthus was particularly dedicated to the wor- 
ship of Venus. Accordingly her shrine ap- 
peared above those of all the other gods ; and 
iOOO beautiful females, as courtesans, officiated 
before the altar of the goddess of Love. From 
these rites, which they freely celebrated for hire 
in honour of this goddess, a copious revenue 
was secured to the city ; but as foreigners were 
principally those who furnished it, there arose 

the proverb ov iravrds dvSpd^ eU "K-opivdov tarlv h 

nXovg, alluding to the tax there levied on their 
superstition, their passions, or their vanity. 
When the sovereign power was wrested from 
the hands of the Corinthian princes, it was 
transferred to annual magistrates, called Pry- 
tanes, who were still chosen from the family of 
the Bacchiadae. The oligarchy thus establish- 
ed by this family was not overthrown till the 
year B. C. 629, when the supreme authority 
was usurped by Cypselus, the son of Eetion. 
Cypselus was succeeded by his son Periander, 
celebrated for his cruelties and for his patron- 
age of science and literature ; the tyrant of Co- 
rinth, and one of the seven whcm their contem- 



CO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CO 



poraries and posterity have rendered illustrious 
as the sages of Greece. On the death of Peri- 
ander Corinth submitted to a moderate aristo- 
cracy, and living contentedly under a well-regu- 
lated government, enjoyed a repose unknown to 
the other states of Greece. It had, however, 
the misfortune to engage in a dispute with Cor- 
cyra, its principal colony, and must therefore be 
looked upon as a principal cause of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, if, indeed any other cause be 
sought for than the mutual jealousy of Sparta 
and Athens. From this time forth Corinth 
shared all the misfortunes that dissention and 
faction had entailed upon Athens, Thebes, Ar- 
gos, &c. ; and the Corinthians, from this mo- 
ment, appear in all the contests between Athens 
and Sparta, now od one side and now on the 
other ; in separate wars with the Lacedsemo- 
nians, and leagued with this same people after- 
wards against Epaminondas and the Boeotians. 
At Corinth Philip was declared commander in 
chief of the forces destined to act against the 
Persian king ; and in that city also his son was 
elected to fill this oifice, no less fatal to Grecian 
liberty than to its Persian foes. On the death 
of Alexander, when his generals distributed 
among themselves his uselessly acquired pos- 
sessions, Corinth came into the power of the 
Macedonian kings, till we find it united by Ara- 
ms to the Achaean league. On the final disper- 
sion of that famous confederacy, the last hope 
of the Greeks had been placed on the strength 
of this place ; but it was not proof against Ro- 
man perseverance, or, perhaps we should say 
Roman destiny, and was taken by the consul 
L. Mum mi us, and given up to the avarice or 
rage of the Roman soldiery, the privileged ma- 
rauders of the earth. The riches which the 
Romans found there were immense. During 
the conflagration, all the metals which were in 
the city melted and mixed together, and formed 
that valuable composition of metals which has 
since been known by the name of Corinthium 
JEs. This, however, appears improbable, espe- 
cially when it is remembered that the artists of 
Corinth made a mixture of copper with small 
quantities of gold and silver, and so brillant 
was the composition, that the appellation of Co- 
rinthian brass afterwards stamped an extraor- 
dinary value on pieces of inferior worth. For 
many years Corinth remained as the desolation 
and fury of war had reduced it ; but in the time 
of Caesar it was colonized by his order, and soon 
began to present something of its former mag- 
nificence. It was the capital of Achaia when 
St. Paul introduced there the new religion of 
which he was so zealous a disciple. On the 
division of the empire Corinth fell, of course, to 
the share of the eastern emperors ; and on their 
overthrow by the Turks, this famous city was 
transferred, after a siege not surpassed by any 
that it underwent in ancient times, into the 
hands of those rude conquerors. It still retains 
its ancient name, but with scarcely the ruins 
of its ancient splendour. A single temple, itself 
dismantled, remains to mark the site of one of 
the most luxurious cities of antiquity, and dis- 
tinguish it from any modern village of the 
Turkish empire. Strab. — Pans. Att. & Co- 
rinth. — Herod. — Thuc. — Cram. — Martial 9, ep. 
b8.—Sueton. Aug. lO.—Liv. 45, c. ^.—Mor. 2, 
c. IG.—Ovid. Met, 2, v. 2A0.— Herat. 1, ep. 17, 



V. 36.—Plin. 34, c. 2.-Stat. Theb. 7, v. 106.— 
Paus. 2, c. 1, &c.—^trai. 8, &c.— Homer. 11. 
15. — Cic. Tusc. 4, c. 14, in Verr. 4, c. 44, de 
N. D. 3. 

CoRioLi, and Coriolla, a town of Latium, 
on the borders of the Volsci. taken by the Ro- 
mans under C. Martius, called from thence Co- 
riolanus. Plin. 3, c. 5. — Plut. — Liv. 2, c. 33. 

CoRONE, a city of Messenia, upon or near 
the site of the present to^vm of Cor on. This 
town, which was first called Epea, was situate 
upon the Sinus Messeniacus, sometimes called 
from it Coroneus. When the Messenians were, 
for a time, restored to their country on the de- 
cline of the Spartan authority, the name of Co- 
rone was bestowed upon this place. 

CoRONEA, I. a Xovnx of Boeotia, between the 
Libethrius mens and the Copalc lake. This 
place boasted an antiquity that mounted to the 
fabulous era of the first kings of Thebes. It was 
often the scene of important battles that more 
than once decided, for a time, the fate of Bosotia. 
Here, in the first year of the Corinthian war, 
Agesilaus defeated the allied forces of Athens, 
Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, B. C. 394. In its 
vicinity was the temple of Minerva Itonis, the 
edifice in which " the general council of the 
Boeotian states assembled till dissolved by the 
Romans." There are still to be seen the ruins 
of this ancient town near the village of Koru- 
nies. Paus. Baot. 34. — Thuc. 1, 113. — Xen. 

Hell. 4, 3, 8. II. A iovm. of Pelopt)nnesus. 

Another of Corinth of C}'prus of 



Ambracia of Phthiotis. 

CoRsi, a people of Sardinia. 

Corsica, an island of the Mare Inferum, on 
the Ligurian coast, about sixty miles from the 
harbour of Genoa and seven to the north of the 
island of Sardinia, in size and note the third of 
the Italian seas. The children of Thespius are 
considered by the mythologists to have first 
peopled this island ; and Eustathius refers its 
discovery to the accident of a woman, named 
Corsa or Corsica, being led thither in pursuit 
of a bull that had strayed from her herds. In 
this obscurity the antiquary Heyl}Ti proposes 
to refer the origin of the name to the Corsi, who, 
crossing over from Sardinia at an early period, 
established themselves in this smaller and less 
inviting territor}^ By the Greeks Corsica was 
called Cyrnos ; and the Grecian settlement was 
effected by the Ph oceans, who, about the year 
539 B. C. abandoned their homes to avoid the 
Persian yoke, and to establish themselves and 
their liberty in this distant spot. The next pos- 
sessors of the island were the Carthaginians ; 
and from their occupation the inhabitants were 
sometimes denominated Phoenician Cyrnus. 
When subdued by the Romans, it formed atfirst, 
in connexion with Sardinia, the government of 
a praetor ; but was afterwards joined to the Ro- 
man patriarchate, and governed by the prefect 
of the city. The fall of the Roman empire, 
which witnessed the settlement of the northern 
barbarians in all its pro\ances, left Corsica open 
to their depredations ; and the Vandals of Afri- 
ca took possession of the island, now a second 
time subject to its sway. To the Vandal rule 
succeeded that of the Saracens ; and the mid- 
dle ages are full of the wars which, from this 
and the neighbouring islands, they carried on 
against the princes of Christendom, The prin- 
79 



CO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CR 



cipal Roman colonies established here were 
those of Mariana and Aleria, the first by Ma- 
rius and the second by Sylla; but though in 
these places the Roman population may have pre- 
ponderated, and though the Asiatic Greeks and 
the Tyrians of Africa were, no doubt, in the tem- 
porary possession of its coasts, "the insular peo- 
ple," says D'Anville, " were Ligurian ; " and 
Heylyn remarks that they " were stubborn, poor, 
unlearned, and supposed to be more cruel than 
other nations." Cas. — Strab. — Diod. Sic. 

CoRSURA, an island in the bay of Carthage. 

CoRTONA. " About fourteen miles south of 
Arretiumwefind Cortona, a city whose claims 
to antiquity appear to be equalled by few other 
towns in Italy, and which to this day retains its 
name unchanged. Concerning its origin, we 
learn from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who 
quotes from Hellanicus of Lesbos, an author 
somewhat anterior to Herodotus, that the Pe- 
lasgi, who had landed at Spina on the Po, sub- 
sequently advanced into the interior of Italy, 
and occupied Cortona, which they fortified ; and 
from thence formed other settlements in Tyr- 
rhenia. On this account it is that we find Cor- 
tona styled the metropolis of that province. 
Silius Italicus calls it the city of Corithus, in 
conformity with Virgil, who frequently alludes 
to the land of Corithus as the country of Dar- 
danus, the founder of Troy. 

CoRUs, a river of Arabia, falling into the Red 
Sea. Herodot. 3, c. 9. 

CoRYBASSA, a city of Mysia. 

CoRYciUM Antrum. " About two hours' 
journey from Delphi is the celebrated Corycian 
cave, surpassing in extent every other known 
cavern, and of which it is not possible to advance 
into the interior without a torch. The roof, from 
which an abundance of water trickles, is ele- 
vated far above the floor ; and vestiges of the 
dripping moisture (i. e. stalactites) are to be seen 
attached to it along the whole length of the 
cave. The inhabitants of Parnassus consider 
it sacred to the Corycian nymphs and the god 
Pan." Immediately after the entrance, the cave 
expands into a chamber of about 300 feet long 
by perhaps 200 wide. In this sacred recess, 
oh the approach of the Persians, the people of 
Delphi concealed themselves. Cram. — Her. 8, 
36. 

CoRTcus, I, now Cur CO, a place in Cilicia, with 
a cave, and a grove which produced excellent 
safiron. Horat. 2, Sat. 4, v. 68. — Lucan. 9, v. 
809.— PZm. 5, c. ^l.— Cic. ad Fam. 12, ep. 13. 

— Strcd). 14. II. A spot called by Strabo 

CiMARUs, now cape Carahusa., a point of land 
in the island of Crete, from which it was usual 
to compute the distances to the several ports of 
Peloponnesus. Plin. 4, 12. — Strab. 17. 

C5ryphasitjm, a promontory of Messenia, on 
which the Athenians under Demosthenes erect- 
ed the fortress that, after the destruction of the 
ancient city of Pylus, assumed that name. 
Pans. 4, c. '36. 

Cos, now Stanco, and by corruption Lanjo, 
an island of Asia Minor, in the entrance of the 
Ceramic gulf It was one of the cluster called 
Sporades. Before the name of Cos was as- 
signed to this island it had been called Merope, 
Caria, and Nymphea. The silks that were ma- 
nufactured there became a great article of luxu- 
ry at Rome, and the wine of Cos was a favour- ' 
80 



ite beverage with the richer citizens. Hippo- 
crates, the father of medicine, and Apelles, the 
matchless master of his art, were natives of Cos. 

CosA, and Cossa, or Cos^, a maritime town 
of Etruria. Virg. JEn. 10, v. 168.— iw. 22, c. 
W.—Cic. 9, Att. 6.—C(SS. B.C.I, c. 34. 

Coss5:i, a people of Asia, inhabiting the 
northern parts of the mountains which limit 
Susiana towards the west, and on the southern 
boundary of Media. The conquest of this peo- 
ple by Alexander was the work of 40 days. 

CossEA, a part of Persia. Diod. 17. 

CosYRA, a barren island in the African sea, 
near Melita. Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 567. 

Cotes, and Cottes, a promontory of Mauri- 
tania. 

CoTHON, a small island, near the citadel of 
Carthage, with a convenient bay, which served 
for a dock-yard. Servlus in Virg. jEn. 1, v. 
431.— Diod. 3. 

CoTTiffi Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 

Cragus, a woody mountain of Cilicia, part of 
mount Taurus, sacred to Apollo, Ovid. Met. 
9, V. 645.— Horat. 1, od. 21. 

Crambijsa, a town of Lycia. 

Grange, a small island in the Sinus Laconi- 
cus. In this spot the Trojan Paris first stopped 
with Helen to enjoy the fruits of his violated faith. 
It is now called. Marathonisi, and is situate but 
about 100 yards from the shore. Horn. II. 3, 442. 

Cranii, one of the four principal tovms of 
the island of Cephallenia. Its ruins manifest its 
great antiquity, as they are all of that kind call- 
ed Cyclopian. When the Messenians were 
expelled from their country in the Peloponnesus 
on the restoration of Pylos to their Spartan op- 
pressors, the city of Cranii was chosen by the 
Athenians as a proper place for the establish- 
ment of those unfortunate exiles. 

Cranon, and Crannon, a town of Thessaly, 
on the borders of Macedonia, where Antipater 
and Craterus defeated the Athenians after Alex- 
ander's death. Liv. 26, c. 10, 1. 42, c. 64. 

Crater. The bay between the Misenum 
and Surentum promontories, on the coast of 
Campania, now the Gulf of Naples, was called, 
in antiquity. Crater, Campanus, and Puteolanus 
Sinus. In the time of the geographer Strabo, 
the coast was so thickly lined between the pro- 
montories, with cities, villas, and villages, as 
to present the appearance of an uninterrupted 
settlement, or rather of a continued city. 

CRATffls, I. a river which, rising in Arcadia, 
ran across the whole width of Achaia, and emp- 
tied into the Corinthia Sinus, at the to-wTi of 

jEgae, nearly opposite the Crissasan bay. 

II. Another, now Crati, in Lucania and the 
country of the Brutii. The town of Thurii 
stood upon its banks ; and according to SMane- 
burne, it now empties into the Sybaris, though 
supposed to have discharged itself formerly 
south of that river into the Tarentine gulf. Its 
waters were believed to whiten the hair of those 
who bathed in them. This river derived its 
name from the Crathis in Greece. Ovid. Met. 
14, V. 315.— Paws. 7, c. 25.— Plin. 31, c. 2. 

Cremera, now the Valca, a small river of 
Tuscany, falling into the Tiber, famous for the 
death of the 300 Fabii, who were killed there in 
a battle against the Veientes, A. U. C. 277. 
Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 205.— Jw-y. 2, v. 155. 

Cremmyon, and Crommyon, a town near Co- 



CR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CR 



rinth, where Theseus killed a sow of uncom- ' 
mon bigness. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 435. 

Cremni, and Cremna, I, a place at which 
the Romans established a colony in Pisidia. — 
The fortifications in part remain, upon an ele- 
vated point, now Kebrinaz. 11. A commer- 
cial place on the Palus Mseotis. Herodot. 4, c. 2, 

Cremona, a town of Cisalpine Ganl, below 
the mouth of the Addua upon the Po. In this 
place, and at Placentia, the Romans first esta- 
blished themselves beyond the limits of what 
was then called Italy proper, on the north ; and 
from these cities they expected to hold in check 
the unmanageable inhabitants of these northern 
regions. The native Gauls were only succeed- 
ed in this important post by the Romans one 
year before the descent of Hannibal upon Italy. 
In the civil wars Cremona espoused the cause 
of the republicans ; and the rapacity of the sol- 
diers of Csesar Augustus was satisfied out of the 
spoils of the city. After a period, the advan- 
tages of its situation restored to Cremona its im- 
portance and opulence ; but the wars of Vitel- 
lius and Vespasian again reduced it, and, as 
Tacitus observes, " destroyed a colony, which, 
for 200 years, had flourished and prospered. — 
Uninjured by foreign attacks, it fell a victim to 
domestic war." In the middle ages Cremona 
shared the fortunes of the republics that first 
asserted their liberty against the pretensions of 
the German emperors. Liv. 21, c. 56. — Tacit. 
Hist. 3, c. 4 and 19. _ • 

Crestojstia, a district of Mygdonia in Thrace, 
in which the Pelasgi are said to have remained 
after their gradual disappearance from Greece 
and the bordering countries. This region alone 
was reported to produce lions in Europe ; and 
here the camels of Xerxes are said to have been 
attacked by those animals. The name of the 
principal city was Creston or Crestone. Some 
authors write for Crestonia, Grsestonia. It is 
now Caradach. Herodot. 5, c. 5. 

Creta, an island of the Mediterranean Sea 
south of the ./Egean. It "forms an irregular 
parallelogram, of which the western side faces 
Sicily, while the eastern faces towards Eg3rpt ; 
on the north it is washed by the Mare Creti- 
cum; and on the south by the Libyan Sea, 
which intervenes between the island and the 
opposite coast of Cyrene." Various estimates 
have been made of the circumference of this 
celebrated island; Pliny reports it at 270 miles 
in length from east to west ; while in breadth 
it nowhere exceeds 50. He gives a circumfer- 
ence of about 539 miles. It is impossible to 
fix the etymology of its name, but most authors 
concur in assigning it to Cres, the son of Jupiter, 
in the accounts of mythology. Many, however, 
derive it " by a syncope or abbreviation from the 
Curetes, the first inhabitants thereof, who, to- 
gether with the Telchines, were priests of Cy- 
bele, the principal goddess of this land." Till 
the era of Minos, Crete was supposed by the 
Greeks to have been occupied by a barbarous 
race, called by Homer, Eteocretes ; confounded 
by many theorists with the Curetes, the Dactyli, 
and Telchines, concering whose origin and 
character even poetry and mythology have not 
invented a continuous account. The age of 
Minos, or rather, perhaps, the ages of the two 
monarchs who ruled in Crete under that name, 
is most probably to be considered as the epoch 

Part I.~L 



of the first dawn of civilization in the isljind, 
where it seems to have anticipated the improve- 
ment of Greece in all the arts of life and gov- 
ernment. The Dorians early established them- 
selves in Crete ; and it is quite possible, that 
when Lycurgus is said to hai'e introduced the 
laws of Minos into Laconia, it was only meant 
at first that he introduced from Crete, and from 
other settlements, the institutions of the Dorians. 
After the Trojan war, the principal cities of 
Crete constituted themselves republics, and 
were generally governed according to the prin- 
ciples which they had proved under the more 
ancient state of things, " The chief magistrates, 
called Cosmi, were ten in number, and elected 
annually. The Gerontes constituted the council 
of the nation, and were selected from those who 
were thought worthy of holding the office of 
Cosmus." But though the Cretan are supposed 
to have answered as a model for the Spartan 
laws, there was this material difference in their 
constitution, that while every regulation of the 
Lacedaemonian lawgiver had in view the pre- 
servation and dignity of an aristocracy, the cha- 
racter of the institutions, called those of Minos, 
was essentially democratic. The island of 
Crete underwent fewer political vicissitudes 
than the other states of Greece. It did not, in- 
deed, fall under the Roman dominion till after 
the Mithridatic war, and formed, when conque- 
red, a part of the government of the proconsul of 
Cyrenaica. The name of Hecatompolis, which 
Homer bestows on it, was derived, as the word 
imports, from a hundred cities contained in it, of 
which forty were still remaining in the time of 
Ptolemy. Gnossus was the capital, and the early 
court of the kings. Scarcely any part of Greece 
was more the subject of poetry than this island, 
" the mistress of the sea ;" and the name of 
mount Ida, which rose to a great elevation in 
the centre of the island, recalls the whole histo- 
ry of the genealogy of the gods. The natives 
of Crete, however, enjoyed but a bad reputation 
with the other Greeks ; and the 'Katnra KaKiara 
was made as often to include with the Cilicians 
and Cappadocians, the people of Crete as the 
citizens of the voluptuous Corinth. Candia is 
now the name of this island. Hot at. 1, od. 36, 
V. 10, epod. 9. — Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 444. Epist. 
10, V. \OQ.— Val. Max. 7, c. Q.—Strab. 10.— 
Lnican. 3, v. 184.— Fir^. Mn. 3, v. 104.— ikfeZa, 
2, c. l.—Plin. 4, c. n.—Cram. 

Creticum mare, that part of the Mediter- 
ranean which intervened between the island of 
Crete and the south-eastern part of the Pelopon- 
nesus. Cram. 

Creusa, or Creusis, a port of Bceotia, the 
harbour of Thespise, on the confines of the Me- 
garean territory. Its position seems to corre- 
spond with that of Livadostro. Cram. 

Crtmisa, a promontory, river, and town, on 
the eastern coast of the Brutian territory, now 
called respectively Ca.po delV Alice, Fiwmeniea, 
now Ciro. The city of Crimisa was said to 
have been founded by Philoctetes, alter the siege 
of Troy. At a much later period Crimisa is 
supposed to have changed its name to Patemum. 
Cram.—Strab. 6, 254. 

Crissa, a town of Phocis, near Parnassus, 

above Cirrha. It was especially famous for the 

celebration of the Pythian games in its plain. 

The malpractices of the Crissaeans induced the 

81 



CR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CU 



Amphictyons to destroy their town in the Cris- 
saean or Sacred war. Sir W. Gell points out 
the ruins of Crissa near an old church, situated 
on the spot still called Crisso. Cram. — Strab. 
9, ^\S.—Paus.—Phoc. 37. 

Crissjbus sinus, a part of the Corinthiacus 
Sinus, which took its name from the town of 
Crissa. The western shore of this bay belong- 
ed to the Locrians, the eastern to the Phocians. 
Strabo sometimes appears to have applied the 
name of this particular bay to the whole Corin- 
thiacus Sinus. It is now the Gulf of Salona. 
Cram.— Strab. S.— Thuc. 1, 107. 

Criu-Metopon promontorium, now Cape 
Crio, the south-western extremity of Crete, 125 
miles distant from Phycus, a promontory of Cy- 

renaica. Cram. Or the Ram's Forehead, 

a promontory running far into the Euxine, 
which terminates the Tauric Chersonese. It is 
now called by the Turks Karadje-bourun, or the 
Black Nose. D'Anville. 

Crogius Campus, an extensive plaia in Thes- 
saly, watered by the Amphrysus; doubtless 
the tract to which Apollonius gives the appella- 
tion of Athamantius. Cram. — Argon. 2, 513. 

Crocodilopolis, a name of Arsttioe, near 
lake Moeris. Vid. Arsinoe. 

Crommyon, a place in the Saronic gulf in 
Corinthia, from whose capital it was 120 stadia 
distant. It was near the Megarean frontier, 
and was celebrated as the haunt of a wild boar 
destroyed by Theseus. Cram. — Plut. 

Cromni, and Cromi, a town of Arcadia, 
which gave name to the district Cromites. A 
place of strength, according to Xenophon. Now 
probably Crano. Cram. — Hell. 7, 4, 21. 

Cronius mons, or the hill of Saturn, a mount 
of Elis, on the summit of which, priests, called 
Basilae, otFered sacrifices to the god every year 
at the vernal equinox. Cram. 

Croto, "now Crotone, on the little river 
^sarus, was one of the most celebrated and 
powerful states of Magna Graecia. Its founda- 
tion is ascribed to MyscelluSj an Achaean lead- 
er soon after Sybaris had been colonized by a 
party of the same nation, which was about 715 
A, C. According to some traditions, however, 
the origin of Croto was much more ancient, and 
it was said to derive its name from the hero Cro- 
ton. The residence of Pythagoras and his 
most distinguished followers in this city toge- 
ther with the overthrow of Sybaris which it ac- 
complished, the exploits of Milo and several 
other Crotoniat victors in the Olympic games, 
contributed in a high degree to raise its fame. 
Its climate also was proverbially excellent. This 
town was also celebrated for its school of medi- 
cine, and was the birth-place of Democedes, who 
long enjoyed the reputation of being the first 
physician in Greece." From the time of the 
triumph over Sybaris, Croto began to languish, 
in consequence of the increased love of luxury 
exhibited by its inhabitants. " As a proof of 
the remarkable change which took place in the 
warlike spirit of this people, it is said that, on 
their being subsequently engaged in hostilities 
with t?ie Locrians, an army of 130,000 Croto- 
niataewere routed by 10,000 of the enemy on 
the banks of the Sagras. Dionysius the Elder 
gained possession of the town, which he did not 
long retain. When Pyrrhus invaded Italy, 
Croto was still a considerable city, extending on 
82 



both sides of the river, and its walls embracing 
a circumference of 12 miles. But the conse- 
quences of its war with that king proved so 
ruinous to its prosperity, that above one half its 
extent became deserted." After the battle of 
Cannae it surrendered to the Carthaginians, and 
its inhabitants were allowed to withdraw to Lo- 
cri. Cramer. — Strab. 6. — Diod. Sic. 4, 24. 

Crustumerium, or Crustumium, a colony of 
Alba, situated near the Tiber above Fidenae. Its 
antiquity is attested by Virgil and Silius Italicus. 
From this city, the ridge of which mons Sacer 
formed a part, appears to have been called Crus- 
tumini Colles ; since Varro, speaking of the se- 
cession of the Roman people to that hill, terms 
it Secessio Crustumina. The tribe called Crus- 
tumina evidently owed its name to this city. Its 
site is now probably occupied by Marcigliano 
Vecchio. Cram. — Dion. Hal. 2, 53. — Liv. 1, 
38; 42, 34. 

Crustumius, a river of Umbria, flowing from 
the Appenines into the Adriatic, between Ari- 
minium and Pisaurum. It is now Conca. 

Crypta, a passage through mount Pansily- 
pus. Vid. Pansilypus. 

Ctemene, or Ctimene, a town of Thessaly 
belongiug to the ancient Dolopians. It is said 
to have been ceded by Peleus, the father of 
Achilles, to Phoenix, probably the Cymine of 
Liyy. The name of Ctemene is still attached 
to the site. Cram. — Apoll. Argon. 1, 67. 

Ctenos, a port on the south side of the Cher- 
sonesus Taurica, 

Ctesiphon, a city on the Tigris, not far 
from Seleucis, built by the Parthian monarchs 
with the view of depopulating Babylon. It was 
nearly opposite the ancient site of Coche. It 
was first built by Vardanes, and afterwards 
beautified and walled by Pacorus, who made it 
a royal residence. It was several times assault- 
ed by the Roman emperors, generally without 
success; and, amongst others, by Julian the apos- 
tate, who perished there. There is no doubt 
that Ctesiphon was erected upon the ruins of a 
still more ancient city, Calneh, in the land of 
Shinar, {Gen. 10, 10.) The sites of Coche and 
Ctesiphon are now called al-Modain, or the Two 
Cities ; and in this last the ruins of an ancient edi- 
fice are called Takt-Kesra, or the throne of Khos- 
roes. D^Anville. — Heyl. Cosm. — Rosenmuller. 

Cucusus, a town of Cappadocia, in the south- 
eastern part of the province, now Cocson. It 
was situated in one of the gorges of mount 
Taurus, and is celebrated as the gloomy place 
of exile of St. John Chrysostom. D'Anville. 

CuLARO, a town of the Allobroges in Gaul, 
called afterwards Gratianopolis, and now Gre- 
noble. Cic. ep. 

CuMA, CuMJE, and Cyme, I. the most pow- 
erful of the ^olic colonies in Asia Minor. It 
was situated on a bay called Cumsus Sinus, 
and is now Nemourt. This city was the birth- 
place of Ephorus, and the residence of the Si- 
bylla Cumana, to be distinguished from the Si- 
bylla Cumaea of Cumae in Italy. D'Anville. — 

Heyl. Cosm. II. Another city of the same 

name, in Campania, situated on a rocky hill 
washed by the sea, near the peninsula which 
terminates in the Misenum Promontorium, and 
not far from the Avernian and Lucrine lakes. 
" It is generally agreed that Cumae was found- 
ed at a very early period by some Greeks of Eu- 



cu 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CY 



boea, under the conduct of Hippocles of Cumae 
and Megasthenes of Chalcis. The Latin poets, 
with Virgil at their head, all distinguish Cumas 
by the title of the Euboic city. The period at 
which Cumae was founded is stated in the Chro- 
nology of Eusebius to have been about 1050 
A. C. that is, a few years before the great mi- 
gration of the lonians into Asia Minor." In 
ihe 228th year of Rome the Cumseans compel- 
led the Etruscans, who sought to establish them- 
selves in the south, to abandon the siege of their 
city ; and twenty years later, Aristodemus, the 
CumEean leader, defeated and slew Aruns, the 
son of the Etruscan Porcenna. Shortly after, 
Aristodemus usurped the chief command in his 
native city, and held it 15 years, till deposed 
and slain. Tarquinius Superbus died at Cumae 
A. U. C. 259. " Here was the cavern of the 
Sibyl, or the temple of Apollo : it consisted of 
one vast chamber, hewn out of the solid rock ; 
but was almost entirely destroyed in a siege 
which the fortress of Cumae, then in the pos- 
session of the Goths, maintained against Nar- 
ses ; that general, by undermining the cavern, 
caused the citadel to sink into the hollow, and 
thus involved the whole in one common ruin. 
The ruins of Cumae still bear the ancient name, 
and are at the foot of the hill on which the city 
was built." Cram. — Strab. 5, 243. — Virg. Mn. 
6, 2, ^%—Liv. 2, 21, 34 ; 4, 44; 8, 14 ; 23, 31, 37. 

CtJMANUs SINUS, a name of the Bay of Na- 
ples, otherwise called Crater and Puteolanus 
Sinus. 

CuNAXA, a place of Assyria, 500 stadia from 
Babylon, famous for a battle fought there be- 
tween Artaxerxes and his brother Cyrus the 
younger, B. C. 401. Mnemon probably occu- 
pies the site of the ancient place, " immediately 
preceding a canal of communication between 
the Euphrates and Tigris. This canal is what, 
in the march of Julian, is called Macepracta, 
after the Syriac Maifarckin, denoting a deriva- 
tion by the means of a canal." D^Anville. — 
Plut. in Artax. — Ctesias. 

CuNEUs, " the wedge," a name given to the 
south-western extremity of Lusitania. It is 
now Algarve, from Garb, the Arabic for " west." 
D^Anville. 

CupRA Maritima, I. a town of Picenum on 
the coast ; according to Strabo, an establishment 
of the Etruscans, who worshipped Juno under 

the name of Cupra. II. Montana, another 

town of Picenum, on the left bank of the iEsis, 
called Montana from its situation on the moun- 
tains. Cram. 

Cures, a city of the Sabines, on the Via 
Salaria, " celebrated as having communicated 
the name of duirites to the Romans, and dis- 
tinguished also as having given birth to Numa 
Pompilius. Antiquaries are divided as to the 
site occupied by the ancient Cures. — Cluverius 
places it at Ve&covio di Sabina, about 25 miles 
from Rome. The opinion of Holstenius ought, 
however, to be preferred ; he fixes it at Correse, 
a little town with a river of the same name." 
Cram.— Strab. 5, 228.— Varr.—JEn. 6, 811 : 8, 
637. 

CuRETES. Vid. jEtolia, and Part III. 

CuRETis, a name given to Crete, as being the 
residence of the Curetes. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 136. 

Curia. Vid. Part II. 

Curias, a promontory which divides the 



southern shore of Cyprus into two parts. It is 
now called Gavata, or della Gatte. D'Anville. 

CURI0S0LIT.E, a people of Armorica, bound- 
ed on the east by the territory of the Ambibari 
and Rhedones ; on the south by that of the Ve- 
neti ; on the west by that of the Osismii and 
Lemovices ; on the north by the ocean. Their 
district is now the Department-des-Cotes-du- 
Nord. Lem.—CcES. Bell. G. 2, c. 34, 1. 3, c. 11. 

Curium, a town of Cyprus, probably now 
Piscopia. D^Anville. 

CuTiLi.aE, an aboriginal town in the Sabine 
territory, to the east of Reate, on the right bank 
of the Velinus. " It was celebrated for its lake, 
now Pozzo Ratignano, and the floating island 
on its surface. This lake was farther distin- 
guished by the appellation of Umbilicus, or cen- 
tre of Italy. Cutiliae is noticed by Strabo for 
its mineral waters, which were accounted salu- 
tar}'' for many disorders : they failed, however, 
in their efiect upon Vespasian, who died here." 
Cram.— Dion. Hal. 1, 14; 2, 49.— Plin. 2, 95. 
— Varr. ap Plin. 3, 12. 

Cyane^e, now the Pavonare, two rugged isl- 
ands at the entrance of the Euxine Sea, about 
20 stadia from the mouth of the Thracian Bos- 
phorus. One of them is on the side of Asia, 
and the other on the European coast ; and, ac- 
cording to Strabo, there is only a space of 20 
furlongs between them. The waves of the sea. 
which continually break against thenj with a 
violent noise, fill the air with a darkening foam, 
and render the passage extremely dangerous. 
The ancients supposed that the these islands 
floated, and even sometimes united to crush 
vessels into pieces when they passed through 
the straits. This tradition arose from their ap- 
pearing, like all other objects, to draw nearer 
when navigators approached them. They were 
sometimes called Symplegades and Planetcc. 
Their true situation and form was first explored 
and ascertained by the Argonauts. Plin. 6, c. 
12. — Herodot. 4, c. 85. — Apollon. 2, v. 317 and 
m).—lAjcoph. 1285.— Strab. 1 and 3.— Mela, 2, 
c. l.—Ovid. Trist. 1, el. 9, v. 34. 

Cyglades, a name given to certain islands 
of the -^gean Sea that surrounded Delos as with 
a circle; whence the name {kvk'Xos, circulus.') 
" Strabo writes that the Cyclades were at first 
only twelve in number, but were afterwards in- 
creased to fifteen. These, as we learn from 
Artemidorus, where Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, 
Melos, Siphnos, Cimolos, Prepesinthos Olearos, 
Paros, Naxos, Syros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros, 
and Gyaros ; which last, however, Strabo him- 
self was desirous of excluding, from its being a 
mere rock, as also Prepesinthos and Olearos." 
Thera, Anaphe, and Astjrpalasa are by some as- 
signed to the Cyclades, by others to the Spo- 
rades. " It appears from the Greek historians, 
that the Cyclades were first inhabited by the 
Phoenicians, Carians, and Leleges, whose pi- 
ratical habits rendered them formidable to the 
cities on the continent, till they were conquered 
and finally extirpated by Minos. These islands 
were subsequently occupied for a short time by 
Poly crates, tyrant of Samos, and the Persians ; 
but after the battle of Mycale they became de- 
pendent on Athens." Cram. — Strab. 10. — 
Plin. 4, 12.— Thucyd. 1,4, and 94.— Herodot. 
1, 171 ; 5, 28. 

Cydnus, a river of Cilicia near Tarsus, where 
83 



CY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CY 



Alexander bathed when covered with sweat. 
The consequences proved ahnost fatal to the 
monarch. The Cydnus rose in mount Tau- 
rus, and emptied itself into the sea below Tar- 
sus, forming by its expansion the port of that 
city. According to Paul Lucas, the Cydnus is 
now called MeriJbafa or Sinduos ; at least he 
thus styles the river on the banks of which he 
fixes the ruins of Tarsus. Facciolati gives the 
modern name as Carasu. D'Anville. — Chaus- 
sard. — Curt. 3, c. 4. — Justin. 11, c, 8. 

Cydonu, " one of the most ancient and im- 
portant cities of Crete, probably founded by the 
Cydones of Homer, whom Strabo considered as 
indigenous. But Herodotus ascribes its origin 
to a party of Samians, who, having been exiled 
by Polycrates, settled in Crete when they had 
expelled the Zacynthians. Six years afterwards, 
the Samians were conquered in a naval engage- 
ment by the iEginetae and Cretans, and reduc- 
ed to captivity ; the town then probably revert- 
ed to its ancient possessors, the Cydonians. In 
the Peloponnesian war we find it engaged in 
hostilities with the Gortynians, who were as- 
sisted by an Athenian squadron. At a later 
period it formed an alliance with the Gnossians. 
Diodorus reports that Phalaecus, the Phocian 
general, after the termination of the Sacred 
War, attacked Cydonia, and was killed, with 
most of his troops, during the siege. The ruins 
of this ancient city are to be seen on the site of 
JeramV Cram. — Herodot, 3, 59. — TJiucyd. 2, 
m.—Liv. 37, 60. 

Cyllene, I. " the loftiest and most celebrat- 
ed mountain of Arcadia, which rises between 
Stymphalus and Pheneus, on the borders of 
Achaia. It was said to take its name from Cyl- 
len, the son of Elatus, and was, according to the 
poets, the birth-place of Mercury, to whom a 
temple was dedicated on the summit. The per- 
pendicular height of this mountain was esti- 
mated by some ancient geographers at 20 stadia, 
by others at 15. The modern name is Zyria. A 
neighbouring mountain was called Chelydonea, 
from the circumstance of Mercury having found 
there the tortoise shell from which he construct- 
ed the lyre." Cram. — Pans. — Strab. 8. II. 

The haven of Elis, was situated 120 stadia from 
that town, and to the west of Cape Araxus. 
Pausanias, who agrees with Strabo in regard to 
the above distance, is not, however, correct in af- 
firming that Cyllene looked towards Sicily ; for 
in that case it must have stood on the western, 
instead of the northern, coast of Elis : whereas 
all accounts concur m fixing its site between 
the two promontories of Aruxas and Chelonatas, 
on the shore facing the north. Pausanias, per- 
haps, only meant that this was the usual place 
of embarkation for those who sailed from Pelo- 
ponnesus to Sicily and Italy. He also informs 
us, that at an early period CJyllene was the em- 
porium to which the Arcadians conveyed the 
goods which they disposed of to the merchants 
of ^gina ; and elsewhere states that its name 
was derived from an Arcadian chief. Dionysius 
Perigetes indeed affirms that it was the port 
from which the Pelasgi sailed on their expedi- 
tions into Italy. The ruins of Cyllene have ge- 
nerally been looked upon as corresponding with 
some slight remains of antiquity visible at Chia- 
renza, once a flourishing town under the domi- 
nation of the Venetians, to the south-east of 
.84 



cape Tornese. But the distance between this 
place and Palaiopoli or Elis, does not agree with 
that assigned by Strabo and Pausanias, being 
considerably more than 120 stadia according to 
the best modern maps. Cram. — Strab. 8 — 
Pans. El. 2, 26. Arc. b.—Dian. Per. 347. 

Cyma, or Cyme. Vid Cuvicc. 

CYN.ETHA, a town of Arcadia, situated 
among the mountains. It had been united to 
the Achaean league, but was betrayed to the 
iEtolians in the Social War, and the inhabitants 
massacred without distinction. " Polybius ob- 
serves that the calamity which thus overwhelm- 
ed the Cyngethians, was considered as a just 
punishment for their depraved and immoral 
conduct, their city forming a striking exception 
to the estimable character of the Arcadians in 
general, who were esteemed a pious, humane, 
and sociable people. Polj'-bius accounts for this 
moral phenomenon from the neglect into which 
music had fallen among the Cynssthians. The 
historian adds, that such was the abhorrence 
produced in Arcadia by the conduct of the 
Cynaethians, that, after a great massacre which 
took place among them, many of the towns re- 
fused to admit their deputies, and the Manti- 
neans, who allowed them a passage through 
their city, thought it necessary to perform lus- 
tral rites and expiatory sacrifices in every part 
of their territory. Near the town was a foun- 
tain named Alyssus, from the nature of its wa- 
ters, which were said to cure hydrophobia. 
Cynaetha is supposed to have stood near the 
modern town of Calabryta." 

Cynesii, and Cyneta-, a nation of the re- 
motest shores of Europe, towards the ocean. 
Herodot. 2, c. 33. 

Cynosarges, a place in the suburbs of Athens. 
Vid. Athena. 

CYNOSGEPHAL.E, I. hills of Thcssaly, forming 
part of the range that separated the plains of 
Pharsalia from that of Larissa. These hills were 
the memorable scene of two celebrated conflicts. 
Alexander, the tyrant of Phers, was defeated 
here by Pelopidas, the Theban genera], who lost 
his life in the engagement. And here Philip 
of Macedon was defeated by T. Cluinctius Fla- 
minius. Gillies. — Cram. — Strab. '^^ 441. — Liv. 
33, 6. II. A town of BoBotia, in the neigh- 
bourhood of ThespiaB, taken by the Spartans 
previous to the battle of Leuctra. Cram. 

Cynoscephali, a people in India, who have 
the heads of dogs according to certain tradi- 
tions. Plin. 7, 2. 

Cynthus, a mountain of Delos, now Cirdhia. 
Apollo was surnamed Cynthius, and Diana 
Cynthia, as they were born on the mountain, 
which was sacred to them. Virg. G. 3, v. 36. 
—Ovid. 6, Met. v. 304. Fast. 3, v. 346. 

Cynuria, a district lying between Argolis 
and Laconia, on the Argolicus Sinus. " Its in- 
habitants were an ancient race, accounted indi- 
genous by Herodotus, but belonging probably to 
the Leleges or the Pelasgi." The possession of 
this district caused continual hostilities between 
the Spartans and Argives. Thyrea was the 
principal town of Cynuria. Vid. Thyrea. Cram. 
—Herodot. 8, 73. 

Cynus, " At a distance of ninety stadia from 
Daphnus, and opposite to CEdepsus, a town of 
Euboea, was Cynus, theprincipal maritime city 
of the Opuntian Locri. According to ancient 



CY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CY 



traditions, it had long been the residence of 
Deucalion and Pyrrha ; that princess was even 
said to have been interred there." The city- 
was taken by Attains, king of Pergamus, ia the 
Macedonian war. Cram. — Strab. 9, 425. — 
Liv. 28, 6. 

Cyprus, an island in the eastern corner of 
the Mediterranean Sea, south of Cilicia, from 
which it was separated by the Aulon Cilicius, 
and west of Syria, from which, according to 
Pliny, it was severed by the action of the sea.' 
No place in antiquity was known by a greater 
number of names than this island, many of 
them of a less disputed origin than that by 
which it was most generally known, and which 
prevailed over all the rest. The opinion adopt- 
ed byD'Anville is generally received,and leaves 
the etymology as open to useless discussion as 
before. " It is thought that its mines of copper 
caused it to be called Kupros, or rather that this 
metal owes the name which distinguishes it to 
that of the island. Its other names are thus re- 
corded and accounted for by the old antiquary 
and chorographer, Heylin. Cyprus, " called at 
first Cethinia, from Ketim, the son of Javan, 
who first planted it ; 2. Cerastis, from the abun- 
dance of promontories, thrustiag like horns into 
the sea; 3. Amathusia; 4. Paphia; 5. Sala- 
mina, from its principal towns; 6. Macaria, 
from its fruitfulness and felicities ; 7. Asperia, 
from the roughness of the soil ; 8. Collinia, from 
the frequency of hills and mountains ; 9. ^ro- 
sa, from, the mines of brass which abound there- 
in ; and, finally, all those forgotten or laid by, it 
settled at last in the name of Cyprus. Nor is it 
more strange that Cyprus should be so called by 
the Grecians from its a.bundance of cypress 
trees, anciently and originally peculiar to this 
island, than that the same Greeks should give 
unto the neighbouring island the name of 
Rhodes, from its great plenty of roses." The 
Phoenicians early established themselves in Cy- 
prus, the Greek settlement being effected later, 
and not before the termination of the Trojan 
war. A separate government was generally 
established in each of the populous cities, but 
the larger eastern empires early exercised the 
power of ultimate sovereignty over the whole. 
The Persians organized nine principalities. 
From their hands it passed into those of Alex- 
ander, and the contest of his successors settled 
it on Ptolemy, and united it to the Alexandrian 
kingdom of Egypt. In the time of Ptolemy Au- 
letes the Romans possessed themselves of this 
island, and in their power it remained till the 
dissolution of the unwieldy empire. During the 
crusades, the king of England, Richard Coeur 
de Lion, reduced it, first to the obedience of the 
knights templars, and afterwards to that of Lu- 
signan, the titular monarch of Jerusalem. This 
event occurred about the year 1191, and, until 
1570, it remained an independent state with 
some interval of subjection to Venice. About 
that year, however, it was reduced by the Turks, 
and has continued in their possession to the pre- 
sent day. The ancient towns of note were Sa- 
lamis, the principal ; Citium, the birth-place of 
Zeno; Amathus, sacred to Venus; Paphos, 
Ledra, now Nicosia, the present capital, in the 
centre of the isle ; Idalium, the groves of which 
are celebrated in poetry : 



' foium gretmo dea tollit in altos 

Malice lucos : ubi mollis amaricus ilium 
Floribus et dulci adspirans complectiPur umbra.^ 

" The ancients," says Malte-Brun, " extol 
the fertility of this island; the moderns entertain 
nearly the same opinion of it. The most valua- 
ble production at present is cotton ; we also send 
thither for turpentine, building timber, oranges, 
and most of all, Cyprus wine. The inhabitants 
of Cj'prus are a fine race of men ; the women, 
by the vivacity of their large eyes, seem to de- 
clare how faithful they are still to the worship of 
Venus. This island anciently had perhaps a 
million of inhabitants ; it has now only 83,000." 
The rivers of Cyprus were all inconsiderable 
streams, frequently dry during the warmer 
months. The principal, however, were the Ly- 
cus and the Lapithus, running from Momit 
Olpnpus, now Santa Croce, the highest moun- 
tain of the island of which it occupies almost the 
centre. It has been celebrated for giving birth 
to Venus, surnamed Cypris, who was the chief 
deity of the place, and to whose service many 
places and temples were consecrated. Its 
length, according to Strabo, is 1400 stadia. 
There were three celebrated temples there, two 
sacred to Venus and the other to Jupiter. Strab. 
Ih.—Ptol. 5, c. U.—Flor. 3, c. d.— Justin. 18, 
c. b.—Plin. 12, c. 24, 1. 33, c. 5, 1. 36, c. 26.~ 
Mela, 2, c. 7. 

Cyrenaica, a part of Africa, north of Libya 
Inferior, bounded on the east by Marmarica, 
and on the west by Africa Propria, the Carthagi- 
nian territory. The name of Cyrenaica is deri- 
ved from its principal city Cyrene ; though Pli- 
ny and some others call it P.entapolis, from its 
five cities of Cyrene, Ptolemais, Barce, Darnis, 
and Berenice. Gillies, in his history of Greece, 
has given a brief outline of the first Greek set- 
tlement in this part of Africa, till their arrival 
the habitation of a savage race, if inhabited at 
all. " The African Geeeks were a colony of 
Thera, the most southern island of the ^gean, 
and itself a colony of the Lacedaemonians. Du- 
ring the heroic ages, but it is uncertain at what 
precise era, the adventurous islanders settled in 
that part of the Sinus Syrticus which derived 
its name from the principal city Cyrene, and 
which is now lost in the desert of Barca. De- 
scended from the Lacedaemonians, the Cyrene- 
ans naturally preserved the regal form of go- 
vernment. Under Battus, the third prince of 
that name, their territory was well cultivated, 
and their cities populous and flourishing. Six 
centuries before the Christian era they received 
a considerable accession of population from the 
mother country. Emboldened by this reinforce- 
ment, they attacked the neighbouring Libyans 
and seized on their possessions. The injured 
craved assistance from Apries, king of Eg}'pt. 
a confederacy was thus formed, in order to re- 
press the incursions and to chastise the auda- 
city of the European invaders. But the valour 
and discipline of the Greeks always triumphed 
over the numbers and ferocity of Africa ; nor 
did Cyrene become tributary to Egypt till Egypt 
itself had been subdued by a Grecian king, and 
the sceptre of the Pharaohs and of Sesostris 
had passed into the hands of the Ptolemies."' 
In the time of Augustus, the Cyrenaica was in- 
corporated, together with the island of Cretej 
85 



CY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CY 



into one province, but they were afterwards se- 
parated, and Cyrenaica constituted a proviuce 
apart. A fit conclusion to this brief review of 
its ancient state will be found in the sketch of 
its present condition by Malte-Brun. " The 
country of Barca is the first that comes in our 
way on leaving Egypt. Some call it a desert, 
and the interior coimtry merits that name; oth- 
ers call it a kingdom, an appellation founded 
on the existence of this country as the indepen- 
dent kingdom of Gyrene, governed by a branch 
of the Ptolemies. The coasi of Barca, once 
famed for its threefold crops, is now very ill 
cultivated ; the wandering tribes of the desert 
allow no rest to the inhabitants, or security to 
their labours. The sovereignty is divided be- 
tween two Beys, one of whom resides at Derne^ 
a town surrounded with gardens and watered 
by refreshing rivulets ; his subjects may amount 
to 30,000 tents or families. The other lives at 
Bengazi, a town of 10,000 houses, with a tolera- 
ble harbour in a fertile territory. The Bey of 
Tripoli, appoints these governors. Among the 
magnificent ruins of Gyrene, the limpid spring 
still flows from which the city had its name. A 
tribe of Arabs pitches its tents amidst its sadly 
mutilated statues and falling colonnades. Tolo- 
meta, or the ancient Ptolemais, the port of Bm- 
ca, preserves its ancient walls. This coast seems 
to hold out an invitation to European colonies. 
It seems to be the property of no government or 
people. A colony established here would re- 
discover those beautiful places which the an- 
cients surnamed the hills of the Graces and the 
garden of the Hesperides." D'Anville, corrob- 
orated by modern travellers, informs us that the 
cities from which the Gyrenaica received the 
name Pentapolis are still extant in Tolometa, 
Barca, Derne, and Bernie, or Bengazi ; while 
Teuchira, which under the Ptolemies was Ar- 
sinoe, "is found in its primitive denomination 
on the same shore." Mela, 1, 8. — Herod. 4, 19. 

Gyrene, the capital of Gyrenaica. Ptolemy 
places it eleven miles from the sea, and ten from 
Apollonia, which served as its port, on the bor- 
ders of Marmarica. The Gyreneans became 
" so expert," says Heylin, " in the management 
of the chariot, that they could drive it in a 
round or circle, and always keep their wheels 
in the self-same track." Gyrene was the birth- 
place of Eratosthenes, of Gallimachus, " and of 
that Joseph whom the Jews compelled to carry 
our Saviour's cross." Vid. Part III. Herodot. 
3 and \.—Paus. 10, c. n.—Strah. VI.— Mela, 
1, c. S.—Plin. 5, c. b.— Tacit. Arm. 3, c. 70. 

Gyropolis, a city built by Gyrus, was situa- 
ted on the river laxartes in Sogdiana, D'An- 
ville calls it Cyreschata. It was, according to 
Strabo, the last city in the north of the Persian 
empire. Chaussard. 

Cyrrhestica, a district of Syria, so termed 
from Cyrrhus, its chief town, which was situa- 
ated at the foot of the mountains north of Beria, 
and which still exists imder the name of Corns. 
D'Anville. 

Gyrrhus. Thucydides (2, 100,) calls this 
a town of Macedonia, situate near Pella, men- 
tioned in Ptolemy's list of Emathian towns un- 
der the name of Gyrius. Palao Castro, about 
sixteen miles north-west of Pella, is very likely 
the site of ancient Cyrrhus. This city proba- 
bly gave name to the Syrian city. Cram, 
86 



Gyrus, a large river of Iberia, which, rising 
in the mountains on the frontier of Armenia, 
pursues, for some time, a north-easterly course. 
At length, after traversing nearly the whole ex- 
tent of Iberia, and forming part of the bounda- 
ry between that country and Albania, it dis- 
charges itself into the Caspian Sea, by two 
mouths. The modern name of this river is 
Kur. D'Anville. 

Cyta, a town of Colchis, situated on the 
river Rheon, celebrated as being the birth-place 
of Medea ; hence the term Cytseis applied to 
her by Propertius, and Cytasa Terra for Col- 
chis. Val. Flac. 

Cythera, now Cerigo, an island of the Med- 
iterranean, lying off" the southern coast of La- 
conia, about 5 miles from the promontory of 
Malea. — It was once called Porphyris, either 
from the purple fish found on its shores, or the 
marble in which it abounded. Cythera, how- 
ever, is as old as the time of Homer. This isl- 
and was governed by an annual magistrate, call- 
ed Cytherodices, appointed by the Spartans, on 
whom it was dependant. Great importance 
was attached to the possession of this island, as 
it afibrded to the Lacedaemonians safe harbours 
for their fleets, and to an enemy great facilities 
in prosecuting a war against Laconia ; so much 
so, that Ghilon, the Lacedaemonian sage, declar- 
ed it would be well for Sparta if that island 
were sunk in the deep. After circumstances 
proved these apprehensions not unfounded ; Ni- 
cias, with an Athenian force, seized upon this 
place in the Peloponnesian war, and greatly an- 
noyed the Spartans, " by landing on the coast, 
ravaging the country, and cutting ofi" detach- 
ments." The island was restored to the Lace- 
daemonians after the battle of Amphipolis, but 
was again taken by Gonon after the defeat of 
the Spartan fleet off" Gnidus. Hither Venus is 
said to have been wafted in a sea-shell, after her 
fabled birth from the ocean ; whence her sur- 
name Cytherea. There was a temple sacred to 
Venus Urania in this place, the most ancient 
dedicated to her by the Greeks. In this temple 
the goddess weis represented in complete ar- 
mour. Its principal town was Cythera, situat- 
ed opposite Malea, about ten stadia from the 
sea, which had a harbour called Scandea. Pav^ 
san. — Lacon. 23. Phcenicus is another har- 
bour of this island, probably the modern Ante- 
mono or San Nicholo. Platanistus its chief 
promontory, is now Cape Spati. — Cram. — Heyl. 
Cosm.—Odyss. 1, Q{}.— Herod. 7, 285.— TAwc. 
4, 53 and 55; 5, 18.— Diod. Sic. 15, 442. 

Cythnus, one of the Cyclades, lying between 
Geos and Seriphos, now called Thermia. Here 
the pretender Nero is said first to have made 
his appearance. It was colonized by the Dry- 
opes ; hence the name Dryopis applied to the 
island Cram. — Herod. 8, 46. 

Cytineum, one of the four cities which gave 
the name Tetrapolis to Doris. St/rab. 9.— 
Thuc. 1, 107. 

Cytorus, a town and mountain of Paphla- 
gonia, situated west of the promontory of Ga- 
rambis. Strabo says it was a colony of the 
Milesians and the port of Sinope. It was built 
by Cytorus, son of Phryxus. The mountain 
abounded in boxwood of a peculiar quality. 
The modem name is Kudros or Kitros. Mela^ 
I, 19.—Strab. 11.— Virg. Gear. % 247. 



DA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



D^ 



Cyzjcus, a town of Mysia, situated on an 
island of the same name in the Propontis, con- 
nected to the main land by two bridges built by 
Alexander, This city was founded by a colony 
of Milesians, and soon rose to such splendour 
as to be styled by Florus the " Rome of Asia." 
It was adorned with many splendid edifices, 
among which was a magnificent temple, " the 
pillars whereof being 4 cubits thick and 50 cu- 
bits high, were each of one entire stone only ; 
the whole fabric all of polished marble, every, 
stone joined unto- the other with a line of gold." 
Heyl. Cosm. The whole Peloponnesian fleet 
was captured oflfthis place by Alcibiades, A. 
C. 411. Mithridates laid siege to this city, and 
though he "lost before it, by sword, pestilence, 
and famine, no fewer than 30,000 men, did not 
succeed in his attempt." In later times this city 
was the metropolis of the province of Helles- 
pont. The channel between the island and the 
maia land has become blocked up with the rub- 
bish, and the city itself was finally destroyed by 
an earthquake. Cyzicus is the name still ap- 
plied to the ruins, which, in the words of Hey- 
lin, are daily made more ruinous by the stones 
and marbles being transported to Constantino- 
ple. The inhabitants of this city gave rise to 
two proverbs of different characters : from their 
efleminacy and tmiidity arose Tinctura Cyze- 
nica ; • and from the beauty of their coins, kv^l- 
Kj)voL cTarnptg. Heyl. Cosm. — D^Anville. It has 
two excellent harbours, called Panormus and 
Chytus. Flor. 3, b.—Plin. 5, d2.—Diod. 18. 

D. 

Dam, and Dahje, a Scythian people, dwell- 
ing south of the Ochus in Hyrcania. Noma- 
dic in their character, the Dahae, under various 
names, encroached upon the territories of the 
neighbouring nations, and sometimes spread 
themselves to a great distance from their proper 
settlements. The principal branches were the 
Xanti, the Pissuri, andthePamiorApami. The 
best authorities confine this people within the 
left bank of the Ochus, though Arrian places 
them on the laxartes, which he took for the Ta- 
nais. Their country is now the Dahestan. 

Dacia, the extensive coimtry reaching from 
the Euxine Sea, on the north of that part of the 
Danube which was called Ister,to the Tibiscus, 
and having on its northern line Sarmatia {Po- 
land) and the unexplored regions of the barba- 
rians, was inhabited by a people called Getae 
and Daci, of Scythian origin. The former name 
prevailed, for the most part, among the Greeks, 
and the latter among the Romans. During the 
years of the republic, and for some time after the 
establishment of the empire, their territory, se- 
parated by the Danube from that which had ac- 
knowledged the Roman supremacy, offered little 
attraction to the imperial or consular leaders ; 
and the Danube, while it bounded the Roman 
ambition on the north, seemed to offer a barrier 
beyond which this formidable name should in- 
spire no terror. In the reign of Trajan their 
barbarism, and the ignorance of their country 
which prevailed among the civilized people of 
Italy, no longer availed them, and attempts were 
made upon their territory by the arms of the 
empire. This reign includes the history, there- 
fore, of the principal war with the Dacians ; of 



the obstinate resistance offered by their kiag 
Decebalus to the attacks of the emperor ; of his 
subjugation; and of the reduction of Dacia to 
the condition of a province. In these wars was 
erected that famous bridge over the Danube, 
near the to\^Ti of Zemes, which the jealousy or 
the fear of the successor of Trajan destroyed, 
and the ruins of which have excited the admi- 
ration of the modems. After this conquest the 
term of Dacia assumed its greatest latitude; 
and the vanity of the conqueror was pleased to 
fix his name to a province that carried the limits 
of his empire beyond the researches of authen- 
tic geography. The colonies then planted by 
order of this aspiring prince, are supposed, by 
mingling with the former inhabitants, to have 
generated that peculiar dialect called Daco-La- 
tin, of which some traces remain in the idiom of 
the Wallachians. If the conquest of this coim- 
try added splendour to the Roman name, the 
maintenance of its borders against the barba- 
rians, who, in these days began to encroach on 
the limits of the empire, was found to be, on 
the contrary, at the same time useless and im- 
possible, the moderation af Aurelian conse- 
quently induced him to forego the empt}' advan- 
tage of a nominal extent of territory, over which 
he could not exercise an actual government; 
and removing the population of Dacia, in a 
great measure, to the right bank of the Danube, 
he gave his own name to that part of Moesia 
which lay eastward from the Margus, and to- 
wards the borders of Scythia Minor, calling it 
Dacia Aureliani. Of this province, the part that 
bordered on the river was called Dacia Ripen- 
sis, while that w^hich coniined upon Macedonia 
received the name of Dardariia. In its greatest 
extent Dacia comprehended the modem cotm- 
tries of Hungary east of the Teiss, Transylva- 
nia, with the Bannat, Wallachia, and Moldavia : 
its capital being Sarmizegethusa, the residence 
of king Decebalus. On the reduction of the 
province by Trajan, this city assumed his name 
in that of Ulpia Trajana. The western part of 
Dacia was inhabited by a different race of men, 
who, coming from Sarmatia, fixed themselves 
between the Roman province of Dacia on one 
side of the Danube, and Pannonia on the other. 
These were the Jazyges Metanastse. Aurelian's 
Dacia included chiefly a part of Bulgaria and 
Servia. The people inhabiting this region were 
called Getae and Daci, generally considered, 
having been different only in their geographi- 
cal situation, in the country which they both 
inhabited, and having one language and similar 
customs, &c. But it does not seem improbable 
that the Getse were the earlier possessors of 
the land, and that the Daci subsequently esta- 
blished themselves in it, and obtained there 
greatly the ascendancy. They were, most pro- 
babl)'-, of Scythian origin, differing in the set- 
tlement and migration in regard to time, and 
both in a great measure superseded by the 
Goths, a still later people from the common 
Scythian hive. The names Geta and Davus, 
supposed to be the same as Dacus, conferred in 
all the Greek and Latin comedies upon the ser- 
vants and slaves, may serve to show how early 
the Daci and Getae were kno"WTi in Greece and 
Rome, and in what estimation the character of 
these barbarians was held. 
DsiDALA, a mountain and city of Lycia, 
87 



DA 



GEOGRAPfiY. 



DA 



where Daedalus was buried, according to Pliny, 
5,27. 

Dalmatia, one of the provinces into which 
Illyria was subdivided. On the west it was se- 
parated from Liburnia by the Titius; the Scar- 
dus range of mountains confined it on the east ; 
on the north were the Bebii montes ; and on the 
south the waters of the Adriatic Sea. " The 
country, in the time of the Romans, was full of 
woods, and those woods of robbers, who from 
thence issued out to make spoil and booty. 
Dalmatce sub sylvis aguni, inde ad latroci7iia 
promptissimi. By the advantage of these woods 
they intercepted and discomfited Gabinius, one 
of Cassar's captains, marching through the 
coimtry with 1000 horse and 15 companies of 
foot. But these woods being destroyed, they 
began to exercise themselves at sea, in which 
their large sea-coasts and commodious havens 
served exceedingly." In this new occupation 
the inhabitants retained the natural ferocity of 
their character, and their maritime transactions 
were for the most part piracies, for which they 
were soon engaged m a war with the Romans. 
In the reign of Tiberius the Roman power was 
extended over all the country of Dalmatia. The 
principal towns of this province were Salona, 
the birth-place of Diocletian, and the place of 
his retirement after he had laid down the pur- 
ple, Narona, Epidaurus, Lissus, and Scodra. 
This -country has retained its ancient name, 
though sometimes it is written Delmatia, and 
veiy little alteration has been made in its 
boundaries. Strab. 7. — Ptol. 2. — Cces. Bell. 
Civ. 3, 9. — Heyl. Cosm. 

Damascena, a part of Syria near mount Liba- 
nus, so called from Damascus, its principal 
city. 

Damascus, a city of Syria m Phoenicia of 
Libanus, to the east of Sidon, "situate in a 
plain environed with hills and watered by the 
river Chrysorrhoas." The first historical ac- 
counts of this place are found in the Sacred 
"Writings, where its princes are mentioned as 
having formed an alliance with Hadadezer king 
of Zobah, against the Jewish conqueror David. 
The supreme authority in Damascus was some 
time afterwards usurped by a soldier of Hadade- 
zer's army, from which time this city became 
the capital and royal seat of Syria, When 
Syria was reduced to the state of a dependency 
on the Assyrian empire, it lost, of course, its 
greatpre-eminence, and passed successively into 
the power of the Persians, of Alexander, and of 
the successors of that unrestrained libertine of 
ambition. Under the Roman government the 
city of Antioch attained the supremacy, and 
Damascus ceased to be the principal among the 
capitals of Syria. The following account is 
from Heylin, the old corographer and antiqua- 
rian, whose work, though written almost 200 
years ago, and quite before the rise of the mo- 
dern art of criticism, is replete with the most 
accurate information in regard to the ancients 
and the countries of antiquity. " Damascus, a 
place so surfeiting of delights, so girt about with 
odoriferous gardens, that Mahomet would never 
be persuaded (as himself was used to say) to 
come unto it, lest, being ravished with its inesti- 
mable pleasures, he should forget the business 
he was sent about, and make there his paradise. 
But one of his successors, having no such scm- 
88 



pies, removed the regal seat unto it, wnere it 
continued till the building of Bagdat, a hundred 
years afterwards. The chief building in it, in 
later times, till destroyed by the Tartars, was a 
strong castle, deemed impregnable, and not 
without difficulty tbrced by Tamerlane, whom 
nothing was able to resist ; and as majestical a 
church, with forty sumptuous porches, and no 
fewer than 9000 lanterns of gold and silver j 
which, with 30,000 people in it, who fled thither 
for sanctuary, was by the said Tamerlane most 
cruelly and unmercifully burnt and pulled down 
unto the ground. Repaired by the mamelukes 
of Egypt, when lords of Syria, it hath since 
flourished in trade, the people being industrious, 
and celebrated as artisans." In the New Tes- 
tament Damascus is famous for the first preach- 
ing of St. Paul on his miraculous conversion. 
It is now Demesk, as named by the inhabitants 
of the country, according to D'Anville ; who 
adds, that the valley in which it stands is also 
called Goutah Demesk, the Orchard of Damas- 
cus. This is not the only name by which it is 
known, and the moderns generally call it Sham. 
It is inhabited by about 80,000 souls. Heyl. — 
2d Sam. 8, 5, 6. — Jos. 7, 5. — Lnican. 3, v. 215. 
— Justin. 36, c. 2. — Mela, 1, c. 11. 

Damasia, a town called also Augusta, now 
Augsburg, in Sv/abia, on the Leek. 

Damnu, a people " dwelling in Clydesdale, 
Lenox, Stirling, and Monteith, whose chief city 
was Vanduara, now Renfrew." Heyl. — Cambd. 
Brit. 

Damnonii, a people of the west of Britain, 
in Cornwall and Devonshire. Cambd en sup- 
poses that the name is more correctly written 
Danmonii. 

Dana, a town of Cappadocia, which D'An- 
ville thinks may have been the same as Tyana. 
He does not, however, insist on this opinion. 
It was near the Cilician Gates, and is mention- 
ed as one of the places at which Cyrus halted 
on his march against Artaxerxes. Xen. Anab. 
1,2. 

Danai, a name given to the people of Argos, 
and promiscuously to all the Greeks, from Da- 
naus their king. Virg. and Ovid, passim. 

Danapris, now the Nieper, a name given in 
the middle ages to the Borysthenes. Vid. Bo- 
rysthenes. 

Danaster, a name given in the middle ages 
to the Tyras, whence the modern Dniester. 
Vid. Tyras. 

Dandari, and Dandarid^, the inhabitants 
of an elevated district on the Caucasus, about 
the part called Corax. According to D'Anville 
this region still preserves the name of Dandars. 

DANUBros, the first and greatest river of Eu- 
rope after the Volga. It rises in the mountains 
called by the ancients Abnoba, Schwartzen- 
Wald, about the borders of Bavaria, and Wir- 
tembnrg, in a little village called Eschingen, 
only two miles from the shores of the Rhine, 
and, after flowing through the greater part of 
the northern countries, a distance of more than 
1,600 miles, discharges itself by two channels 
into the Black Sea. This river was fortified 
nearly the whole length by the Romans, who 
considered it the northern limit of their empire, 
though they did not pretend to have explored 
very accurately the country through which it 
flowed, and which they claimed as their territory. 



DA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DA 



In the begirmuig of its course the Danube runs 
almost directly east, dividing Vindilicia, the 
southern part of Bavaria, from Geimania An- 
tiqua on the north, in that part which is now 
the kingdom of Wirtemiv/rg and the northern 
portion of Bavaria. Continuing in this direc- 
lion, after collecting the waters of many smaller 
streams, among which are the Licus {Lech) and 
the Isarcus {Iser), it receives the CEnus {inn) 
on the borders of Noricum. From this point it 
constituted the dividing line between the last- 
named country, now Saltzburg, Stiria, and the 
southern part of Austria, upon the south, and 
Germania, the northern portion of Austria upon 
the other side as far as Vindobona, now the ca- 
pital of the Austrian empire, below the Cetius 
mons. Dividing still the modern Austria, it had 
the country of the Cluadi, Moravia, some dis- 
tance father on the north, to the mouth of the 
Marus {March), where it entered Dacia, the 
modern Hungary. In all its course, from the 
mons Cetius, Pannonia was upon the southern 
shore. In this part of its course the Danube re- 
ceived the Arrabona,a Pannonian river, now the 
Raab in Hungary, besides innumerable other 
smaller streams. " The Danube," says Malte- 
Brun, " passes into Hungary at the burgh of De- 
ven, immediately after it is joined by the March 
or Morave ; it is covered with islands below 
Presburg, and divides itself into three branches, 
of which the greatest flows in an east-south-east 
direction ; the second and third form two large 
islands ; and the second, having received from 
the south the waters of the Laita and the Raab, 
unites with the first ; the third, increased by the 
streams of the Waag, falls into the main chan- 
nel at Komorn, More than a hundred eddies 
have been counted on the Vag or Waag within 
the distance of 36 miles. The Danube flows 
eastwards from the town of Raab, receives on 
the left the waters of the Ipoly and the Gran, 
and becomes narrower as it approaches the 
mountains, between which it passes beyond 
Esztergom ; it makes several sinuatjons round 
the rocks, reaches the burgh of Vartz, whence it 
turns abruptly towards the south, and waters the 
base of the hills of St. Andrew and Buda. Its 
declivity from Ingolstadt to Buda is not more 
than eight feet ; the sudden change in its di- 
rection is determined by the position of the hills 
connected with mount Czarath, and by the level 
of the great plain. The river expands anew in 
its course through the Hungarian plains, forms 
large islands, and passes through a country of 
which the inclination is not more than twenty 
inches in the league. Its banks are covered 
with marshes in the southern part of Pest to- 
wards its confluence with the Drave. It ex- 
tends in a southern direction to the frontiers of 
Sclavonia, where the first hills in Fruska Gora 
retard its junction with the Save ; it then re- 
sumes its eastern course, winds round the 
heights, turns to the south-east, receives first 
the Theiss," the ancient Tibisus, "then the 
Save (Savus) at Belgrade (Singidunum), and 
flows with greater rapidity to the base of the 
Servian mountains. Its bed is again contracted, 
its impetuous billows crowd on each other, and 
escape by a narrow and steep channel, which 
they appear to have formed between the heights 
in Servia and the Bannat." In all the windings 
thus described, the Danube traversed only, in 
Part I. — M 



antiquity, the countries of Pannonia on the one 
hand, and Dacia, or rather that part of the 
country which the Jazyges Metanastse had 
taken from Dacia, on the other. From the 
mouth of the Save, however, it formed a new 
boundary , having Dacia on the north and Moesia 
on the south, for nearly the whole length of that 
extensive country. " It issues," continues Mal- 
te-Brun, " from the Hungarian states at New 
Orsova; and having crossed the barriers that op- 
pose its passage, waters the immense plains of 
Wallachia and. Moldavia" (country of the Da- 
cian Getae), where its streams unite with the 
Black Sea." Below the confluence of the Save 
and Danube it is that the latter receives the 
greater part of its tributaries. On the side of 
Moesia, the Margus {Morava), Mscvls {Esker), 
and latrus ; on the side of Dacia, the Aluta 
( Olt), the Ardeiscus {Argis), the Naparis {Pro- 
ava), and the Ararus {Siret). From Belgrade 
to the Argis, and for some distance below, the 
course of the river is generally east ; but be- 
tween the Argis and the Proava it turns abrupt- 
ly north as far as the Sirat, where, with no less 
suddenness, it bends towards the east, enclosing 
thus within its own shores and those of the 
Euxine a narrow peninsula once called Scythia, 
now the north-eastern corner of Bulgaria. 
This river, for the most part called Ister by the 
Greeks, did not take that name among the La- 
tins till it had passed the cataracts near the 
mouth of the Save and the city of Belgrade. In 
the whole course thus described by this noble 
stream, 60 rivers of magnitude discharge their 
waters collected from the Carpathian mountains 
and the Alps, beside a number, much more 
than double, of less important streams. It emp- 
ties, by a number of mouths,' into the Euxine 
Sea. The ancients generally reckoned seven ; 
Gibbon states them at six, and most other mo- 
dern writers find but two. It is hence to be 
inferred, that as the country upon the shores of 
the sea are flat and soft, the alluvial depositions 
have choked up the ancient channels referred 
to by ancient authorities. The waters of the Da- 
nube are particularly remarked by Malte-B run 
for their turbid appearance compared with the 
clear blue current of the Inn, which has been 
mentioned as its principal branch. The Danube 
was worshipped as a deity by the Scythians, 
Malte-Brun. — D^Anville. — Dionys. Perieg. — 
Herodot. 3, c. 33. 1. 4, c. 48, &c.—Strab. 4.— 
Plin. 4, c. 12. — Ammian, 23. 

Daphne, a grove in Syria, about five miles 
from the city of Antioch. The establishment of 
a Greek empire in Syria on the death of Alex- 
ander the Great, involved the introduction of 
Grecian fable and mythology. Of all the fic- 
tions that poetry had rendered sacred and beau- 
tiful among the people of Greece, there was 
none that experienced a readier or more enthu- 
siastic reception in the east than that which had 
consecrated the fate of Daphne and the story of 
Apollo's love. The god and the nymph were 
both adopted by the lively imaginations of their 
new votaries, and 

" that sweet grove 
Of Daphne by Orontes, and the inspired 
Castalian spring — " 

seemed fitter for the scene of such a tale than 
the cold clime of Greece, and even Tempe's Pe- 
89 



DA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DE 



neus. Here summer was tempered in its heat 
by hundreds of fountains ; and an impenetrable 
laurel shade, that extended for miles, excluded 
the fiercer blaze of that sun whose worship im- 
parted its sacred character to the place ,and made 
it religious. Here the oracular voice of Apollo 
spoke with truth as certain as in his early 
Delphic sanctuary ; and the games which con- 
stituted so large a portion of the sacred rites in 
Greece were here performed with enthusiasm 
and devotion. But here, too, the fate of Daphne 
was received as a warning, and all who profess- 
ed to worship in this grove were the votaries of 
gentleness and love. No spot in all the Pagan 
world was more revered than this ; and when 
the establishment of a Christian church had su- 
perseded the rites of the old and cherished faith, 
the pilgrims of Daphne could hardly bear to see 
its recesses and its shades converted to the uses 
of a cold religion that forbade them the enjoy- 
ment to which a voluptuous climate and the soft 
allurements of the spot invited them. The 
grove and temple of Daphne were burned by 
the Christians of Antioch in the time of Julian. 

Daphnus, a river of Opuntian Locris, into 
which the body of Hesiod was thrown after his 
murder. Plut. de Symp. At the mouth of 
this river stood the town of Daphnus, once in- 
cluded in the limits of Phocis. In the time of 
Strabo this town no longer existed. Cram. — 
Strab. 9, 424.— PZiw. 4, 7. 

Dara, a town of Mesopotamia, situated near 
Nisibin, fortified by the emperor Anastasius, and 
from him called Anastasiopolis. Its modern 
name is Dara-Kardin. D^Anville. 

Darantasia, a town of Belgic Gaul, called 
also Forum Claudii, and now Motier. 

Dardania, I. anciently a large tract of coun- 
try forming part of Dacia and Moesia,and inclu- 
ded in the modern Servia. This country was si- 
tuated north of Macedonia, near to mount Has- 
mus. It was inhabited by a fierce and barbarous 
race of men, whose perpetual hostility to Mace- 
donia was, from their frequent inroads, very an- 
noying to that country. Philip, the father of 
Perseus, in order to rid himself of his trouble- 
some neighbours, invited the Bastarnse to come 
and settle in this country, promising to assist 
them in expelling the Dardani. But Philip 
dying while they were on their march, and Per- 
seus not wishing to accomplish his father's pur- 
pose, they returned home, except 3000, who set- 
tled in Dardania and became gradually mingled 
with the people of that country. This nation 
was vanquished by C. Scribonius Curio, and re- 
duced to a Roman province, which was, how- 
ever ,much smaller in its extent than the ancient 
country. Its capital, Scupi, modem Uskup, 
was situated near the sources of the Axius, at 
the foot of mount Scardus. Heyl. Cosm. — Z>'- 

Anville. II. A small district of Troas, lying 

along the Hellespont, which receives its name 
from the town Dardanus, situated upon a pro- 
montory called Dardanium by Pliny, and Dar- 
danis by Strabo, about 70 stadia distant from 
Abydos. From the name of this town is de- 
rived the modern Dardanelles. A name 

applied anciently to Samothrace. 

Dargomanes, a river of Bactriana, which, 
rising in the mountains of Taurus, unites with 
the Ochus, and both together fall into the Oxus. 
Heyl. — D Anville. 

90 



Dariorigum, a town of Gallia Lugdunensis, 
the capital of the Verxeti, now Vennes, in Brit- 
tany. 

Dascylium, a town in the north-western part 
of Bithynia, placed by D' Anville " on a lake of 
the same name, formed by the diffusion of a 
river that descends from mount Olympus." 
Pomponius Mela places it beyond the Rhynda- 
cus, and calls it Dascylos. Freinshemius, in his 
supplement to Gluintus Curtius, (2, 6.) calls it 
Dascyleum, and says that Alexander sent Par-, 
menio to take possession of this place, which 
was occupied by a guard of Persians. Its mo- 
dern name is Diaskillo. 

Dase.e, a town of Arcadia, situated on the 
left bank of the Alpheus, 29 stadia from Mega- 
lopolis. 

Dassaretii, a people of Illyria, whose tei- 
ritory was adjacent to that of the Albani and 
Parthini. This nation occupied the borders of 
the Palus Lychnilis, the modern lake of Ochri- 
da. From their situation on the borders, between 
Illyria and Macedonia, their country was fre- 
quently " the scene of hostilities between the 
contending armies." Their chief town was 
Lychnidus, situated on the great lake Lichnitis. 
Vid. Lychnidus. Livy (30, 33.) says .that this 
country was fruitful in corn, and well calculated 
to support an army. We learn from Polybius 
that it was populous, and contained many towns 
and fortresses. Cram. — Polyb. 5, 108. — Strab. 
7, 316. 

Datos, or Datdm, a town of the Ed ones, in 
Thrace, situate near Neapolis. Near this place 
an engagement was fought between the natives 
and the Athenian colonists who attempted to 
settle here, in which the latter were defeated. 
" Its territory was highly fertile; it possessed 
excellent docks for the construction of ships, 
and the most valuable gold mines; hence arose 
the proverb Aaro? ayaQiiv, i. e. an abundance of 
good things." Scylax calls this a Greek colony, 
but Zenobius mentions it as founded by the 
Thasians. It was originally called Crenides,on 
account of its springs ; subsequently Datos, and 
lastly Philippi, near which Brutus and Cassms 
were defeated. Cram. — Herod. 9, 75. — Scyl. 
Peripl. p. 27. — Xenob. loc. cit. 

Daulis, a city of great antiquity in Phocis, 
south of the Cephissus. ( Vid. Daulis, Part III.) 
It was destroyed by the Persians, and rebuilt, 
after which it was taken by T. Flaminius in 
the Macedonian war. It was, according to Livy, 
(32, 18.) situated on a lofty hill, difficult to be 
scaled. The Daulians are reported by Pausa- 
nias {Phoc. 4.) as superior in strength and sta- 
ture to the other inhabitants of Phocis. The 
modem Daulia occupies the site of the ancient 
city. Polyb. 4, 25, 2.—Plin. 4, 4. 

iDAUNiA,"a district of Apulia, on the Adria- 
tic, so called from Daunus, the father-in-law of 
Diomede and king of this country. Still more 
ancient accounts make Daunus an Illy ri an chief, 
who was expelled from his country by an ad- 
verse faction, and settled in this part of Italy. 
The river Frento and the Appenines bounded 
it on the north and west, and it extended south 
as far as the Aufidus. The modern Puglia 
Piana nearly answers to the ancient Daunia. _ 

Decap5lis, a confederation of ten Gentile ci- 
ties in Palestine, entered into by the inhabit- 
ants for their common protection against the 



DE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DE 



Jews. Their names are given by D'Anville in 
the following order : Scythopolis, Gadara, Hip- 
pos, Gerasa, Canatha, Pella, Dium, Philadel- 
phia, Abila, and Capitolias. Dr. Heylin, ia 
his cosmography, says that this was another 
name for the two Galilees, {Mark. 7, 31, and 
Matth. 4, 25.) so called from their ten chief ci- 
ties. "It stretched from the Mediterranean to 
ihe head of Jordan, east and west, and from Li- 
banus to the hills of Gilboa, north and south ; 
which might make up a square of 40 miles." 

Decelia, now Biala Castro^ a town on the 
frontier of Attica, situated on the road from 
Athens to Eubcea, and equidistant between 
Thebes and Athens, from each of which it was 
fifteen miles. Agis, the Spartan king, during 
.he Peloponnesian war seized upon this fortress 
Dy the advice of Alcibiades, and placed in it a 
Lacedaemonian garrison, which proved a seri- 
ous annoyance to the Athenians. Herodotus 
says that the Peloponnesian army always re- 
spected the territories of the Deceleans, because 
ihey had pointed out to the Tyndaridse the 
place where Helen was secreted by Theseus. 
Gillies. — Cro.m. — Herod.. 9, 73. 

Decetia, a town of the ^dui, situated on an 
island formed by the Liger ; it still exists under 
the name of Decize, in the province of le Niver- 
Tims, the present department of la Nievre. Le- 
Tnaire. 

Decumates agri, certain lands of Germany, 
situated at the foot of mount Abnoba, Black 
Mountain, which, upon their evacuation by the 
Marcomanni, were occupied by a body of Gauls, 
who paid annually to the Romans a tenth part 
of their produce, from whence the name. 

Delium, a town of Boeotia, opposite Chalcis, 
about four miles from Aulis, towards the mouth 
of the river Asopus. In the battle fought at this 
place between the Athenians and Boeotians, 
Socrates is said to have preserved the life of 
Xenophon, or, as some accounts represent, of 
Alcibiades. Pans. Baeot. 20. — Strab. — Diog. 
Laert. — Liv. 31, c. 45, 1. 35, c. 51. 

Delminium, a town of Dalmatia. According 
to D'Anville it was in the centre of the country : 
the site, however, of this town has not been as- 
certained, though, as giving its name to all the 
country, it must have been of some importance. 
It seems, nevertheless, that it may yet fairly be 
questioned whether the name of Dalmatia were 
really a derivative from that of this town. Flor. 
4, c. 12. 

Delos, the principal island of the Cyclades, 
of which it was the centre. It was known by 
other names besides that of Delos, as Asteria, 
Ortygia, Cynthia, &c., for which a variety of 
curious etymologies have been imagined. This 
island was early celebrated for the meetings of 
the Ionic people of Greece, who there celebrated 
national games, &c. The principal deity of the 
place was Apollo, whose fabled birth upon one 
of its mountains invested it with a peculiar 
sanctity in the eyes even of the Barbarians. 
When the Athenians obtained possession of the 
island, they ordered that neither deaths nor 
births, that could be prevented, should occur 
there ; enacting a law that all sick persons and 
women enceinte should be removed to the neigh- 
bouring island of Rhenea. They instituted also 
the festival called Delia, in which offerings were 
brought from the distant Hyperboreans who 



worshipped the peculiar deity of this place with 
zealous devotion. ( Vid. Lelia, Part II.) Even 
the Persians refrained from violating this sa- 
cred spot, and consented to offer sacrifice to the 
deity whose attributes, under other forms and 
with other rites, was the object of their o"«ti 
adoration. The peculiar veneration in which all 
nations seemed to hold this island, indicated it 
to ihe Athenians as a proper depository for the 
treasures of the Greeks, which accordingly were 
lodged here after the Persian war. On the des- 
truction of Corinth all the commercial interests 
of the Corinthians w^ere transferred to Delos, on 
account of its advantageous situation between 
the countries of Europe and Asia. With pros- 
pects of increased prosperity the islanders began 
to assume an important aspect among larger 
nations, when the soldiers of Mithridates, hav- 
ing landed on their coasts, and committed the 
most unrelenting devastations, reduced the 
whole island to a condition of poverty and misery 
from which it never recovered. The principal 
town, called also Delos, was situated in a plain 
through which ran the little river Inopus, near 
the lake Trochoeides. Above this plain the bar- 
ren heights of mount Cynthus raised themselves. 
The mountain is now Cintio, and the island 
has taken the name of Delo, or Sdille. Delos 
remains a heap of rubbish and ruins, as in for- 
mer days, overrun with hares and scarcely inha- 
bited. Vid. Rhenea. One of the altars of Apol- 
lo in the island was reckoned among Che seven 
wonders of the world. It had been erected by 
Apollo, when only four years old, and made with 
the horns of goats killed by Diana on mount 
Cynthus. It was unlawful to sacrifice any liv- 
ing creature upon the altar, • which was reli- 
giously kept pure from blood and every pollution . 
Apollo, whose image was in the shape of a dra- 
gon, delivered there oracles during the summer, 
in a plain manner, without any ambiguity or ob- 
scure meaning. No dogs, as Thucydides men- 
tions, were permitted to enter the island ; and 
when the Athenians were ordered to purify the 
place, they dug up all the dead bodies that had 
been interred there, and transported them to 
the neighbouring islands. Mythologists suppose 
that Asteria, who changed herself into a quail 
to avoid the importuning addresses of Jupiter, 
was metamorphosed into this island, originally 
called Ort}''gia, ab oprv^, a quail. The people of 
Delos are described by Cicero, Arcad. 2, c. 16 
and 18, 1. 4, c. 18, as famous for rearing hens. 
Strab. 8 and 10.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 329, 1. 6, v. 
333.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Plin. 4, c. 12.— Pint, de 
Solert,. Anim. &c. — Thucyd. 3, 4, &c. — Virg. 
JEn. 3, V. 73. — Ptol. 3, c. 15. — Callim. ad Del. 
— Claudian. 

DELPffl, more anciently Pytho, now Castri, 
the largest town in Phocis, and in some respects 
the most remarkable in Greece. This town was 
built at the foot of mount Parnassus, in the form 
of an amphitheatre, and so defended by the pre- 
cipices which surrounded it, that it was not ne- 
cessary to fortify it with a wall. The great 
celebrity of this place arose from the oracle of 
Apollo, who there declared the fates, and from 
the council of the Amphict}'ons which held there 
its alternate session. No oracle in Greece en- 
joyed a reputation equal to that of the Delphic, 
though the venerable Dodona boasted a greater 
antiquity. The first temple erected at this place 
91 



BE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DE 



to the deity, whose worship invested it with so 
much dignity, was of brass, according to the 
opinion of Pausanias ; but no record remains of 
the era at which it was built, and the second 
more sumptuous one, containing the presents of 
the splendid Midas and the magnificent CrcE- 
sus was consumed by fire B. C. 548. To the 
erection of a third all the cities of Greece con- 
tributed, and even the king of Egypt lent his 
aid. The Athenian Alcmaeonidae contracted, 
under the superintendence of the Amphictyons, 
to finish it, and for the sum of 300 talents a beau- 
tiful building of Parian marble and Porine stone 
was erected for the oracle and temple of the 
prophetic god. It cannot be matter of wonder, 
that, enriched as this most celebrated shrine per- 
petually was by presents from the wealthiest 
individuals and the most opulent states, there 
should be those who, disregardful of its sacred 
rights, should endeavour to appropriate a portion 
of its incalculable treasures. The distant cities 
of Greece, and of nations in habits of intercourse 
with her states, long cherished for this spot 
those feelings of religious awe which supersti- 
tion had generated, and which distance kept 
undisturbed in their sacred mysteiy; but the 
neighbouring Crissa became early acquainted 
with the Delphic city, proximity begat familiari- 
ty, and familiarity dissipated reverence. The 
Crissseans soon began to look upon the sacred 
temple as an object of plunder, and its votive 
treasures excited the same cupidity as any others 
that might not have been hallowed as oflerings 
to the god. For many years afterwards the Cris- 
saean plains were declared accursed by the Am- 
phictyons, as a fit punishment of the sacrilegious 
attempt which they had made on the shrine and 
the temple confided to the charge of the vener- 
able assembly. The avarice of Xerxes, who 
meditated a similar outrage, was disappointed, 
as the Delphians asserted, by the manifest in- 
terposition of the deity who presided over this 
holy place. In the time of king Philip this long 
venerated abode of Apollo was violated again ; 
but no desire of plunder then animated the as- 
sailants, and the political objects avowed by the 
Phocians in seizing the temple, and of those who 
abetted and aided them, made it apparent that 
the deep religious feeling that the name of Del- 
phi and its god could once excite, had passed 
from the minds of men. Religion had ceased 
to be a feeling in Greece, and existed but as a 
moral or political instrument. From this time 
forward the treasures of the temple were viewed 
with no feeling but that of desire by the foreign 
cities to which the report of their value had 
reached. The Gauls, under Brennus, stripped 
it of its most valuable ornaments ; and, on the 
conquest of the Gallic city of Tolosa by the Ro- 
mans, a long time afterwards, the Delphic plun- 
der was found there by the Roman conquerors, 
Sylla also, regardless of its masterpieces of art, 
plundered the temple of its silver and gold ; and 
Nero, long after the reputation of the oracle had 
expired, removed from it 500 statues of bronze, 
the wonders of art. Paus. Phoc. 34. — Strab. — 
Herod. The origin of the oracle, though fabu- 
lous, is described as something wonderful. A 
number of goats that were feeding on mount 
Parnassus, came near a place which had a deep 
and long perforation. The steam which issued 
from the hole seemed to inspire the goats, and 
92 



they played and frisked about in such an un- 
common manner, that the goatherd was tempted 
to lean on the hole and see what mj'steries the 
place contained. He was immediately seized 
with a fit of enthusieism, his expressions were 
wild and extravagant, and passed for prophe- 
cies. This circumstance was soon known about 
the country, and many experienced the same en- 
thusiastic inspiration. The place was revered, 
and the temple was soon after erected in honour 
of Apollo, and a city built. According to some 
accounts, Apollo was not the first who gave ora- 
cles there ; but Terra, Neptune, Themis, and 
Phoebe, were in possession of the place before 
the son of Latona. The oracles were generally 
given in verse ; but when it had been sarcasti- 
cally observed that the god and patron of poetry 
was the most imperfect poet in the world, the 
priestess delivered her answers in prose. The 
oracles were always delivered by a priestess 
called Pythia. ( Vid. Pythia.) It was universal- 
ly believed and supported by the ancients, that 
Delphi was in the middle of the earth ; and on 
that account it v/as called Terra umbilicus. 
This, according to mythology, was first found 
out by two doves, which Jupiter had let loose 
from the two extremities of the earth, and 
which met at the place where the temple of 
Delphi was built. ApoUon. 2, v. 706. — Diod. 
16. — Plut. de Defect. Orac. &c. — Paus. 10, c, 
6, &.c.— Ovid. Met. 10, v. 168.— Strab. 9, If 
the oracle and temple of Apollo gave to the town 
of Delphi a religious character, the meetings of 
the Amphictyonic council gave it no less politi- 
cal importance ; so much so, indeed, that from 
the influence of the two combined, it might be 
said that all the interests and all the glory of 
Greece were organized and planned in this re- 
nowned and cherished spot of earth. Etymo- 
logists dispute concerning the derivation of the 
name, though they generally refer it to the word 
Ae^cpnc. Mythology, however, more generally 
followed, assigns to Delphus, the son of Apollo, 
the glory of having given name to this place 
so peculiarly the object of his father's care. 
To those who are curious in reconciling the re- 
ligion of the Hebrews and the Pagan supersti- 
tions, the remarks of one who has laboured with 
unwearied industry to that end may not prove 
uninteresting. " The Greeks had a notion of 
Delphi being the navel of the world. The idea 
originated in a misconception of the sacred 
term Om-phi-al, the oracle of the solar god, which 
the Greeks corrupted into Om,phalus, and the 
Latins into Umbilicus. Delphi is a word of the 
very same import, being compounded of Tel- 
phi, the oracle of the sun." To this is added in 
a note, " the connexion of Delphi with the di- 
luvian as well as with the solar worship, ap- 
pears from a tradition preserved by Tzetzes, that 
this oracular city derived its name from Del- 
phus, who was supposed to have been the son 
of Neptune, by Melantho, the daughter of Deu- 
calion. Deucalion is said to have first landed 
upon the summit of mount Parnassus, at the 
foot of which Delphi was built." Fab. Cab. 

DELPmNiuM, a port of Boeotia at the mouth 
of the Asopus, opposite the Euboean Eretria. 
It was sometimes denominated the sacred port. 

Delta, a part of Egypt, which received that 
name from its resemblance to the form of the 
fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. It lies be- 



DI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DI 



tween the Canopian and Pelusian mouths of the 
Nile, and begins to be formed where the river 
divides itself into several streams. It has been 
formed totally by the mud and sand which are 
washed down from the upper parts of Eg}^t by 
the Nile, according to ancient tradition. Vid. 
jEgyptus. Cces. Alex. c. 27. — Strab. 15 and 17. 
— Herodob. 2, c. 13, &c. — Plin. 3, c. 16. 

Demetrias, a Xown of Thessaly, founded by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes B. C. 290. The popu- 
lation of this place was collected from a great 
number of neighbouring towns included in the 
territory over which it soon assumed the domi- 
nion. It was placed in such a manner as to 
defend the passes into the northern parts of 
Greece, which gave it great importance in a mi- 
litar}"- point of view ; while its situation in the 
Pagaseticus Sinus aflforded it great advantages 
of communication with Eubosa, southern 
Greece, the Cyclades, and the Asiatic coasts. It 
became the capital of a small state, called the 
Magnesian Republic, after the battle of 0)1105- 
cephalse. Soon after it yielded to Macedonia, 
and fell with that kingdom into the hands of 
the Romans. The name was common to oth- 
er places. Plut. — Polyh. — Liv. 36, 33. 

Derbe, a town of Lycaonia, at the north of 
mount Taurus in Asia Minor, now Alab-Dag. 
Cic. Fam. 13, ep. 73. 

Derbic^:, a people of Asia, dwelling north 
of the Dahae and the countries of Parthia and 
Margiana. The greater part of the countrj'^ 
between the Ochus and the Oxus was occupied 
by this people. Gluintus Curtius (2, 7,) enu- 
merates them among the people who formed the 
cavalry of -Darius. 

Dercon, a town of Thrace on the Euxine 
Sea. From this place, directly across the penm- 
sula to Heraclea on the Propontis, the emperor 
Anastasius constructed a wall, called Macron- 
Tichos, of which some vestiges are said to re- 
main. The object of building this wall was to 
defend Constantinople on this side, on which 
alone it could be approached by land. 

Dertona, a iavm. of Liguria. As a Roman 
colony, it was surnamed Julia. The modern 
name is Torton^, to the west of Asti. 

Dertose, now Tortosa, a town of Spain on 
the Iberus. 

Deva, according to some authorities, Deva- 
na, the town of Chester on the Dee. This river 
was also called by the ancients Deva, except 
at its mouth, where it assumed the name of Se- 
teia. The surrounding country was peopled by 
the Comabii ; and in the town, during the Ro- 
man occupation of the island, was stationed a 
legion. From this circumstance the Britons 
gave the town the name of Caerlegion and Ca- 
erleon Vaur. — The Scottish Dee was also call- 
ed Deva, and gave its name to Aberdeen, which 
stood upon its banks towards the mouth. 
Cambd. Brit. — Horsl. Brit. Rom. 

DiA, I. an island in the ^gean Sea. Vid. 

Naxos. II. Another on the coast of Crete, 

now Stan Dia. III. A city of Thrace. 

IV. Euboea. 

DiANiuM, now Dania, a town of Tarraco 
nensis on the Mediterranean. The Massilians 
founded this town, to which the name of Dia- 
nium (in Greek, Artemisium), was given, from 
the peculiar reverence which was there paid to 
her divinity. The cape on which it was built 



bore the same name in antiquity, and is now 
Cape Martin. 

picjEA, and DicEARCHEA, a town of Italy. 
Vid. Puieoli. 

DICT.E and Dict^eds mons, a mountain of 
Crete, in the CEistern part of the island. On 
this mountain was bom the father of the Gre- 
cian gods, and in its recesses, the Dictsean cave, 
he lay concealed and was miraculously nourish- 
ed by bees. It was not agreed, however, by all 
the writers of antiquity that the mountain thus 
branching from Ida was the celebrated Dicte ; 
and Callimachus refers it to the country adja- 
cent to Cydonia. Near this mountain, in the 
time of Diodorus, were the ruins of a town said 
to have borne the name of Dicte, and to have 
been founded by Jupiter. Jupiter was called 
DictcEus, because worshipped here; and the 
same epithet was applied to Minos. Virg. G. 
2, V. 536.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 43.—Ptol. 3, c. 17. 
—Strab. 10. 

DicTiDiENSEs, certain inhabitants of mount 
Athos. Thucyd. 5, c. 82. 

DiGENTiA, a small river which watered Ho- 
race's farm in the country of the Sabines, now 
la Licenza. Horat. 1. ep. 18, v. 104. 

DiNDYMus, or A, {orum,) a mountain on the 
borders of Galatia and Phri^gia Major, over- 
looking the city of Pessinus. " Strabo has two 
mountains of this name: one in Mysia, near 
Cyzicus ; the other in Gallo-Graecia, near Pessi- 
nus ; and none in Phrygia. Ptolemy extends 
this ridge from the borders of Troas, through 
Phrygia to Gallo-Grsecia. Though, therefore, 
there were two mountains called Dindymus in 
particular, both sacred to the mother of the gods, 
and none of them in Phrygia Major ; yet there 
might be several hills and eminences in it on 
which this goddess was worshipped, and there- 
fore called Dindyma in general." Cram. It 
was from this place that Cybele was called DtV 
dymene. Strab. 12. — Stat. l.—Sylv. 1, v. 9. — 
Horat. 1, od. 16, v. b.— Virg. jEn. 9, v. 617. 

DiNiA, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, now 
Digne. 

D10MEDE.E insula;, islands situated off the 
Apulian coast, opposite to the bay of Rodi or the 
Sinus Urias, " celebrated in mythology as the 
scene of the metamorphosis of Diomed's com- 
panions, who were changed into birds, and of 
the disappearance of that hero himself. An- 
cient writers differ as to their niunber. Strabo 
recognizes two, whereof one was inhabited, the 
other deserted. This is also the account of 
Pliny, who states that one was called Diomedia, 
the other Teutria. Ptolemy, however, reckons 
five, which is said to be the correct number, if 
we include in the group three barren rocks, 
which scarce deserve the name of islands. The 
island to which Pliny gives the name of Dio- 
medea, appears to have also borne the appella- 
tion of Tremitus, as we learn from Tacitus, 
who informs us it was the spot to which Augus- 
tus removed his abandoned grand-daughter Ju- 
lia, and where she terminated a life of infamy. 
Of these islands, the largest is now called Isola 
San Domino, the other San Nicolo." Cram. — 
Aristot. de Mirab. — Ovid. Metam. 14. — Strab. 
6,284.— Tflc. Ann.4.,l\. 

DiOMEDis CAMPi, the plains between Cannae 
and the Aufidus, the scene of the famous victo- 
rv of Hannibal over the Romans. Cram. 
93 



DO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DO 



Dion. Vid. Dium. 

DioNYSiADEs, two sHiall islaiids of Crete, 
now Yanidzares, to the north-east of the gulf 
of Sitia. 

DioscoRiDis INSULA, an island situated at the 
south of the entrance of the Arabic gulf, and 
now called Socotara. Its aloes are more es- 
teemed than those of Hadramaiit. If we believe 
the Arabian writers, Alexander settled here a 
colony of louanion, that is to say, of Greeks. 
Become christians, they remained such, accord- 
ing to Marco Folo, at the close of the thirteenth 
century." D'Anville. 

DioscuRiAs, a town of Colchis, on the shore 
of the Euxine, at the mouth of the Charus. It 
was also named Sebastopolis, and " in the ear- 
liest age was the port most frequented in Col- 
chis, by distant as well as neighbouring nations, 
speaking different languages ; a circumstance 
that still distinguishes Iskuriah, whose name is 
only a depravation of the ancient denomina- 
tion." D'Anville. 

DiospoLis, or TiiEBJE. Vid. Thebce. Par- 

VA, the capital of the Nomos Diospolites in 
JEgyptus Superior, situated "at the summit of 
a sudden flexure in the course of the Nile, in a 
place now called Hora" D'Anville. An- 
other in Samaria, the same with Lydda. 

Dip^A, a place of Arcadia, belonging to Me- 
galopolis, near which the Spartans gained a 
victory over the Arcadians. Cram. 

DiPOLis, a name given to Lemnos, as having 
two cities, Hephsestia and Myrinia. 

DiPSAS, {antis,) a river of Cilicia, flowing 
from mount Taurus. Lmcan. 8, v. 255. 

DiPYLON, a gate of Athens. Vid. AthencB. 

DiRJE, or DiRA, the strait by which the Ara- 
bic gulf communicates with the Erythrean Sea, 
In Greek it " expresses a passage, straightened 
in the manner of a throat. Its modern name of 
Bab-el-Mandel signifies in the Arabic language, 
the Port of Mourning or Affliction, from appre- 
hension of the risk of venturing beyond, in the 
expanse of a vast ocean." D'Anville. 

DruM, I. " one of the principal cities of Ma- 
cedonia, and not unfrequently the residence of 
its monarchs. Livy describes it as placed at the 
foot of mount Olympus, which leaves but the 
space of one mile from the sea ; and half of this 
is occupied by marshes formed by the mouth of 
the river Baphyrus. The town, though not ex- 
tensive, was abundantly adorned with public 
buildings, among which was a celebrated temple 
of Jupiter and numerous statues. It suffered 
considerably during the SocialWar, from an in- 
cursion of the iEtolians under their prsetor Sco- 
pas. It is evident, however, from Livy's ac- 
count, that this damage had been repaired when 
the Romans occupied the town in the reign of 
Perseus. Dium, at a later period, became a Ro- 
man colony ; Pliny terms it Colonia Diensis. 
Some similarity in the name of this once flour- 
ishing city is apparent in that of a spot called 
Standia, which answers to Livy's description." 
Cram.—Liv. 44, 6 and 7—33, Z.—Polyb. 4, 62. 

— Plin. 4, 10. II. Another in Chalcidice. 

III. A promontory in Crete, now Cape Sas- 

soso. Cram. 

DivoDURUM, a town of Gaul, now Metz, in 
Lorrain. 

DoDoNA, next to Delphi the most famous 
oracle of Greece, and more anqient even than 
94 



that. Yet, famous as this oracle of Jupiter be- 
came, the very site was, at a comparatively early 
period, a matter of dispute. All authorities re- 
fer it to Epirus, but many contend for that part 
which belonged to the Molossi ; while others, 
with better reason, decide for Thesprotia. It 
seems, indeed, that without fear of misleading, 
we may place this noted spot on the borders of 
the territories occupied by these people ; and as 
their respective boundaries were unsettled, it 
may have been at one time in the country of the 
Thesproti, and afterwards have been found in 
that of .the Molossi, who are known to have ex- 
tended their limits on the borders of Thespro- 
tia. The town of Dodona, together with the 
oracle, was built upon the hill or mountain To- 
marus ; but as so much of Epirus was covered 
with high land and hills, it is not possible, with- 
out peculiar guides, and such as have not yet 
been found, to settle the disputed question of lo- 
cality by these inconclusive data. Tomarus, 
however, is represented as being singularly 
abundant in fountains and torrents, from which 
it supplied innumerable streams. The fable of 
Herodotus concerning the origin of this oracle 
is of some avail in showing at least the connex- 
ion between the superstitions of Greece and 
Egypt ; and more particularly in lending some 
clue to the history of the Pelasgic people, and 
their aflinity with other nations ; as we know 
that the real origin of the Dodonean shrine is 
attributed to the Pelasgi. Its antiquity is car- 
ried to a period long before the Trojan war, and 
seems coeval with the fabulous, and perhaps al- 
legorical , ages of Deucalion and Inachus. We 
know less of the vicissitudes of Dodona than of 
those to which the oracle of Apollo at Delphi 
was subject ; but it is probable that the fatal blow, 
from which it never revived, was struck in the 
Social war by the iEtolians under their leader 

Dorinaachus. There was another town of 

this name in Thessaly, in the vicinity of mount 
Ossa, It is doubtful whether Homer, in alluding 
to the " wintry Dodona," refers to this place, or 
to that more famous one of Epirus; but the 
opinion was extensively received among the 
later Greeks, that the oracle had been removed 
from the western to the eastern side of Greece, 
and that Jupiter delivered his oracles in Thes- 
saly, having abandoned his sacred grove by To- 
marus. To this opinion inclined the geogra- 
pher Pausanias. The remarks which follow, 
however, apply to the Thesprotian town and 
oracle. The town and temple were first built 
by Deucalion, after the universal deluge. It 
was supposed to be the most ancient oracle of all 
Greece, and according to the traditions of the 
Egjrptians, mentioned by Herodotus, it was 
founded by a dove. Two black doves, as he re- 
lates, took their flight from the city of Thebes, 
in Eg5^t, one of which flew to the temple of 
Jupiter Ammon, and the other to Dodona, where 
with a human voice they acquainted the inhabit- 
ants of the country that Jupiter had consecrated 
the ground which in future would give oracles. 
The extensive grove which surrounded Jupiter's 
temple was endowed with the gift of prophecy, 
and oracles were frequently delivered by the sa- 
cred oaks, and the doves which inhabited the 
place. This fabulous tradition of the oracular 
power of the doves is explained by Herodotus, 
who observes that some Phcenicians .carried 



DO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DO 



away two priestesses from Egj^t, one of which 
went to fix her residence at Dodona, where the 
oracle was established. It may further be ob- 
served, that the fable might have been founded 
upon the double meaning of the word ne\eiai, 
which signifies doves in the most parts of Greece, 
while in the dialect of the Epirots it implies old 
women. In ancient times the oracles were de- 
livered by the murmuring of a neighbouring 
fountain, but the custom was afterwards chang- 
ed. Large kettles were suspended in the air near 
a brazen statue, which held a lash in its hand. 
When the wind blew strong, the statue was agi- 
tated, and struck against one of the kettles, 
which communicated the motion to all the rest, 
and raised that clattering and discordant din 
which continued for a while, and from which 
the artifice of the priests drew their predictions. 
Some suppose that the noise was occasioned by 
the shaking of the leaves and boughs of an old 
oak, which the superstition of the people fre- 
quently consulted,and from which they pretend- 
ed to receive oracles. It may be observed, with 
more probability, that the oracles were delivered 
by the priests, who by artfully concealing them- 
selves behind the oaks, gave occasion to the su- 
perstitious multitude to believe that the trees 
were endowed with the power of prophecy. As 
the ship Argo was built with some of the oaks 
of the forest of Dodona, there were some beams 
which gave oracles to the Argonauts, and warn- 
ed them against the approach of calamity. 
Within the forests of Dodona there were a 
stream and a fountain of cool water, which had 
the power of lighting a torch as soon as it 
touched it. This fountain was totally dry at noon 
day, and was restored to its full course at mid- 
night, from which time till the following noon 
it began to decrease, and at the usual hour was 
again deprived of its waters. The oracles of 
Dodona were originally delivered by men, but 
aftervt-ards by women. ( Vid. Dodonides.) Plin. 
2, c. 103.— Herodot, 2 c. bl.—Mela, 2, c. 3.— 
Homer. Od. 14. IL.—Paus. 7, c. 2l.—Strab. 17. 
— Plut. in Pyrrh. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Lucan. 6, 
V. 421.— Cyvid. Trist. 4, el. 8, v. 23. 

DoDoNE, a fountain in the forest of Dodona. 
Vid. Dodona. 

DoLicHE, I, a town of Thessaly, towards the 
borders of Macedonia. Here the historian Po- 
lybius, at the head of the embassy of the Achae- 
an league, received an audience of the Roman 
general Ctuintus Marcius Philippus. It was a 

town of Livy's Tripolis. II. a town of Co- 

magene, south of the capital Samosata, upon the 
mountains. " The name of Doliche is pre- 
served, in that of Doluc, to a castle on a chain 
of mountains which, detached from Amanus, 
is prolonged towards the Euphrates." D'An- 
ville. 

DoLONCi, a people of Thrace, inhabiting the 
Chersonese. It was over these people that Mil- 
tiades the Athenian was called to rule. Hero- 
dot. 6, c. 34. 

DoLOPiA. The country of the Dolopes, or 
Dolopia, was that district of Thessaly M'hich 
touched upon Epirus, Acamania, and JEtolia ; 
and was separated from the iEnianes, another 
Thessalian people on the south, bordering to 
the east upon the region Phthiotis. The Dolo- 
pians are mentioned by Homer as being subject 
to Pelius, the king of Phthiotis, who placed them 



in the Trojan war under the conduct and care 
of the aged Phoenix. The Dolopes were en- 
titled to a representative in the council of the 
Amphictyons, but on the invasion of Xerxes 
they were found among the enemies of Greece. 
Their territory was a continual source and scene 
of contest between the iEtolians and the Mace- 
donians, and was onlj' fully subdued by the lat- 
ter in the reign of their last monarch, whose 
empire was transferred to the Romans. 

DoNYSA, one of the Cyclades, in the ^gean. 

DoRiDis SINUS, an arm of the Mges.n Sea, be- 
tween Doris and the narrow peninsula which 
terminated on the promontory Cynosema. 

DoRES, the inhabitants of Doris. Vid. Doris. 

DoRioN, a town of Thessaly, where Thamy- 
ras the musician challenged the Muses to a trial 
of skill. Stat. Theb. 4, v. \Q2.—Propert. 2, el. 
22, V. \d.—lMcan. 6, v. 352. 

Doris, a small part of Greece, lying between 
Thessaly on the north, ^toiia on the west, the 
country of the Locri Epicnemidii on the east, 
and the mountain Parnassus on the south. My- 
thology assigns their origin to Dorus, the son of 
Deucalion; but criticism derives the names of 
Dorus, and of many other of the early heroes 
and colonists of Greece, from the name of the 
country which they are pretended to have settled. 
Before the occupation of the narrow territory 
here described, by the people who were the un- 
doubted progenitors of the later Dorians, it was 
called Dry op is, from the primitive inhabitants. 
Long afterwards, from the confederacy of the 
cities Erineus, Boium, Pindus, and Cytinium, 
the country was designated the Tetrapolis. 
The inconsiderable district of Doris ofiers little 
matter of interest to the inquirer, but the ac- 
counts of the Dorians are full of matter import- 
ant in the investigation of ancient nations and 
manners. The dispossessors of the Dryopes 
were, doubtless, from the Histiseotis in Thessa- 
ly, and the Dorians of the Peloponnesus were 
as certainly the descendants of those who had 
crossed the Pindus and occupied the mountain- 
ous regions of CEta and Parnassus ; but their 
previous migration, and the origin of their pecu- 
liar institations, which were only kno"WTi to later 
Greece in their full developement, as the laws of 
Lycurgus, constitute the difiicult, important, and 
interesting part in the search concerning this 
singular people. In the time of Hercules, a fa- 
vour conferred by that hero upon ^gimius or 
CEpatius, a king of Doris, secured to his des- 
cendants an asylum in that kingdom, whence the 
better fortune of the Pelopidse obtained the Pelo- 
ponnesus; and on the return of the Heraclidae 
80 years after the destruction of Tro)', a Doric 
population poured into the southern peninsula, 
to establish or restore the peculiar habits and 
institutions of that race. From this period the 
Peloponnesus, and perhaps, more particularly 
the territory of Laconia, may be considered the 
country of the Dorians in Greece. Besides 
these, the Dorians sent out a great many colo- 
nies. The most famous was Doris in Asia Mi- 
nor, of which Halicarnassus was once the capi- 
tal ; this part of Asia Minor was called Hex- 
apolis, from the confederation of the six prmci- 
pal cities ; but on the exclusion of Halicarnas- 
sus, it received the name of Pentapolis. That 
peninsula and cape which extended from the 
shores of Caria far into the sea between the 
95 



DR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



DY 



islands of Cos upon the north and Rhodes on 
the south, was the country of the Asiatic Do- 
rians. Strab. 9, &c. — Virg. JEn. 2, v. 27. — 
Plin. 5, c. 29.—ApoUod. 2.—Herodot. 1, c. 144. 
1. 8, c. 31. 

DoRiscus, a place of Thrace near the sea, 
where Xerxes numbered his forces. Herodot. 
1, c. 59. 

D6RYL.EITM, and Doryl.eus, a city of Phiy- 
gia, now Eski Shehr. Plin. 5, c. 29. — Cic. 
Flacc. 17. 

Drangiana, a port of the Persian empire, in 
the province of Aria in the largest extent of 
that district. It had upon the south the Betii 
montes, on the east Arachoisa, on the north the 
Paropamisus mons, and the desert of Carmania 
on the west. 

Dravus, a river of Rhgetia, that, running al- 
most parallel with the Danube, united with that 
river at that point at which, after its southward 
inclination, it resumes an easterly course on the 
southern border of the country belonging to the 
Jazyges Metanastas. In its course it flowed 
through Noricum and Pannonia, between the 
Claudius mons and the mons Pannonius. In 
modern geography it is the Draxe, and, after 
flowing through Stiria, it passes by the south- 
western boundary of Hungary, which it sepa- 
rates from Croatia and Sclavonia, and falls into 
the Danube below Essek. 

Drepana, and Drepanum, now Trapani, a 
town of Sicily near mount Eryx. Anchises 
died there in his voyage to Italy with his son 
.^neas. Virg. JEn. 3, v. 707. — Cic. Verr. 2, 

c. 56.— Ovid. East. 4, v. 474. The same 

name was given, according to D'Anville, to a 
promontory in the Sinus Arabicus, north of 
Myos-Hormus. In both cases the name was 
derived from the form of the coast, which pre- 
sented the figure of a scythe. 

Drilo, a river which separated the Roman 
Illyricum from that part of Macedon which, 
before it formed a part of the Macedonian king- 
dom, was occupied by an Illyrian people. It 
emptied into the Adriatic near the town of Lis- 
sus, on the side of Macedon. Two principal 
branches, the one north, from the Bertiscus 
mountains in Illyricum, and the other south, 
from the Palus Lychnites and the Candavii 
montes, contributed to form this largest of che 
Illyrian streams. The modern name of this 
river is Drino, the northern branch being called 
the White, and the southern, the Black, Drino. 
The confluence of these branches was on the 
boundary line mentioned above, and towards 
the province of Dacia Mediterranea, and Dar- 
dania. To this point the river was considered 
navigable. The whole course of this stream, 
together with both its branches, belongs now to 
Albania. Strab. — Diod. Sic. 

Drinus, a river, now the Drin. which sepa- 
rated the province of Moesia from Illyricum, and 
flowing almost directly north, discharged itself 
into the Savus west of Sirmium. This river 
now bounds upon the west the province of Ser- 
via, which it separates from Bosnia. 

Dromos AcmLLEi. " Between the mouth 
of the Borysthenes and the gulf of Carcine, the 
long and narrow beaches uniting and terminat- 
ing in a point, and thereby forming inlets or 
creeks, were called Dromos Achillei, or 
the Course of Achilles, from a tradition that 
96 



this hero there celebrated games." D^Anville. 

Druentius, and Druentia, now Durance, a 
rapid river of Gaul, which falls into the Rhone, 
between Aries and Avignon, Sil. Ital. 3, v. 
^m.—Strab. 4. 

Druna, the Drome, a river of Gaul, falling 
into the Rhone. 

Dryopes, a people of Greece, near mount 
CEla. They afterwards passed into the Pelo- 
ponnesus, where they inhabited the tOA^Tis of 
Asine and Hermione in Argolis. When they 
were driven from Asine by the people of Argos, 
they settled among the Messenians, and called 
a Xovm by the name of their ancient habitation 
Asine. Some of their descendants went to 
make a settlement in Asia Minor together Avith 
the lonians. Herodot. 1, c, 146, 1. 8, c. 31. — 
Pans. 4, c. U.— Strab. 7, 8, I'i.—Plin. 4, c. 1. 
— Virg. jEn. 4, v. 146. — Jbucan. 3, v. 179. 

Dubis, or Alduadubis, a river of Gaul in 
the Maxima Sequanorum. It rose in the Jura 
chain of mountains, and emptied in the Arar, 
on the borders of the Celtic province of Lugdu- 
nensis. The modern name is Le Doubs. 

DuLiCHjuM, an island of the Ionian Sea, op- 
posite the mouth of the Achelous, belonging to 
the group called Echinades. The exact posi- 
tion of this island cannot be determined ; some 
have confounded it with Cephallenia ; but Stra- 
bo contradicts this, and makes it a separate 
island, styled, in his time, Dolicha, " situated at 
the mouth of the Achelous, opposite to CEnia- 
dse, and 100 stadia from cape Araxus." Others 
have supposed this to be another name for Itha- 
ca, from the epithet Dulichius applied to Ulys- 
ses ; but it is more probable that this was an 
adjacent island, forming part of the kingdom of 
that chief. To assign a modern name to an 
island whose position was a matter of uncer- 
tainty as far back as the time of Strabo, is as- 
suredly assuming a great deal ; but if conjecture 
may be hazarded, that of Mr. Dodwell, who 
thinks Dulichium may have been swallowed 
up by an earthquake seems to be the safest. 
Odyss. A. 246, ii. 24.1.— Strab. 10, 456 and 458. 
— Cram. — Heylin. Cosm. 

DuRius, a large river of ancient Spain, now 
called Duero, which, rising in Cai'petania near 
the Pyrenees, runs through the plains of Spain, 
and then dividing Gallicia from Lusitania, and 
receiving very many rivers, falls into the ocean 
after a course of about 300 miles. Near the 
sources of this river stands Numantia. Vid. 
Numantia. Voss. in Pomp. Mela. 

Durocasses, the chief residence of the Druids 
in Gaul, now Dreux. Cas. Bell. G. 6, c. 13. 

DuROCORTORUM, the chief toMTi of the Remi, 
from whom it receives its modern name of 
Rheims. Strabo says the Roman prefects of 
Belgic Gaul resided here ; whence we infer it 
was the metropolis of that province. Strab. 4, 
IH.-Co'.s. 6, 44. 

Dym^, or Dyme, a city of Achaia, situated 
on the Ionian Sea about 40 stadia west of the 
mouth of the Pierus. According to Pausanias 
it was more anciently called Palea. Strabo, (8, 
387,) thinks that the name Dyme referred to its 
western situation, and declares that it was for- 
merly called Stratos. Dyme, after its inhabit- 
ants had expelled the tyrant Alexander, became 
one of the principal cities in Achaia. Its ter- 
ritory was frequently laid waste, in the Social 



EB 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EC 



War, by the Eleans and -ZEtolians, who were 
united against the Achaeans. In the suburbs of 
this city was the tomb of Sostratus, a companion 
of Hercules, much venerated by the inhabitants ; 
within the city were temples sacred to Miner- 
va, Cybele, and Attes. Dyme was given up to 
plunder by Olympicus, a Roman general, for 
having refused to take part with that people 
against Philip of Macedon. There is no mo- 
dern town on the exact site of the ancient 
Dyme ; but Palnio Achaia is within a short dis-^ 
lance. Strab. 8, 381.— Diod. Sic. 18, 707.— 
Polyb. 4, 59. — Paus. Achaic. 18 and 17. — Cram. 

Dyras, a river of Trachinia, twenty stadia 
south of the Sperchius, said to have sprung 
from the ground to assist Hercules when burn- 
ing on the funeral pile. It rises at the foot of 
mount CEta, and falls into the Sinus Maleacus. 
Herod. 7, 199.— Strab. 9, 4!28.— Cram. 

DyRRAcmuM, a toTVTi of Illyria, situated on 
the Hadriatic, nearly opposite Brundusium in 
Italy. This city was founded by a colony of 
Corcyreans, B. C. 623, who, in compliment to 
their mother city, invited Phaleus, a citizen of 
Corinth, to lead them. According to some 
writers, and among these Pomponius Mela, 
Epidamnus was the more ancient name, applied 
to ft by the Greeks, which the Romans changed 
on account of its evil import. Scaliger thinks 
that Epidamnus was a city, and Darrachium its 
harbour ; in this supposition, however, he is 
supported by no other writer. Strabo, Eratos- 
thenes, and other authors, apply the name Dyr- 
rachium to the Chersonese, on which the town 
was situated ; from this fact, and the circum- 
stance of Avppa^Lov being a Greek term denot- 
ing ruggedness, we infer that the Greeks gave 
the name of Dyrrachium to the peninsula on 
which Epidamnus was situated, and this, in the 
course of time, may have been confounded with 
the town. Possessed of every advantage for 
the promotion of commerce, in its situation at 
the entrance of the Hadriatic, and its relations 
with Corinth and Corcyra, notwithstanding the 
envious hostility of the neighbouring barbarians, 
it soon rose to such opulence and power as to 
vie with the most ancient cities of Greece. The 
difference between this city and Corcyra, aris- 
ing from the introduction of Corinthian colo- 
nists, is intimately connected "vvith the origin of 
the Peloponnesian war. Pompey encamped on 
the heights of Petra, in the neighbourhood of 
this city, after having been forced to retire from 
Italy ; and here Caesar made an attempt to 
blockade him, which he frustrated by carr}'ing 
ihe war into Thessaly. The possession of this 
place was of the highest importance to the Ro- 
mans, as a connecting link between the capital 
and all the eastern provinces ; from this place 
was the passage to Brundusium, the commence- 
ment of the Appia Via; and here began the 
Via Egnatia ( Vid. Egnat. Via), which " may 
be considered as the main artery of the Roman 
empire." The site of this city, once so import- 
ant, is now occupied by what is scarcely more 
than a village, under the name of Durazzo. 
Pomp. Mel. 2, 3.— Strab. 1,316.— Herod. 6 
V2n.— Thucyd. 1, 24. -Cfl^s. Bell. Civ. 3, 41.— 
Voss. in Pomp. Mel. — Cram. 

E. 

Eblana. the name which Ptolemy gives for 
Part I.— N 



the modern Dublin, the capital of Ireland. The 
Latins called it Dublinium; the Cambro-Bri- 
tons Dinas Dulin ; the Saxons Duplin ; and 
the Irish Balacleigh, i. e. " a town built upon 
piles." According to tradition, the vicinity of 
the city being marshy, it received an artificial 
elevation ; whence the name given it by the na- 
tives. It was situated on the Auen-Liff, Am- 
mis Lifnius, now the Liffey. Camden. 

Eboracum, now York, the chief city of the 
Brigantes, in the province of Maxima Caesarien- 
sis. It was situated on the river Urus, now the 
Ou&e ; and Camden traces the name of the tovm 
to that of the river, Eb-oracum or Eb-uracum, 
as if " the city on the Urus." Keimius calls it 
Caer Ebrauc ; the Britons styled it Caer Effroc. 
At Eboracum the sixth legion was stationed, 
and it was a Roman colony. It was the resi- 
dence of Severus and Constantius Chlorus, both 
of whom terminated their lives there. Camden. 

EsuDiE, the Greek name for the Hebrides, 
as Pliny calls them, now the Western Isles. The 
principal were Ricina, otherwise called Ricnea, 
or Riduna, Epidium, Maleos, Ebuda Occi- 
dentalior, now Skie, and Ebuda Orientalior, 
now Lewes. Ptolemy enumerated but five ; 
Pliny states the number to have been 30. 
Camden. 

Eburones, a people of Belgic Gaul, whom 
Caesar describes as chiefly dwelling between the 
Meuse and the Rhine. To the north they had 
the Menapii; to the east, the Germans, v\'ho 
dwelt this side the Rhine ; to the south, the Con- 
drusi ; and to the west, the Aduatici' and the 
Ambivariti ; their territor}^ accordingly corre- 
sponds with the modern ^ei/s de Liege. Caesar, 
to avenge the defeat of Sabinus and Cotta, ex- 
terminated this people ; afterwards the Timgri, 
who are not mentioned by Caesar, a branch of 
the Aduatici, took possession of the vacant re- 
gion ; whence the names of the Tungri and 
Eburones are frequently confounded. Lem. 

Ebusus, now Ivica, one of the Pitj^usae, or 
Pine Islands, lying between the main land of 
Hispania and the Baleares Insulae, and opposite 
the promontory of Ferraria in Valentia. This 
island abounded in corn and all kind of fruits. 
Its chief town was Ebusus, now Yvica, whose 
inhabitants made a large quantity of salt an- 
nually, which they exported to Spain and Italy. 
Hey I. Cosm. 

EcBATANA, {orum,) I. the chief city of Media 
Major, and the capital of the whole kingdom, 
situated, according to Diodorus, at a distance of 
12 stadia from mount Orontes. According to 
D'Anville, Hamadan occupies the site of the 
ancient city. " It is of as great antiquity as 
Babylon ; for we find that Semiramis, the wife 
of Ninus, in- a war made against the Medes who 
had then rebelled, taking an affection to the 
place, caused water-courses to the made to it 
from the further side of the mountain Orontes, 
digging a passage through the hills with great 
charge and labour. Destroyed by the injury of 
time, it was re-edified by Dejoces, the sixth king 
of the Medes ; and afterwards much beautified 
and enlarged b)^ Seleucus Nicanor, successor 
unto Alexander in his Asian conquests. For 
beauty and magnificence little inferior to Baby- 
lon or Nineveh. In compass 180 or 200 fur- 
longs, which make about 24 Italian miles. The 
walls thereof affirmed, in the book of Judith, to 
97 



ED 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EL 



be 70 cubits high, 50 cubits broad, and the 
towers upon the gates 100 cubits higher; all 
built of hewn and polished stone, each stone 
being six cubits in length and three in breadth. 
But this is to be understood only of the inner- 
most wall, there being seven in all about it ; each 
of them higher than the other, and each distin- 
guished by the colour of the several pinnacles ; 
which gave unto the eyes a most gallajit pros- 
pect. From which variety of colours it is thought 
to have the name of Agbatha, or Agbathana. In 
former times the ordinary residence of the mo- 
narchs of the Medes and Persians in the heats 
of the summer ; as Susa, the chief city of Susi- 
ana, in the cold of winter. The royal palace, 
being about a mile in compass, wels built with 
all the cost and cunning that a stately mansion 
did require ; some of the beams thereof of silver, 
and the rest of cedar ; but those of cedar, 
strengthened with plates of gold. Said by Jo- 
sephus to be built by the prophet Daniel ; which 
must be understood no otherwise than that he 
oversaw the workmen or contrived the model ; 
appointed to that office by Darius Medus, to 
whom the buUding of the same is ascribed by 
others. Neglected by the kings of the Parthian 
race, it became a ruin." Heyl. Cosm. — Chaus- 

sard. II. A town of Syria, where Cambyses 

gave himself a mortal wound when mounting 
on horseback. Herodot. 3. — Ptol. 6, c. 2. — 
Curt. 5, c. 8. 

EcHiNADES, or EcfflN^, islands near Acar- 
nania, at the mouth of the river Achelous. They 
have been formed by the inundations of that 
river, and by the sand and mud which its wa- 
ters carry down. " These rocks, as they should 
rather be termed, were known to Homer, who 
mentions them as being inhabited, and as hav- 
ing sent a force to Troy under the command of 
Meges, a distinguished warrior of the Iliad. 
Herodotus informs us, that in his time half of 
these islands had been already joined by the 
Achelous to the main land. Strabo reports that 
the Echinades were very numerous, being all 
rugged and barren; Scylax, indeed, says they 
were deserted ; but this was not always the 
case according to Homer's account, and Ste- 
phanus names Apol Ionia as a towTi belonging to 
one of those islands, on the coast of Acarnania. 
Ovid reckons five ; but Pliny enumerates nine. 
' The Echinades,' says Mr. Dodwell, ' at pre- 
sent belong to the inhabitants of Ithaca, and 
produce corn, oil, and a scanty pasture for sheep 
and goats. The names of some of the largest 
are Ozeiai, Natoliko, BromTna, &c. There are 
a great many other smaller rocks scattered 
about, which are entirely deserted.' " Cram. 
—Plin. 2, c. 85.— Herodot. % c. \0.—Ovid. Met. 
8, V. b88.—Strab. 2. 

EcfflNUssA, an island near Euboea, called af- 
terwards Cimolus. Plin. 4, c. 12. 

Edessa, I. a town in Osroene, a district of 
Mesopotamia, which received its name from the 
Macedonian conquerors of the country. "An 
abundant fountain which the city enclosed, 
called in Greek Calir-rhoe, communicated this 
name to the city itself. In posterior times it is 
called Roha, or, with the article of the Arabs, 
Orrhoa, and by abbreviation Orha. This name 
may be derived from the Greek term signifying 
a fountain ; or, according to another opinion, it 
may refer to the founder of this city, whose 
98 



name is said to have been Orrhoi ; but, however 
this be, it is by corruption that it is commonly 
called Orfa. A little river, which, by its sudden 
inundations, annoys this town, was called Scir- 
tus, or the Vaulter; and the Syrians preserve 
this signification in the name of Daisar." 

D'Anville. II. A city of Macedonia. Vid. 

.Odessa. 

Edon, a mountain of Thrace, called also 
Edonus. From this mountain that part of 
Thrace is often called Edonia which lies be- 
tween the Strymon and the Nessus, and the 
epithet is generally applied not only to Thrace, 
but to a cold northern climate. Virg. yE?i. 12, 
V. 325.— Plin. 4, c. 11.— Lmcan. 1, v. 674. 

Edoni, or Edones, a people of Thrace, on 
the left bank of the Strymon. " It appears 
from Thucydides, that this Thracian clan once 
held possession of the right bank of the Stry- 
mon as far as Mygdonia, but that they were 
ejected by the Macedonians." Cram. — Thuc. 
2,99. 

Egeria Vallis, "a small valley, now called 
la Caffarella, and which, according to the pop- 
ular opinion, answers to the valley of Egeria, 
while the source of the Almo is thought to cor- 
respond with the fountain sacred to that nymph, 
according to Juv. Sat. 3, v. 10. 

Sed dum tota dovius rheda componitur una, 
Substitit ad veteres arcus madidamque Capenam ; 
Hie, ubi nocturnes Numa constituebat amicaP 

Cram, 

Egesta, a town of Sicily. Vid. Mgesta. 

Egnatia, a town of Apulia, " which com- 
municated its name to the consular way that 
followed the coast from Canusium to Brundu- 
sium. Its ruins are still apparent near the 
Torre d^Agnazzo and the town of Monopoli. 
Pliny states that a certain stone was shown at 
Egnatia which was said to possess the property 
of setting fire to wood that was placed upon it. 
It was this prodigy, seemingly, which afforded 
so much amusement to Horace." Cram. — Ho- 
rat. Sat. 1, 5. Via. Vid. Via. 

Eton, a commercial place at the mouth of the 
Strymon, distant 25 stadia from Amphipolis, of 
which it was the port, according to Thucydides, 
who makes it more ancient than that city. " It 
was from hence that Xerxes sailed to Asia on 
his return from Greece, after the battle of Sala- 
mis. In the middle ages a Byzantine town was 
built on the site of Eion, which now bears the 
name of Contessa. Cram. — Tkuc. 4, 102. — 
Herod. 8, 118.— Paus. 8, c. 8. 

El.ea, a town of .^olia, in Asia Minor, at 
the mouth of the Caicus. It was the port of 
Pergamus, and is now lalea. D'Anville. 

El^us, a town of the Thracian Chersone- 
sus, a colony of Teos, in Ionia, according to 
Scymnus. Liv, 31, c. 16, 1. 32, c. 9. 

Elatea, I. "the most considerable and im- 
portant of the Phocian cities after Delphi, was 
situated,accordingto Pausanias, 180 stadia from 
Amphicsea, on a gently rising slope, above the 
plain watered by the Cephissus. It was cap- 
tured and burnt by the army of Xerxes; but 
being afterwards restored, an attack made on 
it by Taxilus, general of Mithridates, was suc- 
cessfully repulsed by the inhabitants ; in conse- 
quence of which exploit they were declared 



EK 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EL 



free by the Roman senate, Strabo remarks on 
its advantageous situation, which commanded 
the entrance into Phocis and BoBotia. Its ruins 
are to be seen on the site called Elephta, on the 
left bank of the Cephissus, and at the foot of 
some hills which unite with the chain of Cne- 
mis and CEta." — Cram. — Paus. Phoc. 34. — 

Herod. 8, S3.—Liv. 32, 18.—Stra6. 9. II. 

A town of Thessaly, situated on the Peneus 
above Gonnus. It is, doubtless, the Iletia of 
Pliny and the Iletium of Ptolemy. 

Elaver, a river in Gaul falling into the Loire, 
now the Allier. 

Elea. Vid. Velia. 

Electrides, islands in the Adriatic Sea, 
which received their name from the quantity of 
amber (electrum) which they produced. They 
were at the mouth of the Po, according to Apol- 
lonius of Rhodes, but some historians doubt of 
their existence. D'Anville places the Electri- 
des Insulae in the Baltic, near the Sarmatian 
coast, and identifies them with the long and 
narrow sands that separate the gulfs named 
Frisch-haf and Curisch-haf. Tacitus cells us 
that the amber was gathered here by the natives, 
who called it Glass or Gles^ which in Latin is 
Succinum and in Greek Electron. D'Anville. 
— Tacit. German.— Plin. 2, c. 26, 1.37, c. 2, 
—Mela, 2, c. 7. 

Elei, a people of Elis in Peloponnesus. 
They were formerly called Epei. Vid. Elis. 

Eleontum, a town of the Thracian Cherso- 
nesus. 

Elephantine, an island of the Nile, with a 
town of the same name, distant but half a sta- 
dium from. Syene and seven stadia below the 
lesser cataract. According to Russell, this island 
. is much richer in architectural remains than 
Syene. " Romans and Saracens, it is true," 
observes that able writer, " have done all in their 
power to deface or to conceal them ; but, as De- 
non remarks, the Eg}^tian monuments conti- 
nue devoted to posterity, and have resisted 
equally the ravages of man and of time. In the 
midst of a vast field of bricks and other pieces of 
baked earth, a very ancient temple is still left 
standing, surrounded with a pilastered gallery 
and two colunms in the portico. Nothing is 
wanting but two pilasters on the left angle of 
this ruin. Other edifices had been attached to 
it at a later period, but only some fragments were 
remaining which could give an idea of their 
form when perfect •, proving only that these ac- 
cessory parts were much larger than the origi- 
nal sanctuary. Could this be the temple of 
Cneph, the good genius, that one of all the 
Egyptian gods who approaches the nearest to 
our ideas of the Supreme Being 1 Or is it the 
temple of this deity which is placed 600 paces 
further to the north, having the same form and 
size, though more in ruins ; all the ornaments of 
which are accompanied by the serpent, the em- 
blem of wisdom and eternity, and peculiarly that 
of the god now named ']" Russell's Egypt. 

Eleusinium, an Athenian temple of Ceres 
and Proserpine. Vid. Athence. 

Eleusis, a tovm of Attica, on the way be- 
tween Megara and Athens, about 13 miles dis- 
tant from the former and 15 from the latter. 
" It derived its name from a hero, whom some 
affirmed to be the son of Mercury, but others, of 
Ogyges." Its origin is certainly of the highest 



antiquity, as we find it contending with Athens 
for the supremacy. under Eumolpus, in the reign 
of Erechtheus. The war was amicably con- 
cluded, Athens and Eleusis being united as one 
government under Erechtheus and his descend- 
ants, whilst the priesthood was confined to the 
Eumolpidse, and the worship of Ceres adopted 
by the Athenians. " The temple of Eleusis 
was burnt by the Persian army in the invasion 
of Attica, but was rebuilt under the administra- 
tion of Pericles, by Ictinus, the architect of the 
Parthenon. Strabo states that the mystic cell of 
this celebrated edifice was capable of containing 
as many persons as a theatre. A portico was 
afterwards added by Demetrius Phalereus, who 
employed for that purpose the architect Philo. 
Within the temple was a colossal statue of 
Ceres, the bust of which was removed in 1802 
by Dr. Clarke, and brought to England. This 
magnificent structure was entirely destroyed by 
Alaric, A. D. 396, and has ever since remain- 
ed in ruins. Eleusis, though so considerable 
and important a place, was classed among the 
Attic demi. It belonged to the tribe Hippo- 
thoontis. Eleusis, now called Lesina, is an in- 
considerable village, inhabited by a few Alba- 
nian Christians. The Thriasian plain formed 
part of the Eleusinian district ; another portion 
was designated by the name of Rarius Campus. 
It was in this plain that Ceres was first said to 
have sown corn." Cram. Dr. Clarke de- 
scribes as follows the most prominent objects 
that present themselves to the traveller on ap- 
proaching Eleusis : " Arriving upon the site of 
the city of Eleusis, we found the plain to be 
covered with ruins. The first thing we noticed 
was an aqueduct, part of which is entire. Six 
complete arches are yet to be seen. It conduct- 
ed toward the Acropolis, by the temple of Ceres. 
The remains of this temple are more conspicu- 
ous than those of any other structure except the 
aqueduct. The paved road which led to it is 
also visible, and the pavement of the temple yet 
remains. But, to heighten the interest with 
which we regarded the relics of the Eleusinian 
fane, and to fulfil the sanguine expectations we 
had formed, the fragment of a colossal statue, 
mentioned by many authors as that of the god- 
dess herself, appeared in colossal majesty among 
the mouldering vestiges of her once splendid 
sanctuary." In relation to the name of this 
place, Faber, who discovers in the mysteries of 
Ceres the arkite worship, thus writes : " As for 
the city Eleusis, the principal seat of the myste- 
ries of Ceres, it is said to have derived its name 
from the hero Eleusis. This fabulous personage 
was by some esteemed the offspring of Mercu- 
ry and Daira, daughter of Oceanus ; while by 
others he was believed to have been the son of 
Ogyges. Both these genealogies manifestly re- 
fer to the diluvian idolatry, which was insepara- 
bly interwoven with the orgies of the Eleusinian 
Ceres." Eater's Cabiri. — Cram. — Clarice's 
Travels. — Paus. — Strab. 

Eleuther^, a town situated " on the road 
from Eleusis to Platsea, which appears to have 
once belonged to Boeotia, but finally became in- 
cluded within the limits of Attica. Pausanias 
reports that the Eleutherians were not conquer- 
ed by the Athenians, but voluntarily united 
themselves to that people, from their constant 
enmity to the Thebans. Bacchus is said to 
99 



EL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EM 



have been bom in this town. Eleulherse was 
already in ruins when Pausanius visited Attica. 
This ancient site probably corresponds with that 
now called Gypto Castro, where modern travel- 
lers have noticed the ruins of a considerable for- 
tress, situated on a steep rock, and apparently 
designed to protect the pass of Cithseron." 
Cram. — Strab. 9. — Paus. Att. 38. — Diod. Sic. 
3, 139. 

Eleutheros, a river of Syria, falling into the 
Mediterranean on the northern confines of 
Phoenicia. Plin. 9, c. 10. 

Elimea, or Elymiotis, a district of Macedo- 
nia, east of Stymphalia. This rugged coun- 
try, important in a political view, notwithstand- 
ing its sterility, from its affording a passage 
either into Epirus or Thessaly, was divided 
from the latter by the Cambunii montes ; while 
the chain of Pindus, extending north with the 
name of Canalovii, confined it on the west. 
The Haliacmon flowed through this obscure, 
and, perhaps, not yet well defined region, Liv. 
42, c. 53, 1. 45, c. 30. 

Elts, a principal division of the Peloponne- 
sus, consisting of the three smaller parts of Elis 
proper, Pisatis, and Triphylia. This important 
country of southern Greece, lying west of Ar- 
cadia, had on the north the Larissus, which se- 
parated it from Achaia; and on the south the 
Neda, on the boundary of Messenia ; the whole 
of its western border lying upon the jEgean. 
In the earliest ages to which the historical ac- 
counts may be traced, and even to a period 
much later, the people of this district were sepa- 
rated into various little republics, of which, for a 
long time, it would not be easy to name one as 
the principal. The Caucones were, however, 
the most ancient ; and there are authorities 
which would lead us to believe that at an early 
period the whole of Elis bore the name of Cau- 
conia. The Epei were also an early race, re- 
garded by Pausanias as indigenous. This part 
of the peninsula, including the city of Elis itself, 
was called the country of the Epii for a long 
time after the Trojan war and the establishment 
of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus. The .^to- 
lian Oxylus, at the latter epoch, fixed himself 
with mgmy of his countrymen in Elis, not yet 
known as a whole province by that name. In 
the time of Lycurgus, the Lacedasmonian Elis, 
properly so called, was governed by Iphitus, a 
descendant of Oxylus ; and by this prince, after 
ihey had been neglected for many years, were 
reviv ed the Olympic games. The right to Olym- 
pia, in which these games were celebrated, was 
long contested by the Eleans and the Pisatae ; 
but in the end, as the former gradually extend- 
ed their authority over the whole country from 
the Neda to the Larissus, their right to all pow- 
er and authority in this favoured city, and to the 
pre-eminence in these national games, remained 
undisputed and undisturbed. In the Persian 
and in the Peloponnesian wars, Elis was found 
in the same cause as Sparta, against the enemies 
of Greece and of the Peloponnesus, but it could 
not be induced to join in the Achaean league. 
It was not till the time of the Persian invasion 
that the city of Elis became the capital of the 
province which then bore the same name. 
About that time a great number of scattered but 
neighbouring villages uniting, formed the city, 
which thenceforth increased with astonishing 
100 



rapidity. As the whole territory was deemed 
sacred, it was not thought necessary to defend 
the city by walls ; and all who crossed this pri- 
vileged territory were obliged to yield up their 
arms, which on the frontiers were restored to 
them. The city of Elis stood towards the north- 
ern part of the country, on the river Peneus ; 
its ruins are now called Palczopoli. In the coun- 
try comprised within the boundaries of Elis in 
its greatest extent, were, at very early periods, 
the kingdom of Pelops, including the territories 
of Pisa and Olympia, and the later, though still 
ancient dominions of Nestor, the district of Tri- 
phylia. The whole of Elis constituted one of 
the most fertile districts of the Peloponnesus ; 
and the people were addicted to such pursuits 
and such a mode of life as the cultivation of 
such a soil would naturally superinduce ; they 
were, perhaps, the most agricultural people of 
Greece. Strab. — Paus. Eliac. — Polyb. — Strab. 
8.— Plin. 4, c. 5.— Paus. b.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 
494.— Ctc. Fam. 13, ep. 26, de Div. 2, c. 12.— 
Liv. 27, c. 32.— FiV^. G. 1, v. 59, 1. 3, v. 202. 

Ellopia, a town of Euboea. An ancient 

name of that island. 

Elymais, a district in the Persian empire, de- 
riving its name from that of its inhabitants, the 
Elymai. This name extended over a large 
part of Susiana, though belonging properly to 
the mountain region in the north on the con- 
fines of Media. On the formation of new em- 
pires, after the destruction of that which had 
existed as the united dominion of the Persian 
kings, Elymais appears to have. erected itself 
into an independent state, subject to its own 
kings. It is comprehended in the modern Kur- 
distan. Strabo. 

Emathia, an ancient name of a large portion 
of Macedonia, including at one time Paeonia, 
though in Homer's age the name was confined 
to the region south of that district, about the 
Erigon and on the Thermaic gulf. In this 
part, however, was founded the empire of the 
Macedonian kings on the arrival of the Teme- 
nidae, who established themselves on the Ery- 
gon and founded iEgae or Edessa, their capital, 
and the first capital of Macedonia. The name 
Emathia was long used as a poetical designa- 
tion of the whole country, not only after it had 
come to form a narrow portion of it alone, but 
even after the subversion of the Macedonian 
throne. — Polyb. — Horn. — Jjucan. 

Emerita. Vid. Augusta. 

Emessa, and Emissa, a large town of Syria, 
now Hems, near the Orontes on the right, and 
towards the source. It was famous for a temple 
of the sun, worshipped in those regions under 
the name of Heliogabalus. An emperor of 
Rome assumed the name of Heliogabalus from 
having officiated as priest in this famous tem- 
ple of that god. Vid. Heliogobalus, Part. II. 

Emodi montes, the eastern extremity of the 
Paropamisus range, extending over the north of 
India, and between that country and Scythia. 
All these mountains belong to the Taurus in 
the greatest extent allowed to that comprehen- 
sive range. Vid. Aornos. 

Emporia Punica, another name for Byza- 
cium. Its capital at one period was Adnime- 
tum, and near to its northern limits was fought 
the battle between Scipio and Haimibal, which 
put an end to the second Punic war, and, in fact, 



EP 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EP 



to the Carthaginian empire, Vid. Byzacium. 

EMPORiiE, a town of Spain in Catalonia, now 

Ampurias. Liv. 34, c. 9 and 16, 1. 26, c. 19. 

Eneti. Vid. Heiieti. 

Enipeus, I. a river of Thessaly, flowing from 

Pharsalia. Lmcom. 6, v. 373. II. A river of 

Elis, floM^ing near the ancient towTi of Salone. 
Ovid. Am. 3, el. 5. — Strai). 

Enna, now Castro Janni, a town in the mid- 
dle of Sicily, with a beautiful plain, where Pro- 
serpine was carried away by Pluto. Mela, 2, c. 
l.—Cic. Verr. 3, c. 49, 1. 4, c. \0A.—Oxid. Fast. 
4, V. 522.— Lit;. 24, c. 37. 

Entella, a town of Sicily, south of Panor- 
mus on the Hypsa river, near the source, and 
about midway between the northern and south- 
ern coasts of the island. Ital. 14, v. 205. — Cic. 
Ver. 3, c. 43. 

EoRD^A, a district of Macedonia, deriving 
its name from that of its inhabitants, the Eordi 
or Eordaei. These people were early dispossess- 
ed of their country, which, nevertheless, retain- 
ed their name ever afterwards. The Lyncestse 
bounded on the north the territory of the Eordsei, 
which had upon the opposite side Elymais or 
Elymiotis. Xerxes was reinforced by the peo- 
ple of this country, who resorted to his standard 
on his invasion of southern Greece. Liv.Zl, 
c. 39, 1. 33, c. 8, 1. 42, c. 53. 

Epei, and Elei, a people of Peloponnesus. 
Plin. 4, c. 5. Vid. Elis. 

Ephesus, a city of Ionia, built, as Justin men- 
tions, by the Amazons, or by Androchus, son of 
Codrus, according to Strabo ; or by Ephesus, a 
son of the river Cayster. It is famous for a tem- 
ple of Diana, which was reckoned one of the 
seven wonders of the world. This temple was 
425 feet long, and 200 feet broad. The roof was 
"supported by 127 columns, sixty feet high, which 
had been placed there by so many kings. Of 
these columns, 36 were carved in the most 
beautiful manner, one of which was the work 
of the famous Scopas. This celebrated build- 
ing was not totally completed till 220 years af- 
ter its foundation. Ctesiphon was the chief ar- 
chitect. It was burnt on the night that Alex- 
ander was born ( Vid. Erostratus), and soon af- 
ter it rose from its ruins with more splendour 
and magnificence. Alexander offered to rebuild 
it at his own expense, if the Ephesians would 
place upon it an inscription which denoted the 
name of the benefactor. This generous offer 
was refused by the Ephesians, who observed, 
in the language of adulation, that it was impro- 
per that one deity should raise temples to the 
other. Lysimachus ordered the town of Ephe- 
sus to be called Arsinoe, in honour of his wife ; 
but after his death the new appellation was lost, 
and the tovim was again known by its ancient 
name. Though modern authors are not agreed 
about the ancient ruins of this once famed city, 
some have given the barbarous name of Ajasa- 
louc to what they conjecture to be the remains of 
Ephesus. The words liter cb EphesitEare ap- 
plied to letters containing magical powers. 
Plin. 36, c. U.—Strab. 12 and U.—Mela, 1, c. 
17. — Pans. 7, c. 2. — Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 2, 
c. 4. — Callim.in Dian. — Ptol. 5. — Cic. de Nat. 
D. 2 

Ephyre, It is not easy to ascertain in all 
cases the particular city referred to when ancient 
authors speak of Ephyre. In Epirus the town 



of Cichyrus was more anciently called by tk^ 
name, being then, perhaps, the capital of the 
kings of Thesprotia. The place was famous 
in Homer's age for producing poisonous drugs. 
Its ruins are supposed to be still discernible 
about the Acherusian pool, and manifest an an- 
tiquity the most remote in the rudeness of their 
architectural remains. Indeed, Ephyre could 
not be other than one of the most ancient towns 
of Greece, as, according to mythological tradi- 
tions, referring to the obscurest periods, in this 
city was made the bold attempt of Theseus and 
Pirithous to carr)'" off Proserpina, the wife of 
Aidoneus ; in other words, the wife of the king. 

Horn. 1, 259.- Paus. 1, 17. Cranon, in 

Thessaly, is believed to have been intended by 
Homer in his account of the wars of the Ephy- 
ri and Phleg}''as. II. n. 301. It was also a not 

uncommon name of Corinth. A town in 

Elis, the later name of which is not with accu- 
racy known, is also mentioned by Homer. Ac- 
cording to Cramer, when this name is mentioned 
in connexion with that of the Selleis, on which 
it stood, the Elean town is referred to by Ho- 
mer ; at other times the Ephyre of Thesprotia 
is to be understood. There were many other 
places of this name, but all too inconsiderable 
to require particular notice. 

Epidamnus. Vid. Dyrrachium. 

Epidaphne, a town of Syria called also An- 
tioch. 

Epidaurus, I. a cit)'- of Argolis, on t,he Saro- 
nic gulf, the more ancient name of which was 
Epicarus. But though in the Argian division of 
the Peloponnesus, Epidaurus was by no means 
subject to the dominion of Argos, and was al- 
ways found, on the contrary, in alliance with 
the Lacedaemonians, the government of this 
city, with its little state, extending in the envi- 
rons perhaps about two miles, was decidedly 
aristocratical ; and the administration was con- 
fided principally to the care of a select council, 
consisting of a limited number of persons de- 
nominated Art}Tii. Epidaurus was famous for 
its breed of horses and its vines, but most of all 
for its worship of iEsculapius, and the magni- 
ficent temple erected to that god in its vicinity. 
The modem name of the site, and of the few 
ruins that remain, is Epithauro. II. Ano- 
ther to"wm of the same name, and dedicated to 
the same deity, was in the country of Laccnia. 
This place, Avhich stood exposed to the naval 
power of Athens upon the coast of the Myrtoan 
sea, was much and frequently ravaged by the 
Athenians during the Peloponnesian war. It 
was surnamed Limera, and stood at no great 
distance north of Epidelium. Thvc. — Strab. 
S — Virg. G. 3, V. U.—Paus. 3, c. 21.— Me/a, 
2, c. 3. 

Epidtom, one of the western isles of Scotland, 
or the Mull of Cantyre according to Cambden, 
who describes it as an extensive tract of land, 
intersected by marshes and swamps in every di- 
rection. The name he derives from the Epidii, 
who inhabited it. Ptolem. 

Epiphanea, I. a town of Cilicia, near Issus. 
now Surpendkar. Plin. 5, c. 27. — Cic. ad Fam. 

15, ep. 4. II. Another of Syria, on the 

Orontes, between Arethusa and Larissa on the 
same river. The endeavour to change the name 
of this town from Hamoth, derived, it was pre- 
tended, from Hamoth. the son of Canaan, into 
101 



EP 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ER 



Epiphania, in honour of the king of Syria, An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, was only partially success- 
ful ; and though the Europeans, and perhaps the 
Asiatic subjects of that king, were willing to 
lose the former name in that of their conqueror, 
the natives and citizens continued to call it 
Amatha. Hence the modern appellation of Ha- 
mal. Plin. 5, c. 24. 

EpiPOLJE, a district of Syracuse, on the north 
side, surrounded by a wall by Dionysius, who, 
to complete the work expeditiously, employed 
60,000 men upon it, so that in 30 days he finish- 
ed a wall four miles and a quarter long, and of 
great height and thickness. 

Epirus, a large division of Greece, forming 
the north-western section of that country. The 
river jEas on the north divided it from Illyria, 
and the lofty Pindus range intervened to form 
its boundary on the Thessalian side, including 
Athamania, however, in the territory of Epirus, 
as well as Ambracia, which confined upon 
Acarnania on the south. Considered apart 
from these smaller districts, the western boun- 
dary of Epirus was formed by the river Arach- 
thus. The origin of the Epirotic people is in- 
volved in an obscurity more profound than that 
which envelopes the accounts of southern 
Greece ; and all that can be said of them, is, 
that, according to Strabo, their early manners, 
customs, and habits, indicated a common origin 
for them and their neighbours the Macedonians. 
The name of Epirus, which signified Main- 
land, and appears to have been given to this 
country in contradistinction to the many islands 
on its coast, included in the boundaries assign- 
ed to it above, a great number of others, each 
of which at the earliest dates represented a se- 
parate and independent nation or tribe. Very 
early, however, the Molossian princes extended 
their authority over all, and the history of Epi- 
rus is, therefore, almost restricted to that of the 
Molossi. The traditionary account of the rise 
and advancement of this people refers its origin 
to a period comparatively late, and assigns to 
the Molossi, as their first founder, Molossus, the 
son of Pyrrhus and Andromache. The people 
of this distant part of Greece make little show 
in her annals ; and when, in the time of the 
Persian war, we are enabled to form some no- 
tion of its state and government, we find them 
both unequal to the danger of contending with 
even the smaller Grecian states for power or 
rank. The first who assumed the title of king 
of Epirus, having annexed the larger districts 
of Chaonia, Thesprotia, and perhaps also 
others, to the crown of Molossia, was Alexan- 
der, the brother-in-law of Philip of Macedon 
and the father-in-law of the still more renowned 
successor of that prince. Not content with en- 
larging his dominions at home, Alexander car- 
ried his arms into Italy, where, after giving sig- 
nal proofs of conduct and valour, he was slain 
before the walls of Pandosia. In the reign of 
his successors ^acides and Alcetas, Cassander 
obtained possession of the throne of Epirus ; but 
by the aid of the Illyrian king it was soon after 
restored to the heir of the last-mentioned sove- 
reign, who proved the greatest of the Epirot 
princes, and, in the estimation of many, second 
to none of the most illustrious names of anti- 
quity. This was Pyrrhus ( Vid. Pyrrhus), the 
great enemv of the Romans. In his reign the 
102 



name of Epirus and her arms became terrible to 
all the surrounding nations, Italy, Sicily, Ma- 
cedon, and the Peloponnesus, were successively 
the objects of his ambition and the witnesses of 
his prowess and abilities. But though he in- 
spired among the other princes, and among the 
people of Greece, a new and unusual respect for 
the name of Epirus, he added little to her terri- 
tory ; and when he was slain in his attempt to 
reduce the citadel of Argos with a handful of 
men, he had added almost nothing to the boun- 
daries of his realm. After the reigns of three 
successors to this prince, the line of his family 
becahae extinct, and the Epirots adopted the re- 
publican form of government, which they en- 
joyed until the destruction of the Macedonian 
kingdom, in which was involved the subversion 
of their liberties. The Epirots had favoured, in 
some measure, the views of the Persians in the 
Macedonian war ; and the barbarous policy of 
the Romans compelled them to exact the bitter- 
est atonement for this ill-judged opposition to 
the hopes of the usurping republic. The whole 
of Epirus is included in the modern Albania. 
Find. Nem. od. 7, 56.— Tkuc.—Liv.8, 24.— 
Plut. Pyrrh. — Just. — Polyb. 

Equotuticum, now Castel Franco, a little 
town of Apulia, to which, as some suppose, Ho- 
race alludes in this verse, 1 Sat. 5, v. 87 : 

" Mansuri oppidulo, versu quod dicere nan est."^ 

Erectheium. Vid. Athence. 

Eresus, a town of Lesbos, in which Theo- 
phrastus was born. 

Eretria, a principal town of Eubcsa, north 
of Chalcis, on the Euripus. Various accounts 
are given of its origin ; but as its inhabitants 
were certainly of Ionic blood, it seems most pro- 
bable that the writers who deduce them from 
the Attic demus, which also bore the name of 
Eretria, were best informed on this particular 
subject. The Eretrians early became a flou- 
rishing people, engaged in many wars of am- 
bition with their rival of Chalcis. They took 
part in the revolt of the lonians, who, in the 
time of Darius, at the instigation of Aristagora^, 
attempted to throw off the yoke of the Persians. 
Their city was therefore, like Athens, a particu- 
lar object of dislike to the eastern monarch ; and 
his orders and preparations were directed with 
peculiar animosity against the inhabitants. Af- 
ter a six days' siege the city was betrayed into 
the hands of the enemy, and the citizens were 
carried awaj^ to populate the Asiatic colony of 
Cissia. On its recovery from this disaster, Ere- 
tria deserted or abandoned its alliance with 
Athens, and was found in league with Sparta 
against the Athenians. The people being go- 
verned by tyrants, according to the ancient use 
of that term, and consequently entertaining, as 
was natural, a very small portion of that love of 
their own institutions which generally distin- 
guished the inhabitants of republican Greece, 
passed, with very little resistance or care, into 
the power of Antigonus, and with just as little 
afterwards into the hands of the Romans. This 
last event occurred during the Macedonian war. 
Strab. — Herod. — Diod. Sic. — Liv. — Polyb. 

Ericusa, one of the Lipari isles, now Alicudi. 

Eridanus, the name of the Po among the 
Greeks. It is well known that in the historical 
ages of Italy and Greece, the Eridanus and the 



EB 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EU 



Padus were certainly the same ; but it is almost 
equally certain that the fables of the early poets 
belonging to the latter country, either did not at 
all refer to the Po, or were founded upon very 
indefinite noti ons of its rise and course . C lu\ e- 
rius, indeed, expresses his opinion that the Po, 
beside which Phaeton was buried, so far from 
being the river of Italy, was a northern stream 
called Rhodaune, and emptying into the Vistu- 
la. This would give, perhaps, a northern ori- 
gin to the fable oi his death, and serve to mark 
the connexion of some at least among the classic 
fictions with those of the people called Barba- 
rians. The name of the Italian Eridanus, among 
the early inhabitants of Gaul, was Bodencus. 
Ii rose in the mons Vesulus, and running nearly 
east, was the boundary line between Liguria 
and Cisalpine Gaul, as far as its confluence 
with the Ticinus. Here, continuing its course, 
it left Liguria on the south, and traversing Cis- 
alpine Gaul, divided that part which now con- 
stitutes the duchies of Parma and Modena and 
the Bolognese upon the south, from Lombardy 
. upon the north. On the east, however, as it ap- 
proached the coast, this noble river, having run 
a navigable course of almost 250 miles, became 
again a boimdary line, separating Cisalpine 
Gaul from Venetia. AH the waters of the 
north of Italy, formed from the springs and 
snows and torrents of the Alps, unite to swell 
the current of this famous stream. The whole 
length of this river was computed to be 288 
miles, and the number of rivers which paid tri- 
bute, through it to the Adriatic, were by Pliny 
computed at about thirty. The mouths of the 
Eridanus or Po are thus described by D'An- 
ville; "The nearest to Ravenna derives the 
name of Spineticum Ostium from a very ancient 
city founded by the Greeks, called Spina. They 
applied to it specially the name of Eridanus. 
This channel was also named Padusa ; and at 
the place where the city of Ferrara is situated, 
there separates from it a channel named Vole- 
na, which preserves this name and communi- 
cates it to its mouth. The principal arm of 
the Po only arrives at the sea by dividing itself 
into many channels, whose issue was called 
septim maria, the seven seas." Cic. in Oral. 
145. — Claudian. de Cons. Hon. 6, v. 175. — Ovid, 
Met. 2, fab. ^.—Paus. 4, c. S.—Strab. 5.— 
lAican. 2, V. A09.— Virg. G. 1, v. 482. jEn. 6, 
V. 659. 

Erigonus, a river of Thrace. 

Erindes, a river of Asia, near Parthia. Ta- 
cit. Ann. 11, c. 16. 

Erymanthus, I. a ridge of mountains in Ar- 
cadia, now the Olonos, considered one of the 
most elevated in Greece. It was one of that 
range, which, under the name of Scollis, Ery- 
manthus, Aroanii, Colossa, &c. stretched across 
the Peloponnesus, south of Achaia, Sicyonia, 
and Corinthia, from the Ionian to the Myrtoan 
sea. In poetry this mountain is famed for the 
ferocious boar which haunted its wilds; and 
whose death was one of the exploits of Her- 
cules. II. A river of the same name, now 

the Dagana, flowed from this mountain, passed 
near the town of Psophis at the confluence of 
the Arvanius, and emptied into the Alpheus 
below the mouth of the Ladon on the borders of 
Elis. Horn. Od. z, 102. — Dionys. Perieg. 115. 
^ — CaUiiru 



Erythea. Though this place, the scene of 
Hercules' victory over Geryon, is universally 
allowed to have been an island, it is by no means 
CELsy to ascertain precisely what one is intended 
when Erythea is named. According to Vossius 
it was a small island at the mouth of the Anas. 
Here he thinks the first PhcEnician colony to 
have settled itself before the founding of Gades ; 
and ancient vestiges remaining in the place 
make manifest that it was once inhabited, al- 
though so insignificant in modern times as not 
to be distinguished by a name. Mela, 3, 6. — 
Voss. ad Pamp. Mel. 

Erythrje, I. a town of Ionia, opposite Chios, 
once the residence of a Sybil. It was built by 
Neleus, the son of Codrus. Pans. 10, c. 12. — 

Liv. 44, c. 28, 1. 38, c. 39. II. A town of 

Boeotia. Id. 6, c. 21. III. One m Libya. 

IV. Another in Locris. 

Erythreum mare. The Red Sea of the 
ancients did not correspond to the sea which the 
moderns have designated by that name. In an- 
tiquity, from having entertained a very vague 
and indefinite notion of this sea, to which they 
ELScribed a vast extent, the Greek and Latin geo- 
graphers came to signify, at last, by Erythreum 
Mare, the Arabian sea, which washes the coasts 
of Arabia and of Persia, and into which the 
modern Bed sea, with them the Sinus Arabi- 
cus, discharges itself. The Sinus Persicus, or 
Persian gulf, on the eastern side of Arabia, was 
also included by the ancients in the M^re Ery- 
threum. The etymology of the word is so un- 
certain, that it cannot be yet established whether 
this sea received its name from the colour ot 
its waters, or from the name of an individual 
or from that of a country. Citrt. 8, c. 9. — Plin. 
6, c. 23.—Herodot. 1, c. 180 and 189, 1. 3, c. 93, 
1. 4, c. 31.— Mela, 3, c. 8. 

Eryx, a mountain in the island of Sicily, on 
which was a city of the same name, and a tem- 
ple dedicated to Venus Erycina. The moun- 
tain arose in the north-eastern corner of the 
island, over the promontory of Drepanum. 

EsQUiLi^, and Esquilinus mons, one of the 
seven hills of Rome, which was joined to the 
city by king Tullus. Birds of prey generally 
came to devour the dead bodies of criminals who 
had been executed there, and thence they were 
called EsquilincB alites. It was the largest of 
the seven hills of Rome. Liv. 2, c. 11. — Horat. 
5, epod. V. 100.— Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 32. 

EsTiiEOTis, a district of Thessaly, Vid. 
HesticBotis. 

Etruria. Vid. Hetruria. 

Etrusci, the inhabitants of Etruria. Vid. 
Hetruria. 

Evarchus, a river of Asia Minor, flowing 
into the Euxine on the confines of Cappadocia. 
Flac. 6, V. 102. 

EuBOEA, the largest island in the ^gean Sea, 
extending from the Malaic gulf on the south 
of Thessaly, as far as the latitude of Athens, 
along the coasts of Locris, Boeotia, and Attica. 
The following is a description of the island in 
outline from Pliny, according to the translation 
of Cramer. " Torn from the coast of Boeotia, 
it is separated by the Euripus, the breadth of 
which is so insignificant as to allow a bridge to 
be thrown across. Of its two southern promon- 
tories, Gersestus looks towards Attica, Caphare- 
us to the Hellespont ; Censeum fronts the north, 
103 



EV 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EU 



In breadth this island never exceeds twenty- 
miles ; but it is nowhere less than two. Reach- 
ing from Attica to Thessaly, it extends for 120 
miles in length. Its circuit is 365 miles. On the 
side of Caphareus it is 225 miles from the Hel- 
lespont." The earliest name by which the 
Greeks designated this important tract of coun- 
try was Macris, referring to its disproportion- 
ate length ; and Oche, Ellopia, Asopis, and 
Abantia, were also names by which it was fre- 
quently denominated. Its inhabitants are al- 
ways called, in Homer, Abantes, though, from 
their early skill and boldness on the seas, they 
were considered by some to have been of Phoe- 
nician origin. The traditional account of the 
later name of Euboea derives it from the pas- 
sage of lo, who is said to have given birth to 
Epaphus in this island. The Abantes esta- 
blished colonies in Illyria, Sicily, Italy, and 
Asia Minor. As every city either of note or 
magnitude in EubcEa pretended to an entire in- 
dependence it is impossible to sketch a general 
history of the changes which took place in the 
political geography of the island ; the Chalcidi- 
ans and Eretrians inhabiting the principal towns, 
however, by their jealousies and their wars gave 
a pretext to the people of the main land and the 
peninsula for interfering in the afiairs of the 
island, and uniting all, if not in a common sla- 
very, yet in a common subjection to a foreign 
influence. Accordingly, in the time that inter- 
vened between the Persian and the Peloponne- 
sian wars, we find the Athenian authority and 
supremacy acknowledged over the whole of Eu- 
boea, which only recovered its independence in 
the 21st year of the latter celebrated war. Its 
vicissitudes became from this moment frequent ; 
and we find the Euboeans returning almost to 
the rule of the Athenians, attaching themselves 
to the Macedonian interest, or swallowed up in 
its empire, and finally restored by a decree of the 
senate and people of Rome to a nominal liberty. 
When Euboea arose to great opulence and com- 
mercial prosperity, we may infer that she must 
have held no inconsiderable place among the 
trading nations of antiquity, from the value and 
universal currency of the Euboean talent, known 
in every country as the Euboicum. The soil of 
this island has been compared for its fertility to 
that of the fruitful Cyprus ; but, at least in an- 
cient times, this enviable advantage was greatly 
diminished by the frequency of earthquakes, to 
which it was subject. The modern name of 
Negropont is supposed to be the result of many 
corruptions by gradual transition from the Eu- 
ripus. Horn. b. 538. — Pans. — Strab. The 
lapse of ages and the oppression of the Turks 
have not been able to contend with the natural 
fertility and productiveness of the island. Corn 
and wine are still produced there in abundance, 
and numerous flocks are dispersed over its wide- 
spreading pastures. Its valleys, which centu- 
ries ago were covered by the trees of the forest, 
are still enclosed by their branches and shaded 
by their luxuriant foliage. The Euripus is 
now crossed by a brids:e, that joins the island 
to the eastern shores of Greece. 

EvENUs, a river of ^tolia, which, rising in 
the country of the Bomienses in the north-east- 
em part of .^tolia, flows through the country of 
the ancient Calydon, after which it takes a 
westerly course towards the plains of ancient 
104 



Pleuron, and then turning to the south, falls 
into the Ionian Sea near the entrance to the 
Corinthiacus Sinus. The more ancient name 
of this river was Lycormas ; its modern name is 
Fidara. On the banks of this stream Hercules 
is said to have slain the centaur Nessus, for 
attempting to offer violence to Dejanira. It re- 
ceives its name from Evenus, son of Mars and 
Sterope, who, being unable to overcome Idas, 
who had promised him his daughter Marpessa, 
in marriage if he surpassed him in running, 
grew so desperate that he threw himself into 
the .river, which afterwards bore his name. 
Strab. 10, ^b\.— Cram.— Ovid. Met. 9. 104.— 
Strab. 7. 

EuERGET^, a nation of Drangiana, called 
also Ariaspge, from their chief city Ariaspe, si- 
tuated at the foot of mount Becius. The name 
Euergetae is a Greek translation of the Persian 
term applied to this nation by Cyrus for the as- 
sistance they rendered him in his Scythian ex- 
pedition. 

EuGANEi, one of the most ancient nations of 
Italy, as their name denotes, inhabiting that 
district subsequently called Venetia, from the 
Veneti, who expelled the original possessors, 
the Euganei. After being driven from their 
ancient abodes, they settled on the borders of 
the lakes Benacus and Sebinus, and in the 
neighbouring valleys. Cram.. — Liv. 1, 1. 

EuMENiA, I. a city of Phrygia, built by Atta- 
ins in honour of his brother Eumenes, situated 

on the river Clurus, II. A city of Thrace. 

III. Of Caria. Plin. 5, .29. IV, Of 



Hyrcania. 

EuPATORiA, a tovm of Pontus, on the Iris, 
" at its confluence with the Lycus ; begun by 
Mithridates under the name of Eupatoria, it 
received from Pompey, who finished it, the 
name of Magnopolis. It a.ppears to be that 
now called Tchenikeh.^^ D'Anville. 

Euphrates, a river of Asia, which rises in 
Armenia, and, forming in its course the west- 
ern boundary of Mesopotamia, empties into the 
Persian gulf. " The Euphrates takes its rise 
from several sources ; two branches in particu- 
lar dispute the honour of being the principal ; 
one, not far distant from the town of Bayazid,'' 
the ancient Ligua, " in the mountains named 
Ala-Dag, anciently the mountain Abus of 
which Ararat makes a part. This river, which 
bears the name of Murad, disappears under 
ground at a distance of four hours' travelling 
from Bayazid. It re-appears, and receives near 
Melaskerd" the ancient Mauro-Castrum, " ano- 
ther river of this name, and traverses all the 
district of Turvberan, the southern part of 
Armenia proper." In its passage through this 
country it receives the Telaboas, which the ten 
thousand met with between the sources of the 
Tigris and their passage of the Euphrates. 
Continuing its course towards the west, the 
Euphrates meets its other branch, which forms 
the eastern boundary of Armenia Minor, a little 
below Arabrace, AraJbTcir. The stream is form- 
ed by the junction of a small river, which rises 
near Arze, Erzroom, with the Lycus, whose 
sources are called in the country Bing-gheul, 
or the Thousand Fountains. These two rivers 
united do not equal the Murad, which Xeno^ 
phon considers the real Euphrates. The Frat 
and Murad enclose the district Acilisene, whose 



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apex is the point of junction. The river, now 
very considerable, descends towards the south, 
receiving the Arsanias, now Arsen, a stream 
which flows tlirough the district of Sophene ; 
although the name of Arsanias is not unfre- 
quently applied to the M^irad, which is doubt- 
less the Euphrates crossed by the ten thousand, 
and " the same that Corbulo, charged with the 
conduct of the war in Armenia under Nero. 
makes issue from a district called Caranites, ac- 
cording to the report of Pliny. A little below" 
its junction with the Arsen, " and at a place of 
the same name, with the Elegia, or Ilija, near 
Erzroom, the Euphrates pierces the chain of 
mount Taurus ; and this place is now called the 
Pass of Nushar." (D'Anville.) Having pass- 
ed thfs, it winds along an elevated plain, but 
soon meeting with a fresh inequality of ground, 
forms a double cataract twenty-two miles above 
Samosata, or Semisat, the capital of Comagene, 
which is situated at the apex of a great parabo- 
la, by which this river, which hitherto appears 
to direct its course to the Mediterranean, turns 
suddenly towards the east and south. " In pro- 
portion as the Tigris and Euphrates approach 
one another, the intermediate land loses its ele- 
vation, and it is occupied by meadows and mo- 
rasses. Several artificial communications, per- 
haps two or three that are natural, form a pre- 
lude to the approaching junction of the rivers, 
which finally takes place near Korna. The 
river formed by their junction is called Shat-al- 
Arab, or ihe river of Arabia. It has three 
principal mouths, besides a small outlet ; these 
occupy a space of 36 miles. The southernmost 
is the deepest and freest in its current. Bars of 
sand formed by the river, and which change in 
their form and situation, render the approach 
dangerous to the mariner. The tide, which 
rises above Bassora, and even beyond Korna, 
meeting with violence the downward course of 
the stream, raises its waters in the form of frothy 
billows. Some of the ancients described the 
Euphrates as losing itself in the lakes and 
marshes to the south of Babylon ; others con- 
sider the river formed by the union of the two 
as entitled to a continuation of the name of Eu- 
phrates. According to some, the Euphrates ori- 
ginally entered the sea as a separate river, the 
course of which the Arabs stopped up by a 
mound. This last opinion has been in some 
measure revived by a modern traveller (Nie- 
buhr), who supposes that the canal of Naar-Sa- 
res, proceeding from the Euphrates on the north 
of Babylon, is continued without interruption to 
the sea. The bay called Khore-Abdallah would, 
according to this hypothesis, represent the an- 
cient mouth of the river ; but this bay existed 
in the time of Ptolemy under the name of the 
Sinus Mesanites. With regard to the canal 
Nahr-Sares, it appears for certain to rejoin the 
river near Semawe. The dry bed correspond- 
ing to the gulf of Khore-Abdallah, and on which 
we find the remains of the old city of Bassora, 
terminates in the Euphrates a little to the west of 
Korna. The Pallocopas, or the canal of Koufa, 
seems to extend no farther than the lakes on the 
south of Babylon. The continual changes to 
which this flat and movable ground is subject, 
the inundations of the rivers, and the works of 
human labour, concur to render the solution of 
these points impossible. There is also some un- 
Part I.— O 



certainty respecting the relative size of the Ti- 
gris and Euphrates. This last, certainly, has 
the largest course, but weakened by drains ; it 
presents at Hilleh a width not exceeding 420 
feet ; while the Tigris at Bagdat is more than 
600. The inhabitants of the country, in order 
to irrigate their lands, dam up both tlie one and 
the other with dykes, which the historians of 
Alexander have, in their simplicity, mistaken 
for military bulwarks intended to check the 
progress of the Arabian pirates up the river. 
The Euphrates and the Tigris deposit no slime 
like the Nile ; yet these natural irrigations are 
suflicient to make the fields of Bagdai the gar- 
den of Asia." {Malte-Brun.) The Euphrates 
is the Perah of the Old Testament. Arrian. 7, 
l.—Mela, 3, S.—Plin. 5, 26; 6, 21.—Strai. 2, 
2, 130 ; 15, 1060.— D'Anville. 

EuPHRATEsu, or EuPHRATENSis, 0. name given 
to Comagene when a Roman province. 

EuRiPus, a narrow strait which separates the 
island of Euboea from the coast of BcEotia. Its 
flux and reflux, which continued regular during 
18 or 19 days, and were uncommonly imsettled 
the rest of the month, was a matter of deep m- 
quiry among the ancients ; and it is said that 
Aristotle threw himself into it because he was 
unable to find out the causes of that phenome- 
non. Liv. 28, c. 6.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Plin. 2, c. 
95. — Stral). 9. The frequency of the currents, 
or rather of eddies, in this narrow channel, in- 
duced many among the ancients to believe that 
the tide ebbed and flowed through* it more 
frequently than upon the open coast ; and some 
of them maintained that this occurred no 
less than seven times during the day, and as 
many during the night. The efiect of the wind 
upon this confined channel was sometimes such 
as to give it the appearance of a wild mountain 
torrent. 

EuRoPA, one of the three grand divisions of 
the earth known among the ancients. It is 
bounded on the east by the ^gean Sea, Hel- 
lespont, Euxine, Palus Mseotis, and Tanais in 
a northern direction. The Mediterranean di- 
vides it from Africa on the south, and on the 
west and north it is washed by the Atlantic 
and Northern oceans. It is supposed to re- 
ceive its name from Europa, who was carried 
there by Jupiter. Mela, 2, c. 1. — Plin. 3, c. 1, 
6>iC.—lMcan. 3, v. 275.— Hr^. ^n. 7, v. 2^2. 
Malte-Brun gives the following table of dis- 
tances from various points or extremities of 
this continent, containing an area of 500,000 
square miles, and a population of 200,000,000. 
Length from Cape St. Vincent to the Ural 
mountains near Ekaterineburg, 1215 leagues ; 
from Brest to Astracan, 860. Breadth across 
the Spanish peninsula, from Cadiz to Cape Or- 
tegal, 210 leagues ; from Port Verdre to Ba- 
yonne, (the narrowest part) along the line of the 
'Pyrenees, 95 leagues; from the Black Sea to 
the Baltic, 268 ; from the Caspian to the White 
Sea, 485: and from Cape Matapan, the an- 
cient Taenarum, in Greece, to Cape North, the 
greatest breadth of Europe, 870 leagues. Not 
all, nor even the greatest part, of the country 
lying within these several points was accurately 
known to the people of antiquity, though the 
boundaries given above demonstrate, that, ex- 
cept upon the north, they must have had a §:e- 
nerally correct notion of its extent and limits. 
105 



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The strict and accurate acquaintance of the 
Greeks and Romans extended hardly beyond the 
limits of the Dnieper and Dwina on the east, 
and the southern borders of the Baltic on the 
north. The rest was vague conjecture and sur- 
mise, concerning vast islands extending in the 
northern ocean , and to which they gave the name 
of Scandinavia; and of impenetrable forests on 
the east and north-east, to which they gave the 
indefinite, and, as applied by them, unmeaning 
titles of Scythia and Sarmatia. Some inter- 
course they had, moreover, with the coasts of the 
Cimmerian Bosphorus, the Straits of Caffa, 
and the Palus Mseotis. The rivers, and even 
the mountains, of this continent, notwithstand- 
ing the Alpine chain and the elevation of mount 
Blanc, are on a diminutive scale in comparison 
with those of the other continents ; and Malte- 
Brun observes that the whole peninsula would 
hardly be sufficient for the basin of one great 
river like the Nile. That very curious inquirer, 
the author of the Dissertation on the Cabiric 
Mysteries, observes, in regard to the derivation 
of the word, " the continent of Europe derived 
its name from the worship of Eur-op, the Ser- 
pent of the Sun; and not from the fabulous 
Europa. Herodotus justly explodes the notion 
of its being so called from the Persian princess, 
observing that she never saw the region which 
the Greeks denominated Europe ; but that she 
was conveyed from Tyre into Crete, and from 
Crete into Africa." But, however we may 
choose to accept the derivation of this name, 
it is now very well understood that the whole 
country now known as Europe was not origi- 
nally included in that designation. The Ro- 
mans gave to that part of the coast which lay 
opposite to them, the name of Africa, which 
only, by gradual extension, came at last to sig- 
nify the whole of the vast peninsula which now 
bears that appellation. The same was equally 
the case in regard to Asia ; and from the parts 
contiguous to Europe, the name extended over 
the largest part of the world of the ancients. 
On the shores of the Propontis, a portion or 
region of Thrace was first denominated Europe, 
in the opinion of D'Anville, as being " the en- 
trance of Europe, opposite the land of Asia ; " 
but more probably, the first called by that name, 
which it communicated at an early period to 
one whole division of the earth. The capital 
of Europa, in the limited sense in which, accord- 
ing to this opinion, that title was first applied, 
was Heraclea, which continued among the Ro- 
mans of the empire a place of some importance 
till the removal of the imperial seat to Byzan- 
tium, thenceforward Constantinople. " Euro- 
pean languages may be divided into two great 
classes ; the first consists of those which re- 
semble one another, and have some aflinity 
with the Sanscrit and Persic ; the second com- 
prises those in which such resemblance does 
not exist, or at all events is faint and indistinct. 
In the first class maybe distinguished the Greek 
and partly the Latin, the Slavonic and its 
branches, the German and Scandinavian: in 
the second, the Finnic, the Celtic, and the 
Basque or Biscayan. It is impossible to deter- 
mine whether such radical differences are to 
De attributed to two different Asiatic invasions 
or to two separate periods of civilization. Ten 
distinct races exist still in Europe, but the most 
106 



ancient are, on the whole, the least numerous 
The Greeks, of whom the Pelasgi were a very 
ancient branch, after having peopled with their 
colonists the most of the coasts on the Mediter- 
ranean, now exist only in some provinces of 
Turkey, chiefly in the Archipelago and the Pe- 
loponnesus. The Albanians are the descend- 
ants of the Illyrians, who mingled formerly with 
the Pelasgic Greeks, and at a later period with 
the modern ; enough of their ancient language 
remains to enable us to discover its European 
character, and its connexion with the German 
and Slavonic, No trace is left of the ancient 
people that are supposed to have inhabited 
Thrace and the countries adjacent to the Da- 
nube ; they were probably composed of differ- 
ent races, as the Phrygian, the Slavonic, the 
Celtic, and the Pelasgic; perhaps, too, what is 
strictly called the Thracian language, was the 
common source of the Phrygian, the Greek, 
the Illyrian, and even the Dacian or Dake. It 
is towards Thrace, mount Hemus, and the Low- 
er Danube, that we can discover the earliest 
origin of European states ; but these indications 
disappear if we traverse Asia Minor, or travel 
by the north round th£ Euxine Sea. The Turks. 
the modern rulers of the Greeks, belong to the 
same family as the Tartars, and are scattered 
throughout Russia from the Crimea to Kasan ; 
one of their colonies is established in Lithua- 
nia. That people, foreign to Europe, or who 
only occupied in ancient times the Uralian con- 
fines, are now domiciled in our peninsula, and 
probably fixed in it for ages ; they are incorpo- 
rated with the Greek races, and with the an- 
cient nations of Asia Minor and Thrace. The 
Turcomans, of whom a branch is settled in 
Macedonia, have preserved incorrupted their 
Asiatic origin. Two great races have probably 
existed in the north-east of Europe for some 
thousand years. The vain Greeks and proud 
Romans despised the obscure names of Slavo- 
nians and Finns, {Slavi and Finni;) but these 
populous tribes have occupied, from the earliest 
dawn of history, all the countries comprehend- 
ed under the vague and chimerical names ot 
Scythia and Sarmatia. Almost all the topo- 
graphical names of these countries are derived 
from the Slavonic and Finnic ; a very small 
number owe their origin to the short empires of 
the Scythians, the Sarmatians, the Ostrogoths, 
and the Huns, the successive conquerors and 
rulers of these immense plains. It is probable 
that a Scythian nation, sprung from theMedes. 
ruled over the Finns and Slavonians,who formed 
the agricultural and pastoral tribes. The Sar- 
matians, who appear to have been of Tartar 
descent, mixed with the Scythians and their 
vassals ; the Huns were another horde of the 
same people ; both the one and the other came 
from the banks of the Wolga and the shores of 
the Caspian Sea. It is certain that, at the 
time in which they appeared in these countries, 
the banks of the Vistula and the Dnieper were 
peopled by Slavonic and Finnic tribes. The 
Slavonic nations are divided, according to their 
dialects, into three branches ; first, the eastern 
Slavi, including the Russians, a people descend- 
ed from the Roxelans or Roxolani, the Slavi 
and Scandinavians, the Eousniacs, in Galicia, 
the Servians or Slavi on the Danube, the Scla- 
vonians, the Croatians, and others; secondly, 



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the western Slavi, or the Poles, Bohemians, 
Hungarian Slavi, and the Sorabs or Serbs of 
Lusatia; thirdly, the northern Slavi or the 
Venedes of the Romans, the Wends of the 
ancient Scandinavians, a very numerous tribe, 
earlier civilized, but at the same time earliei 
incorporated in diflferent states than the other 
two. The same tribe comprehends the remains 
of the German Wendes or Polabes, the Obo- 
trites and Rugians, long since confounded with 
their conquerors the Germans ; it also includes 
the Pomeranians, the Kassubs, subdued by the 
Poles ; the ancient Prussians or Prutzi, exter- 
minated or reduced to disgraceful slavery by 
their Teutonic conquerors ; and lastly, the Li- 
thuanians, the only branch which has retained 
some traces of its ancient language, although 
mixed with the Scandinavian and Finnic. The 
Wallachians, in the ancient Dacia and the 
adjacent countries, are the descendants of the 
GetJE, the Slavi, and the Romans ; their lan- 
guage resembles the Latin. The Bulgarians 
are a Tartar tribe, that migrated from the neigh- 
bourhood of Kasan, and perhaps ruled over 
Finnic vassals ; after having reached mount 
Hemus, they mingled with the Slavi on the 
Danube, and partly adopted their language. 
The Finns, whom Tacitus designates under the 
name of Fenni, and Strabo under that of Zou- 
mi.wahdered probably from time immemorial in 
the plains of eastern Europe. Some of their 
tribes having mixed with other nations, were in- 
cluded by the Greeks among the European Scy- 
thians. Their descendants were subdued and 
driven to the north and the east by the nume- 
rous hordes- of Slavonians. It is probable that 
the branches of the Finnic race are the Lap- 
landers, who are also perhaps connected with 
the Huns, the Esihes, or ancient Esthonians 
and Livonians ; the Permians incorporated with 
the Scandinavians.particularly the Norwegians, 
the last people founded a powerful state in the 
tenth centur}'- ; lastly, the Hungarians or Mag- 
yars, who were composed of Finnic and Turk- 
ish tribes, and governed by Persians or Bucha 
rians. Such are considered the ramifications of 
the Finnic race, or, as it is called in Russia, the 
Tchoude. There are, without doubt, many rea- 
sons that may induce some to regard the Hun- 
garians as a separate branch, or at all events a 
mixed, though ancient people. The Teutonic 
nations, of which the most important are the 
Germans, the Scandinavians, and the English, 
are situated to the west of the Slavonians and 
Finns, in the western and central regions of 
Europe. The Germans, on account of their 
different dialects, maybe divided into two class- 
es; the inhabitants of the mountains on the 
south, and those of the plains on the north. 
The hi^h German, and its harsh and "guttural 
dialects, are spoken in Switzerland, Swabia, Al- 
sace, Bavaria, the Austrian States, Silesia,'and 
Transylvania. The softer dialects, or the low 
German, may be again divided into Dutch and 
Flemish, or into all that remains of the ancient 
Belgian, which extended from the Zuider-zee 
to Sleswick ; and into lov) or old Saxon, which 
was spoken from Westphalia and Holstein to 
eastern Prussia. We ought, lastly, to mention 
the Saxon, as holding an intermediate place be- 
tween these two German dialects, almost as dif- 
ferent from each other as the Italian and the , 



French. The Saxon is the language of Fran- 
conia, and of the higher orders in Livonia and 
Esthonia. The Scandinavian nations, or the 
Swedes, Goths, Norwegians, Danes, and Jut- 
landers, form a distinct race from the German 
nations, and were separated from them at a re- 
mote period. Still, however, there is some re- 
semblance between them and the Dutch, the 
Frieslanders, and the low Saxons. All that 
remains of the ancient Scandinavian, as it was 
•spoken in the ninth century, is retained in the 
Dalecarlian, the old Norwegian of the valleys of 
Dofre, in the dialect of the Feroe islands, and 
the Norse, the language of the Shetland island- 
ers. Two others, or rather modern dialects, the 
Swedish and the Danish, are both of them 
branches of the ancient Scandinavian ; but in 
the progress of civilization they have lost much 
of their strength, and even of their copiousness. 
A third dialect, that of Jutland, retains the 
marks of the old Anglo-Saxon, M^'hich has some 
affinity with the ancient Scandinavian. The 
English and Scots in the lower part of Scot- 
land, are sprung from Belgians, Saxons, Anglo- 
Saxons, Jutlanders, and Scandinavians. Their 
diflferent dialects united and modified, formed 
the old English or the Anglo-Dano- Saxon, a 
language which was corrupted by the sudden 
introduction of barbarous Latin and barbarous 
French at the Norman invasion ; but its an- 
cient character was not thus destroyed ; it was 
afterwards slowly but gradually improved. It 
must be confessed, however, that the dialects 
spoken in Suffolk, Yorkshire, and in the low 
counties of Scotland, bear a stronger resem- 
blance than the English to the Teutonic tongues. 
The languages derived from the Latin are now 
spoken in the west and the south of Europe ; 
but it is necessary to make, in connexion with 
the subject, some remarks on certain nations 
that were oppressed and subdued. No distinct 
trace remains of the Etruscans, the Ausonians, 
the Osci, and other indigenous states, or such 
at least as were anciently settled in Italy. The 
words Celts and Iberians are no longer used in 
France, Spain, and Britain ; but under other 
denominations we may discover the descend- 
ants of these great and ancient nations. The 
Basques, confined to the western base of the 
Pyrenees, still retain one of the most original 
languages in our part of the world ; it has been 
proved that it is a branch of the Iberian, which 
was spoken in eastern and southern Spain, and 
was common also in Aquitanian Gaul. The 
Celts, one of the primitive European races, 
were most widely scattered in different coun- 
tries. We may learn from the earliest histories 
of Europe, that they were settled at a remote 
epoch on the Alps and in the whole of Gaul, 
from which they migrated into the British isl- 
ands and the central and western regions of 
Spain ; at a later period they inundated Italy, 
Thrace, and Asia Minor. The Hibernians 
are an old branch of the same people ; and ac- 
cording to some authors, the highlanders of 
Scotland are a colony of the native Irish. The 
Erse or Gaelic is the only authentic monument 
of the Celtic language ; but it may be readily 
admitted that a nation so widely extended must 
have been incorporated with many states whose 
dialects are at present extinct. Belgium was 
at one period inhabited by Celts and GermanSj 
107 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



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but it may be proved that the earlier inhabitants 
were of Celtic origin ; the Belgians, having con- 
quered parts of England and Ireland, mingled 
with the native Celts, and were afterwards sub- 
dued by the Anglo-Saxons of Wales, Cumber- 
land, and Cornwall ; from these districts they 
returned to the continent, and peopled lower 
Brittany. The Gaulois or Gallic that is still 
spoken, is derived from the Belgian, which is 
very different from the Celtic, and the more 
modern dialect of lower Brittany is composed 
of several others j the Gauls called their lan- 
guage the Kumraigh or the Kymri, and the La- 
tin authors of the middle ages den minated the 
people Cambrians ; some geographical writers 
have incorrectly styled them Cimbres. Such 
are the three native and ancient races of west- 
ern Europe. The language of the Romans, 
particularly the popular dialect or Romana rus- 
tica, came gradually into use in different coun- 
tries it was thus mixed with native languages, 
and gave rise to provincial idioms ; the purer 
Latin was spoken in the towns and churches. 
The irruption of the northern states, all of 
them, or almost all of them, of Teutonic origin, 
introduced new confusion and new idioms into 
the Latino-Gallic and Latino-Iberian dialects; 
the language of the Troubadours, of which the 
seeds had been sown in a very remote age, ap- 
peared about the same time in western Europe. 
From it emanated the Italian, the Lombard, 
Venetian, and Sicilian dialects, and also the 
Provengal, the Oc or Occitanian, the Limosin 
and Catalonian. The old French and some of 
its dialects, as the Walloon and that of Picardy, 
must have existed for many centuries before 
the French name was known ; to the same 
source must be attributed the modern Spanish, 
or the Castilian and Gallician. We are enti- 
tled to conclude from this imperfect account of 
the ancient European languages, that the three 
most populous races were the Romano-Celtic in 
the south and west; the Teutonic in the centre, 
the north, and north-west; and the Slavonic in 
the east. The Greek, the Albanian, the Turk- 
ish, and the Finnic languages in the east ; the 
Basque, the Celtic or Erse, and the Gaelic or 
Kymric, however interesting to the philologist, 
are considered secondary by the political arith- 
metician. These seven languages are not spo- 
ken by more than twenty-five or twenty-seven 
millions in Europe, whilst the three great races 
comprise a European population of more than 
a hundred and seventy-five millions. Europe 
reckons among its inhabitants the descendants 
of Arabians ; they are distinguished in the is- 
land of Candia by the name of Abadiotes, and 
are confounded with the natives in the south 
of Spain. There are also two tribes of Kal- 
mucs, who lead a wandering life between the 
Wolga and the Don. We may likewise men- 
tion the Jews that are dispersed throughout Eu- 
rope, Zigeunes or gjrpsies, an ancient Indian 
caste, and other tribes of the same sort, that are 
treated with greater or less severity." Malte- 
Brun. 

EuROTAS, a river of Laconia, now the Ere, 
or Vasilico Potamos. Its source was in Arca- 
dia, near Asea, and the springs of the famous 
Alpheus. For some distance this stream is lost 
beneath the surface of the ground, ( Vid. Al- 
pheus,) but rising a^ain in the Laconian terri- 
108 



tory near Belmina, it takes a southerly course, 
and running almost midway between the Saro- 
nicus Sinus and the Myrtoan Sea upon the east, 
and Messenia on the west, it discharged itself 
into the Laconic gulf. All the streams of La- 
conia poured their waters into this largest of the 
Peloponnesian rivers, by means of which they 
paid their tribute to the sea. On the banks of the 
Eurotas stood Sparta, the great capital of Laco- 
nia and of the Peloponnesus, and, for a short 
time, of all Greece ; besides which, innumerable 
towns and villages gave to its margin the ap- 
pearance of a regular and continuous settle- 
ment. . 

EuRYTANEs, the greatest of the three princi- 
pal tribes into which the -^tolian people were 
divided. They occupied the northern part of 
^Etolia, from the lakeTrichonisto the borders 
of Thessaly. The Eurytanes are said by Thu- 
cydides to have been a barbarous people, speak- 
ing a language foreign to the Greeks, and un- 
civilized in their habits and lives. 

EuxiNus PoNTUs, one of the principal reser- 
voirs of the great rivers which drain the conti- 
nent of Europe, This celebrated sea is situated 
between Europe and Asia, forming a part of the 
line of separation, and encroaching upon the 
boundaries of both. In antiquity, the countries 
which bordered upon this remarkable basin were 
on the south, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
and Pontus in Asia, and the Byzantine penin- 
sula upon the side of Europe ; the western shore 
was peopled by the Thracians, the Scythians, 
and the Cimmerians; upon the north, a great 
variety of tribes, chiefly Sarmatian, occupied the 
coast between the Tyras and the Tauric Cherso- 
nese ; the eastern and north-eastern shores for 
the most part constituted the kingdom of Col- 
chis between this coast and Taurica, the wa- 
ters of the Palus Maeotis passing through the 
Cimmerian Bosphorus, emptied into the Euxine, 
which disgorged itself again on the opposite side, 
through another narrow strait into the Propon- 
tis ; thence, again through the Hellespont into 
the jiEgean and the Mediterranean, of which it 
constituted the principal basin and first deposi- 
tary. It was frequently called by the ancients, 
Pontus, without any peculiar name or designa- 
tion, as the only body of water in those regions 
which could be called a sea ; but many distin- 
guishing appellations were afterwards given to 
it, derived either from some peculiar property or 
appearance in its waters or its coast, from tra- 
dition ; or lastly, from the character of the tribes 
which were settled on its shores. It was an- 
ciently called a^eivos, inhospitable, on account 
of the savage manners of the inhabitants on its 
coasts. Commerce with foreign nations, and 
the plantation of colonies in their neighbour- 
hood, gradually softened their roughness, and 
the sea was no longer called Axenus, but Euxe- 
nus, hospitable. The Euxine is supposed by 
Herodotus to be 1387 miles long and 420 broad. 
Strabo calls it 1100 miles long, and in circum- 
ference 3125. It abounds in all varieties offish, 
and receives the tribute of above 40 rivers. It 
is not of great depth, except in the eastern parts ; 
whence some have imagined that it had a sub- 
terraneous communication with the Caspian. 
It is called the Black sea from the thick dark 
fogs which cover it. Qind. Trist. 3, el. 13, 1. 4, 
el. 4, V. M.—Strab. 2, Sac— Mela, 1, c 1.— 



FM 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FA 



Plin. 3. — Herodot. 4, c. 85. The principal 
riveis that empty into the Euxine or Black Sea, 
are the Don, formerly the Tanais, through the 
Palus Maeotis, the Dnieper, Danapis, and Bo- 
rysthenes ; the Bog, which joins the Dnieper at 
its embouchure, and the Dniester, Danaster or 
Tyras, which emptied north of the mouths of 
the Danube. All these rivers drain the Russian 
empire, formerly Sarmatia, between the Volga 
and the Danube, east of a line drawn from Mos- 
cow to "Warsaw. The Danube itself, the prin- 
cipal tributary of this body of water, supplies it 
from the streams collected in its course of 1500 
miles from Germany, the Alps, and the greater 
part of Turkey north of the Balkans, the Hae- 
mus of antiquity. 

F. 

Fabaris, now Farfa, a river of Italy in the 
territories of the Sabines, called also Farfarus. 
Ovid. Met. 14, V. 334.— Virg. jEn. 7, v. 715. 

Fabrateria, now Falvaterra, a town of La- 
tium, situated on the Latin Way, It belonged 
first to the Volsci, but as early as 424 U. C. 
placed itself imder the protection of Rome. It 
was colonized 628 U. C. Cram. 

Fabricius pons, " the bridge which connects 
the island in the Tiber with the left bank of 
that river. Dio Cassius speaks of it as having 
been built of stone soon after the conspiracy of 
Catiline ; whence it might be inferred that a 
wooden one existed previously on the same spot. 
Its modem name is Ponte di qvMtro Capi." 
Cram. 

FjesuljE, a considerable to-^Ti of Etruria, 25 
miles to the south-east of Pistoria, and a short 
distance to the north-east of Florence ; " its 
ruins and name are preserved in the well-known 
hill and village of Fiesole. It is noticed for the 
first time in history by Polybius, in his account 
of the early wars between the Gauls and the Ro- 
mans. We find Feesulas subsequently men- 
tioned as one of those colonies which Sylla es- 
tablished to reward his adherents ; and we know 
that Catiline made it the chief hold of his party 
in Etruria. It was still a flourishing city in the 
time of Pliny and Ptolemy." Cram. The 
author of a " Tour through part of France, 
Switzerland, and Italy," gives this account of 
the modem Fiesole. " A walk of about 4 miles 
brought us to Faesulge, one of the 12 ancient 
cities of Etruria, and famed in those days for its 
skill in divination and interpretation of omens. 
Parts of the ancient walls, being stones of im- 
mense size, piled without cement one upon the 
other, still remain. Within the last 12 years an 
amphitheatre has been discovered by digging. 
A portion of the rising seats and steps ; a re- 
servoir for water under an arch ; together with 
several vaulted caves, supposed for the w-ild 
beasts ; and entrances for the people, remain in 
excellent preservation. A church dedicated to, 
and containing the corpse of St. Alexander, was 
built in the 6th century on the site of a temple 
supposed sacred to Bacchus. Its 14 ancient 
Ionic columns support the roof, while outside 
the door stands the very altar where Pagan in- 
cense formerly smoked in honour of the jolly 
god, Fiesole is placed on the summit of a high 
hill, and the delighted eye ranges on every side, 
over one unbounded prospect of the riches of 



nature perfected by cultivation, and embellished 
with innumerable villas which seem to extend 
even to the distant Appenines." At Fiesole 
are the church of St. Lawrence, adorned by the 
skill of Michael Angelo : the splendid mauso- 
leum of the first six Grand Dukes of Tuscany; 
and the Laurentian library, which owes its ori- 
gin to Cosmo de Medici. Here are several cu- 
riosities ; among them the famed Pandects of 
Justinian, found at Amalfi in 1137 ; also the 
oldest manuscript Virgil extant, with the notes 
'of a Roman consul of the 5th century ; likewise 
a Horace, with Petrarch's own hand-writing in 
it, and notes ; and a complete copy of Terence's 
six plavs, written throughout by Boccaccio, in a 
beautiful hand. Polyb. 2, 25; 3, 82.— Czc. Cat. 
Orat. 2, 9.— Bell. Cat. 31.— Plin. 3, 5. 

Falerii, or Falerium, a town of Etruria, 
to the south-west of Fescennium, "the capital 
of the ancient Falisci, so well known from their 
connexion with the early history of Rome. 
Much uncertainty existed respecting the site of 
this city; but it seems now well ascertained 
that it occupied the position of the present 
Civita Castellana. Falerii, according to Dion. 
Hal. (1, 21.) belonged at first to the Siculi; 
but these were succeeded by the Pelasgi, to 
whom the Greek form of its name is doubtless 
to be ascribed, as w^ell as the temple and rites 
of the Argive Juno, and other indications of a 
Greek origin which were observed by that his- 
torian, and with which Ovid, who had married 
a lady of that city, seems also to have been 
struck, though he has followed the less authen- 
tic tradition, which ascribed the foundation of 
Falerii to Halesus, son of Agamemnon. We 
find the epithet of ^qui commonly attached to 
the Falisci by the poets, as they are said to 
have paid particular attention to the laws of 
equity ; and it is supposed the Romans derived 
from them their feciales and other ceremonies 
for making war or peace ; but Strabo seems to 
have considered this word as part of their name, 
rather than an adjunct. The same writer 
states, that many conceived the Falisci to be a 
peculiar people, distinct from the Tuscans, and 
having a language of their own. They formed 
part, however, of the Etruscan confederacy, and 
constituted one of its principal states. The 
early wars of the Falisci with Rome are chiefly 
detailed in the fifth book of Livy, where the ce- 
lebrated story of Camillus and the school-mas- 
ter of Falerii occurs. It was not, however, till 
the third year after the first Punic war that this 
people was finally reduced. The waters of the 
Faliscan territory were supposed, like those of 
the Clitumnus, to have the peculiar property of 
communicating a white colour to cattle." Cram. 
—Strab. 5, ^6.— Plin. 3, b.— Ovid. Am. 3, 
Eleg. 13, Fast. 4, 13.— ^n. 7, 695.— Liv. 4, 
23.— Pint. Vit. CamilL— Polyb. 1, 65. 

Falernus ager, a district in Campania, 
contiguous to the Ager Calenus, celebrated " as 
producing the best wine in Italy, or indeed in 
the world. Without pretending to fix the limits 
of this favoured portion of Campania with scru- 
pulous accuracy, it seems evident, from the tes- 
timony of Livy and Pliny, that we must regard 
it as extending from the Massic hills to the 
Vultumus. That part of the district which 
grew the choicest wine was distinguished by the 
name ofFaustianus, being that ofa village about 
109 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FE 



six miles from Sinuessa." Cram. Eustace con- 
siders the cause of the decline of Italian wines 
in the estimation of the connoisseur, and is in- 
clined to attribute it to a change in the taste of 
the Italians, and not to any alteration in the cli- 
mate or want of skill in the cultivation of the 
vine. " The modern Italians are extremely so- 
ber; they drink wine as Englishmen drink 
small beer, not to flatter the palate but to quench 
the thirst. In the cultivation of the vine, very 
little attention is therefore paid to the quantity 
or perfection, but merely to the quality of the 
produce. Not so the ancients ; they were fond 
of convivial enjo5rments ; they loved wine, and 
considered it not only as a gratification to the 
palate, but as a means of intellectual enjoyment 
and a vehicle of conversation. To heighten 
its flavour, therefore, to bring it to full maturi- 
ty by age, in short, to improve it by every me- 
thod imaginable, was with them an object of 
primary importance ; nor can it heighten sur- 
prise that in circumstances so favourable the 
vine should flourish. Yet with all this encou- 
ragement, the two most celebrated wines in Italy, 
the Csecuban and the Falernian, had lost much 
of their excellency and reputation in Pliny's 
time; the former, in consequence of a canal 
drawn across the vale of Amyclae by the empe- 
ror Nero ; and the latter, from its very celebrity, 
which occasioned so great a demand, that the 
cultivators, unable to resist the temptation, turn- 
ed their attention from the quality to the quan- 
tity." Classical Tour, vol. 2, p. 322.-811. 
Jtal. 7, \m.—Hor. 1, od. 20.—Propert. 4, El. 6. 
—Liv. 22, 13.—Plin. 14, 6. 

Falisci. Vid. Falerii. 

Fanum Fortunje, now Fano, a town of 
Umbria, on the Flaminian Way, between Pi- 
saurum and Sena Gallica, and near the river 
Metaurus. " About seven miles further, (from 
Pesaro), is Fano (Fanum Fortunse), a well- 
built and very handsome town. One of the 
gates of Fano is a triumphal arch of Augustus ; 
a gallery or portico of five arcades was built over 
it at a late period, that is, under Constantine ; 
the whole is, or was, Corinthian. The theatre 
was a noble and commodious edifice, but has 
been so long neglected, that it has at present 
much the appearance of a ruin." Eustace's 
Classical Tour. 

Farfarus. Vid. Fabaris. 

Faventia, now Faenza, a town of Gallia 
Cisalpina, situated on the Via Emilia, between 
Ariminum and Bononia, and nearer the latter 
than the former. " It is noted in the history of 
the civil wars of Rome for the defeat of Carbo's 
party by that of Sylla." Cram. — Liv. Epit. 
88.— Veil. Paterc. 2, 2S.—Strab. 5, 216. 

Faustianus Acer et Vicus. Vid. Falernus 
Ager. 

Felsina. Vid. Bononia. 

Feltria, now Feltre, a town of Venetia, 
on a branch of the Plavis, and on a road, which, 
leaving the Via JEmilia at Concordia, joins at 
Tridentum " the great road which leads now, 
as formerly, from Italy into Germany by the 
pass of the Brenner, a mountain to which, with 
the adjacent Alps, the Tridentini communicated 
their name. It was a town of some consequence, 
as would appear from inscriptions." Cram. — 
Plin. 3, 19. 

Fenni, or FiNNi. Vid. Europa. 
110 



Ferentinum, I. a town of Etruria, now Fe- 
renti, situated on the right of the Via Cassia to 
one going from Rome. Horace probably al- 
ludes to this town (1 Epist. 17.) " From Vi- 
truvius, who speaks of some valuable stone quar- 
ries in its neighbourhood, we collect that it was 
a municipium : Strabo ranks it with the lesser 
towns of Etruria; but it is remarked that Fron- 
tinus names it among the colonies of that pro- 
vince. The emperor Otho's family was of that 
city." Cram.—Strab. 5, 22b.— Suet. Oth.— 

Tacit. Hist. 2, 50. Ann. 15, 53. II. A town 

of Latium, " now Ferentino, about eight miles 
beyond Anagnia, on the Via Latina. It ap- 

Eears to have belonged originally to the Volsci, 
ut was taken from them by the Romans, and 
given to the Hernici. It is afterwards men- 
tioned as being in the possession of that peo- 
ple {Liv. 9, 43) ; but subsequently it appears to 
have fallen into the hands of the Samnites, un- 
less the name of Ferentinum be corrupt in the 
passage of Livy referred to (10, 34). It should 
be observed also, that Stephanus Byz., who is 
not, however, much to be depended upon with 
respect to Italian cities, assigns Ferentinum to 
this people. According to Livy, Ferentinum, 
though subject to Rome, was governed by its 
own laws, but in the time of Gracchus it had 
become a municipal town ; for Aulus Gellius 
quotes part of an oration, in which that cele- 
brated character inveighed against the conduct 
of a Roman praetor who had most tyrannically 
ill-treated two quaestors of Ferentinum. Cluve- 
rius is mistaken in supposing Ferentinum to 
have been a colony ; in the passage he quotes 
from Livy (35, 9), we should read Thurinum, 
and not Ferentinum." Cram. — Liv. 4, 51 ; 9, 
43.—Aul. Gell. 10, 3. 

Ferentum, or Forentum, a town of Apulia, 
now Forenza, about 8 miles south of Venosa, 
and on the other side of mount Vultur. Cram. 
—Horat. 3, od. 4, v. \b.—Liv. 9, c. 16 and 20. 

FERONiiE Lucus, a grovc with a temple and 
fountain, situated in Latium, and sacred to the 
goddess Feronia. It is thus described by Eus- 
tace : " Between two and three miles from Ter- 
racina, a few paces from the road, a little an- 
cient bridge crosses a streamlet issuing from 
the fountain of Feronia. 

Viridi gaudens Feronia luco. Virg. 7, 800. 

The grove in which this goddess was supposed 
to delight has long since fallen ; one only soli- 
tary ilex hangs over the fountain. The temple 
has sunk in dust, not even a stone remains ! 
Yet she had a better title to the veneration of 
the benevolent than all the other goddesses 
united. She delighted in freedom, and took 
deserving slaves under her protection. They 
received their liberty by being seated on a 
chair in her temple, inscribed with these words, 
Bene meriti servi sedeant ; surgant liheri.'"^ 
( Vid. Servius, quoted by Cluverius.) Classical 
Tour. 

Fescennium, or Fescennia, a town of Etru- 
ria, near the Tiber. It is now Galese. Here 
that species of poetry was first cultivated, which 
was sung or declaimed during the pomp of sa- 
crifices or celebration of marriages; whence the 
ancient nuptial hymns of the Romans were 
called Fescennine. " It is evident, however, 



FI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FL 



that these Etruscan songs, or hymns, were of 
the ver}'- rudest description, and probably never 
were reduced to writing. They were a kind of 
impromptus^ composed of scurrilous jests, origi- 
nally recited by the Italian peasants at those 
feasts of Ceres which celebrated the conclusion 
of their harvests; and they resembled the verses 
described by Horace, Epist. Lib. 2, Ep. 1." 
Dunlop's Roman Literature. 

FiBHENus, a small river of Latium, which 
empties into the Liris, and now bears the name 
of Eiume della Posta. Above its junction with 
the Liris, it forms a small island, now S. Do- 
menico Abate, which belonged to Cicero, and 
where was laid " the scene of his dialogues with 
Atticus, and his brother Cluintus, on legisla- 
tion. He describes it in the opening of the 
book as the property and residence of his an- 
cestors, who had lived there for many genera- 
tions : he himself was born there, A. U. C. 646. 
The island afterwards came into the possession 
of Silius Italicus." Cramer.— Martial. 11. ep. 
49.— Silius, 8, 401. 

FicuLEA, or FicuLNEA, a town of Latium, be- 
yond mount Sacer, at the north of Rome. Ci- 
cero had a villa there, and the road that led to 
the town was called Eiculnensis, afterwards 
Nomentana Via. Cic. 12. — Att. 34. — Liv. 1, c. 
38, 1. 8, c. 52. 

FIDEN.S;, or Fidena, a town of the Sabines, 
near the Tiber, at a distance of between four 
and five miles from Rome, originally an Alban 
colony, " but fell subsequently into the hands of 
the Etruscans. According to Dionysius, it was 
conquered by Romulus soon after the death of 
Tatius ; he represents it as being at that period 
a large and populous town. It would be tedious 
to enumerate the different attempts made by 
this city to emancipate itself from the Roman 
yoke ; sometimes with the aid of the Etruscans, 
at others in conjunction with the Sabines. Its 
last revolt occurred A. U. C. 329, when the 
dictator ^milius Mamercus, after having van- 
quished the Fidenates in the field, stormed their 
city, which was abandoned to the licentiousness 
of his soldiery. From this time we hear only 
of Fidenae as a deserted place, with a few coun- 
try-seats in its vicinity. In the reign of Tibe- 
rius, a terrible disaster occurred here by the fall 
of a wooden amphitheatre during a show of gla- 
diators, by which accident 50,000 persons, as 
Tacitus reports, or 20,000 according to Sueto- 
nms, were killed and wounded. {Ann. 4, 62.) 
From the passage of Tacitus here cited, it ap- 
pears that Fidenae had risen again to the rank 
of a municipal town." The site of the ancient 
city is probably near Castel Giubileo. Cram. 
—Dion. Hal. 2, 23, and bi.—Liv. 1, 6: 4, 9.— 
5!^r«A. 5, 226. ' 

FiDENTiA, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, to the 
south of the Padus, on the ViajEmilia between 
Placentia and Parma. Here " Sylla's party 
gained a victory over Carbo. From the martyr- 
dom of Saint Donninus, Fidentia has obtained 
the name of Borgo San Donnino.^^ Cram. — 
Veil. Paterc. 2, 28.— jLw. Epit. 88.— Plin. 3, 
15. 

FiRMUM PicENUM, a towu of Picenum, situ- 
ated about five miles from the sea, on which 
stood the Castellum Firmanorum, now Porto 
di Fermo. It was colonized towards the begin- 
ning of the first Punic war, and is accordingly 



styled in ancient inscriptions as Col. Augusta 
Firma. The modern town of Fermo is yet 
a place of some note in the Marca d'Ancona, 
Cram.— Plin. 3, 13.— Strab. 5, 241. 

FiscELLUs MONS, that part of the Appenines 
which separated the Sabines from Picenum. 
At its foot the Nar rises. It was, according to 
Varro, the only spot in Italy in which wild 
goats were to be found. Cram.— Plin. 3, 12 
—R. Rust. 2, 1. 

. Flaminia via. Vid. Via. porta, one of 

the gates of Rome, added by Aurelian. 

Flanaticus sinus, a bay of the Flanates, in 
Liburnia, on the Adriatic, now the gulf of 
Quarnaro. Plin. 3, c. 19 and 21. 

Flano, a commercial town on the Illyrian 
side of the Flanaticus Sinus, to which it is sup- 
posed by many to have imparted its name. 

Flevo, a canal which was excavated by or- 
der of Drusus, to convey the waters of that 
branch of the Rhine, which, among the many- 
mouths of that river, retained its proper name, 
with the northern ocean, and to drain the coun- 
try of the Frisii through which it passed. In 
the centre of this country or thereabouts, was a 
lake of considerable magnitude, called also 
Flevo, and through this lake passed the Isala or 
Yssel to the sea. The lake appears to have 
owed its origin to this canal. " This canal," 
says D'Anville, " by a derivation of the waters 
of the Rhine into the Y5scZ,had expanded to such 
a degree as to form a considerable lagune or lake, 
whose issue to the sea was fortified by a castle 
bearing the same name. This lagune, having 
been in the progress of time much increased by 
the sea, assumed the name Zuyder-zee, or the 
Southern Sea ; and of several channels which 
afford entrance to the ocean, that named Vlie 
indicates the genuine egress of the Flevo." 
D'Anville.— Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 6, 1. 4, v. 72 — 
Plin. 4, c. lb.— Mela, 3, c. 2. 

Florentia, the chief tov/n of Tuscany, is 
comparatively a modern city. It extends on both 
sides of the Arno at the present day, though, 
when first founded, and for a long time after- 
wards, it served for little else than as a port and 
market of the older town of Faesulae. In the 
time of Csesar a colony was first established 
there, and by the period at which the barbarians 
first began their incursions into Italy it had be- 
come a respectable city. It suffered, however, 
very much in the wars which those savage con- 
querors brought upon Italy, and no indications 
of its future splendour are to be found in any 
era of its early history. During the reigns of 
the dukes of Tuscany, Florence was not a ca- 
pital city ; and Lucca, till about the epoch of 
the accession of the catholic countess Matilda, 
enjoyed the rank and character of principal 
among the cities of Tuscany. From that time, 
however, Florence took its place among the first 
cities, not merely of Tuscany but of all Italy; 
and by the year 1300 it had assumed a rank for 
power and learning that placed it far before any 
other city of Europe. Neither the literature 
nor the arts, nor yet the proud and independent 
spirit of the early Greeks, gave them any boast 
over the Florentines of the period that succeed- 
ed ; and Florence remained, till the commence- 
ment of the era of modern history, the first city 
of Europe for her arts, her letters, and the m 
dependent character of her citizens. Tacit 
111 



FO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FO 



Ann. 1, c. 19— Flor. 3, c. ^l.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 

FoNS SoLis, a fountain, cool at mid-day and 
warm at the rising and setting of the sun. He- 
rodot. 4, c. 181. Vid. Hammon. 

Formic, now Mola di Gacda^ one of the 
most ancient towns of Italy. It was near the 
borders of Campania in Latium, upon the Caie- 
tanus Sinus, and all antiquity concurred in fix- 
ing there the seat of the fabled Laestrigones. 
Formise was a favourite residence of Cicero, 
who was also treacherously murdered there on 
being proscribed by the second triumvirate. 
Liv. 8, c. 14, 1. 38, c. 2,^.—Horat. 1, od. 20, v. 
11, 1. 3, od. 17. Sat. 1, 5, v. Zl.—Plin. 36, c. 6. 

FoRMiANUM, a villa of Cicero near Formiae, 
near which the orator was assassinated. Cic. 
Fam. 11, ep. 37, 1. 16, ep. 10. — Tacit. Ann. 16, 
c. 10. 

FoRMio, a river emptying into the Flanati- 
cns Sinus, and forming, till the reign of Au- 
gustus, the eastern boundary of Italy. The 
modern name is Risano. Plin. 3, c. 18 and 19. 

Fortunate Insulje, islands at the west of 
Mauretania in the Atlantic Sea. They are sup- 
posed to be the Canary Isles of the moderns, 
though only two in number, at a little distance 
one from the other, and 10,000 stadia from the 
shores of Libya. They were represented as 
the seats of the blessed, where the souls of the 
virtuous were placed after death. The air was 
wholesome and temperate, the earth produced 
an immense number of various fruits without 
the labours of men. When they had been de- 
scribed to Sertorius in the most enchanting co- 
lours, that celebrated general expressed a wish 
to retire thither, and to remove himself from the 
noise of the world and the dangers of war. 
Strab. 1. — Plut. in Sertor. — Horat. 4. od. 8, v. 
^l.—Epod. 16.— Plin. 6, c. 31. " Those of 
them that lie nearest the continent were called 
Purpurarise, as Juba, king of Mauretania, in- 
tended to establish there a manufactory for pur- 
ple dye. The more remote being specially de- 
nomiriated the Fortunate Isles, we must recog- 
nise in them Lancarota and Forteventura. Ca- 
naria has given the name of Canaries to these 
islands in general." These islands were the 
most western of all the lands with which the an- 
cients were acquainted ; and from the fables in 
which their poets indulged in regard to them, we 
may suppose that their knowledge of these dis- 
tant places was not improved by frequent com- 
munication. The Peak of Teneriflfe rises in one 
of these islands, in the form of a pyramid, to an 
enormous height, and being covered with snow 
upon the summit, is supposed to have given the 
name of Nivaria to the island on which it stood. 
All knowledge of the Insulae Fortunae was lost 
to the ignorant ages that saw and succeeded the 
fall of the empire. They were again discover- 
ed about the year 1330, by the crew of a vessel 
driven thither by the impetuosity of a storm. 

Forum Romanum. " It is collected from Livy 
and Dionysius, that the Forum was situat- 
ed between the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; 
and from Vitruvius we learn that its shape was 
that of a rectangle, the length of which exceed- 
ed the breadth by one third. From these data, 
which agree with other incidental circumstan- 
ces, it is generally thought that the four angles of 
the Roman Forum were formed by the arch of 
Severas at the foot of the Capitol : the arch of 
112 



Fabian, which was placed at the termination 
of the Via Sacra ; the church of St. Theodore^ 
at the foot of the Palatine ; and that of the Con- 
solazione, below the Capitol. The ground which 
it occupied is now commonly known by the 
name of Campo Vaccino. The Forum was 
first adorned with porticoes and shops by Tar- 
quinius Priscus. We hear of its being sur- 
rounded also with temples, bassilicks, and innu- 
merable statues ; among which were those of 
the twelve deities, named Consentes Urbani, 
whereof six were males and six females. The 
first object to be considered in a detailed exa- 
mination of the Forum is the position of the 
Rostra. It is well known that this name was 
given to the elevated seat from whence the Ro- 
man orators and men in office addressed the 
assembled people ; from the circumstance of its 
having been adorn'id with the beaks of some 
galleys taken from the city of Antium. When 
Livy applies the word templum to this struc- 
ture, we are to understand him as alluding ra- 
ther to the reverence with which it was regard- 
ed by the Romans, asbeiag a consecrated place, 
than to its size or shape. It appears that the 
Rostra were first placed opposite the middle of 
the south side of the Forum, near the Comi- 
tium, and that part where the senate usually 
met. Julius Caesar removed the Rostra from 
the position they first occupied, and placed them 
close under the Palatine hill, near the south- 
western angle of the Forum. From this cir- 
cumstance the new Rostra were commonly 
known by the name of Julian. Amongst the 
illustrious characters who enjoyed the distinc- 
tion of having their statues placed near the Ros- 
tra, we may notice Sylla, Pompey, and Augus- 
tus. Likewise the ambassadors who might pe- 
rish in the discharge of their public functions : 
as in the instance of those who were put to 
death by order of Lars Tolumnius, king of 
Veil, and of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians. 
Above the Rostra was the Curia, or senate- 
house, sometimes called Hostilia from having 
been originally built by Tullus Hostilius. The 
ascent to it from the Forum was by a flight of 
steps . It was repaired, and probably embellish- 
ed, by Sylla ; soon after which it was set on fire, 
on the occasion of the corpse of P. Clodius 
being burnt in it by the populace, when it was 
totally destroyed. Somewhat behind the Curia 
was the Comitium, a space of ground, as it 
appears, elevated above the rest of the Forum, 
which was appropriated to the meetings of the 
Curiae in the early days of Rome, and subse- 
quently to the trials of civil causes. Here also 
delinquents were publicly scourged. This area 
was at first uncovered, but a roof was added 
nine years after the entrance of Hannibal into 
Italy, that is, 542 A. U. C. The celebrated 
Capitoline marbles, so called from the circum- 
stance of their being preserved in the modem 
Campidoglio, were discovered in the sixteenth 
century, and lately other fragments of the same 
records have been found on the supposed site 
of the Comitium ; hence it is conceived that 
these monuments were commonly affixed to 
some part of that building. The following 
buildings appear to have been connected with 
this edifice. The Graecostasis, a hall in which 
the envoys of foreign nations awaited the an 
swer of the senate on the subject of their mis- 



FO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FO 



sion. It was burnt, together with the Curia 
Hostilia, by the partisans of Clodius after his 
death, but was atterwards rebuilt by Antoninus 
Pius. A Senaculum, or building in which the 
senate met on extraordinary occasions. The 
Basilica of Opimius, and a small temple of Con- 
cord. This temple was of bronze, and was 
built and consecrated by C. Flavins, a Curule 
jEdile. The famous fig-tree, called Ruminalis, 
under whichRomulus and Remus were said to 
have been suckled by the she-wolf, grew in the 
area of the Comitium. An image of the ani- 
mal and her nurslings was cast in bronze, and 
placed under this tree. To the right of the Cu- 
ria stood the Basilica Porcia, built by Porcius 
Cato when consul, A. U. C. 564, and is thought 
to have been che first edifice of that kind which 
was erected in Rome. Plutarch informs us 
that It was the hall in Avhich the tribunes of the 
people sat to administer justice. That part of 
the Forum which lay at the foot of the Palatine 
is known to have been called Velia, and per- 
haps there was a street of this name leading up 
to the hill just mentioned, one summit of which 
might be thence called Veliensis. In the Velia 
stood the temple of the Penates, supposed to 
have been brought by ^ne as from Troy. In 
the court of ihis temple was a palm-tree planted 
by Augustus. This edifice was burnt in the 
great fire which occurred under Nero. Under 
the Palatine was a celebrated temple of Cas- 
tor and PolliLX, said to have been erected to 
those deities for the aid which they were sup- 
posed to have afforded to the Romans in the bat- 
tle fought near the lake Regillus. It was situat- 
ed near a fountaia commonly called the lake of 
Juturna. 

At qua Venturas pracedit sexta Calendas, 
Hoc sunt Ledcns templa dicata Deis, 

Fratribus ilia Deis fratres de gente Deoruin 
Circa Juturna composuere lacus. 

According to Nardini, the Forum had four 
outlets on the side that we are now considering, 
which looks to the west and to the Tiber. These 
were the Vicus Jugarius, Vicus Tuscus, Via 
Nova, and a branch of the Via Sacra. The 
first of these streets is supposed to have derived 
its name from an altar of Juno, sumamed Juga, 
because she presided over marriages. It passed 
at the foot of the Capitol, and terminated op- 
posite the Porta Carmentalis. In this street we 
must place the house of the seditious Spurius 
Ma^lius, which being razed to the ground, the 
space which it occupied was afterwards called 
^quimselium. Livy mentions a great fire 
which broke out in this part of the city, and 
lasted two nights and a day. The Vicus Tus- 
cus was a little to the south of the street above 
mentioned, and consequently nearer the Pala- 
tine ; it appears to have led from the Forum 
to that part of the city which was called the 
Velabrum, and from thence to the Circus Maxi- 
mus. The fourth street which issued from the 
western angle of the Forum seems to have been 
a continuation or branch of the Via Sacra. Be- 
tween the Via Nova, and that part of the Via 
Sacra above described, was the celeb'^ated tem- 
ple of Vesta, in which the eternal flame was 
preserved, and where the Palladium, saved from 
the ruins of Trov, was also deposited. This 
Part I.— P 



temple was erected by Numa, together with the 
neighbouring building called the hall of Vesta 
which was afterwards added, having been orig- 
inally the dwelling of that king. 

Hie focus est Vestce, qui Pallada servat et ignem. 
Hicfuit aiUiqui regia parva Numee. 

If w^e now turn to the north side of the Forum, 
being that which is imder the Capitol, we shall 
have to notice the following buildings. The arch 
of Severus, which is yet entire, and is known 
to have been erected in honour of the victories 
of that emperor, and his two sons Geta and Ca- 
racalla, over the Parthians. The name of Geta 
has been erased, and supplied by other letters. 
The temple of Concord, stood, as we are in- 
formed b}'- Festus, between the Capitol and the 
Forum ; while we learn from Plutarch that it 
fronted the Comitium, and was built by order of 
the senate in consequence of a vow made by 
Camillus. It was for a long time supposed that 
the architrave, supported by eight pillars of the 
Ionic order, which is yet standing at the foot of 
the Capitol, originally formed part of this tem- 
ple ; but it seems now agreed that this opinion 
is erroneous, and some late discoveries have 
brought to light, as it is thought, the area of the 
temple of Concord, near the ruins supposed to 
belong to the temple of Jupiter Tonans, and 
somewhat lower than the architrave and pillars 
above mentioned. Close to the temple of Con- 
cord was the Senaculum, or occasiohal senate- 
house, in w^hich, by the ad-vice of Cicero, deci- 
sive measures were determined upon against 
Catiline and his associates. Contiguous to this 
last building was the temple of Saturn, situated 
at the foot of the ascent called Clivus Capitoli- 
nus. The date of its construction is not kno^wn, 
but it w-as considered as one of the most an- 
cient edifices of Rome. We learn from Plu- 
tarch, that Valerius Publicola selected this buil- 
ding for a public treasur}', to which use it ap- 
pears to have been appropriated ever after. Still 
lower, and in the vacant space of the Forum, 
w^as the celebrated Milliarium Anreum, from 
which it has been supposed by some antiquaries, 
and more particularly by D'Anville, that all the 
roads which lead to the different parts of the 
empire were measured ; but though this idea 
seems to derive some support from a passage in 
Plutarch's life of Galba, it is evident from Pliny, 
that the Milliarium Aureum was that point in 
the Forum from which the distances to the se- 
veral gates of the cit}^ were alone reckoned. 
All the Roman ways had already been measur- 
ed in the time of C. Gracchus, as Plutarch in- 
forms us. Milliarium Aureum was erected by 
Augustus. In the open space of the Forum 
stood also the tribunal of Aurelius Cotta, the 
praetor, which appears to have been a court of 
justice surrounded by steps like an amphithea- 
tre, in order that the people might sit and hear 
the trials decided there. In the centre of the 
Forum was the celebrated Lacus Curtius, so 
called, according to some accounts, from Melius 
Curtius, a Sabine officer ,who, in the engagement 
between Tatius and Romulus, was nearly im- 
mersed ill its muddy hollow. According to 
others, from Curtius. a Roman knight,who frorn 
a spirit of devotion to his countiy leaped into it 
on horseback, after the oracle had declared thai 
113 



FO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FO 



tliis dangerous gulf could not otherwise be 
closed. This bog having in process of time be- 
come dry, an altar was erected on the spot. It 
was the custom also to erect pillars in the Forum 
commemorative of great victories and achieve- 
ments; of this kind were the Fila Horatia ; the 
column of C. Menius, who conquered the La- 
tins and placed the Rostra in the Forum ; the 
rostral column of Duilius, who gained the first 
naval victory against the Carthaginians. The 
Puteal Libonis, mentioned by ancient authors 
as being in the Forum, was either an altar or a 
tribunal, and certainly the haunt of usurers and 
money lenders. There was a statue of Marsy- 
as near the above-mentioned spot, which seems 
likewise to have been frequented by the same 
description of persons, who came probably to 
have their causes tried. 

Deinde eo dormitum, non sollicitus, mihi quod 

eras 
Surgendum sit mane ; obeundus Marsya, qui se 
Vultumferre Tiegat Noviorum posse minoris. 

The celebrated temple of Janus is known to have 
stood in the Forum, though it is not easy to de- 
termine the precise situation which it occupied. 
Procopius says it was a small square edifice of 
bronze, containing a statue of Janus, placed in 
front of the Curia, and a little above the chapel 
of the three Fates. It is probable, however, 
that he does not mean the ancient Curia Hos- 
tilia ; as the temple of the three Fates or Parcas 
is known to have stood near the church of /S". 
Adriano, distinguished in old ecclesiastical wri- 
tings by the title of "in tribus Fatis." Ovid 
seems to imply, ihat this edifice, consecrated to 
Janus, stood close to two Fora, which are sup- 
posed to be those of Ca3sar and Augustus. Great 
confusion has arisen on the subject of the build- 
ing in question, from the number of temples and 
arches erected to Janus in different parts of the 
city. The one of which we are now speaking 
was built by Romulus and Tatius, and was dis- 
tinguished by the title of duirinus. According 
to Suetonius, this was the temple which Au- 
gustus closed for the third time from its founda- 
tion after the battle of Actium, which statement 
is confirmed by Horace, 

et vacuum dv£llis 

Janum Quirini clausit, et ordinem 
Rectum, et vaganti frcena licentics 
Injecit 

Li vy speaks, however, of a temple of Janus built 
by Numa in the Argiletum, to which he applies 
the fact above stated. This seems to have been 
called Janus Geminus; or perhaps the two 
buildings were designated by that name, as it 
appears that they were always closed together. 
Besides the temple of Janus, there were three 
arches dedicated to this god in different parts of 
the Forum, as we learn from Horace. The 
central one was the usual rendezvous of brokers 
and money-lenders. On the eastern side of the 
Forum were the Tabernse Argentarise, or bank- 
ers' shops, called also Novae, to distinguish 
them from the Tabernse Veteres; which stood, 
as we have seen, in another part of the Forum. 
It was near this spot, as we learn from Livy, 
that Virginius shed the blood of his daughter to 
114 



save her honour. On the same side was the 
statue of Venus, surnamed Cloacina. We hear 
also of the Stationes Municipiorum as being in 
this part of the Forum. These were probably 
rooms where the municipal deputadons from 
different parts of the empire met previous to 
their appearing in court, whenever they had any 
cause to plead. The Basilica of L. iEmilius 
Paulus is supposed to have occupied the site of 
the church of St. Adrian, if that modern struc- 
ture be not in a great measure formed from the 
materials of the ancient building. This Basili- 
ca was erected by L. ./Emilius Paulus, who was 
consul A. U. C. 702, out of the sum of 1500 ta- 
lents sent him by Ceesar from Gaul, in order to 
gain him over to his side. Appian, who relates 
the same fact, says it was one of the most splen- 
did edifices of Rome ; and Pliny speaks of its 
columns of Phrygian marble as most worthy c 
admiration. This building was repaired sue 
cessively by different individuals of the Mnu 
lian family under Augustus and Tiberius. In 
this vicinitv we hear also of a temple of Hadri- 
an, erected to the memory of that emperor by 
Antoninus Pius. Connected with the great 
Forum of Rome, the whole of which has now 
been described, were two on a smaller scale, 
built by Julius Csesar and Augustus. That which 
Coesar erected, as Appian states, was not for the 
purposes of trade, but was used for pleadings, 
and meetings on public business. Its principal 
ornament was a magnificent temple of Venus 
Genetrix, with a highly prized statue of that 
goddess, and one of Cleopatra by her side. 
Several other statues, and some pictures belong- 
ing to this temple, are noticed by Pliny. In 
front of this edifice was an equestrian statue of 
Cassar. The horse of bronze gilt was said to be 
the celebrated figure of Bucephalus, the work 
of Lysippus. Dio. Cassius asserts that the 
great Forum was inferior in beauty to that of 
Caesar, upon the area of which alone, according 
to Suetonius, 4000 sestertia, or upwards of 
800,000Z. of our money, had been expended. 
Contiguous to it, but nearer the Capitol, was the 
Forum of Augustus, which seems to have been 
entirely appropriated to law business. Sueto- 
nius informs us that it was of no great extent, 
that emperor being unwilling to inconvenience 
persons whose houses stood in the way of his 
improvement. It boasted, however, of a double 
portico, adorned with several statues and pic- 
tures, and a temple consecrated to Mars the 
avenger, which Augustus had vowed to that 
deity during the civil war. It was ordered by 
Augustus that the senate should always hold 
their consultations on the affairs of war in this 
temple. The Forum of Trajan, which occupied 
the extreme portion of the eighth region,between 
the Capitol and duirinal, was yet more exten- 
sive and magnificent than any of the structures 
which have been hither to described. It is stated 
byAmmianus Marcellinus, that no part of Rome 
excited so much wonder and admiration in the 
emperor Constans and the Persian prince Hor- 
misdas, when viewing the city, as this superb 
Forum and its stupendous assemblage of build- 
ings. It was surrounded with a portico, the top 
of which was crowded with equestrian statues 
and military ornaments, principally in bronze. 
Its chief buildings consisted of a basilica, a 
triumphal arch, a temple, and a library. The 



FO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PR 



famous column wnicli yet remains entire, points 
out more particularly the situation of the Forum 
now under consideration, to the splendour of 
which it doubtless added considerably. It was 
erected by order of the senate in commemoration 
of Trajan's victories over the Daci, which are 
described in the bas reliefs with which the shaft 
of the pillar is ornamented. The ashes of Tra- 
jan, it is said, were contained in an urn placed 
on the summit, an honour, as Eutropius ob- 
serves, which never had been paid to any before 
that emperor. At the angle formed by the Via 
Nova and Valabrum, was the tomb and statue 
of Acca Laureniia, the wife of Faustulus and 
nurse of Romulus and Remus, to whom an 
annual sacrifice was offered on this spot. Here 
were also the chapel and grove of the Lares, 
and likewise a temple of Fortune built by Lu- 
cullus. Nearer the Circus Maximus was the 
Forum Boarium, so called from a brazen bull 
which stood in the centre. 

Pontibus et magno juncta est celeberrima Circo 
Area^ qucB posito de bove nariien habet. 

According to Pliny, this figure was brought to 
Rome from ^Egina. It probably served to de- 
note the business carried on in this Forum, 
which was, in fact, the sale of oxen, according 
to Livy. We learn from the same author, and 
from Pliny, that this part of Rome was the scene 
of a barbarous sacrifice, which was not entirelj^ 
abolished even in the latter's time. It consisted 
in burying alive two persons of each sex belong- 
ing to some hostile nation. We must now turn 
to the Capitoline hill, which contained the cita- 
del and fortress of Rome. Three ascents led 
to its summit from the Forum. 1st, By the 100 
steps of the Tarpeian rock, whicli wels proba- 
bly on the steepest side, where it overhangs the 
Tiber. 2d, The Clivus Capitolinus, which be- 
gan from the arch of Tiberius and the temple 
of Saturn, near the present hospital of the Con- 
solazione, and led to the citadel by a winding 
path. 3d, The Clivus Asyli, which, being less 
steep than the other two, was on that account 
the road by which the triumphant generals were 
borne in their cars to the Capitol. This ascent 
began at the arch of Septimius Severus, and 
from thence, winding to the left, passed near the 
ruined pillars of the temple of Concord as it 
is commonly but improperly called, and from 
thence led to the Intermontium. The Capito- 
line hill is said to have been previously called 
Saturnius, from the ancient city of Saturnia, of 
which it was the citadal. Afterwards it was 
known by the name of Mons Tai'peius ; and 
finally it obtained the appellation first mentioned, 
from the circumstance of a human head being 
discovered on its summit in making the founda- 
tions of the temple of Jupiter. It wels con- 
sidered as forming two summits, which, though 
considerably depressed, are yet sufiiciently ap- 
parent. That which looked to the south and 
to the Tiber, was the Tarpeian rock or citadel ; 
the other, which was properly the Capitol, faced 
the north and the Gluirinal. The space which 
was left between these two elevations was 
known by the name of Intermontium. It was 
on this part of the Capitoline mount that Ro- 
mulus established his Asylum, which appears 
to have been an enclosure formed by a thick 
plantation of trees and underwood, having a 



small temple within, consecrated to some un- 
known divinit}'." Cram. Anc. It. 

Forum Appi, I. a tov,n:i of Latium, on the 
Appia Via. Cic. 1, Att. 10.— Horat. 1, Sat. 3, 

V. 3. II. Augustum, a place at Rome. Ovid. 

Fast. 5, V. 552. III. Allieni, a towm of Ita- 
ly, now Ferrara. Tacit. Hist. 3, c. 6. IV. 

Aurelia, a town of Etruria, now Montalto. Cic. 

Cat. 1, c. 9. V. Claudii, another in Etruria, 

now Oriolo. VI. Cornelii, another, now 

Jmola, in the Pope's dominions. Plin. 3, c. 

"16. — Cic. Fam. 12, ep. 5. VII. Domitii, a 

touTi of Gaul, now Frontignan in Languedoc. 

VIII. Voconii, a to-wn of Gaul, now Gon- 

saron, between Antibes and Marseilles. Cic. 

Fam. 10, ep. 17. IX. Flaminii, a town of 

Umbria, now So.n Giovane. Plin. 3, c. 14. 

X. Gallorum, a town of Gaul Togata, now 

Castel Franco in the Bolognese. Cic. Fam. 
10, ep. 30. XI. Also a town of Venice, call- 
ed Forajuliensis urbs, now Friuli. Cic. Fam. 

12, ep. 26. XII. Julii, a town of Gallia Nar- 

bonensis, now Frejns in Provence. Cic. Fam. 
10, ep. 17. — Strab. 4. Many other places 



bore the name of Forum wherever there was a 
public market, or rather where the praetor held 
his court of justice, {forum vel conventus,) and 
thence they were called sometimes conventus as 
well a.sfora, into which provinces were general- 
ly divided under the administration of a sepa- 
rate governor. Cic. Ver. 2, c. 20, 1. 4, c. 48, 1. 
5, c. 11. — Vatin. 5, Fam. 3, ep. 6 and 8. — Attic. 
5, ep. 21. 

Fosi, a people of Germany contiguous to the 
Chenisci, in whose ruin they were involved 
when the victories of Germanicus extended the 
Roman empire beyond the Rhine. 

Fossa, I. the straits of Bonifacio, between 
Corsica and Sardinia, called also Tephros. 

Plin. 3, c. 6. II. Drusi, or Drusiani, a canal, 

eight miles in length, opened by Drusus from 
the Rhine to the Issel, below the separation of 
the Waal. [Vid. Flevo.] Suet. Claud. 1.— Ta- 
cit. Hist. 5, c. 23. III. Mariana, a canal cut 

by Marius from the Rhone to Marseilles during 
the Cimbrian war, and now called Galejon. 
Sometimes the word is used in the plural, Cos- 
see, as if more than one canal had been formed 
by Marius. Plin. 3, c. 4. — Strab. 4. — Mela, 
2, c. 5, 

Franci, a German people, or rather a gene- 
ric term for a confederation of certain Germanic 
tribes. Much labour has been spent in the at- 
tempt to ascertain the original seats of these 
warlike people, but they have all been more or 
less unsuccessful, except where directed to the 
examination of particular divisions of the league. 
There can be little doubt, however, that they 
all were branches of the greater Suevic nation, 
detached, perhaps, at different periods from the 
parent stock. They formed, moreover, the most 
important body of the German nation at the 
time that they first became known to the Ro- 
mans. At this time they dwelt between the 
Albis, Elbe, the Maenus, Mayne, the Rhine, and 
the Northern Ocean, in the modern countries 
of Franconia, Thuringia, Hesse Frisia, and 
Westphalia; or, according to the present po- 
litical division of Germany, the kingdoms of 
Hanover and Holland, a part of Prussia, Sax- 
ony, the smaller German states, a part of the 
kingdom of Bavaria, and the Grand Duchv of 
115 



FR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



FR 



the Rhine. This famous league appears to 
have been formed about the year two hundred 
and forty. The principal people of the Francic 
association were the CJierusci, by whom the Ro- 
man legions of Augustus were destroyed, to the 
disgrace of the name of Varus and the imperial 
arms ; the Chauci, the Catti, and the Sicambri. 
These resistless barbarians, in the reign of Gal- 
lienus. having forced the passage of the Rhine, 
the limits and bulwark of the empire, and cross- 
ing the last defences of the distant province of 
Hispania, the vainly trusted ramparts of the 
Pyrenees, brought devastation and slaughter 
into the defenceless region of Tarraconensis. 
From thence they crossed over into Africa, 
wiiere they renewed the barbarities to which 
ihey seemed to have been invariably excited in 
those ages by the Roman name, the appearance 
of Roman manners, and the recollection of the 
long Roman usurpations. But through all these 
manifestations of an unyielding character, and 
an uncompromising and savage independence. 
The Roman discipline still reached its end in 
subdumg, to a partial and temporary allegiance, 
such of these fierce people as remained in their 
seats in Germany. The emperor Probus re- 
moved them in great numbers to colonize the 
most distant regions of his dominions ; and a body 
established in conformity with this policy, near 
the Phasis on the Euxine Sea, attested the power 
which the Roman arms had acquired over the 
refractory Germans. From this settlement, how- 
ever, resulted consequences unexpected, and 
involving the fate of a great part of Europe for 
centuries afterwards. These barbarians, dis- 
contented with their situation in an unknown, 
distant, and inhospitable country, resolved to 
abandon it, and seizing on some vessels which 
they found in one of the ports on the Euxine, 
they ventured themselves upon the unknown 
seas. Through the Euxine, the Propontis, the 
Hellespont, the iEgean, and the Mediterra- 
nean, this bold colony, till then untried upon 
the waters, carrying the same irresistible fury 
in their way, arrived at the Straits of Gibraltar, 
the renowned Pillars of Hercules, and laimch- 
ing into the open ocean, returned in their frail 
barks, the first circumnavigators of Europe, to 
the lands of their countrymen, the coasts of Ba- 
tavia and Frisia, by the Rhine, the Ems, and 
the Elbe. After this memorable exploit, the 
northern barbarians became no less formidable 
by sea than by land to the countries of Europe ; 
and the reduction of a part of Gaul, the con- 
quest of Britain, and all the long series of the 
Danish and Norwegian piracies and victories, 
were the fruits of this bold and successful ad- 
venture. The leader under whom the Francs 
thus returned to their homes is one of those, 
who, in the obscurity of history, lay claim to 
the introduction of a new religion, and to the 
title of a supreme divinity, under the name of 
Odin among his countrymen. It is more pro- 
bable, however, that admiration of his achieve- 
ment first conferred upon him the title of a 
deity, long before worshipped in Germany, and 
that succeeding generations confounded the 
deity and the deified through ignorance and er- 
ror. An uneasy and precarious authority still 
marked the power of the Empire over the people 
of the north; but when the emperor Constan- 
tius invited them to cross the Rhine, and al- 
116 



lowed them, on condition of aiding against his 
enemies, to establish themselves within that bar- 
rier of the empire, the Francs and Allemani, re- 
gardful as little of the rights of his subjects as of 
tliose of his enemies, established themselves on 
the ruin of whole provinces and people in those 
regions, from which they extended themselves 
indefinitely over the empire, but from which they 
were never again to be removed. The Franci 
first settled themselves in a part of Brabant^ 
then called Toxandria, and originated there the 
empire of the French. Established in their 
new abodes, the Franks began to assume, in 
some degree, the manners and feelings of those 
among whom they had taken up their homes, 
and a gentler influence than that of conquest 
began to effect what attempted conquest had 
failed to do, in producing a gradual assimilation 
to the Roman character and a regard for the 
Roman name. Hence, on the invasion of Gaul 
by the Suevi, Vandali, Alani, and Burgundi- 
ones, the Franci were found on the side of Stili- 
cho and the Empire, resisting, though unsuccess- 
fully, the incursion which constituted, according 
to the opinion of Gibbon, " the fall of the western 
empire be3''ond the Alps." In the reign of the 
third Valentinian, the king of the Franks, who 
held his royal court at Dispargum, a village be- 
tween the modern Brussels and Louvain, and 
who still retained the characteristics of his Ger- 
man ancestry, courage and a fierce spirit of en- 
terprise and gain, resolved upon the conquest of 
the Belgic province of Gaul ; and under his con- 
duct his subjects eflected their first settlement 
in the country to which they were subsequently 
to transmit their name. The son of Clodion, 
Meroveus, began the dynasty and line of the 
Frank kings, which was confirmed a few years 
afterwards, about 486 A.D. by Clovis, " who 
in 30 years," says Gibbon, " accomplished the 
establishment of the French monarchy in Gaul. 
Twenty-five years afterwards," continues the 
same historian, " Justinian, yielding to the 
Franks the sovereignty of the countries beyond 
the Alps which they already possessed, absolved 
the provincials from their allegiance, and esta- 
blished on a more lawful, though not more solid 
foundation, the throne of the Merovingians." 
The name of Franci is of doubtful origin ; but 
the ferocious courage of the people to whom it 
belonged, their unquenchable fondness for liber- 
ty, and their success in maintaining it, have 
caused the general belief that this name was in- 
tended to designate its possessors as more pe- 
culiarly endued with these attributes than any 
of the people by whom they were environed. 
While the Franks continued a German people, 
though we hear of their chiefs, who exercised a 
kind of royal power, it was by no means of that 
nature which became afterwards the attribute of 
sovereignty and the inherent right of the sove- 
reign. Their laws were few and simple ; and 
those which formed the Salic and the Rippua- 
rian customary or prescriptive law, being, in the 
reign of Dagobert, collected and revised, were 
formed into a code, the basis and the constitu- 
tion of those mstitutions by which France was 
afterwards to be governed for almost a thousand 
years, and which still exclude the daughters of 
its monarchs from ihe throne. The Franks 
were converted to Christianity in the reign 
of Clovis, about the period of the establish- 



FU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GA 



ment of their rule in the ancient province of 
Gaul. 

Fregell^, a famous town of the Volsci in 
Italy, on the Liris, destroyed for revolting from 
the Romans. Ital. 5, v. 452. — Liv. 8, c. 22, 1. 
27, c. 10, &c. — Cic. Fam. 13, ep. 76. 

Frentani, a people of Samnite origin, but 
at an early period separated from the Sam- 
nites, and constituting a separate and inde- 
pendent state. The little country of the Fren- 
lani, though it may at one time have been more 
widely extended, was, in the time of Augustus, 
confined within the river Aternus, Pescara, and 
the Tifernus, Biferno ; the former of which se- 
parated them from the Marrucini, while the lat- 
ter flowed between their territory and Campa- 
nia. Its greatest length was on the Adriatic, 
from the shores of which it extended in the in- 
terior to the borders of Samnium. Strab. — Liv. 
9, 45.— App. Civ. Bell. 1, 39. 

Fretum, {the sea), is sometimes applied by 
way of eminence to the Sicilian Sea, or the 
straits of Messina. Ccbs. C. 1, c. 29. — Flor. 1, 
c. 26.— Cic. 3, Alt. 1. 

Frish, a German people, north of the mouth 
of the Rhine, and extending thence upon the 
coast across the Yssel and the canal of Drusus, 
to the mouth of the Amisea, Ems. The 
spreading of this canal and the lake which it 
formed ( Vid. Flevo), submerged a great portion 
of the country of the Prisons or Frisii, which 
now lies under the Zuyder Zee, or appears at its 
mouth in the form of the islands Texel, Vlie- 
land, Schelling, Ameland, Schiermonickoog, &c. 
What remains now constitutes the districts of 
Priesland, Overyssel, and Groningen. 

Frusino, now Prosinone, a small town of the 
Volsci, on one of the branches of the Liris. 
■Juv. 3, V. 223.— Z.W. 10, c. l.-Sil. 8, v. 399.— 
Cic. Alt. 11, ep. 4 and 13. 

FtJciNUs LACUs, a celebrated Italian lake in 
the territory of the Marsi, now Lago Fucino 
and Lago di Celano. The circumference of 
this lake wa,s not less than 40 miles, and els it 
had no visible outlet, the surrounding country 
was frequently inundated by its extensive sheet 
of water. It was believed, according to a vulgar 
tradition of the Romans, that the waters of the 
Pitonius did not mingle with those proper to 
the lake, but that, preserving a much greater 
degree of coolness, they passed under the bed 
of the lake, and emerging again, assumed the 
name of Aqua Marcia. Suetonius relates that 
Jalius Caesar and his successor had both in- 
tended to secure the neighbouring people from 
the effects of the inundations of this body of 
water, by effecting an artificial drain, but that 
they were deterred by the diflaculty and the ex- 
pense of the undertaking. "The emperor 
Claudius," proceeds that writer, " entered upon 
the task of draining the superfluous waters of 
the Fucine lake, not less from the expectation 
of gain than from the hope of glory, when seve- 
ral individuals proposed to furnish the means, 
on condition that they should receive the lands 
to be thus recovered. After eleven years of la- 
bour, although he had kept at the work no less 
than 30,000 men incessantly employed, he suc- 
ceeded with the greatest difficulty in excavating 
a canal of three miles in length through a moim- 
tain which he was obliged in part to dig 
through, and in part absolutely to level." Suet. 



Claud. 20. The lake, surrounded by a ridge 
of high mountains, is not more than 12 feet 
deep on an average. Plin. 36, c. 15. — Tacit. 
Ann. 12, c. 56. — Virg. jEn. 7, v. 759. 

FuLGiNATEs, a pcoplc of Umbria, whose chief 
town w^as Fulginum, now Poligno. Sit. It. 
8, V. 462.— Plin. 1, c. 4, 1. 3, c. 14. 

FuNDANUs, a lake near Fundi in Italy, which 
discharges itself into the Mediterranean. Tacit. 
Hist. 3, c. 69. 

Fundi, a town of Italy near Caieta, on the 
'Appian road, at the bottom of a small deep bay 
called Lacus Fundanus. This town was very 
early admitted to the privileges of Rome, except 
that the inhabitants were not admitted to the 
exercise of the right of suffrage, to which the 
Romans attached so much importance, and 
which they accorded with such reluctance to 
the neighbouring districts. This privilege was 
granted to them A. U. C. 564. The veterans 
of Augustus afterwards formed a colony in this 
place. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 34. — Liv. 8, c. 14 
and 19, 1. 38, c. ^6.— Plin. 3, c. b.—Cic. Rull. 
2, c. 2b.— Tacit. Ann. 4, c. b9.— Strab. 5. 

G. 

Gab.e, a city on the northern borders of Sog- 
diana, supposed by D'Anville to be the same 
as the present Kauos, and among the first places 
in which Alexander signalized himself in the 
countries of the east, beyond the well known 
regions of the Asiatic peninsula. 

Gabali, and Gabales, a people of Aquitania, 
near the borders of Narbonensis. They were 
subordinate to the Arverni, and dwelt in the 
country lying between the possessions of the 
Cadurci and the Velauni. Their chief town 
was Anderitum, now Anterieux, in Anvergne. 
Plin. 4, c. 19. 

Gabaza, the same as Gabae. Curt. 8, 4. 

Gabellus, now La Secchia, a river falling in 
a northern direction into the Po, opposite the 
Mincius. Plin. 3, c. 16. 

Gabh, a city of the Volsci, built by the kings 
of Alba, but now no longer in existence. It 
was taken by the artifice of Sextus, the son of 
Tarquin, who gained the confidence of the in- 
habitants by deserting to them, and pretending 
that his father had ill-treated him. Romulus 
and Remus were educated there, as it was the 
custom at that time to send there the young no- 
bility, and Juno was the chief deity of the place. 
The ruins of her famous temple are said to be 
still visible near a spot called VOsteria del 
Pantano. Before this place the banished Ca- 
millus retrieved the character of the Romans, 
who had seen their capital in the hands of the 
Barbarians, by the final and total defeat of the 
Gauls. The Cinctus Gabinus was a peculiar 
mode of folding the toga, which the Gabini are 
said 10 have adopted for the sake of giving more 
ease to their motions when suddenly summoned 
from a sacrifice to the field. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 
773, 1. 7, V. 612 and 6%2.—Liv. 5, c. 46, 1. 6, c. 
29, 1. 8, c. 9, 1. 10, c. l.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 709. 
— Plut. in Romul. 

Gades, a town of Bastica in Spain, on the 
Atlantic, now Cadiz, equally important and 
celebrated in antiquity and among the moderns. 
It was early founded by the Tyrians, in com- 
pliance, according to Strnbo, with the command 
117 



GA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GA 



of an oracle. The ancients place it on an isl- 
and connected by a causeway with the coast of 
Spain; but the probability is that alluvial 
changes have transformed the aspect of the 
coast in that region, and incorporated the former 
island with the great peninsula. The inhabit- 
ants retained to the last the characteristics of 
the people from whom they sprung, and their 
vessels were continually seen on every sea 
which the navigation of their times had been 
able to compass. " This island," says Strabo, 
" arrived at such a pitch of fortune, that though 
it is situated in the farther regions of the earth, 
it yet surpasses all in fame, and only yields to 
Rome." Five hundred Roman knights were a 
part of the stable population of this place ; a 
greater number than any of the towns of Italy 
could boast with the exception of Padua alone. 
The Greek name for this place was Gadira, but 
it was also called Cotynusa. The first was but 
the Greek form of the Phoenician name, which 
signified a hedge. After the accession of Oc- 
tavius to the imperial sceptre, with the title of 
Augustus, a colony was established at Gades, 
which took the name of Augusta Julia. On 
the same island the ancients placed the town of 
Erythea, sacred to Juno. Vid. Erythea. Ho- 
rat. 2, od. 2, v. 11.— 5*^^. 3, Sylv. 1, v. 183.— 
Uv. 21, c. 21, ]. 24, c. 49, 1. 26, c. 43.— PZw. 4, 
c. 23. — Strab. 3. — Cic. pro Gab. — Justin. 44, c. 
4.— Pans. 1, c. 3b.—Ptol. 2, c. i.—Paterc. 1, 
C.2. 

Gaditancjs sinus, an arm of the ocean setting 
into the coast of that part of Spain which is 
now Andalusia, and was called by the Romans 
Baetica. It was between the Straits of Gibral- 
tar, Fretum Herculeum, and the mouth of the 
Baetis, (the Gioadalquiver,) and is now called 
the Gulf of Cadiz. 

Gaditanum fretum, the same as Herculeum 
Fretum, or Straits of Gibraltar. 

G.ETULIA, a country of Libya, near the Ga- 
ramantes, which formed part of king Masinis- 
sa's kingdom. The country was the favourite 
retreat of wild beasts, and is now called Bildul- 
gerid. The people are called Berbers, and 
reside in the lofty regions of Atlas. Sallust. 
in Jug. — Sil. 3, v. 287. — Plin. 5, c. 4. 

Gal ATA, I. a town of Syria. II. An island 

near Sicily. III. A town of Sicily. IV. 

A mountain of Phocis. 

GALAT.E, the inhabitants of Galatia. Vid. 
Galaiia. 

Galatia, or Gallogr.ecia, a large country 
of Asia Minor, originally belonging to Phrygia, 
having Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the north ; 
Pontus and Cappadocia on the east ; on the 
south, Cappadocia and Phrygia ; and Phrygia 
alone upon the west. This name was given 
to the country when the Gauls, about 270 B. 
C, after the defeat of their leader Brennus in 
his designs against Rome, passing over into 
Bithynia, extorted from the king a territory for 
themselves and their posterity. The compound, 
Gallogrsecia, was also derived from this Gallic 
settlement, and from the Greeks, who, in the 
time of Alexander, established themselves in the 
same district of country. The two races must 
have kept themselves distinct for many genera- 
tions ; since, in the time of St. Paul, when the 
common dialect was Celtic, we find that apo!*tle 
addressing the Galatians m the language of 
118 



Greece, or rather, perhaps, as we should say, m 
Syro-Greek. The preaching of St. Paul was 
as much almost as three centuries after the 
Gallic invasion ; and their language, whatever 
it was, we find to have been still preserved for 
at least 200 years longer. The principal Gallic 
tribes which emigrated to these distant seats 
were the Tolistoboii, who fixed themselves on 
the borders of Phrygia ; the Trocmi, towards 
Cappadocia ; and the Tectosages, who occupied 
the country in the direction of Bithynia and 
Paphlagonia. Their chiefs or kings were called 
by the Greeks, Tetrarchs; and the sovereign 
power was divided in each district among a 
number of individuals, of whom no one was ab- 
solute or independent of the rest or of the coun- 
cil of nobles. These tetrarchs were long, in 
fact, dependants upon Rome ; under the favour, 
however, and protection of Pompey, Dejotarus, 
one of these tetrarchs, obtained the supremacy, 
and ruled as king alone. To him succeeded 
Amyntas, the creature of Antony, in whose 
reign, Galatia, his kingdom, was extended be- 
yond its natural limits, within those of Lycao- 
nia and Pisidia. This extensive region before 
the death of Amyntas was reduced by Augustus 
to a province of the empire. At a later period 
Galatia was divided into two provinces by The- 
odosius, the second Galatia being called Salu- 
taris. This was a permanent subdivision, con- 
fining Galatia within the ancient boundaries, 
beyond which they had been extended for a 
time over a part of Pontus and Paphlagonia. 
On the other hand, the Galatians had lost a 
portion of the territory that seemed naturally 
to belong to them, between the mountains and 
the mouth of the Halys. The principal town 
of Galatia was Ancyra, the capital of the Tec- 
tosages, the modern Angoura ; Pessinus, famous 
for the worship of Cybele, belonging to the 
same; Gordium, the ancient capital of the 
country before the arrival of the Gauls, on the 
Sangarius, and called, on its rebuilding in the 
time of Augustus, Juliopolis ; Tavium, belong- 
ing to the Trocmi, on the borders of Pontus, 
and Eccobriga, a Celtic name, on the Halys. 
The northern parts of Galatia towards Bithynia 
rose into mountains, which, with the name of 
Olympus, divided those countries. The prin- 
cipal rivers, the Sangarius and Halys, arose, the 
former on the borders of Phrygia, and traversed 
the western corner of Galatia, passing into Bi- 
thynia ; and the latter in Cappadocia and the 
mountains of Cilicia, watering the eastern sec- 
tion of Galatia, and passing from that country 
between Pontus and Paphlagonia to the sea. 
The part towards the source of the Sangarius 
belongs only to Galatia, which claimed the mid- 
dle course of the Halys, the boundary of the 
dominions of Croesus. The name of Gallograe- 
cia, which seems to indicate the origin of the 
people by whom this part of the peninsula was 
inhabited, has not been sufficient to allay the 
doubts which etymologists and others have en- 
tertained and excited in regard to the true deri- 
vation of the inhabitants of Galatia. It is ob- 
served, that the Treveri, whose language was 
said by St. Jerome to have been the same as 
that of the Galatians, were a German people, 
and that Treves was also a city of Germany, 

Galesus, now Galeso, a river of Calabria, 
flowing into the bay of Tarenium. The poets 



GA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GA 



have celebrated it for the shady groves in its 
neighbourhood, and the fine sheep which feed 
on its fertile banks, and whose fleeces were said 
to be rendered soft when they bathed in the 
stream. Martial. 2, ep. 43, 1. 4, ep. 28. — Virg. 
G. 4, V. l26.—Horat. 2, od. 6, v. 10. 

Galil^a, a part of Palestine, between the 
coast upon the west, Samaria upon the south, 
Batanea upon the east, and the mountains of 
Antilibanus upon the north. It was extremely 
fertile and populous ; and while inhabited by a 
Jewish population, was the dwelling-place of 
the tribes of Aser, Naphtali, part, of Dan, to- 
gether with Zebulon and Issactiar. The later 
Galilaeans are known to have been a mingled 
race of Assyrians and Hebrews, the former 
established in the country on its subjugation by 
the Babylonish kings, and the latter, descend- 
ants of such of the Jewish tribes as were ena- 
bled to conceal themselves in those regions, the 
property of which was thus transferred to 
stranger hands. After the extension of the 
first sect of Christians, and before that name 
was assumed by them, they were generally de- 
signated by the epithet of Galileean, bestowed 
on them in derision or contempt. The di- 
vision of Galilee was into Galilee Superior, to- 
wards Phoenicia and the mountains ; and Ga- 
lilee Inferior {the Lower), on the boundaries 
of Samaria. The former of these was called 
also Galilgea Gentium, or Galilee of the Gen- 
tiles, both on account of its greater remoteness 
from the limits of Judaea, and from the inter- 
mixture of the Tyrian people and manners, 
which from the time of king Solomon had be- 
gun to distinguish the people in the northern 
parts of his realm. Vid.Decapolis. 

Gallia, properly so called, was bounded on 
the east by the Rhine, Rhsetia, and the Alps, 
which separate it from Gallia Cisalpina; on the 
south by the Mediterranean and the Pyrenees ; 
on the west by the ocean ; and on the north by 
the ocean and the Rhine. Thus enclosed on 
every side by the natural barriers of the moun- 
tains, the ocean, the sea, and the Rhine, with 
a surface happily divided into mountains, and 
plains, and valleys, watered by fertilizing rivers ; 
Gaul was prepared by nature for the abode of 
a numerous and enterprising people. Few 
countries are so advantageously intersected with 
rivers. The Rhine receives the Mosella, 31o- 
selle; the Vahalis, or Waal, joins the Mosa, 
Meuse, or iVfes, which also receives the Scaldis, 
Scheldt, some distance from its mouth. On the 
western side of Gaul are the Sequana, Seine, 
with its tributaries, of which the chief one is 
the Matrona, Marnc; the Ligeris, Loire, which 
receives the Elaver, Alier ; the Garumna, Ga- 
ronne, with which the Duranius, Dordogne, 
unites near its mouth ; and the Aturus, Adour, 
near the base of the Pyrenees. On the south- 
ern or Mediterranean side is the Rhodanus, 
whose tributaries are the Arar, Saom, Isara, 
Isere, and Druentia, Durance. The principal 
mountains of Gaul are Jura, Vogesus, Vosges, 
and Cebenna, Cevennes. Gallia took its name 
from that of its inhabitants, whom the Romans 
called Galli, converting into a Latin word the 
term Celtae, by which the nation styled them- 
selves; or, perhaps, more properly the word 
Gael, whence the Latin Galli and the Greek 
VaXarai. Some etymologists have traced the 



name Celtae to KA???, " a horseman-," and Ga- 
latae, to yaXa, " milk," in reference to the com- 
plexion of the Gauls, thus referring both those 
appellations to the Greek. Properly the Celtae 
were the occupants of a third part of Gaul, ac- 
cording to the account of Caesar ; but Diodorus 
{lib. 5.) informs us, that all the nations from the 
Pyrenees to Scythia were called Gauls ; and we 
may gather from Strabo that a fourth part of the 
known world was possessed by the Celtae; and, 
in fact, the Germans, Gauls, and even the His- 
pani, were called Celtse by the Greeks. The 
Gauls, who had migrated from eastern regions 
towards the west, till they had arrived in the 
country called from them Gallia, having at 
length attained in this favoured region a degree 
of prosperity which justified a diminution of i^e 
population by migration to other lands, atlengtli 
determined on sending expeditions in the direc- 
tion of the land whence their race originally 
sprung. In the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, the 
Bituriges enjoyed an ascendency over the rest of 
the Gallic nations, and their king exercised re- 
gal authority over all Gaul. It was at this time 
that the disposition to migrate manifested itself. 
Accordingly, Ambigatus king of the Bituriges, 
gave his nephews Bellovesus and Sigovesus 
each command over a powerful body of adven- 
turers. The Gauls, under Sigovesus, took the 
direction of the Hercynian forest, which they 
passed through; they then penetrated Illyria, 
and established themselves in Pannonid. This 
branch of the Gauls, retaining the restless spirit 
which characterized the nation at large, at length 
formed a plan of further conquest, B. C. 281. 
They divided their army into three parts. One 
directed its efibrts against Macedonia, and re- 
turned to their homes after having defeated and 
slain Ptolemy Ceraunus, the Macedonian king. 
Another division laid waste ^tolia, and ad- 
vanced to plunder Delphi, under the conduct of 
Brennus (younger than the conqueror of Rome.) 
The Gauls were repulsed and almost extermi- 
nated, and that by the miraculous interposition of 
the deity in defence of his favoured shrine, ac- 
cording to the fictions of Grecian superstition. 
Thethirdbranch,commandedbyLeonoriusand 
Lutarius, advanced to Thrace, took Byzantium 
and Lysimachia, Hexamili ; and having cross- 
ed the Hellespont, successfully aided Nicome- 
des, king of Bithynia, agamst ZybcEa. They 
then subdued Ionia and ^olis, and at length 
established themselves near the Halys, giving 
name to Galatia or Gallograecia. Bellovesus 
took the route by the Alps to Italy, where he 
defeated, and expelled from their possessions, 
the Tuscans, who then occupied the country 
between the Alps and the Padus. Here he 
founded the city of Mediolanum, Milan. The 
Cenomani, who had accompanied him, settled 
in the vicinity of Brixia and Verona; the 
Salluvii, in the neighbourhood of the Ticinus. 
The Boii and Lingones, who, upon crossing 
the Alps, found all the country north of the 
Pa already seized upon, crossed the river, 
and driving before them not only the Etrus- 
cans, but also the Umbrians, established them- 
selves between the Po and the Appenines. 
The Senones pushed their conquest still far- 
ther, and occupied the region bordering on the 
Hadriatic, and extending from the Ufeus, Mon- 
. tone, near Ravenna, to the iEsis, Esino near 
119 



GA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GA 



Ancona. The northern part of Italy being now 
in the possession of Gallic tribes, was called Gal- 
lia ; and, for distinction's sake, the two Gauls 
were named, in reference to their situation this 
side or the other side of the Alps as regarded 
Rome, respectively, Gallia Cisalpina and Gal- 
lia Transalpina. In the year of Rome 364, 
A. C. 390, the Gauls under Brennus waged 
against the Romans the w'ar in which the city 
was sacked by the Barbarians. After the lapse 
of nearly three centuries, the Romans seized on 
a luvourable pretext for gaining a footing in 
Transalpine Gaul, and sent Fulvius Flaccus to 
aid the Massilians against their troublesome 
neighbours, the Salii. A few years later, A. U. 
C. 633, Fabius Maximus and Cn. Domitius 
JEnobarbus, having been sent to support the 
-^dui against the Allobroges and Arverni, sub- 
dued that part of Gaul which was at first styled 
Provincia, and afterwards Narbonensis, from 
Narbo, now Narbomie. It was surnamed Brac- 
cata, from a garment worn by the natives, as 
Celtic Gaul was called Comata, because the peo- 
ple wore long hair. The Roman possessions in 
Gaul were confined to the province, until the in- 
vasion of CsBsar, more than sixty years after the 
victories of Fabius. At the time that Gaul was 
conquered by Csesar, " three great nations, Cel- 
tae, Belgoe, and Aquitani, distinguished by lan- 
guage as by customs, divided among them the 
whole extent of Gaul." Vid. Celtica, Belgica, 
and Aquitania. " When Augustus gave laws 
to the conquests of his father, he introduced a 
division of Gaul, equally adapted to the progress 
of the legions, to the course of the rivers, and 
to the principal national distinctions, which had 
comprehended a hundred independent states. 
For one hundred and fifteen cities {civitabes) 
appear in the Notitia of Gaul, and it is well 
known that this appellation was applied not only 
to the capital towns, but to the whole territory 
of each state. The sea-coast of the Mediterra- 
nean, Langv£doCy Provence, Dauphine, received 
their provincial appellation from the colony of 
Narbonne. The government of Aquitania was 
extended from the Pyrenees to the Ligeris. 
The country between the Loire and the Seine 
was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed 
a new denomination from the celebrated colony 
of Lugdunum, or Lyons. The Belgic lay be- 
yond the Seine, and in more ancient times had 
been bounded only by the Rhine ; but a little 
before the age of Caesar, the Germans, abusing 
their superiority of valour, had occupied a con- 
siderable portion of the Belgic territory. The 
Roman conqueror very eagerly embraced so flat- 
tering a circumstance ; and the Gallic frontier 
of the Rhine, from Basle to Leyden, received 
the pompous names of Upper and Lower Ger- 
many. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, 
were the six provinces of Gaul ; the Narbon- 
nese, Aquiiaine, the Celtic or Lyonnese, the Bel- 
gic, and the two Germanys. " ( Gibbon.) In the 
new modelling of the empire by Constantine the 
Great, Gaul was appointed for the seat of one 
of the four Praefecti Praetorio. His title, Prae- 
fectus Prsetorio Galliarum ; his government ex- 
tending over the diocesses of Gaul, Spain, and 
Britain : this diocess being cast into seventeen 
provinces, that is to sav : 1 . Lugdunensis Prima ; 
2. — Secunda; 3. — Tertia; 4. — Cluarta; 5. 
Belgica Prima; 6. — Secunda: 7. — Germanial 
120 



Prima; 8. — Secunda; 9. — Narbonensis Prima; 
10. — Secunda; 11. — Aquitania Prima; 12. — 
Secunda ; 13. Novem-Populana ; 14. Viennen- 
sis; 15. Maxima Sequanorum; 16. Alpes 
Graise and Penninae; 17. Alpes Maritimae, "But 
long it stood not in this state. For within sixty 
years after the death of Constantine, during the 
reigns of Honorius and Theodosius, the Bur- 
gundians, a great and populous nation, were 
called in by Stilico, lieutenant to Honorius the 
western emperor, to keep the borders of the em- 
pire against the French, then ready, with some 
other of the barbarous nations, to invade the 
same. The Goths, not long after, by agreement 
with the same Honorius, leaving their hold in 
Italy, were vested in Gaul Narbonois, by the 
gift of that emperor, with a good part of Tar- 
raconensis, one of the provinces of Spain ; Aqui- 
tania being soon after added, in regard of the 
service they had done the empire in driving the 
Alani out of Spain, then likely to have made a 
great impression on that country. And in the 
reign of Valentinian the third, the French, 
who had long hovered on the banks of the Rhone, 
taking advantage of the distractions of the em- 
pire, ventured over the river ; first made them- 
selves masters of Belgic Gaul, and afterwards 
spread themselves over the rest of the provinces 
which had not been subdued by the Goths and 
Burgundians, excepting a small corner of Ar- 
morica, then possessed by the Britons." — {Hey- 
Im.) A. D. 582, the Burgundians yielded to 
the overwhelming force of the Franks, who fol- 
lowed up this success by an attack on the do- 
minions of the Goths. Under the pretence of 
exterminating the Arian heresy, Clovis, the 
christianiiero of the Franks declared war against 
the Goths, and slew wiih his own hand their 
king Alaric, at the decisive battle of Poictiers, 
which transferred the ample province of Aquita- 
nia to the dominion of the Franks, A. D. 508. 
At length, 25 years after the death of Clovis, in 
a treaty between Justinian and the sons of Clo- 
vis, the sovereignty of the countries beyond the 
Alps was yielded to the Franks, and thus was 
lawfully established the throne of the Merovin- 
gians, A. D. 536. The population of Gaul in 
the lime of Caesar, as well as the degree of civi- 
lization existing there, has given rise to much 
discussion. On the former point, if we take as 
the basis of a calculation the catalogue given by 
Caesar of the confederate Belgae, and make al- 
lowance for the women,children,slaves,and such 
as were incapable of bearing arms, we shall find 
the probable amount to be more than 30,000,000. 
D.PIume makes the number as low as 12,000,000; 
and Wallace, in his dissertation on the popula- 
tion of ancient nations, extends it to 49,000,000. 
A French critic, CI. Dulaure, has attempted to 
overthrow the received opinions in regard to the 
condition of ancient Gaul, by perverting the 
meaning of the terms civitas, urbs, and oppidum, 
as used by Cassar. He argues, that because civi- 
tas is used in reference to Tolosa, Carcasso, and 
Narbo, cities of the Gallic province, the same 
term would have been applied to Bibracta,Gena- 
bum, and Gergovia, if they had been entitled to 
rank as towns. But the cases are not parallel. 
Tolosa, &c., were colonies, and, as such, formed 
with their respective territories independent 
states ; enjoying, in a greater or less degree, the 
privileges of Roman citizens and therefore called 



GA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GA 



civitates, in reference to their citizens and the 
immunities they enjoyed. Had he spoken of 
those same places without reference to their in- 
habitants or their privileges, he would have styl- 
ed them urbes or oppida. When we go be- 
yond the province, we find him still using the 
appellation civitas, where the people are intend- 
ed, and not the place merely which they occu- 
pied. Thus we read civitas uEduorum, civi- 
tas Arvernorum ; but not civitas Bibracta, civi- 
tas Gergovia, because here the places are in- 
tended and not the people. In tne latter case, 
urds or oppidum are the proper terms. Nor 
are we to consider, with Dulaure, the Gauls of 
that period too rude to possess towns. In truth, 
their early migrations, which indicate an excess 
of population, lead us to conclude that they 
must have assembled in towns ; and we are jus- 
tified in this inference, by the fact, that before 
the Phoceeans had set the example of building 
cities to the Gauls, Bellovesus founded in Cisal- 
pine Gaul the city of Mediolanum. (See this 
question fully and ably discussed in the reply of 
de Golbery to Dulaure, entitled " Dissertatio de 
antiquis urbibus Galliarum.") Under the Low- 
er empire, " when the government of the church 
in Gaul had conformed itself to that of the 
state, the ecclesiastical provinces, if we ex- 
cept those formed by the elevation of a few cities 
to the dignity of metropolitan sees, correspond 
with the division of civil provinces. This con- 
formity extends even to the particular cantons of 
which each province was composed, the ancient 
civitates, or communities, corresponding for the 
most part with the ancient diocesses. D'A7i- 
ville. — Lieviaire. — Brotier, ad Tac. 1, p. 367, 
ed. in V2.—C(es. Bell. Gall.— Sir ab. A.—Senec. 
. 3, Nat. QucEst.—Cic. pro M. Font.—Liv. 5, 34, 
35, et seqq. 38, 16.—riin. 32, 1, b.—Pausan. 

10. — Polyb. 4. — Justin. 25, 2. Cisalpina. 

"It is well ascertained, that in times beyond 
which the annals of Italy do not reach, the 
whole of that rich country, which now bears 
ihe name of Lombardy, was possessed by the 
ancient and powerful nation of the Tuscans ; 
but that subsequently the numerous hordes 
which Gaul poured successively over the Alps 
into Italy, drove by degree the Tuscans from 
these fertile plains, and at last confined them 
within the narrow limits of Etruria. The 
Gauls, having securely established themselves 
in their new possessions, proceeded to make 
further inroads into various parts of Italy, and 
thus came into contact with the forces of Rome. 
More than two hundred years had elapsed from 
the time of their first invasion, when they total- 
ly defeated the Roman army on the banks of 
the Allia, and became masters of Rome itself 
The defence of the Capitol, and the exploits of 
Camillus, or rather, if Polybius be correct, the 
gold of the vanquished, and dangers which 
threatened the Gauls at home, preserved the 
state. From that time, the Gauls, though they 
continued by frequent incursions to threaten 
and even to ravage the territory of Rome, could 
make no impression on that power. Though 
leagued with the Samnites and Etruscans, they 
were almost always unsuccessful. Defeated at 
Sentinum in Umbria ; near the lake Vadimon 
in Etruria; and in a still more decisive action 
near the port of Telamo in the same province, 
they soon found themselves forced to contend 
Part l.~a 



not for conquest, but for existence. The same 
ill success, however, attended their efforts in 
their own territory. The progress of the Ro- 
man arms was irresistible •, ttie Gauls were beat- 
en back from the Adriatic to the Po, from the 
Po to the Alps, and soon beheld Roman colo- 
nies established and flourishing in many of the 
towns which had so lately been theirs. Not- 
withstanding these successive disasters, their 
spirit, though curbed, was still unsubdued ; and 
when the enterprise of Hannibal afforded them 
"an opportunity of retrieving their losses, and 
wreaking their vengeance on the foe, they ea- 
gerly embraced it. It is to their zealous co-ope- 
ration that Polybius ascribes in a great degree 
the primary success of that expedition. By the 
eificient aid which they afforded Hannibal, he 
was enabled to commence operations immedi- 
ately after he had set foot in Italy, and to follow- 
up his early success with promptitude and vi- 
gour. As long as that great commander main- 
tained his ground, and gave employment to all 
the forces of the enemy, the Gauls remained 
unmolested, and enjoyed their former freedom, 
without being much burdened by a war which 
was waged at a considerable distance from 
their borders. But when the tide of success 
had again changed in favour of Rome, and the 
defeat of Asdrubal, together with other disas- 
ters, had paralysed the efforts of Carthage, they 
once more saw their frontiers menaced ; Gaul 
still offered some resistance even after that hum- 
bled power had been obliged to sue for peace ; 
but it was weak and unavailing; and about 
twelvfe years after the termination of the second 
Punic war, it was brought under entire subjec- 
tion, and became a Roman province. Under 
this denomination it continaedto receive various 
accessions of territory, as the Romans extend- 
ed their dominion towards the Alps, till it com- 
prised the whole of that portion of Italy which 
lies between those mountains and the rivers 
Macra and Rubicon. It was sometimes known 
by the name of Gallia Togata, to distinguish it 
from Transalpine Gaul, to which the name of 
Gallia Comata was applied. Another frequent 
distinction is that of Ulterior and Citerior. Ac- 
cording to Polybius, the whole of the country 
which the Gauls held was included in the figure 
of a triangle, which had the Alps and Appe- 
nines for two of its sides, and the Adriatic, as 
far as the city of Sena Gallica, Sinigaglia, for 
the base. This is, however, but a rough sketch, 
which requires a more accurate delineation. 
The following limits will be found sufficiently 
correct to answer every purpose. The river Or- 
gus, Orca, will define the frontier of Cisalpine 
Gaul to the north-west as far as its junction 
with the Po, which river will then serve as a 
boundary on the side of Liguria, till it receives 
the Tidone on its right bank. Along this 
small stream we may trace the western limit, 
UT) to its source in the Appenines, and the 
southern along that chain to the river Rubico, 
Fiumesino, which falls into the Adriatic near 
Rimini. To the north, a line drawn nearly 
parallel with the Alps across the great Italian 
lakes will serve to separate Gaul from Rhae- 
tia and other Alpine districts. The Athesis, 
Adise, from the point where it meets that line, 
and subsequently the Po, will distinguish it 
on the east and south from Venetia; and the 
121 



GA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GA 



Adriatic will close the last side of this irregu- 
lar figure. The character which is given us of 
this portion of Italy by the writers of antiqui- 
ty is that of the most fertile and productive 
country imaginable. Polybius describes it as 
abounding in wine, corn, and every kind of 
grain. Innumerable herds of swine, both for 
public and private supply, were bred in its fo- 
rests ; and such was the abundance of provisions 
of every kind, that travellers when at an inn 
did not find it necessary to agree on the price of 
every article which they required, but paid so 
much for the whole amount of what was furnish- 
ed them ; and this charge at the highest did not 
exceed half a Roman as. As a proof of the 
richness of the country, Strabo remarks, that it 
surpassed all the rest of Italy in the number of 
large and opulent towns which it contained. 
The wool grown there was of the finest and 
softest quality ; and so abundant was the supply 
of wine, that the wooden vessels in which it was 
commonly stowed were of the size of houses. 
Lastly, Cicero styles it the flower of Italy, the 
support of the empire of the Roman people, the 
ornament of its dignity. The division of Cisal- 
pine Gaul into Transpadana and Cispadana is 
one which naturally suggests itself, and which it 
will be found convenient to adopt in the descrip- 
tion of that extensive province." The whole 
of this country was distributed among Gallic 
tribes, the principal of which, with their chief 
cities, are as follows: Salassi; city, Augusta. 
VrsBtoridi (Auoste) ; Orobii^Gomum, Bergamum 
{Como and Bergamo) ; Cenomani, Cremona, 
Brixia, Mantua (CrsmoTia Brescia, Mantoua) ; 
Lingones, Forum Allieni, Ravenna {Ferrara 
and Ravenna) ; Boii, Bononia, Faventia {Bo- 
logna, and Faenza) ; Anamani, Parma {Par- 
ma); Insubres,'M.edio\dinvim{Milan) ; Taurini, 
Augusta T aurinorum ( Turin.) Chief rivers ; 
Padus, with its tributaries, Ticinus, Addua, 
Mincius, Tanarus, and Trebia. Cramer. 

Gallicus Ager, was applied to the country 
between Picenum and Ariminum, whence the 
Galli Senones were banished, and which was 
divided among the Roman citizens, Liv. 23, c. 
14, 1. 39, c. 44.— Cic. Cat. 2.—Ccbs. Civ. 1, c. 

29. Sinus, a part of the Mediterranean on 

the coast of Gaul, now called the gulf of Ia/07is. 

Gallinaria sylva, a wood near Cumse in 
Italy, famous as being the retreat of robbers. 
It furnished the fleet with which Sextus Pom- 
pey afterwards infested the Mediterranean. It 
is now called Pineta di Castel Vulturno. Cram. 
—Juv. 3, V. 307. 

Gallipolis, a fortified town of the Salen- 
tines, on the Ionian Sea. 

Gallogr^cia. Vid. Galatia, 

Gangarid^, a people near the mouths of the 
Ganges. They were so powerful that Alexan- 
der did not dare to attack them. Some attribu- 
ted this to the weariness and indolence of his 
troops. They were placed by Valer. Flaccus 
among the deserts of Scythia. Justin. 12, c. 8. 
—Curt.. 9, c. 'H.— Virg. jEn. 3, v. 21.—Flacc. 
6, V. 67. 

Ganges, a large river of India, which emp- 
ties into the Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, 
and which was but little knovm to antiquity. 
" The upper part of its course, to the point where 
it changes from Scythian to Indian, by opening 
a passage through a chain of mountains, was 
122 



not known in geography till our days." (Z)'ilw- 
ville.) " The Ganges is called by the Hindoos. 
Padde, and Boor a Gonga^ or " the river," by 
way of eminence. This mighty river was long 
supposed to have its origin on the north side of 
the Himalah mountains, till the fact came to be 
doubted by Mr. Colebrook; in consequence of 
which Lieut. Webb being sent in 1808 by the 
Bengal government to explore its sources, ascer- 
tained that all the different streams above Hurd- 
war, which form the Ganges, rise on tlie south 
side of the snowy mountains. At some places 
above the confluence with the Jumna, the Gan- 
ges is fordable ; but its navigation is never in- 
terrupted. At a distance of 500 miles from the 
sea, the channel is thirty feet deep when the 
river is at its lowest. This depth it retains all 
the way to the sea, where, however, the settling 
of sand, by the neutralization of the current, 
from the meeting of the tide with the stream 
of the river, produces bars and shallows which 
prevent the entrance of large vessels. The 
accessions which the Ganges receives in the 
spring by the melting of the mountain snow are 
not considerable. At any great distance from 
the sources, as at Patna, any cause affecting 
these sources produces little comparative effect. 
About 200 miles from the sea, the Deltu of the 
Ganges commences by the dividing of the river. 
Two branches, the Cossimhazar and the Jel- 
linghy, are given off to the west. These unite 
to form the Hoogly, or Bhagirathy, on which 
the port of Calcutta is situated. It is the only 
branch commonly navigated by ships, and in 
some years it is not navigable for two or three 
months. The only secondary branch which is 
at all times navigable for boats, is the Chandah 
river. That part of the Delta which borders 
on the sea is composed of a labyrinth of creeks 
and rivers called the Sunderbunds, with nume- 
rous islands, covered with the profuse and rank 
vegetation called jungle, affording haunts to nu- 
merous tigers. These branches occupy an ex- 
tent of 200 miles along the shore. The Gan- 
ges is calculated to discharge in the dry season 
80,000 cubic feet of water in a second ; and, as 
its water has double the volume when at its 
height, and moves with a greater velocity in 
the proportion of five to three, it must at that 
time discharge 405,000 cubic feet. The ave- 
rage for the whole year is reckoned 180,000. 
That line of the Ganges which lies between 
Gangootre, or the source of the leading stream, 
and Sag or islduudi, below Calcutta, is held parti- 
cularly sacred. The main body, which goes 
east to join the Brahmapootra, is not regarded 
with equal veneration. Certain parts of the 
line now mentioned are esteemed more sacred 
than the rest, and are the resort of numerous 
pilgrims from great distances to perform their 
ablutions, and take up the water to be employed 
in their ceremonies. Wherever the river hap- 
pens to run from north to south, contrary to its 
general direction, it is considered as peculiarly 
holy. The places most superstitiously revered 
are the junctions of rivers, called Prayags, the 
principal of which is that of the Jumna with 
the Ganges at Allaliahad. The others are situ- 
ated among the mountains. Hurdwar, where 
the river escapes from the mountains, and Sagor 
island, at the mouth of the Hoogly, are also sa- 
cred. The water of the Ganges is esteemed 



OK 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GE 



for its medicinal virtues, and on that account 
drunk by Mahometans as well as Hindoos. In 
the British courts of justice, the water of the 
Ganges is used for swearing Hindoos, as the 
Koran is for Mahometans and the gospels for 
Christians. The waters of the Ganges are aug- 
mented by many successive tributaries, some of 
which are very large rivers. On its right bank 
it receives the Jumna, which has a previous 
course of 780 miles from the lower range of Hi- 
malah between the Sutledge and the Ganges, 
and falls into the latter at the fortress of Alla- 
habad. It is said to receive at the same point a 
rivulet under ground, on which account the 
junction is called, according to Tiefenthaler, 
TVebeni, or the confluence of three rivers. The 
Gogra, after forming the eastern boundary of 
the British district of Kemaoon, which it sepa- 
rates from the Goorkha territory, passes near 
Fizabad, and joins the Ganges in Berar, where 
it is called Dewa, being one of the longest tribu- 
taries which the Ganges receives. Malte-Brun. 

Garamantes, (sing. Garamas.^ a people in 
the interior parts of Africa. " Major Rennel 
and the learned Larcher consider Fezzan as the 
ancient country of the Garamantes; a point 
still, however, very doubtful." The name of 
the modern town Germ/ih resembles that of the 
ancient Garama. Malte-Brun. — Virg. jEn. 4, 
V. 198, 1. 6, V. l^b.—Uican. 4, v. ^U.—Strab. 2. 
—Plin. 5, c. S.—Sil. It. 1, v. 142, 1. 11, v. 181. 

Garganus mons, now St. Angela, a lofty 
mountain of Apulia, which advances in the 
form of a promontory into the Adriatic Sea. 
The promontory is now called Punta di Viesti, 
and extends between the bays of Rodi and Man- 
fredonia. One of the summits of this hill was 
called Drium, from which there issued a stream 
whose waters were of peculiar virtue in healing 
the disorders of cattle. Horace, Lucan, and 
Silius Italicus, have celebrated this spot in their 
verses. Virg. jEn. 11, v. 257. — Laican. 5, v, 
880. 

Gargaphia, a valley near Platsea, with a foun- 
tain of the same name, where Actgeon was torn 
to pieces by his dogs. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 156. 

Gargarus, (plur. a, orum,) a town and moun- 
tain of Troas, near mount Ida, famous for its 
fertility. Virg. G. 1, v. 103.— Macrob. 5, c. 20. 
—Strab. IZ.—Plin. 5, c. 30. 

Garumna, a river of Gaul, now called Ga- 
ronne, rising in the Pyrenean mountains, and 
separating Gallia Celtica from Aquitania. It 
falls into the Bay of Biscay, and has, by the per- 
severing labours of Lewis 14th, a communica- 
tion with the Mediterranean by the canal of 
Languedoc, carried upwards of 100 miles 
through hills and over valleys. Mela, 3, c. 2. 
According to the early division of the Gallic 
provinces, when Aquitania was extended to the 
Liger, this river formed the northern boundary 
of Novem Populana. In its course it watered 
the regions of the Garumni, who dwelt near 
its source, the Nitisbriges, the Bituriges, the 
Vibisci, and the Santones who occupied the 
lands from its mouth. This river, the third of 
the purely Gallic streams in magnitude and im- 
portance that empty into the ocean, received the 
tributary waters of almost all the many rivers 
and rivulets that drain the provinces of Guienne, 
Gascony, and Langicedoc. Below the mouth of 
the Dordogne, which discharges itself into the 



Garonne, 3. little to the north-west of Bour- 
deaux, this river expands itself, and assmnes 
the appearance of a bay. Here the name of 
Garonne is exchanged for that of Gironde, 
which is used to designate the present depart- 
ment on its southern bank. The canal royal 
connects the waters of the Garonne with the 
Mediterranean, uniting with that river above 
its junction with the Tarn, near the city of Toiu- 
louse, and passing through the departments of 
Upper Garonne, Aude, and Herault, the former 
'Languedoc. 

Gaugamela, a village near Arbela, beyond 
the Tigris, and between that river, the Buma- 
dus, and the Zabus, where Alexander obtained 
his second victory over Darius. Curt. 4, c. 9. 
—Strab. 2 and 16. 

Gaulus and Gauleon, I. an island in the 
Mediterranean Sea. It was contiguous and 
belonged to Melita {Malta), and is now called 

Goso. II. Another, on the coast of Crete 

towards Libya, called also Goso in modem geo- 
graphy. 

Gaurus, a m.ouiitain of Campania, famous for 
its wines. Lnican. 2, v. 667. — Sil. 12, v. 160. — 
Stat. 3, Sylv. 5, v. 99. 

Gaza, a town of Palestine upon the south, 
and towards the borders of Egypt. It was near 
the coast between Ascalon and Raphia, and, 
though destroyed by Alexander, it still occupies 
its former site, and holds its former name, hav- 
ing been rebuilt after its demolition. This was 
a prmcipal town of the Philistines, the gigantic 
offspring of Anak, and was never subdued by 
the Jews, who waged such unrelenting wars 
with that people, till the time of the Maccabees, 
According to Mela, the origin of this name, 
which was a Persian word signifying ^rras7^res, 
was derived from the circumstance of its being 
made the depository of a part of his treasures by 
Cambyses, the Persian king. Vossius, in his 
commentary upon the Latin geographer, suffi- 
ciently establishes, on the contrary, the Hebrew 
origin of that name. " The port," according to 
D'Anville,"formed a town at some distance, 
and a small stream runs a little beyond it." 
Mela, 1, 11. — Voss. ad Pomp. Mel. 

Gedrosia, a province of Persia, on the Ery- 
threan or Arabian Sea. Its northern boundary 
was formed by the Boetius mons, which sepa- 
rated it from Arachosia ; the Arbiti montes lay 
between it and the nearer India ; while on the 
west, its deserts were prolonged in those of Car- 
mania. A few rivers on the coast discharged 
their feeble waters into the ocean ; but towards 
the mountains, the desert and the desert sands 
disputed the empire of man. The armies of 
Semiramis and Cyrus were unable to contend 
with the inhospitaiity of these barren and burn- 
ing regions ; and that of Alexander, on its re- 
turn from India through the same steril tract, 
lost more than all its battles or its victories 
had cost or gained. The inhabitants who 
dwelt by the sea-side, were Ichthyophagi ; and 
the produce of the waves afforded them at once 
clothing and food. The modern name of the 
country is Mekran, and Pura, the ancient capi- 
tal towards the borders of Carmania, is the mo- 
dern Foreg or Purg. Am. — Strab. 

Gela, a town on the southern parts of Sici- 
ly, about 10 miles from the sea, which received 
its name from the Gelas. It was built by a 
123 



GE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GE 



Rhodian and Cretan colony, 713 years before 
the Christian era. After it had continued in ex- 
istence 404 years, Phintias, tyrant of Agrigen- 
tum, carried the inhabitants to Phintias, a town 
in the neighbourhood, which he had founded, 
and he employed the stones of Gela to beautify 
his own city. Phintias was also called Gela. 
The inhabitants were called Gelensis, Geloi, 
and Gelard. Virg. uE7b. 3, v. 702. — Paus. 3, 
c. 46. 

Gelones, and Geloni, a people of Scythia, 
inured from their youth to labour and fatigue. 
They painted themselves to appear more terri- 
ble in battle. They were descended from Ge- 
lonus, a son of Hercules. Virg. G. 2, v. 15. — 
jE,n. 8, V. 725. — Mela, 1, c. 1. — Claudian inRuf. 
1, V. 315. 

Gemoni^, a place at Rome where the car- 
cases of criminals were thrown. Suet. Tib. 
53 and 61.— Tacit. Hist. 3, c. 74. 

Genabum, a town of Celtic Gaul, upon the 
Liger, belonging to the Carnutes, Its modern 
name of Orleans it derived from the name of 
an ancient people the Aureliani. Cess. B. C. 
7, 3. — lAtcan. 1, 440. 

Geneva, an ancient, populous, and well-for- 
tified city, in the country of the Allobroges on 
the Rhone, as it passes from the Lacus Lema- 
nus, now Lake of Geneva, to form the boundary 
between France and Savoy. This town, of some 
repute and importance in the days of Caesar, 
was held by the Allobroges, on the borders of 
the Helvetii, the progenitors of the Swiss. It 
now belongs to the latter people, giving name 
to a very large canton. 

Genua, now Genoa, a celebrated tovim of Li- 
guria. The earliest accounts of this city, which 
does not appear to have been a very important 
place in the early ages of Roman history, repre- 
sent it as taking part with the Romans in the 
first Punic war, and as suffering the penalty of 
its adherence, being burnt to the ground by 
Mago, the Carthaginian general. It was rebuilt 
by the Romans, and continued, as the capital of 
Liguria, one of the 11 regions into which Au- 
gustus portioned Italy, to belong to them till the 
overthrow of their empire. About the year 600 
of our era, Genua was again laid waste, the 
Lombards, under their king Alboinus, having 
taken and pillaged it. The present town was 
built by Charlemagne, and rapidly increased in 
ambition and power. As an independent com- 
monwealth, it was at one time mistress of the 
greater part of the surrounding country of Ligu- 
ria, and of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, 
the Baleares, a part of Tuscany, and even the 
distant Constantinopolitan suburb of Pera. Its 
wars with Pisa and Venice, and the facilities 
which these and other internal dissentions of the 
Italians gave to foreign powers, deprived Genoa, 
first of her liberty, then of her independence, 
and lastly of her political existence. Liv. 21, 
c. 32, 1. 28, c. 46, 1. 30, c. 1. 

Genusus, now Semno, a river of Macedonia, 
falling into the Adriatic above Apollonia. Z/w- 
can. 5, V. 462. 

Geraneia. The loftiest summit of the Onaei 
montes, which extended south from the Cithae- 
ron mons across the territory of Megaris, was 
called Geraneia, and was said to afford the only 
passage through its defiles from the north of 
Greece to the Peloponnesus. It was fortified in 
124 



such a manner as to render it almost imprac- 
ticable. The modern name of this pEiss is Der- 
beni-vouni, and it continues to be the avenue for 
travellers into the Morea. Thucyd. 

Germania. The geographical description of 
Germany for any given era or age, will suffice 
for that age or that era alone ; and the Germa- 
ny of Tacitus is not the Germany of any other 
Roman geographer. In order, therefore, that 
the student may not be rather misled than in- 
structed in our account of this country, it will 
be necessary to consider it in various sections, 
as represented in one age by Caesar, in another 
by Strabo, in a third by Pliny ; and lastly, to 
compare all these with the relations of the most 
approved among modern geographers. A se- 
cond division, applicable more particularly to the 
moral and ethnographical description of Germa- 
ny, will require that the period anterior to the 
Roman occupation, that, during which the con- 
quering legions of the emperors established their 
name and precarious authority beyond the Rhine, 
and that which is generally designated as the 
dark or middle ages, be carefully separated and 
distinguished. Before attempting the compli- 
cated relation of the various divisions, both in 
regard to time and place, the various people and 
the infinite geographical changes, we may ob- 
serve, that the greatest extent of Germany was 
from the Rhine to the Vistula, and from the Da- 
nube to the Northern seas. This was Germany 
Proper, or the Greater Germany, called also 
Transrhenana, to distinguish it from the pro- 
vince of Belgic Gaul west of the Rhine, which, 
from the access of German tribes, and the pre- 
valence of German manners, &c., was called 
also Germany. This smaller province of that 
name was considered as altogether distinct from 
the country called from one of its tribes Germa- 
ny, and included in the above-defined bounda- 
ries ; and all that region which is now called 
Germany, south of the Danube, is to be omit- 
ted in the account of Germania Antiqua, of 
which it was not considered a part. Of the na- 
tural divisions of Germany formed by her moun- 
tains and rivers, the ancients have transmitted 
but confused accounts, demonstrating nothing 
more fully than the ignorance of their authors. 
Concerning the earliest inhabitants of Germa- 
ny, it is easy to form plausible theories ; and not 
a doubt remains that the first people of this vast 
region were Celts, who migrated long before the 
dawn of history from the regions of the Palus 
Maeotis towards the farthest west. ( Vid. Celta.) 
So far the Gauls and Germans had one origin, 
and so far they were one people ; but the Ger- 
mans of this race had long been superseded by 
the Teutonic tribes that in the ages of the Ro- 
man dominion occupied the country north of the 
Danube, and who were justly considered to be 
a separate people. In order to produce some- 
thinglike a regular succession in the account of 
the various settlements which we shall have to 
detail, we shall follow the progress of the early 
tribes that successively established themselves 
in Germany. The first branch from the Ta- 
nais and the Palus MsRotis appear to have fol- 
lowed the shores of the Baltic and the German 
seas ; a second population, crossing the Vistula 
and the Oder, fixed themselves for a period be- 
tween the latter river and the Elbe, in the coun- 
try now forming a large part of the kingdom of 



GE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GE 



Prussia. These were the Suevic family, which 
afterwards became and long continued the chief 
hive of the German migratory tribes. An early 
detachment that first crossed the Elbe and jour- 
neyed towards the borders of the Rhine, were 
the Semnones, supposed in antiquity the noblest 
of the Suevic race. To these succeeded the 
Casti, and the other people living towards the 
Rhine, from whence the Batavi and all the 
greater part of the inhabitants of Lower Ger- 
many. At the same time the Danish peninsula, 
then the Cimbric Chersonese from the name 
of its inhabitants, was peopled by races of men 
called Cimbri and Teutones; while the still 
more northern regions, by the gulfs of Finland 
and Bothnia, were held by the last of the Ger- 
manic people called Fenni or Finni, by some 
authors considered of Sarmatian, and not of 
Scythian or Germanic origin. Among innu- 
merable tribes of these people, all the country 
of ancient Germany was disiributed in such a 
manner as to make it almost impossible to de- 
fine their settlements, more particularly as 
these were subject to continual change. With- 
out attempting this, we shall pass to the differ- 
ent accounts and descriptions of Germany 
according to the most authentic writers of an- 
tiquity. The first among these, in point of 
time and authority, is Caesar in his Commenta- 
ries, in which we are only to understand the 
territory of the Suevi. Of these people the 
principal were the Semnones, between the 
Warta and the Oder; the Longobardi, border- 
ing upon the Semnones in the district of Bran- 
d^nburg ; the Angli and Varini, who, with five 
other tribes, formed one confederacy, and dwelt 
between the 'Elbe and the Suevic ocean. The 
Germania of Strabo, referring to the time of 
Augustus or Tiberius, included only the comi- 
try between the Rhine, the Dannie, and the 
Elie ; which last river, according to that geo- 
grapher, divided Germany into two parts, the 
known and the unknown. The Germany of 
Pomponius Mela extended but little beyond that 
of Strabo. In the works of Pliny we find, how- 
ever, all Sarmatia, nearly, included in the 
limits of Germany ; but this was at no time, 
politically considered, a recognised description. 
He divides all Germany between the Istevones, 
from the Rhine to the Elbe, and from the ocean 
to the springs of the Danube ; the Erminones, 
between the Danube and Vindilia ; the Vindili 
along the Baltic and the Cimbric Chersonese ; 
the Ingerones in Scania and Finningia; and 
the Peucini to the east of all these people as far 
as the Tanais and the Palus Mgeotis. The va- 
rious emigrations of the Suevic tribes, with par- 
ticular names which they imparted to the coun- 
tries in which they took up their abodes, soon 
reduced the name of Suevia to signify merely 
the country between the Elbe and the Vistula. 
It might be possible to give a catalogue of all 
the subdivisions of the two races of Cimbri and 
Suevi, the great division of the Teutonic or 
German family, but such a list would occupy 
too large a space ; and, though of great value in 
tracing the origin of nations, would not be re- 
quired to illustrate the writings of antiquity. 
For that purpose we must examine particularly 
the Germania Romana. The first conflict of the 
Romans with the people from beyond the Rhine, 
when Marius is reported to have made a tremen- 



dous slaughter of the united Cimbri and Teu- 
tones, was B. C. 114. The seats abandoned by 
these people were immediately occupied by the 
Suevi, who already began to extend themselves 
towards the west. For a long time no interfer- 
ence of the Germans with the Roman provinces 
gave them a place in Roman history, and we 
know little of their state. The conquests of 
Caesar, and the defeat of A riovistus. in no respect 
altered the common limits of Germany and the 
empire, though they repressed the advances of 
the Suevi, who had been urging forward towards 
the borders of the Rhine. The regions of Au- 
gustus and Tiberius saw the reduction of Ger- 
many to the form of a province ; divided, for the 
most part, among difierent people, as follows : 
the country between the Danube and the Rhine, 
as far as the Mayne, comprising the circle of 
Suabia, or the Grand Duchy, of Baden and the 
kingdom of Wirtemburg, was occupied by the 
Allemani and Marcomanni, of Suevic origin, 
but earl}'- separated and distinguished by their 
proper name. North of these, along the margin 
of the Rhine, were the Teucteri, the Usipii, and 
the Marsaci ; extending east towards the Ems, 
were found the Frisii, the Bructeri, the Batavi, 
the Chamavi, the Marsii, and the Sicambri, all 
included in the nation of the Istaevones, occu- 
pying the modern kingdom of Holland and the 
Grand Duchies of the Lower Rhine and Hesse 
Darmstadt. Still farther east the Chauci oc- 
cupied the region lying between the Ems and 
the Elbe, towards the mouths of those rivers or 
the kingdom of Hanover. Between the same 
rivers, but nearer to their rise, the Cherusci and 
Catti, possessed the countr}'- now divided among 
the petty states of central Germany. From the 
Elbe to the Oder, the Suevi, divided into many 
tribes, of which the Longobardi were the prin- 
cipal, held that which afterwards received the 
name oi Saxony, being themselves no longer the 
great parent stock of all the German races. 
" The entrance of the Cimbrian Chersonese, or 
that which corresponds with modern Holstein, 
contained two nations highly illustrious in their 
progress; on one side the Angli, on the other 
the Saxones. These last were bounded in their 
primitive state by the issue of the Elbe." The 
Burgundiones, Guthones, Semnones, and Lon- 
gobardi, were fixed in those parts which is now 
formed into Brandenburg. The people of that 
part of Germania which is now called Pomera.- 
nia, were Goths, Rugii, and Herules. Bohemia 
was occupied by the Boii, and the Cluadi were 
settled in Moravia. During the vicissitudes of 
the Roman empire which preceded and led to 
its fall, such was, for the most part, the distribu- 
tion of the countries of Germany. In the latter 
days of this exhausted power, new names, if not 
new people, began to figure in Germany, which 
loses the name for so long a time distinguishing 
it. The Franks, a league of all the principal 
German tribes known as the Chauci, Catti, Bruc- 
teri, &c. united with the Saxons of the Cher- 
sonese, and, pushing across the barriers of the 
Rhine, began to seek for settlements among the 
more civilized people of the Roman provinces. 
Gaul, Hispania, and even the shores of Africa, 
became the prey of these barbarians. Yet these 
were not the most formidable enemies that Ger- 
many sent forth in the weakness of the Roman 
power to revensre the wrongs and injuries that it 
125 



GE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GL 



had sustained from it in the days of its prosperi- 
ty and strength. The Lombards, expelled from 
their seats by yet more savage tribes, advanced 
towards the empire ; and while a Lombard na- 
tion was established in Italy, so much of Ger- 
many as had been held by them before now took 
the name of the Vandili. The same people 
spread themselves over Pomerania, when the 
more ancient inhabitants, the Goths and Heruli, 
passed also to the invasion of the empire. From 
the northern regions (now Meckle^iburg,) the 
Vandals, in formidable numbers, threatened the 
defenceless provinces that had vainly trusted to 
the name and protection of the Roman arms ; 
and their comitry, thus abandoned, was soon 
occupied by the Vendili or Wends, who were 
preparing a powerful empire in the north. Such 
were the changes that were altering the political 
geography of Germany while the Franks were 
engaged in the subjugation of Gaul and the 
establishment of a German empire upon the 
Roman side of the Rhme, now no longer a pro- 
tection against the inroads of the barbarians. 
( Vid. Franci.) The manners of the Germans 
were various, according to the tribe and the 
times ; they were, however, all a warlike people, 
and distinguished alike for the virtues and the 
blemishes of uncivilized life. Their religion the 
Romans endeavoured to interpret according to 
the notions of their own mythology ; but very 
little resemblance existed, in fact, between the 
rude worship of Germany and the refined reli- 
gion of Rome. In the middle ages the worship 
of Odin prevailed, and of this religion were 
those barbarians who established the Saxon do- 
minion in Britain. In the cosmography of Hey- 
lin we find the following remarks upon the ori- 
gin of the name: "Germany was thus called 
first by the Romans, (as some conceive,) who, 
seeing the people both in customs, speech, and 
course of life, so like those of Gallia, called them 
brothers to the Gauls. And of this mind is 
Strabo, who, speaking of the great resemblance 
which v/as between those nations, concludes that 
the Romans did, with very good reason, call 
them Germans ; intending to signify that they 
were brethren of the Gauls. But this is to be 
understood of those people only which dwelt 
next to Gaul, it being very well observed by Ta- 
citus, that Germany was at first nationis non 
gentis novien, the name of some nations only 
and not of all the country. Others will have the 
name to be merely Dutch, deriving it fromGer, 
which signified all ; and the word man signi- 
fying in that language as in ours." Bochart 
refers the name also to Ger, which he derives 
from the ancient Gallic, signifying guerre, or 
war, and supposes that this name of warrior 
was given to them by the Gauls. The princi- 
pal rivers of ancient Germany, between its 
three great boundaries, the Danubius, the Rhe- 
nus, and the Vistula, were the Amisia, Ems, 
which passed through the country of the Fran- 
cic league; the Visurgis, (or Weser,) which 
arose in the country of the Cherusci, and, to- 
wards its mouth, divided the Chauci into the 
Greater and the Less; and the Albis, Elbe, di- 
viding the Suevi from the people of Cimbric 
or Cimbro-Saxon origin, and emptying on the 
western side of the Cimbric Chersonese. All 
these rivers flowed into the northern ocean. 
East of the Albis, the Viadrus, Oder, after 
126 



draining in several branches the Suevic coun» 
tries, poured its waters into the Sinus Codanus, 
now Baltic Sea. Of all these rivers, the 
chief tributaries were the Menus, Mayne, be- 
longing to the Rhine, into which it flows near 
Meritz ; the Lupia, Lippe, which discharges 
itself into the same river farther north; and 
the Sala, which belongs to Thuringia, and 
empties into the Elbe. A striking feature in 
the geography of Germany is the mountains, 
which, in antiquity, under the name of Hercy- 
nian, and, in modern times, with the appellation 
of the Hartz, extend with the woods of the same 
name. over the greater part of the south-west of 
Germany. Vid. Hercynii Monies. 

Gerra, a town of Arabia, " on a little 'gulf, 
making a creek of the Sinus Persicus. A city 
enriched by the commerce of the perfumes 
brought from the Sabaean country, sent up the 
Euphrates to Thapsacus and across the desert 
to Petra, The city, for the construction of 
whose houses and ramparts stones of salt were 
used, appears to be represented by that now 
named el Katif." D'Anville. 

Gerrh^, a people of Scythia,inwhose coun- 
try the Borysthenes rises. The kings of Scy- 
thia were generally buried in their territories. 
Herodot. 4, c. 71. 

Gerus, and Gerrhus, a river of Scythia. Id. 
4, c. 56. 

Geronthr.5;, a town of Laconia, where a 
yearly festival, called Geronthraa, was observed 
in honour of Mars. Pans. Lacon. This town 
belonged to the Eleutherolacones, and was of 
great antiquity. 

Gerunium, a fortified place in Apulia, on the 
borders of the Frentani, a few miles from Luce- 
ria upon the north. It suffered greatly in the 
wars of Hannibal, being laid waste by that ge- 
neral after his campaign against the temporizing 
Fabius. The Carthaginians wintered within 
its walls, and converted its public buildings into 
store-houses for provisions, &c. Polyb. — Liv. 
22, 18. 

Gessoriacum, the name of Boulogne before 
it assumed that of Bononia, from which its mo- 
dern appellation is derived. 

Get^, a people of European Scythia, near 
the Daci. Ovid, who was banished in their 
country, describes them as a savage and warlike 
nation. The word Geticus is frequently used 
for Thracian. Ovid, de Pont. T^rist. 5, el. 7, 
v. 111.— Strab. 1 .—Stat. 2. Sylv. 2, v. 61, 1. 
3, s. 1, V. 17. — lAican.2, v. 54, 1. 3, v. 95. 
Though the Getse were unquestionably Goths, 
and though the whole extensive people who, as 
Gotthi, or under analogous names, invaded the 
Empire, were also designated sometimes by the 
term Getse, yet, in the more limited application 
of the name, the latter were only the inhabi- 
tants of the more eastern parts of Dacia between 
the Danubius and the Danaster. 

Getulia, Vid. Gceiulia. 

Glaucus sinus, " a gulf which confines Ly- 
ciaon the side of Caria,"nowthe Gulf of Maori. 
At the head of this bay stood the ancient town of 
Telmissus, the modern Mzcri, whence the name 
Telmissus, often applied to the Sinus. D'Anville, 

Glissas, a town of Bceotia, mentioned by 
Homer. It was situated on the borders of the 
Aonius Campus, on mount Hypatus. 

Glota, the ancient name of the Clyde. 



GO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GO 



Glyppia. " This is apparently the fortress 
called by Polybius Glympes, and which he de- 
scribes as being in the northern part of Laco- 
nia, on the Argive frontier. It has been suc- 
ceeded by the little town of Cosmopolis, which 
is also the name of a district of modem Laco- 
nia." Cram. — Polyb. 4. 

Gnatia. Vid. Egnatia. 

Gnossus, a famous city of Crete, the resi- 
dence of king Minos. This city was situated 
on the small river Caeratus, now Carter o, which 
IS said to have been the first name of this town. 
It derived its early importance and splendour 
from king Minos, who made it the capital of 
his kingdom; and it is celebrated in the le- 
gends of fable for the famous labyrinth of Daeda- 
lus, which contained the Minotaur said to have 
Deen in its neighbourhood. Long Candia is the 
modern name applied to the site of the ancient 
Gnossus. Strab, 10,476.— 7Z. Z. 490— Cmm. 

GoMPm, a town in Thessaly, situated on the 
Peneus, was a place of great strength and im- 
portance, as commanding the passes from Epi- 
rus into Thessaly. Its modern name is Sta- 
gous, according to Meletius ; but Pouqueville 
makes it Cleisoura. Cram. 

GoNNi, and Gonocondylos, a town of Thes- 
saly at the entrance iuto Tempe. Liv. 36, c. 
10, 1. 43, c. 54.—Strab. 4. 

G0RDI.E1, mountains in Armenia, where the 
Tigris rises, supposed to be the Ararat of scrip- 
ture. 

GoRDiuM, a town of Phrygia, in that part 
which was afterwards called Galatia, on the 
Sangarius. duiutus Curtius places it at equal 
distance from the Euxine and Cilician seas ; 
but his account is not to be followed. D An- 
ville accords with Ptolemy, and assigns as the 
site of this city a spot removed from the southern 
coast about eighty leagues, and from the north- 
ern only twent)'-five. In the reigns of Gordius, 
from whom it took its name, and of his succes- 
sor Midas, Gordium was the capital of Phry- 
gia ; and the events which signalized the era of 
those princes, according to the poets, and to 
those historians who followed their inventions, 
have made the city among the most noted of 
antiquity. {Vid. Gordius and Midas.) In 
more historical years this city had lost all its 
splendour and magnificence ; but, being rebuilt 
by order of Augustus, it assumed the name of 
Juliopolis, and for some time it was compara- 
tively flourishing. In the time, however, of 
Justinian, it again required the imperial patron- 
age. It is not possible now to define with ac- 
curacy its site. Justin. 11, c. 7. — Liv. 38, c. 
18.— Curt. 3, c. 1. 

GoRGO, the capital of the Euthalites, a tribe 
of the Chorasmii. Its present name of Urg- 
henz is the same, says DAnville, as the Cor- 
cany of the eastern geographers. 

GoRTYN, GoRTYs, and GoRTYNA, a principal 
town in the island of Crete. As second in im- 
portance and power to Cnossus, the chief town 
on the island, Gortyna, ambitious of the high- 
est place, was continually engaged in contests 
with her rival. It was situated off the coast 
of the Libyan Sea, on the river Lethe, about 
nine miles, having at that distance Lebena and 
Metallum, its ports. In antiquity Gortjma 
might vie with any of the cities of Greece, its 
traditionary founder having been Gortys, the 



son of Tegeates, or, as the Cretar^s themselves 
asserted, of Rhadamanihus. It was, however, 
most probably, like the other cities of Greece 
and Italy which bore the name of Gortyna, of 
Pelasgic origin. Modern travellers have been 
induced, from an examination of Gortyna's very 
few remains, to fix there the celebrated Laby- 
rinth ; but the proof is not sufliciently strong 
against the concurrent evidence of all antiquity. 
In the Peloponnesian war this city took part 
against the Lacedaemonians. The site and 
'ruins of this ancient town are now denominated 
Metropoli. 

GoRTYNiA, a town of Arcadia in Pelopoime- 
sus. Paus. 8j c. 28. 

GoTTHi. The most ancient records and tra- 
ditions relating to the Goths, reler their first 
settlement in Europe to Scandinavia, where 
their name is extant still in that of the exten- 
sive tract of country between Siceden Proper 
and the kingdom of Noncay. This region, se- 
parated by a narrow strait from the islands of 
Denmark^ and opposite to Rugen and the coast 
of Pomeraiiia on the narrowest part of the Bal- 
tic, is called Gothland, and was most probably 
the first established seats of the Gotthi in Eu- 
rope. Originally one extensive nation, the 
Gotthi and the Vandali, in the progress of years, 
became divided, as a consequence of numbers 
and of frequent migration. Each people, how- 
ever upon this separation, appeared in subse- 
quent history sufiicient for the conduct of the 
most adventurous enterprises and the" subver- 
sion of the best established empires. The 
Goths themselves were subdivided into Ostro 
Goths and Visi Goths, referring to their relative 
geographical situation most probably, after the 
passage of the Baltic Sea ; besides which were 
the Gepidae, who also belonged, as may be ga- 
thered from a comparison of manners and a 
collation of records, to this division of the Scan- 
dinavian horde. The Lombards, Burgundians, 
and Herulians, are merely to be mentioned as 
of Gothic blood •, in Europe they made them- 
selves known as a distinct people, or connected 
at most with the Vandalic stem. From the 
shores of the Baltic the first migration of the 
Goths conducted them through the savage region 
that intervened, to the cotuitries lying on the 
Euxine Sea. From this sea they next opened 
themselves a passage to the southern branch of 
the Borysthenes, supposed to be the Prypee of 
the present day, their numbers increasing at 
each march by the Venedi and Bastarnae, who 
united with them in their devastations, allured 
by their success or terrified by their irresistible 
power. The province of Dacia, reduced but 
not subdued by the arms of Trajan, offered lit- 
tle resistance to the entrance of the Goths, now 
fixed on its confines ; and through this unre- 
sisting country, abandoning the Ukraine, they 
passed, in the reign of the Roman emperor De- 
cius, into the second Mopsia, a civilized province 
and colony of the Empire. The events of this 
war exaltedthe character of the Barbarians, and 
struck a fatal blow to the vanity of Rome ; the 
Goths advanced as far as Thrace, defeated the 
emperor in person on their way, and secured an 
introduction within the now defenceless limits 
of the Empire at any future time. Their re- 
moval, on this occasion, was only effected by the 
pa\Tnent of tribute, which Rome, still boasting 
127 



GO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GO 



her empire over the world, was content to pay 
lo an undisciplined and half-armed tribe of bar- 
barians. Such was the result of the first de- 
scent of the Goths upon the outposts of the Ro- 
man dominion, A. D. 252. Diverted from the 
western territory of the Empire, the Goths next 
turned to the no less inviting regions of the east. 
They seized on the Bosphorus, and, passing 
over into Asia, they acquired an incalculable 
booty, effecting the subjugation of all the coun- 
try through which they passed, and which of- 
fered scarcely a show of resistance to their 
dreaded arms. This is recorded as the first 
naval expedition of the Goths. A second suc- 
ceeded, and a third, which brought these north- 
ern barbarians before the Long Walls of Athens, 
the once famous Piraeus. The whole of Greece 
on the main land was ravaged in this descent of 
the Goths, who pursued their way to the borders 
of the sea, beyond which they could behold the 
coasts of Italy, which had not yet been violated 
by the foot of a barbarian. Here they paused 
in their career of devastation and victory ; num- 
bers were induced to submit to the authority of 
the Roman empire, and incorporated with the 
soldiers of the emperor. The rest returned, 
with various fortune and adventures, to their 
seats in the Ukrai7ie and on the borders of the 
Euxine Sea. Innumerable wars succeeded the 
period of this great expedition of the Goths, in 
which the Romans were not always sufferers ; 
yet the Gothic power steadily increased till the 
appearance of an enemy as formidable as they 
themselves had been when they first broke the 
bounds of their native wilderness, who threat- 
ened war and ruin no less to the half civilized 
people who had preceded them in their march 
towards the rich capital of the world, than to that 
capital itself The kingdom of the Ostro Goths 
then extended from the Baltic to the Euxine Sea, 
and its throne was occupied by Hermanric, one 
of their greatest princes, who ruled over an im- 
mense number of tribes. The Visi Goths, at the 
same time, occupied the banks of the Niester and 
the German side of the Danubius. Before the 
valour and ferocity of the Huns and Alani, these 
once dreaded conquerors were either prostrated 
or put to flight ; and the barbarians, who had 
so often sent terror to the gates of Rome, now 
begged its clemency, and sued to be taken under 
its protection and received into the Empire, 
The emperorValens was then upon the throne ; 
and in his reign the Visi Goths were transport- 
ed as tributaries and subjects within the an- 
cient limits, which had not yet receded from the 
Danube and the Rhine. Established in Moe- 
sia, and for a time beyond the fear of the Sar- 
matians, the Goths soon began to forget their 
allegiance, and to desire, if not to enjoy, their 
old independence. The next Gothic war was 
conducted, therefore, within theboundaries over 
which the Roman emperor pretended to rule ; 
and the conflict was no longer for the integrity 
of the empire, but for its existence. Huns, 
Alani, Ostro Goths, and Visi Goths, united in 
this war ; but the death of the Gothic leader, 
and the accession of Theodosius in the east, 
preserved yet a little longer the Empire and its 
name. For some time after this, the principal 
seats of the Gothic tribes were in Thrace and 
on the coast of Asia Minor, in which, in some 
measure,' they resided as the stipendiaries of the 
128 



emperor. The reigns of the successors of The- 
odosius were coeval with the elevation of Alaric 
to the throne of the Visi Goths ; and the wars 
of that people were renewed with a spirit which 
proved that they had not yet accustomed them- 
selves to look upon the Romans as other than 
their enemies, and that they considered them 
still as legitimate a prey as when they first 
broke into their empire from the regions of the 
north. In the year 410 the city of Rome fell 
into the hands of these long-aspiring warriors; 
and all Italy, that had so long been the privi- 
leged destroyer of nations, experienced the retri- 
butive justice which had for ages been invoked 
against her ambition. But no permanent em- 
pire succeeded the occupation of the Goths, and 
the death of Alaric terminated their sovereignty 
in Italy. Very soon afterwards, however, they 
obtained a less illustrious dominion in Gaul, in 
which they occupied the whole of the 2d Aqui- 
taine on the sea-coast from the Garomie to the 
Loire. From this comparatively narrow terri- 
tory, and which, moreover, they enjoyed but as 
subjects of Rome, the Goths extended them- 
selves over all the other southern parts of Gaul, 
and crossing the Pyrenees, established a new 
monarchy in Spain. We have thus tiaced 
the progress of the Visi Goths to their final set- 
tlement in that part of the Empire which they 
were to hold as a permanent possession; they 
here become the progenitors of the modern 
Spaniards, and require no longer notice from 
the historian of antiquity. The fortunes and 
fate of the other races were not yet decided ; but 
a branch of one of them, the Heruli, was des- 
tined very soon afterwards to put an end to the 
still remaining name and office of imperial 
power, and to fix a Barbarian throne in the seat 
of universal empire. The reign of Odoacer, 
however, and his Heruli, can hardly be placed 
to the account of the Goths, so long had that 
branch been severed from the original stem. 
When the Visi Goths became satisfied with the 
possession ofHispania, another numerous horde, 
the Ostro Goths, still roamed without dominion 
equal to their courage and their wants. The 
last years of the reign of Odoacer embroiled 
him with the leader of those still craving ma- 
rauders ; and the overthrow of the Heruli, and 
of the first Barbarian empire in Italy, was suc- 
ceeded by the reign of Theodoric and the do- 
minion of the Ostro Goths, A. D. 493. About 
60 years afterwards the eunuch Narses, at the 
head of the forces of Justin emperor of the east, 
put an end to the Gothic usurpation in Italy. 
The above account is furnished by the accredit- 
ed authority of history ; but another inquiry 
concerning the origin of the Goths proceeds 
upon other data, and innumerable theories sup- 
ply the place of authenticated fact. Two only 
seemdeservinghere ofparticular notice ; the first 
involving the question, " were the Goths Scy- 
thians T' and the second, that of their affinity 
with the Germans. It seems, the better argu- 
ments are brought to prove that, in the early 
settlement of Europe, when a second migration 
from the east impelled the Celtse beyond the 
Danube and the Rhine, a division of the great 
Teutonic horde occurred ; that a large portion 
directed itself beyond the Sinus Codanus to- 
wards the wild countries of the present Sweden 
and Norway, while the rest proceeded towards 



GR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GR 



the centre of Europe. These latter people were 
the Germans ; the former were the Scandina- 
vians, who, at a later period recrossed the golf 
or sea, and, with the name of Goths, &c. pos- 
sessed themselves of the abodes which the Ger- 
mans, pressing on towards the limits of the em- 
pire, were abandoning almost from day to day. 

Gr.s:cia. " It is universally acknowledged 
that the name of Hellas, which afterwards serv- 
ed to designate the whole of what we now call 
Greece, wels originally applied only to aparticu- 
ar district of Thessaly. At that early period, ' 
as we are assured by Thucydides, the common 
denomination of Hellenes had not yet been re- 
ceived in that wide acceptation which was after- 
wards attached to it, but each separate district 
enjoyed its distinctive appellation, derived mostly 
from the clan by which it was held, or from the 
chieftain who was regarded as the parent of the 
race. In proof of this assertion the historian 
appeals to Homer, who, though much posterior 
to the siege of Troy, never applies a common 
term to the Greeks in general, but calls them 
Danai, Argivi, and Achsei. The opinion thus 
advanced by Thucydides finds support in Apol- 
lodorus, who states, that when Homer mentions 
the Hellenes, we must understand him as refer- 
ring to a people who occupied a particular dis- 
trict in Thessaly. The same writer observes, 
that it is only from the time of Hesiod and Ar- 
chilochus that we hear of the Panhellenes. 
Scylax, whose age is disputed, but of whom we 
may safely affirm that he wrote aboitt the time 
of the Peloponnesian war, includes under Hellas 
all the country situated south of the Ambracian 
gulf and the Peneus. Herodotus extends its 
limits still further north, by taking in Threspo- 
tia, or at least that part of it which is south of 
the river Acheron. But it is more usual to ex- 
clude Epirus from Grsscia Propria, and to place 
its north-western extremity at Ambracia,onthe 
Ionian Sea, while mount Homole, near the 
mouth of the Peneus, was looked upon as form- 
ing its boundar}'' on the opposite side. In Gree- 
cia Propria were the following divisions : Thes- 
salia, Acarnania and its islands, iEtolia and 
Athamania, Doris, Locris, and Euboea, Phocis, 
Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. The Pelopon- 
nesus and its provinces, together with the adja- 
cent islands, form the third and last portion of 
the whole. The northern boundary of the Gre- 
cian continent is formed by the great mountain- 
chain, which, branching off from the Julian 
Alps near the head of the Adriatic, traverses 
those extensive regions kno-v^Ti to the ancients 
under the names of Illyria, Dardania, Paeonia, 
and Thrace, and terminates at the Black Sea. 
The principal summits of this central ridge are 
celebrated as the Scardus, Orbelus, Rhodope, 
and Hsemus of antiquity, and constitute some 
of the highest land of the European contment. 
Of the seas which encompass Greece, that on 
the western side was called Ionium Mare ; the 
portion of it which at present bears the name of 
Adriatic, or gulf of Venice, being termed by the 
Greeks lonius Sinus. This was reckoned to 
commence from the Acroceraunian promontory 
on the coast of Epirus, and the lapygian pro- 
montory on that of Italy. On the south-east 
the Peloponnesus was bounded by the Cretan 
Sea, which divided it from the celebrated island 
whence its name was derived. St!febo, in his 

Part I.— R 



view of Greece, Mhich is peculiar to himseli, di- 
vides it into five peninsulas, the first of which 
is Peloponnesus, separated from the Grecian 
contment by an isthmus of forty stadia. The 
second is reckoned from the town of Pagae, on 
the Corinthian gulf, to Nisaea, the haven of 
Megara; the distance of this isthmus is one 
hundred and twenty stadia. The third is en- 
closed within a line drawn from the extremity 
of the Crissaean bay to Thermop5'loe, across 
Bceotia, Phocis, and the territory of the Locri 
Epicnemidii, a space of five hundred and eight 
stadia. The fourth is defined by the gulf of 
Ambracia and the Melian bay, separated from 
each other by an isthmus of eight hundred sta- 
dia. The fifth is terminated by a line traced 
also from the Ambracian gulf across Thessaly, 
and part of Macedonia, to the Thermaicus Si- 
nus. No part of Europe, if we except Swit- 
zerland, is so moimtainous throughout the whole 
of its extent as Greece, being traversed in al- 
most every direction by numerous ridges, the 
summits of which, though not so lofty as the 
central range of the Alps, attain, in many in- 
stances, to the elevation of perpetual snow^ 
The most considerable chain is that which has 
been described as forming the northern belt of 
Greece, and which divides the waters that mix 
with the Danube from those that fall into the 
Adriatic and JEgean. It extends its ramifica- 
tions in various directions throughout the an- 
cient countries of the Dalmatians, Illyrians, 
Paeonians, Macedonians, and Thracians, imder 
different names, which will hereafter be more 
particularly specified. Of these the Scardus 
and Candavii montes are the most import- 
ant and extensiA'e. Striking off nearly at right 
angles from the central chain, on the borders of 
ancient Dalmatia and Dardania,, the}^ served to 
mark the boundaries of Illyria and Macedonia ; 
thence continuing in the same direction, under 
the still more celebrated name of Pindus, they 
nearly divided the Greciari continent from north 
to south, thus separating Epirus from Thessaly, 
and the waters of the Ionian Sea from those of 
the iEgean. and uniting at length with the 
mountains of iEtolia, Dolopia, and Trachinia. 
From Pindus the elevated ridges of Lingon, Po- 
lyanus, and Tomarus, spread to the west over 
ever}'- part of Epirus, and finally terminate in 
the Acroceraunian mountains on the Chaonian 
coast. The Cambunii montes branch off in the 
opposite or eastern direction, and form the natu- 
ral separation between Macedonia and Thessa- 
ly, blending afterwards, near the mouth of the 
Haliacmon, on the Thermaic gulf, with the lofty 
summits of Olympus. The latter runs parallel 
to the sea, as far as the course of the Peneus, 
and is succeeded by the chain of mount Ossa, 
and this again by mount Pelion, along the Mag- 
nesian coast. At a lower point in the great 
Pindian range, where it assumes the appellation 
of Tymphrestus, mount Othrys stretches east- 
ward, thus forming the southern enclositre of 
the great basin of Thessaly, and terminating on 
the shores of the Pagaseean bay. Mount CEta 
is situated still further to the south. After form- 
ing near the mouth of the Sperchius the nar- 
row defiles of Thermopylae, it encloses the 
course of that river in conjunction with the paral- 
lel ridge of Othrj-^s, and after traversing the 
whole of the Grecian continent from east to wesl, 
129 



GR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GR 



unites, on the shores of the Ambracian gulf, 
with the mountains of the Athamanes and Am- 
philochians. Connected with mount CEta, in a 
south-westerly direction,are Coraxand Aracyn- 
ihus, mountains of jEtolia and Acarnania; 
while more immediately to the south are the 
celebrated peaks of Parnassus, Helicon, and 
Cithaeron, which belong to Phocis and Boeotia. 
A continuation of the latter mountain, under the 
names of CEnean and Geranean, forms the con- 
necting link between the great chains of north- 
ern Greece with those of the Peloponnesus. 
The principal rivers of Greece are furnished, as 
might naturally be expected, by the extensive 
provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and lUyria. 
In Thrace we find the Hebrus, Maritza, and 
Strymon, Stroumona ; in Macedonia, the Axi- 
us, Vardai\ the Erigonus, Kutchuk, the Lydias, 
Caraismak, and the Haliacmon, Indje Mauro. 
In Illyria, ihe Drilo, Drino, the Genusus, Scom- 
bi, and the Apsus, Ergent. Some considerable 
streams flow also into the Ionian Sea from the 
mountains of Epirus; such as the Aous, now 
Voioussa, the Aracthus, or river of Arta ; and 
still further south, the rapid but troubled Ache- 
lous, now Aspropotamo. In Thessaly, the Pe- 
neus, named by the modem Greeks Salembria, 
takes its rise from Pindus, and, after collecting 
numberless tributary streams, traverses the fa- 
mous gorge of Tempe, and falls into the gulf of 
Therme. The Sperchius, now Hellada, a river 
of southern Thessaly, coming from mountTym- 
phrestus, is received into the Maliac gulf a lit- 
tle tothenorthofThermopylee. The Cephissus, 
now Mauro, rises in the Phocian mountains, 
and, after flowing through part of that province 
and of Bceotia, empties itself into the Copaic 
lake. The Asopus, Asopo, passes through the 
southern plains of Boeotia, and is lost in the nar- 
row sea which separates the continent from Eu- 
boea. Lastly, we may mention the Evenus, now 
Fidari, a river of ancient iEtolia, which falls in- 
to the Corinthian gulf a few miles to the east of 
the Achelous. The most considerable lakes of 
Greece are those of Scutari and Ochrida in Il- 
lyria, the Labeatis Palus and Lychnitis Palus of 
ancient geography. In Macedonia, those of 
Takinos and Betchik, near the Strymon, an- 
swer to the Cercinitis and Bolbe. In Epirus, 
the lake of loannina is perhaps the Pambotis 
Palus of Eustathius. Frequent mention is made 
by classical writers of the Lacus Boebias, now 
Cartas, of Thessaly. Ancient historians have 
also noticed some lakes in Acarnania and ^to- 
lia, the most considerable of which was that of 
Trichonium, now Vrachori, in the latter pro- 
vince. In Boeotia, the lake of Copee has ex- 
changed its name for that of Topolias. An 
inquiry into the origin of the earliest settlers 
in ancient Greece seemsto be one of those ques- 
tions from which no satisfactory result is to be 
expected, all that has hitherto been written on the 
subject having only served to furnish addition- 
al proof of the doubt and obscurity in which it is 
enveloped. Strabo represents Greece, on the au- 
thority of Hecataeus the Milesian, as inhabited, 
in remote ages, by several barbarian tribes, such 
as the Leleges, Dryopes, Caucones, and Pelas- 
gi, with the Aones, Temmices, and Hyantes. 
These apparently overspread the whole conti- 
nent of Greece, as well as the Peloponnesus, and 
were in possession of that country when the mi- 
130 



grations of Pelops and Danaus, of Cadmus and 
the Phcenicians, and of the Thracians headed 
by Eumolpus, produced important changes in 
the population, and probably in the language, of 
every portion of the territory which they occu- 
pied. The tribes here enumerated by Strabo 
must therefore be considered as the most ancient 
inhabitants of the Hellenic continent which are 
known to us ; but to attempt lo discriminate be- 
tween their respective eras with the scanty ma- 
terials which have reached us, would probably 
be a task surpassing the abilities of the most in- 
defatigable antiquary. If it be necessary, how- 
ever, to adopt some decided opinion on the sub- 
ject (and in such obscure and complicated ques- 
tions, it seems difficult to avoid falling into some 
system,) we should be inclined to follow the no- 
tions of the learned Mannert. With respect to 
the Leleges, and the other tribes above enume- 
rated, he regards them as the original inhabit- 
ants of the Grecian continent, and prior to the 
Pelasgi, though, on account of their wandering 
habits, they were not unfrequently classed with 
that more celebrated race. He grounds his 
opinion on a passage" of Hesiod, which speaks of 
the Leleges as coeval with Deucalion, -together 
With other citations adduced from Strabo, in the 
place already referred to. Aristotle assigns to 
them Acarnania, Locris, and Boeotia. Pausa- 
nias leads us to suppose they were established 
at a very early period in Laconia, for he speaks 
of Lelex as the oldest indigenous prince of that 
country. It appears that they were not confin- 
ed to the continent of Greece, since we find 
them occupying the islands of the Archipelago 
in conjunction with the Carians, an ancient 
race, with whom they were so much intermixed 
as to become identified with them. We know 
also from Homer, that a portion of this widely 
diffused tribe had found its way to the shores of 
Asia Minor. Belonging to the same stock were 
the ancient Curetes of ^tolia and the Teleboje 
and Taphii, pirates of Acarnania and the isl- 
ands situated near its shores. We may also 
consider the Acarnanians and the ^Etolians 
themselves as descended from this primitive race 
though the latter were associated with a colony 
from Peloponnesus, of which the leader's name 
prevailed over that of the indigenous Curetes. 
Little seems to be known of the Caucones, who, 
together with the Leleges, are ranked by the 
historian Hecataeus among the earliest nations 
of Greece. We collect from Homer that they 
inhabited the western part of Peloponnesus, 
which account is confirmedby Herodotus. Ho- 
mer, however, in another place enumerates them 
among the allies of Priam, which leads to the 
conclusion that they had formed settlements in 
Asia Minor, as well as the Leleges. In sup- 
port of this supposition, Strabo affirms that 
many writers assigned to the Caucones a por- 
tion of Asia Minor near the river Parthenius ; 
and he adds, that some believed them to be Scy- 
thians, or Macedonians, while others classed 
them generally with other tribes, under the 
name of Pelasgi. In his own time, all trace of 
the existence of this ancient race had disappear- 
ed. The Dryopes seem to have first settled in 
the mountainous regions of CEta, where they 
transmitted their name to a small tract of coun- 
try on the borders of Doris and Phocis. Dicfc- 
archus, however, extends their territory as far 



GR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GR 



as the Ambracian gulf. We know from Hero- 
dotus that they afterwards passed into Euboea, 
and from thence into Peloponnesus and Asia 
Minor. It is worthy of remark, that Strabo 
ranks the Dry opes among those tribes chiefly of 
Thracian origin, who had from the earliest pe- 
riod established themselves in the latter country 
towards the southern shores of the Euxine. 
To the same primeval times must be referred 
the Aones, who are said to have occupied Boeo- 
tia before the invasion of Cadmus, and the reign 
of Cecrops in Attica ; we hear also of the Ec- 
tenes, Hyantes, and Temmices, which probably 
belonged to the same family, from the circum- 
stance of their having all held possessions of that 
fertile portion of Greece. We are now to speak 
of the Pelasgi, a numerous and important peo- 
ple, and, as such, entitled to a greater share of 
our notice than any of the primitive Grecian 
tribes hitherto enumerated. To examme, how- 
ever, all the ancient traditions which have been 
preserved relative to this remarkable race, and 
still further to discuss the various opinions which 
have been upheld respecting its origin in mod em 
times, would ofitself occupy a volume, and con- 
sequently far exceed the limits of a work de- 
signed for more general purposes. We shall 
therefore endeavour to present the reader with 
a summary account of what has been transmit- 
ted to us by the ancients, as well as of the con- 
clusions to which modern critics have arrived, on 
this subject. We ma)-- observe that almost all 
the historians, poets, and mythologists of anti- 
quity, derive their appellation from a hero nam- 
ed Pelasgus, though they differ in their account 
of his origin. Some supposing him to have 
sprung from the earth, others representing him 
to be the son of Jupiter and Niobe. They con- 
cur also in attributing to the Pelasgi the first 
improvements in civilization and in the arts and 
comforts of life. They were not confined to one 
particular portion of Greece, for we find them 
spread over the whole country ; but they are 
stated to have occupied, more especially, Epirus 
and Thessaly, parts of Macedonia and Thrace, 
the shores of the Hellespont and the Troad, to- 
gether with the Cyclades and Crete, BoBotiaand 
Attica; in the Peloponnesus, Achaia, Arcadia, 
and Argolis. We have already had occasion to 
notice their numerous and extensive settlements 
in Italy; such were, in fact, the migratory ha- 
bits of this people, that they obtained in conse- 
quence the nickname of ffsXapyoi or storks, from 
the Athenians ; and we have reasons for behev- 
ing that the term of Pelasgi was afterwards ap- 
plied to tribes which resembled them in regard 
to the frequency of their migrations, although 
of a different origin. We cannot doubt, how- 
ever, the existence of a nation specifically so 
designated, since Ave find it mentioned by "Ho- 
mer in his account of the allies of Priam. Great 
and universal, however, as was the ascendency 
usurped by the Pelasgic body in the earliest ages 
of Greece, its decline is allowed to have been 
equally rapid and complete. In proportion as 
the Hellenic confederacy obtained a preponde- 
rating power and influence, the Pelasgic name 
and language lost ground, and at length fell into 
such total disuse, that in the time of Herodotus 
and Thucydides scarcely a vestige remained, to 
which those historians could refer, in proof of 
Iheir former existence. Such are the general 



facts relative to the history of the Pelasgi,which 
are founded on the universal testimony of anti- 
quity ; but the origin of this once celebrated 
people is far from being equally well attested ; 
and, as it is a point which seems materially con- 
nected with the history of the first population 
of Greece, we may perhaps be permitted to take 
this opportunty of investigating the subject 
somewhat more in detail than we have hitherto 
ventured to do. With regard, then, to the ori- 
gin of the Pelasgi, two conflicting systems, 
principally, are presented to our notice, each of 
which, however, seems to obtain support from 
antiquity, and has been upheld by modern cri- 
tics with much learning and ingenuity. The 
one considers the Pelasgi as coming from the 
northern parts of the Grecian continent, while 
the other derives their origin from Peloponne- 
sus, and thus regards that peninsula as the cen- 
tre from which all their migrations proceeded. 
The latter opinion, it must be confessed, rests 
on the positive statement of several authors of 
no inconsiderable name in antiquity ; such as 
Pherecydes, Ephorus, Dionysiusof Halicarnas- 
sus, and Pausanias, who all concur in fixing 
upon Arcadia as the mother country and first 
seat of the Pelasgi ; while the former notion is 
not, webelie ve,positively maintained by any an- 
cient author. But this silence cannot be deemed 
conclusive ; and, on the examination of facts 
and probabilities, we shall find a much greater 
weight of evidence in its favour. To this con- 
clusion Salmasius long since arrived, and after 
him the abbe Geinoz ; and the opinion has been, 
we conceive, materially strengthened by the re- 
searches of the learned author of the Horse Pe- 
lasgicae. Larcher, however, and the French 
critics of the present school, appear still to ad- 
here to the authority of Dionysius, or rather to 
that of the genealogists whose accounts he prin- 
cipally follows. Were we to look to probabili- 
ties alone, we should at once discredit a theor}'' 
which attributed the origin of so numerous a 
people, as the Pelasgi undoubtedly were, to Pe- 
loponnesus generally ; but still more so, when 
they are referred to a small mountainous district 
in the centre of that peninsula. Without pre- 
tending to deny that the Arcadians were among 
the first settlers in the Peloponnesus, it must 
be urged, that it seems utterly incredible they 
should have ever had the means of extending 
their colonies throughout Greece, and even to 
Italy, in the manner ascribed to them ; or, if 
there is any truth in these accounts, we must 
presume that the Arcadia of that early age was 
much more extensive than the small Pelopon- 
nesian tract to which the Grecian historians so 
often allude. If we concede to Arcadia, proper- 
ly so called, the honour of having given birth to 
the Pelasgic race, we must allow also that La- 
conia was the mother country of the Leleges, 
according to the tradition mentioned by Pausa- 
nias ; and thence it must follow, that the whole 
of Greece derived its population from the Pelo- 
ponnesus, a fact not only improbable in itself, 
but also in contradiction to history, which, with 
little exception, represents the stream of Gre- 
cian migration as flowing from north to south. 
It will not surely be asserted that those vast 
countries which lie to the north of Hellas were 
yet unpeopled, while the island of Pelops was 
sending forth such swarms of warriors to occu- 
131 



QR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GR 



py distant and unknown regions, or that the 
hordes of Illyria, Paeonia, Macedonia, and 
Thrace, were less adventurous than the barba- 
rians of Arcadia. If these suppositions cannot 
be admitted, we shall be led to conclude that the 
above-named extensive countries not only fur- 
nished the primitive population of Greece, but 
also from time to time supplied those numerous 
bands of adventurers, who, under the name of 
Pelasgi, first paved the way for the introduction 
of civilization and commerce amongst her savage 
clans. That Asia Minor also contributed to the 
peopling of Greece can scarcely be doubted, 
when we notice the remarkable fact, that all the 
earliest Grecian tribes were known to have pos- 
sessed settlements on the former continent be- 
fore the siege of Troy. But the constant inter- 
change which seems to have subsisted from the 
earliest period between the inhabitants of Thrace 
and Macedonia, and their neighbours on the 
opposite shores of the Bosphorus and the Hel- 
lespont, rather prevents our arriving at any de- 
terminate conclusion on this part of the inquiry. 
Let us now examine what confirmation can be 
derived from antiquity in support of a theory 
which has been hitherto defended on the score 
of probability alone. In the first place then we 
may collect from Herodotus, that, at the remot- 
est epoch to which his historical researches could 
attain, Epirus and the western regions of north- 
ern Greece were largely peopled by the Pelasgi, 
whence it received the name of Pelasgia, which 
it continued to bear till it was superseded by 
that of Hellas. The existence of this people in 
the mountains and plains of northern Thessaly, 
in very distant times, is abundantly proved by 
the names of Pelasgiotis, and Pelasgic Argos, 
which were applied to the particular districts 
which they had occupied. Still further north, 
we follow them with Justin into Macedonia, and 
their possession of that country is also confirm- 
ed by jEschylus, as he extends Pelasgia to the 
banks of the Strymon. We have also numerous 
authorities to prove the establishment of the 
same people, at a period of uncertain, but doubt- 
less very early date, in the isles of Samothrace, 
Lemnos, and Imbros. It has been asserted, in- 
deed, by some writers, that these islands were 
the seat of the first Pelasgi, and it may be ob- 
served by the way, that this maritime situation 
might lead to a connexion between the people 
whose origin we are now discussing and the 
Phcenicians, who had formed similar settle- 
ments, and in times equally remote, in the Cy- 
clades. Of all the Pelasgic tribes, the most ce- 
lebrated, as well as most important, was that of 
the Tyrrheni. Assuming, then, that the Tyr- 
rheni formed one of the most ancient and nu- 
merous branches of the Pelasgic body, we are 
induced to fix their principal Grecian settle- 
ments in Epirus, because, according to Herodo- 
tus and other writers, that province was their 
earliest and most extensive abode; and it was 
from thence that they crossed over, as we are 
told, to the opposite shores of Italy. We 
shall thus also be able to account for a curious 
tradition preserved by one of the scholiasts to 
Homer, who tells us in a note to II. IT. 235. 

-dufl 61 SeXXoi 



Eot vaiova' vTrocprjrai nviiTTSiroSei 'y^ajiaisvvai, 

that, according to Alexander of Plenron, the 
132 



Selli were descended from the Tyrrheni, and 
worshipped Jupiter, according to their native 
custom, in the manner described by the poet. 
These Selli, as is well known, were possessed of 
the temple and oracle of Dodona, and were ac- 
counted one of the most ancient tribes of Greece 
according to Aristotle ; so that, if the Tyrrhe- 
ni were their progenitors, these must have been 
dp^aioraroi. The Tpaiwi, from whose name the 
Latin word Greed is doubtless derived, were 
probably another branch of the same Pelasgic 
stock, as Aristotle names them in conjunction 
with the Selli, and places them in the same part 
of Greece, that is, about Dodona and the Ache- 
lous. He adds, that the FpaiVoi were afterwards 
called Hellenes, which is confirmed by the Pari- 
an Chronicle and Apollodorus, who quotes the 
word from many ancient writers. It is certainly 
remarkable that the Latins should have constant- 
ly employed an obsolete appellation to designate 
a people, with whom they were afterwards so 
much better acquainted under that of Hellenes ; 
and the fact can only be satisfactorily explained 
by admitting that a frequent intercourse existed 
between Epirus and Italy before thB name of 
Hellenes had been generally substituted for that 
of Graeci ; and this surmise is in perfect harmo- 
ny with the well-authenticated accounts of the 
Pelasgic migrations into the latter country. As 
Strabo expressly remarks that the Epirotic na- 
tions were descended from the Pelasgi, we can 
have little doubt that this statenient applies to 
the Chaones, Molossi, and Thesproti, who at a 
subsequent period constituted the main popula- 
tion of that part of Greece. The latter are in- 
deed positively classed with the Pelasgi by He- 
rodotus, when he states that Thesprotia was 
once called Pelasgia. If we now pass into Thes- 
saly, we shall find another considerable part of 
the Pelasgic race settled in that rich province 
under the name of ^olians. Herodotus is we 
believe the only writer who positively ascribes 
the conquest of this country to the Thesprotian 
Pelasgi, at which period he says it bore the 
name of tEoUs. Strabo, however, seems to have 
been aware of such a tradition. But what- 
ever opinion we adopt as lo this particular fact, 
we can have no hesitation in admittmg the Pe- 
lasgic origin of the a.ncient Cohans, as it is 
clearly acknowledged by Strabo, and is also far- 
ther confirmed by the affinity which has been 
traced between the language of the Pelasgi and 
the JEolic dialect. If we concede this point, it 
is clear that we must regard the Hellenes and 
the Achaei as springing from the same stock, al- 
though, in the first instance, they were certainly 
confined within the limits of Thessaly, and are 
always alluded to by Homer in that restricted 
sense. It will, perhaps, be objected to this clas- 
sification, that we generally find the Hellenic 
name opposed to that of the Pelasgic, but it does 
not follow that they are thereby distinguished 
as being of a different race ; it would rather 
seem that they are compared together in a poli- 
cal point of view, from each in its turn having 
become widely diffused, and having exercised 
the greatest influence over those countries in 
which it had taken root. According to Herodo- 
tus, the Athenians were also originally Pelasgi : 
this fact he has twice asserted in different parts 
of his work ; nor has he ever, we believe, been 
contradicted by any ancient author. Larcher, 



GR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GR 



however, in his examination of the Chronology 
of Herodotus, has entered into a long disserta- 
tion to prove that that writer was misinformed on 
this point. The real truth seems to be, that the 
learned Frenchman, in his endeavour to derive 
all the Pelasgic migrations from the Peloponne- 
sus, found this assertion of Herodotus incom- 
patible with his system, and therefore attempted 
to set it aside. Until more solid reasons therefore 
can be adduced against the testimony of so ac- 
credited an historian, we must allow his autho- 
rity to remain unshaken, and admit that the 
Athenians, in the earliest period of their histo- 
ry, were Pelasgi, and bore the specific appella- 
tion of Cranai before they assumed that of Ce- 
cropidoe. It is well known that they, with many 
other tribes under similar circumstances, after- 
wards became incorporated with the Hellenes. 
"We shall now conclude this section with a short 
account of the dialects of Greece, as it is fur- 
nished by Strabo. ' Greece,' says that accurate 
geographer, ' contains many nations, but the 
principal ones are equal in number to the dia- 
lects spoken by the Greeks, which consist of 
four. Of these, the Ionic may be said to be the 
same as the ancient Attic, since the inhabitants 
of Attica were once called lonians, and from 
these were descended the lonians, who founded 
colonies in Asia Minor, and used the dialect 
which we call Ionic. The Doric is the same 
with the .^olic, as all the Greeks without the 
Isthmus, if we except the Athenians and Me- 
gareans, and those Dorians who dwell in the 
vicinity of Parnassus, are even now called JEo- 
lians. It is also probable that the Dorians, be- 
ing few in number, and inhabiting a most rug- 
ged soil, long retained their primitive language, 
as they had but little intercourse with their 
neighbours, and adopted different customs from 
those of the ^olians, with whom they formerly 
were united by ties of consanguinity. This 
was also the case with the Athenians, who 
occupied a poor and barren country, and conse- 
quently were less exposed to invasion ; hence 
they were accounted indigenous, as Thucydi- 
des reports, since none were induced to covet 
their territory, and to seek to wrest it from them. 
This therefore was the reason why so small a 
people remained always unconnected with the 
other nations of Greece, and used a dialect pe- 
culiar to itself The ^olians were not confined 
to the countries without the Isthmus, but occu- 
pied also those which were situated within ; 
these, however,became subsequently intermixed 
with the lonians who came from Attica, and 
who had established themselves in the JEgialus ; 
and likewise with the Dorians, who, in con- 
junction with the Heraclidse, founded Megara, 
and several other cities in the Poloponnesus. 
The lonians were afterwards expelled by the 
Acheeans, who were iEolians, so that only two 
nations remained within the Peloponnesus, the 
iEolians and the Dorians. Those states which 
had but little intercourse with the latter, pre- 
served the jfEolic dialect ; this was the case with 
the Arcadians and the Eleans.as the former were 
altogether a people of mountaineers, and never 
had been included in the division of Peloponne- 
sus made by the Heraclidse ; and the latter,from 
being dedicated to the service of the Olympian 
Jupiter, had long remained in the peaceable en- 
joyment of their country : they were moreover of 



jEolian origin, and had received the forces sent 
by Oxylus lo assist the Heraclidae in recovering 
possession of Peloponnesus. The other nations 
of that peninsula speak a mixed dialect, more or 
less approximating to the ^olic ; and, though 
they are called Dorians, the idiom of no one ci- 
ty is now the same as that of any other.' " Cram. 
In the first periods of their history, the Greeks 
were governed by monarchs ; and there were as 
many kings as there were cities. The monar- 
chical power gradually decreased ; the love of 
liberty established the republican government ; 
and no part of' Greece, except Macedonia, re- 
mained in the hands of an absolute sovereign. 
The expedition of the Argonauts first rendered 
the Greeks respectable among their neighbours, 
and in the succeeding age the wars of Thebes 
and Troy gave opportunity to their heroes and 
demi-gods to display their valour in the field of 
battle. The simplicity of the ancient Greeks 
rendered them virtuous ; and the establishment 
of the Olympic games in particular, where the 
noble reward of the conqueror was a laurel 
crown, contributed to their aggrandizement, and 
made them ambitious of fame and not the slaves 
of riches. The austerity of their laws, and the 
education of their youth, particularly at Lace- 
dffimon, rendered them brave and active, insen- 
sible to bodily pain, fearless and intrepid in the 
time of danger. The celebrated battles, of Ma- 
rathon, Thermopylce, Salamis, Plateea, and My- 
cale, sufficiently show what superiority the cou- 
rage of a little army can obtain over millions of 
undisciplined barbarians. After many signal 
victories over the Persians, they became elated 
with their success ; and when they found no 
one able to dispute their power abroad, they 
turned their arms one against the other, and 
leagued with foreign states to destroy the most 
flourishing of their cities. The Messenian and 
Peloponnesian wars are examples of the dread- 
ful calamities which arise from civil discord and 
long prosperity ; and the success with which the 
gold and the sword of Philip and of his son 
corrupted and enslaved Greece, fatally proved 
that when a nation becomes indolent and dissi- 
pated at home, it ceases to be respectable in the 
eyes of the neighbouring states. The annals of 
Greece, however, abound with singular proofs 
of heroism and resolution. The bold retreat 
of the ten thousand, who had assisted Cyrus 
against his brother Artaxerxes, reminded their 
countrymen of their superiority over all other 
nations; and taught Alexander that the con- 
quest of the east might be effected with a hand- 
ful of Grecian soldiers. While the Greeks ren- 
dered themselves so illustrious by their military 
exploits, the arts and sciences were assisted by 
conquests, and received fresh lustre from the ap- 
plication and industry of their professors. The 
labours of the learned were received with admi- 
ration, and the merit of a composition was de- 
termined by the applause or disapprobation of 
a multitude. Their generals were orators; and 
eloquence seemed to be so nearly connected with 
the military profession, that he was despised by 
his soldiers who could not address them upon 
any emergency with a spirited and well deliver- 
ed oration. The learning, as well as the virtues 
of Socrates, procured him a name ; and the 
writings of Aristotle have, perhaps, gained him 
a more lasting fame than all the conquests and 
133 



GR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Gft 



trophies of his royal pupil. Such were the oc- 
cupations and accomplishments of the Greeks ; 
their language became alm.ost universal, and 
their country was the receptacle of the youths 
of the neighbouring states, where they imbibed 
the principles of liberty and moral virtue. The 
Greeks planted several colonies, and totally peo- 
pled the western coasts of Asia Minor. In the 
eastern parts of Italy, there were also many set- 
tlements made ; and the country received from 
its Greek inhabitants the name oi Magna Grce- 
cia. For some time Greece submitted to the 
yoke of Alexander and his successors ; and, at 
last, after a spirited though ineffecmal struggle 
in the Achaean league, it fell under the power 
of Rome, and became one of its dependant pro- 
vinces, governed by a proconsul. 

Grjecia Magna, a name by which a part of 
Italy, and sometimes the island of Sicity, were 
designated, from the number of Greek colonies 
established in them. Magna Graecia in the pe- 
ninsula extended over the south of Italy, as far 
as the borders of Campania, and the country of 
the Frentani, including Apulia, Messapia or la- 
pygia, Lucania, and. the district possessed by 
the Brutii. The Greeks endeavoured to establish 
a claim to the earliest settlement of this part 
of Italy, which they would gladly have repre- 
sented as the first in all Italy which received a 
Population and a name ; but, however early may 
ave been the Achjean emigration, it does not 
appear to have taken place till all Italy, from the 
Alps to the straits of Messina, had been popu- 
lated by tribes as worthy of the name of indi- 
genous as the Greeks who prided themselves in 
their own country in that vain epithet. The 
CEnotri will then be the last production of the 
great aboriginal Italian stock, which, instead of 
spreading gradually from the south, arrived at it 
by slow degrees, by propagation and extension 
from the north. But though the last of all the 
native tribes of Italy, the CEnotri could yet boast 
that one of their princes communicated to the 
whole country between the Alps and the Tuscan 
and Ionian seas, the appellation which to this 
day it retains, if we be willing to recognise any 
truth in the traditions of so remote and unau- 
thentic an era. The vicissitudes and conflicts 
of the CEnotri, the lapyges, the Messapii, and 
all the many inhabitants of this extensive and 
fertile country belonging to the same obscure 
epoch, afford little instruction for the investiga- 
tion of antiquity ; and their wars with the Si- 
culi may likewise be dismissed with equal bre- 
vity. All the real interest which attaches to the 
name of Graecia Magna is derived from its colo- 
nization by the Acheeans, Spartans, Phocasans 
of Ionia, &c. at a period much posterior to the 
pretended migration of the Arcadians. With- 
out denying that settlements may have been 
effected from Greece at an earlier date upon this 
coast, we may refer the general introduction of 
Grecian manners, opinions, and language, to the 
era of 730 years, or thereabout, before the birth 
of Christ, and very little more than twenty years 
after that to which the founding of Rome is 
conventionally assigned. Sybaris, Metopon- 
tum. Caul on, and/Crotona, owed their origin 
to the Ach8eans,'^ivho, driving the CEnotri and 
Chaones from the eastern coast,established there 
the language, the improvement, and the arts of 
Greece. The Partheniae of Sparta soon after 
134 



laid the foundation of the Tarentine rule ; and 
the PhocEeans, disappointed in their attempts 
upon the island of Corsica, bending their course 
towards the south, erected the city of Velia. 
Of all these cities Sybaris first rose to power 
and eminence ; and many wars were the result of 
the attempts of other important places to extend 
their territories within the limits of her autho- 
rity, or within that of other principal towns. 
Second in importance only to the colonization 
of this coast by the Greeks, was the arrival of 
Pythagoras, and the introduction of his sublime 
philosophy. Not only Crotona, which he chose 
as his residence, but all the other cities of Mag- 
na Graecia, and even the barbarous inhabitants 
of the surrounding country, were softened and 
instructed by his virtues and his doctrines ; and 
his disciples very soon attained an influence 
that the political body could not counterpoise, 
and that nothing but a revolution, bloody, gene- 
ral, and exterminating, could eradicate. The 
arrival of this first of the ancient philosophers 
may be referred to the year B. C. 540. It may 
occasion some wonder that the Italian colonies 
should have been selected by Pythagoras as a 
place for the dissemination of his lofty truths m. 
preference to their parent country, whose lan- 
guage he spoke, and of which he might almost 
be considered a native ; but the same cause that 
had tended to the prodigiously early and rapid 
increase of the Achaean cities in Italy, had, no 
doubt a strongly operative effect in determining 
the choice of this early apostle of truth. The 
Achcean cities of Magna Graecia, more especial- 
ly adopting the liberal principles .of the Republic 
to which they owed their origin, accorded freely 
to strangers the rights and privileges of native 
citizens ; and Pythagoras could there, without 
the odium and reproach of foreign birth, impart 
the wisdom which with years of labour he had 
gained. For thirty years the disciples of this 
illustrious benefactor continued to moderate the 
cotmcils of Crotona, and, in a less degree, of the 
neighbouring cities ; but on the destruction of 
Sybaris, the enemies of the sect, availing them- 
selves of the dissatisfaction which it had given 
by its moderation in regard to the distribution 
of the spoil, resolved and conspired its ruin. At 
Crotona commenced the proscription and the 
massacre which terminated with the murder of 
the greater part of the body, and a decree of 
perpetual banishment against the rest. The 
immediate and lasting consequence of this bar- 
barity were a series of factions, civil wars, and 
mutual jealousies, which diminished the power 
of the Italiot cities ; and while it obstructed their 
progress towards a condition of concentrated 
vigour, left upon the south no obstacle to the 
Roman ambition, which otherwise might not 
have extended over those regions, and whose 
dominion, if checked at first in Italy, might ne- 
ver have extended itself over the earth. In the 
Persian war, while yet the cities of Italy ac- 
knowledged the parental rights of the Grecian 
states, one single vessel, equipped at the expense 
of an individual, appeared to sustain the liber- 
ties of Greece, in the name of her children, 
against the usurpations of Persia, and the free 
institutions and principles of Europe and the 
western world, against the oppressive and de- 
basing system of Asia and the east. In the 
Peloponnesian Avar Magna Grascia took but an 



GY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



GY 



inactive part, and the diminution of her power 
was still more strikingly and sensibly perceived 
when the tyrant of Syracuse was, after an in- 
effectual resistance, permitted to raze the walls 
of Caulon and to pillage Rhegium ; and when 
all the cities of Magna Graecia together were 
unable to contend with the pretensions of a pet- 
ty tyrant from Sicily. Thus worn out by their 
enemies, the people of Magna Graecia were yet 
to meet another and more resolutely persevering 
enemy ; and the country, which had long before 
been wrested from the aboriginal Italians, was 
to fall again into their hands before the occupa- 
tion of their territory by the now" resistless forces 
of the Roman republic. In the last weakness 
of the Greek colonies, the Brutii and Lucani, 
derived from the Saimiite race, appeared in nu- 
merous hordes and with irresistible fury on the 
borders of the Grecian states ; Thurii, Mela- 
pontum, and Heraclea, fell in succession be- 
neath the attacks of these determined invaders, 
and very little remained to justify the ostenta- 
tious name of Graecia Magna. A very short 
time afterwards, that is to say, about the year 
U. C. 480, B. C. 270, the Romans effected the 
reduction of the whole country, and formed 
from it the provinces of Lucania and the Brut- 
lian territory. The most striking geographical 
features of Magna Graecia were its deep and 
spacious bays. The principal of these were the 
Tarentine gulf, between the Bruttian and la- 
pygian peninsulas, the Scylacius Sinus in the 
country of the Brutii, the Sinus Urias in Dau- 
nia on the Hadriaticum Mare, and the Laius 
Sinus, belonging to Lucania on the Tyrrhene 
sea. The language of this country was the 
Doric Greek, with a few idiomatic forms pecu- 
liar to the Italian provinces. Micali, Italia. — 
Niehbuhr. 

Grampius mons, a long range of hills in 
Scotland, rising in Aberdeenshire between the 
Dee and the Don, running almost parallel with 
the chain of northern lakes, and dividing Scot- 
land into two nearly equal parts. It terminates 
upon the west in Argyleshire, It was here that 
Galgacus, the Caledonian hero, made his last 
stand (described Tac. Vit. Agric.) against the 
arms of the Romans, and that 10,000 of the na- 
tives being left upon the field, the imperial con- 
quest of Britain was effectually complete. 

Granicus, a river of Mysia, now the tor- 
rent Ouwola. It is famous for the battle 
fought there between the armies of Alexander 
and Darius, 22d of May, B. C. 334, when 
600,000 Persians were defeated by 30,000 Ma- 
cedonians. Diod. 17. — Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 
— Curt. 4, c. 1. 

Gravisce, now Eremo de St. Augustino, a 
maritime town of Etruria. The air was un- 
wholesome on account of the marshes and stag- 
nant waters in its neighbourhood. Virg. ^En. 
10, V. ISi.—Liv. 40, c. 29, 1. 41, c. 16. 

Grudii, a people tributary to the Nervii, sup- 
posed to have inhabited the country near Tottr- 
nay or Bruges in Flanders. Cces. G. 5, c. 38. 

Gryneum, and Grynium, a town near Cla- 
zomenae, where Apollo had a temple with an 
oracle, on account of which he is called Grynccus. 
Strab. 13.— Virg. Ed. 6, v. 72. ^n. 4, v. 345. 

Gyarus, and Gyaros. " The last of the Cy- 
clades enumerated by Ariemidorus, is probably 
the islet which Homer calls Gyrae or Gyraea. 



So wretched and poor was this barren rock, in- 
habited only by a few fishermen, that they de- 
puted one of their number to Augustus, who 
was at Corinth, after the battle of Actium, to 
petition that their taxes, which amounted to 150 
drachmae, might be diminished, as they were 
unable to raise more than 100. It became sub- 
sequently notorious as the spot to which crimi- 
nals or suspected persons were banished by or- 
der of the Roman emperors. 

Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris, et car cere dig- 
num. — Juven. Sat. 1, 73. 

Pliny estimates its circumference at 12 miles. 
The modern name is G/iiooxra." Cramer. — 
Horn. Od. 4, 500 and bOTl.— Strab. IQ.— Tacit. 
3, 68, 69 ; 4, 30.— PZm. 4, 12. 

Gymnasium, a place among the Greeks, where 
all the public exercises were performed, and 
where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, 
but also philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians re- 
peated their compositions. The room was high 
and spacious, and could contain many thousands 
of spectators. The laborious exercises of the 
Gymnasium were running, leaping, throwing 
the quoit, wrestling, and boxing, which was 
called by the Greeks TT£VTaQ\ov, and by the Ro- 
mans quinqiterlia. In wrestling and boxing 
the athletes were often naked ; whence the word 
Gymnasium, yvuvos, nudus. They anointed 
themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to 
render their bodies slippery and more difficult to 
be grasped. Plhi. 2, Ep. 17. — C. Ncp. 20, c. 5. 

GYMNEsi.a3, a name given by the Greeks to 
the Baleares Insula. Vid. Baleares. 

Gymnias, a town of Armenia, now Ginnis, 
situated on that branch of the Euphrates which 
was called Frat. It is mentioned in the retreat 
of the ten thousand. D'Anville. 

Gyndes, a river which empties into the Ti- 
gris below Ctesiphon. " It descends, according 
to Herodotus, from the mountains of Mantiene 
or Matiane, in the northern part of Media. 
Cyrus finding it on his passage, divided it into 
360 channels. This name of Gyndes, or, as 
Tacitus expresses it, Gindes, in describing a 
river of Aria, is the same as Zeindeh, in the 
Persian language denoting a river which re- 
vives after having disappeared. The Gyndes, of 
which Herodotus speaks, reduced to nothing by 
the number of drains which it suffered from Cy- 
rus, has at length re-assumed its course to the 
Tigris ; and its entrance into the river is called 
Foum-el-Saleh, or the ' Mouth of Peace,' in 
the Arabic language. The name given it by 
the Turks in the place whence it issues, is Ka- 
ra-sou, or the Black River." D^Anville. 

Gyrtone, or Gyrton, a town of Thessaly, 
" situated not far from the junction of the Pe- 
neusand Titaresius. Many commentators have 
imagined that this city was formerly named 
Phlegya, and that Homer alluded to it when 
speaking of the wars of the Ephyri and Phle- 
gyae. It is termed an opulent city by Apollo- 
nius. The Gyrtonians favoured the Athenians 
during the Peloponnesian war. In the Mace- 
donian wars frequent mention is made of their 
town." Cram. — Horn. II. n. 301. Apoll. Ar- 
gon. 1, bl.— Thuc. 2, 22.—Liv. 36, 10; 42, 54. 
—Polyb. 18 ; 5, 2.—Plin. 4, 8. 

GvTmuM, a town of Laconia, " the port of 
Sparta, was 40 stadia from Las and 240 from 
135 



HA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HA 



the capital. The Gylheaiee pretended that 
their town had been built by Hercules and 
Apollo, whose statues were placed in the forum. 
The principal buildings noticed here by Pausa- 
nias are the temples of Ammon, jEsculapius, 
and Ceres. He mentions also the statues of 
Neptune named Gaiuchus, Apollo Carneius, 
and Bacchus, the gates of Castor, and, in the 
citadel, the temple and statue of Minerva. Po- 
lybius states that the port, distant thirty stadia 
from the town, was both commodious and se- 
cure. Strabo remarks that it was an artificial 
haven. Gythium stood a little to the north of 
the present town of Marathonisi. The site is 
now called Palceopoli, but no habitation is left 
upon it." Cramer. 

H. 

Hadria, or Hatria, I. in Venetia. " This 
ancient city, which must have been once power- 
ful and great, since it was enabled to transmit 
its name to the sea on which it stood, is known 
to have been possessed by the Tuscans at the 
time of their greatest prosperity, and when their 
dominion in Italy had been extended from sea 
to sea. Some traditions, coupled with what we 
know touching the origin of the neighbouring 
cities of Spina and Revenna, lead to the con- 
clusion that these three towns were at a remote 
period founded by the people who are sometimes 
called Thessalians, and at other times Pelasgi, 
but whose real name was that of Tyrrhenians. 
When the Tuscan nation had extended its 
conquests into the north of Italy, it is most 
probable that Hadria and Spina fell into their 
hands ; Ravenna, as we learn from Strabo, was 
occupied by the Umbri. The oldest writer who 
has recorded Hadria, is Hecatoeus, quoted by 
Steph, Byz. According to this ancient histo- 
rian, it was situated near a river and bay of the 
same name. The river is the Tartaro^ but the 
bay into which it discharges itself has been long 
since filled up. Hadria still existed when Strabo 
wrote, but as an insignificant place. Few re- 
mains of any moment have hitherto been disco- 
vered on the site of Hadria, and of these a very 
small number can be referred to the Tuscans 
prior to the Roman dominion. It may be re- 
marked, however, that it is a matter of great 
dispute among numismatic writers, whether the 
coins with the retrograde legend TAH ought 
to be ascribed to the Venetian Hadria, or to the 
Hadria in Picenum, supposed to be its colony. 
From these and other coins it appears that the 
real name of this city was Hatri, which the 

Greeks changed to AJoia." Cram. II. " A 

city of Picenum, of considerable note,and which 
appears to have formed with its territory, known 
anciently by the name of Hadrianus Ager, a 
little independent state, before it became a Ro- 
man colony and was included in the province 
of Picenum. It is of importance to state here 
that the Tuscans, having extended themselves 
first north of the Apennines, and afterwards 
about the Po and its mouths, obtained posses- 
sion of the settlements originally formed by the 
Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, among which Hadria is to 
be numbered. From this part of Italy we know 
that they were driven in process of time by the 
Gauls ; but as they were still masters of the 
sea, it is probable that they retired to other 
136 



settlements which they might have formed ta 
the south. This city was situated at some dis- 
tance from the sea, between the rivers Vomanus 
and Matrinus ; but nearer to the latter, at the 
mouth of which was its emporium, which now 
takes the name of the modern city as the Porto 
d'Atri. It seems generally allowed, that the 
emperor Hadrian was descended from a family 
originally of this city." Cram. 

Hadrianopolis, I. a town of Thrace, situated 
at the place where the Hebrus first changes its 
course from east to south. It originally bore 
" the name of Orestias, which the Byzantine 
authors frequently employ in speaking of this S 
city. The three rivers, by whica it is pretended '!! 
that Orestes, polluted by the murder of his mo- 
ther, purified himself, had their confluence here : 
for at Adrianopie the Hebrus received the 
Ardiscus on one side and the Tonzuz on the j 
other, now the Arda and Tonza. This city m 
served as a residence for the Ottoman sultans " 
before the taking of Constantinople, and is now 
the second in the empire. " The numerous mi- 
narets of Adrianopie, or Ednneh, rise above 
groves of cypress and gardens of roses ; the 
Hebrus, increased by many tributary streams, 
descends from the central ridge, turns south- 
wards, and flows past the town, of which the 
population is not less than 100,000 souls." Malte- 
Bruii. — -II. A city of Epirus, "apparently 
built in the reign of Hadrian, is said by Proco- 
pius to have borne subsequently the appellation 
of Justinianopolis, but we find it noticed under 
the former name by Hierocles, and in the Table 
Itinerary, which places it fifty-five miles from 
Amantia to the south-east, and twenty-four from 
a place beyond named Ilio, on the road to Nico- 
polis. It is clear from the description here given 
of its situation, that we must look for Hadria- 
nopolis somewhat to the south of Ar gyro Castro 
or Antigonea ; and this opinion is confirmed . 
by what Mr. Hughes observed in his Travels 
through Epirus. ' On the western side of the 
valley, (of Argyro Castro,) nearly opposite Li- 
bochovo^ and at no great distance from the river 
Drino, the ruins of a small Roman theatre, with 
a few vestiges of other ancient foundations, were 
pointed out upon a spot designated by the name 
of DrinopoUs, an evident corruption of Hadria- 
nopolis.' " Cram. 

Hadriaticum, or Hadria cum mare, the sea 
which bounds the eastern coast of Italy, other- 
wise called Mare Superum, in reference to its 
position as regards the Italian peninsula. It 
derived its name from the Venetian Hadria. 
( Vid. Hadria.) " It was known to the Greeks 
by the name of 'ASpiag, or 'lovios KoXnos • but 
they seem to have understood by the name loni- 
cum Mare that portion of it which lies between 
the south of Italy, taken from the lapygian pro- 
montory and Peloponnesus." Cram. " Its 
bed appears to be composed of marble and 
lime mixed with shells." Malte-Brun. 

Hadrumetum, a city of the Roman pro- 
vince in Africa, situated on the coast north of 
Leptis. According to D'Anville, its present 
condition is unknown; but a neighbouring 
place, mentioned in a subsequent age under the 
name of Cabar Susis, is existent in Susa. 
Shaw says that it still remains under the name , 
of Hdmamet, and is a place of importance. 
Sallust. Jug. p. 179, ed. Burnouf. 



HA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HA 



H^MONiA. Vid. jEmonia. 

H-EMUs, a branch of the great European 
chain of mountains, of which the Alps form 
the principal range. It stretches its great belt 
round the north of Thrace and Macedonia, in 
a direction nearly parallel with the course of the 
^gean ; on the east terminating in the promon- 
tory of Hsemi extrema, now Ertivneh-Borun ; 
and on the west joining mount Scardus, the 
connecting link between the Hsemus and the 
Illyrian range of mons Albius. " The modem 
name is Emineh Dagh, or Balkan. The an- 
cients regarded this reinge of mountains as one 
of the highest with which they were acquainted. 
Polybius, however, thought it inferior in eleva- 
tion to the Alps, in which he was doubtless cor- 
rect. It was reported, that from its summit 
could be seen at once the Euxine, the Adriatic, 
the Danube, and the Alps ; and it was m hopes 
of beholding this extensive prospect, that Philip, 
the last Macedonian king of that name, under- 
took the expedition which is described in Livy. 
Having set out from Stobi, and traversed the 
country of the Maedi, and the desert tract which 
lies beyond, he arrived on the seventh day at the 
foot of the mountain. He was three days in 
reaching the summit, after a difficult and toil- 
some march. The weather, however, appears 
to have been very unfavourable for the view, 
and. after sacrificing on the mountain, Philip 
and has retinue descended into the plain." 
Cram. 

Hal.e, the last town of Boeotia, situated at 
the mouth of the river Platanius, which appears 
to have separated Boeotia from the Opuntians. 
" Plutarch informs us it was destroyed by Sylla 
in the war with Mithridates. Its site is now oc- 
cupied by the large village of Alachi, about four 
-miles to the south-east of Talanti." Cram. 

Hales, or Halesus, a river of Lydia, which 
empties into the -^gean Sea near Colophon. It 
was remarkable for the coldness of its waters. 
Plin. — Paus. 

Haliacmon, a river of Macedonia, which 
empties into the Thermaicus Sinus 10 or 12 
miles from Methone. It is " a large and rapid 
stream, descending from the chain of mountains 
to which Ptolemy gives the name of Canalovii. 
Scylax places it after Methone. The modern 
name of this river is Jnidje-Carasou. or Jeni- 
cora, according to Dr. Brown, who must have 
crossed it in its course through Elimea. Dr. 
Clarke calls it Inje-Mauro. Caesar, in describing 
some military operations in the vicinity of this 
river, between a part of his army under Domi- 
tius and some troops of Pompey commanded by 
Scipio, states that it formed the line of demarca- 
tion between Macedonia and Thessaly." Cram. 

Haliartus, a towTi of Boeotia, " situated, as 
Strabo reports, on the shore of the Copaic lake, 
and near the mouth of the Permessus, which 
flows from Helicon. The epithet ofiroimvTa is 
attached to this city by Homer, from the nume- 
rous meadows and marshes in its vicinity on the 
side of Orchomenus. Pausanias affirms that 
Haliartus was the only Boeotian city which did 
not favour the Persians ; for which reason its 
territory was ravaged with fire and sword by 
their army. In the war carried on against the 
Thebans by the Lacedaemonians, Lysander, 
who commanded a body of the latter, was slain 
in an engagement which took place under the 

Part I.— S 



[Walls of Haliartus, and was interred there, as 
we learn from Pausanias. Haliartus, having 
favoured the cause of Perseus, king of Macedon, 
was besieged by the Romans under the com- 
mand of the praetor Lucretius, and, though ob- 
stinately defended, was taken b}'- assault, sack- 
ed, and entirely destroyed, the inhabitants being 
sold, and their territory given up to the Athe- 
nians. ' The remains of Haliartus,' according 
to Dodwell, ' are situated about fifteen miles 
from Libadea, and at nearly an equal distance 
from Thebes. The place is now^ called ikZt/tro- 
koura. The acropolis occupies a low and ob- 
long hill, one side of which rises from a fine 
pastural plain , the other from tb e marshes where 
the canes grew with which the ancients made 
darts and musical pipes. Most of the walls 
which remain are probably posterior to the time 
of Homer,'but prior to its capture by the Ro- 
mans. There are also a few remains of the se- 
cond and third styles of masonry. At the foot 
of the acropolis are some sepulchral kryptae cut 
in the rock, similar to those at Delphi.' Sir. W. 
Gell says, ' The ruins of Haliartus lie just be- 
low the village of Mazi, on the road from 
Thebes to Lebadia. It stood on a rocky emi- 
nence be^R'een the foot of mount Libethrius, a 
branch of Helicon, and the lake, and in fact 
defended a narrow pass.' " Cram. 

H^LiCARNAssus, a towTi of Dotis in Caria, 
situated on the southern side of the peninsula 
which lay between the lasius and Ceramicus 
Sinus. " It was of Greek foundation^ and be- 
came the residence of the kings of Caria; and 
was ornamented v/ith a superb tomb, erected by 
Artemisia to king Mausolus, her husband. The 
birth of Herodotus, the most ancient of the 
Greek historians, and also of Dionysius of Ha- 
licamassus, and the defence made by this city 
when besieged by Alexander, are circumstances 
which contribute to its fame. On the spot that 
it occupied is a castle, named Bodroun, which 
appears to have been erected by the knights of 
Malta, whose possessions extended on the coasts 
of the continent as well as to the adjacent isles." 
D'Anville. 

Halmydessus, a town of Thrace, on the 
Euxine Sea south of Thjmias. Mela, 2, c. 2. 

Halone, an island of Propontis, opposite 
Cyzictis, now Aloni. 

Halonnesus, an island at the bottom of the 
Sinus Thermaicus. 

Halts, now the Kizil-Ermak, or Red River. 
In regard to length, this may be considered one 
of the principal rivers of the lesser Asia, while 
the circumstances with which it is connected 
in history render it among the most celebrated. 
It formed the western boundary of the Lydian 
territory when, under Croesus, the kingdom of 
Lydia was erected into one of the powerful na- 
tions of the earth. The Halys arose at its most 
distant source towards the borders of Armenia 
Minor, and flowed through the whole length of 
Cappadocia from east to west. On the borders 
of Phrygia it received the waters of its southern 
branch, which came from the Taurus mountains 
on the confines of Cilicia, betv\^een Lycaonia 
and Cataonia. Here was formed the great bend 
from which it inclines for the remainder of its 
course to the north-east, and passing through 
Galatia between the Tectosages and the Troc- 
mi, and afterwards dividing Paphlagonia from 
137 



HA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



Pontus, discharges itself into the Euxine by the 
Amisenus Sinus north of the town of Amisus. 
The passage of this river was fatal to Croesus 
and the empire of the Lydians, as predicted in 
ambiguous terms by the oracle, 

^poKTog ' A.\vv Sict^as jxeya'^rjv ap^r/v SiaXvast. 
If Cr(ESUs passes over the Halys, he shall destroy 
a great empire. 

That empire was his own. Cic. de Div. 2, c. 
56. — Ciirt. 4, c. 11. — Strab. 12. — Diican. 3, v, 
212.—Herodot. 1, c. 28. 

Halyzia, a town of Epirus, near the Ache- 
lous, where the Athenians obtained a naval 
victory over the Lacedasmonians. 

Ham^, a town of Campania, near Cumse. 
Liv. 23, c. 25. 

Hammon. The temple of the Libyan Jove was 
called, together with the surrounding tract of 
habitable country, Hammonia, and the temple 
was known to antiquity as the temple of Jupiter 
Hammon. This sacred edifice, hardly less vene- 
rable now than revered in the ages in which its 
deity received a universal worship, was situated 
in one of the smaller Oases of the Libyan desert. 
This Oasis, called the Oasis of Siwah, the most 
northern of the four, is situate in lat. 29° 12' N. 
and in long 26° 6 E. and still bears the ruins of 
the oracle and shrine to which it owes its fame. 
This location will bring it within the district 
called Marmarica, between the Nobatae and Ga- 
ramantes on the south, the Egyptians on the 
east, and having on the west the extensive re- 
gion of Libya interior. The antiquity of this 
famous oracle remounts to an impenetrable ob- 
scurity ; and we rather conclude from the fables 
relating and referred to it, that, even in the time 
of its earliest chroniclers, its origin was wrapt 
in fable and in fiction, than attempt to deduce 
from them a history of its foundation and pro- 
gress in notoriety and importance. Not only 
the surrounding countries of Africa, but the Ita- 
lians and Greeks paid also to this oracle a defe- 
rence and a respect unsurpassed by the venera- 
tion with which they consulted the oracular 
deities of Delphi and Dodona; and though, 
when the Romans, masters of the world, began 
to neglect all foreign auguries and prophecies 
,for those of their Sybils and Etruscan diviners, 
the respect of this oracle diminished sensibly ; 
yet even in the 5th century of our era it was not 
unusual to anticipate the fates by consultation 
of the Libyan Jupiter. In connexion with the 
temple of Hammon, the ancients also mentioned 
a fountain, beside which was a smaller temple 
or sanctuary. The peculiar properties of the 
waters of this fountain, or marsh as it is now 
represented, form likewise in their writings a 
matter of long disquisition, and the particular 
account of Herodotus has been confirmed by the 
discoveries of modern travellers. This was the 
Fons Soils, which at night was warrrier than 
during the day, and which sent forth in the 
morning a vapour or steam, that, appearing to 
the ancients miraculous, is now understood to be 
but an indication and effect of the diminished 
temperature of the atmosphere. The extent of 
this little sheet of Avater is now about ninety 
b)'' sixty feet, and its waters are remarkably 
transparent and pure, but its properties, peculiar 
as they were considered in antiquity, have ceeised 
to be an object of admiration siiice philosophy 
138 



has ascertained their cause, and observation has 
found them in numberless other wells or pools of 
the same or similar regions. It must be under- 
stood, that though the best authorities concur in 
fixing here the temple of Jupiter Hammon, there 
are many who assign it to some of the other 
Oases which lie scattered m the yqsI deserts of 
this barren continent. 

Harma, a place near Phyle, in the vicinity 
of Athens. Some superstition was connected 
with this place, and it was usual, without any 
specific occasion, to despatch an embassy to the 
Delphic oracle, and to consult the Pythia when- 
ever it was observed to lighten in the direction 
of this spot. 

Harudes, a people of Germany. They 
have been assigned by modern writers to a va- 
riety of regions in the vicinity of the sources of 
the Rhine and the Danube; they seem, how- 
ever, to have belonged to that district which lay 
between the countries of the Marcomanni and 
the Narisci, in the circle of Swabia. Cces. G. 

I, c. 31. 

Hebrus, now Maritza, so called from the 
marshy ground through which it flows before 
precipitating itself into the ^gean Sea. This 
river, among the secondary streams of Europe 
one of the most considerable, takes- its origm 
among the mountains that separated Thrace 
from the Danubian countries, a part of the Hae- 
mus range, and after draining the greater por- 
tion of the ancient Thrace, Roumelia^ it escapes 
through the only outlet by which the waters of 
this region are enabled to pass into the reser- 
voir of the tribute paid by the eastern countries 
of Greece to the Mediterranean. The mouth 
of the Hebrus was near the city of JEnos. One 
great bend distinguishes the course of this river, 
which, from being directly south-east, abruptly 
turns to the south with a western inclination, 
and pierces the hills of Rhodope in its way to 
the .-^gean. Exactly at this bend is situate 
the town of Adrian ople. From the north the 
Tonzus, from the east the Agrianes, and from 
the west the Ardiscus, constitute the main 
branches of this important stream. The He- 
brus was supposed to roll its waters upon golden 
sands. It received its name from Hebrus, son 
of Cassander, a king of Thrace, who was said 
to have drowned himself there. Mela, 2, c. 2. 
—Strah. l.— Virg. JEn. 4, v. A%^.— Ovid. Met. 

II, V. 50. 

HecatjE Fanum, a celebrated temple, sacred 
to Hecate, at Stratonice in Caria. Strab. 14. 

Hecatompolis, an epithet given to Crete, 
from the hundred cities which it once contained. 

Hecatompylos, an epithet applied to Thebes 
in Egypt on account of its hundred gates. Am- 

mian. 22, c. 16. Also the capital of Parthia 

in the reign of the Arsacides. Ptol. 6, c. 5. — 
Strab. n.—Plin. 6, c. 15 and 25. " Demegan," 
says D'Anville, " the principal city of a country 
named now Comis, and heretofore Comisene, is 
cited under the name of Hecaton-pylos, which, 
referring to the time of the Greek domination 
in these provinces, signifies the Hundred Gates; 
a figurative expression alluding to the numerous 
routes which diverge from it to the circumja- 
cent country. And when it is found in Ptolemy 
that this extremity of Media was that called 
Parthia, having Hecatonpylos for its capital, it 
must be understood of the time when a people 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



hitherto but inconsiderable had extended their 
limits far and wide by the prevailiag fortune of 
their arms. 

HECATONNEsi, now Musco Nisi, or the Isles 
of Mice, a group of small islands lying between 
Lesbos and the coast of ^olia. 

HficuBiG Sepulchrum, a promontory of 
Thrace. 

Hedui, a people of Gaul, among the richest 
and most powerful of that nation. They were 
surrounded by the Lingones on the north, the 
Sequani on the east, the Arverniand Allobroges 
on the south, and the Senones and Bituriges 
upon the west, leaving to them a great part of 
the old dukedom of Burgundy and a portion of 
the provinces of Nivernois, Bourbonois, and 
Franche Compte. The Hedui or ^Edui were 
always in the interests of Rome, and called by 
the senate, among the earliest of the Gallic peo- 
ple who received that protecting distinction, the 
friend of the Roman people. Their country, 
which is now planted with the vine, was once 
extremely fertile in gram, and served the Roman 
armies in their Gallic wars as an inexhaustible 
granary. So populous was this part of Gaul, 
that in the war excited by Vircingetorix against 
the Romans, the ^dui furnished to the former 
upwards of 35,000 fighting men. Their prin- 
cipal cities were Bibracte, Cabillonum, Matisco, 
Decetia, and Noviodunum ad Ligerim. On a 
later division of the Gallic provinces, the coun- 
try of the jEdui was formed into the minor 
province of Lugdunensis Prima, or the First 
lAonois. 

Hedyliom, a place near mount Hedylius in 
Boeotia, not farfromChasronea, onthe confines 
of Phocis. Near this spot the Bosotians, in the 
Social War, were defeated by the Phocians. 
• Helice. " In the vicinity of Bura formerly 
stood Helice, one of the chief cities of Achaia, 
and celebrated for the temple and worship of 
Neptune, thence surnamed Heliconius. It was 
here that the general meeting of the lonians was 
convened, whilst yet in the possession of iEgi- 
alus ; and the festival which then took place, is 
supposed to have resembled that of the Panio- 
nia, which they instituted afterwards in Asia 
Minor. A prodigious influx of the sea, caused 
by a violent earthquake, overwhelmed and com- 
pletely destroyed Helice, two years before the 
battle of Leuctra, in the fourth year of the 101st 
Olympiad, or 373 B. C. The details of this 
catastrophe will be found in Pausanias and 
jElian. It was said that some vestiges of the 
submerged city were to be seen long after the 
terrible event had taken place. Eratosthenes, 
as Strabo reports, beheld the site of this ancient 
town, and he was assured by mariners that the 
bronze statute of Neptune was still visible be- 
neath the waters, holding an hippocampe or sea- 
horse in his hand, and that it formed a dangerous 
shoal for their vessels. Heraclides of Pontus 
related, that this disaster, which took place in 
his time, occurred during the night ; the town, 
and all that lay between it and the sea, a dis- 
tance of twelve stadia, being inundated in an 
instant; 2000 workmen were afterwards sent 
by the Achaeans to recover the dead bodies, but 
without success. The same writer affirmed, 
that this inundation was commonly attributed to 
divine venereance, in consequence of the inha- 
bitants of Helice having obstinatelv refused to 



deliver up the statue of Neptune and a model of 
the temple to the lonians at the request of the 
latter, after they had seuled in Asia Minor. Se- 
neca affirms, that Callisthenes the philosopher, 
who Avas put to death by order of Alexander, 
wrote a voluminous work on the destruction of 
Bura and Helice. Pausanias informs us, that 
there was still a small village of the same name 
close to the sea, and forty stadia from MgrniaP 
Cram. 

Helicon mons. '• Above Thisbe, in Boeotia, 
rises Helicon, now Palceovouni or Zagora, so 
famed in antiquity as the seat of Apollo and the 
Muses, and sung by poets of every age from the 
days of Orpheus to the present time. Pausa- 
nias ascribes the worship of the Muses to the 
Thracian Pieres, and in this respect his testi- 
mony is in unison with that of Strabo, who con- 
ceives that these were a tribe of the same people 
who once occupied Macedonian Pieria, and who 
transferred from thence the names of Libethra, 
Pimplea, and the Pierides, to the dells of Heli- 
con. Strabo affirms that Helicon nearly equals in 
height mount Parnassus, and retains its snows 
during a great part of the year. Pausanias ob- 
serves, that no mountain in Greece produces 
such a variety of plants and shrubs, though 
none of a poisonous nature; on the contrary, 
several have the property of counteracting the 
effects produced by the sting or bite of venomous 
reptiles. On the summit was the grove of the 
Muses, adorned with several statues, described 
by Pausanias, and a little below was the foun- 
tain of Aganippe. The source Hippocrene 
was about twenty stadia above the grove ; it is 
said to have burst forth when Pegasus struck 
his hoof into the ground. These two springs 
supplied the small rivers named Olmius and 
Permessus, which, after uniting their waters, 
flowed into the Copaic lake near Haliartus. 
Pausanias calls the former Lemnus. Hesiod 
makes mention of these his favourite haunts in 
the opening of his Theogonia. The valleys of 
Helicon are described by Wheler as green and 
flowery in the spring ; and enlivened by pleas- 
ing cascades and streams, and by fountains and 
wells of clear water." Cram. 

Heliopolis, I. a city of Egypt, with a temple 
sacred to the sun. This place, which was ce- 
lebrated as well for the worship of the ox Mne- 
vis as of the sun, no longer existed in the time 
of Strabo. Its name, as given above, is a trans- 
lation of the Coptic denomination of On, which 
signifies the sun. The site of this ancient city 
has given rise to a difference of opinion between 
able geographers. D'Anville says, " it was af- 
terwards called by the Arabs Ain-shems, or the 
Fountain of the Sun ; and it still preserves ves- 
tiges in a place called Matarea, or Cool Wa- 
ter." Matared is not far removed from the po- 
sition of the Persian station, Babylon, now 
forming a quarter of Old Cairo, and was there- 
fore, according to D'Anville's account, without 
the Delta. Chanssard, on the other hand, 
places an inconsiderable city of the sun near 
Matarea, and fixes the greater Heliopolis with- 
in the Delta, near the apex, between the Se- 
bennytic and Canopic branches of the Nile. In 
the city were large houses appropriated to the 
priests, who at first devoted themselves to as- 
tronomy, but afterwards abandoned this pur- 
suit in favour of sacrificial worship. Apart- 
139 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



ments were shown in these houses which had 
been occupied by Plato and Eudoxus. The 
observatory of Eudoxus was in the vicinity of 

the town. II. A town of Ceelosyria, in the 

valley called Anion, between the parallel ridges 
of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. This city still 
preserves, under the name of Baalbek or Bal- 
dec, a magnificent temple, dedicated to the divi- 
nity, to which it owed its denomination both in 
the Syriac and Greek." D'Anville. 

Helisson, I. " a small but rapid river, which 
rises in the eastern part of Arcadia, and after 
traversing Megalopolis falls into the Alpheus a 
little below the city." 11. A town of Arca- 
dia, situated in the Msenalian plains, near the 
source of the Helisson. It was, at length, in- 
cluded in the Megalopolitan territory, and was 
taken by the Lacedaemonians in one of their 
wars with the Arcadians. Cram. 

Hellas. Vid. Grcecia. 

Hellenes, the inhabitants of Greece. Vid. 
Grcecia. 

Hellespontds, now the Dardanelles, a nar- 
row strait between Asia and Europe, near the 
Propontis, which received its name from Helle, 
who was drowned there in her voyage to Col- 
chis. [ Vid. Helle.] It is about sixty miles long, 
and, in the broadest parts, the Asiatic coast is 
about three miles distant from the European, 
and only half a mile in the narrowest, accord- 
ing to modern investigation ; so that people can 
converse one with the other from the opposite 
shores. It is celebrated for the love and death 
of Leander, [ Vid. Hero,] and for the bridge of 
boats which Xerxes built over it when he inva- 
ded Greece. Strab. 13. — Plin. 8, c. 32. — Hero- 
dot. 7, c. M.—Polyb.—Mela, 1, c. l.—Ptol. 5, 
c.'a.— Ovid. Met. 13, V. Wl.—Liv. 31, c. 15, 1. 
33, c. 33. 

Hellopia Regio, a rich plain of Epirus, in 
which Dodona was situated, as Hesiod tells us 
in a beautiful passage of his poem called 'Horai, 
transmitted to us by the scholiast of Sophocles. 
" This champaign country," according to Cra- 
mer, " would be that which surrounds Delvina- 
kir and Deropuli, which modern travellers re- 
present as extremely fertile and well cultivated. 
Dr. Holland says, ' the vale of Deropuli is lux- 
uriantly fertile in every part of its extent ; and 
the industry of a numerous population has been 
exerted in bringing it to a high state of cu'lture.' 
A little below, he adds, ' this great vale is, per- 
haps, the most populous district in Albania.' " 
Cram. 

Helorum, and Helorus, now Muri Ucci, a 
town and river of Sicily, whose swollen waters 
generally inundate the neighbouring country. 
Virg. Mn. 3, v. mS.—Ital. 11, v. 270. 

Helos, a place of Laconia. " It was eighty 
stadia from Trinasus, on the left bank of the Eu- 
rotas, and not far from the mouth of that river. 
It was said to owe its origin to Helius the son of 
Perseus. The inhabitants of this town, having 
revolted against the Dorians and Heraclidse, 
were reduced to slavery,and called Helots,which 
name was afterwards extended to the various 
people who were held in bondage by the Spar- 
tans." Not only the servile offices in which 
they were employed denoted their misery and 
slavery, but they were obliged to wear peculiar 
garments, which exposed them to greater con- 
tempt and ridicule. Thev never were instruct- 
140 



ed in the liberal arts, and their cruel masters 
often obliged them to drink to excess, to show 
the free-born citizens of Sparta the beastliness 
and disgrace of intoxication. They once every 
year received a number of stripes, that by this 
wanton flagellation they might recollect that 
they were born and died slaves. In the Pelopon- 
nesian war these miserable slaves behaved with 
uncommon bravery, and were rewarded with 
their liberty by the Lacedaemonians, and appear- 
ed in the temples and at public shows with gar- 
lands, and with every mark of festivity and tri- 
umph. This exultation did not continue long, 
and the sudden disappearance of the two thou- 
sand manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
inhumanity of the Lacedaemonians. Thucyd. 4. 
— Pollux. 3, c. 8. — Strab. 8. — Plut. in L/yc. &c. 
— Arist. Polit. 2. — Paus. Lacon. &c. " Po- 
lybius says the district of Helos was the most 
extensive and fertile part of Laconia. But the 
coast was marshy, from which circumstance it 
probably derived its name. In Strabo's time it 
was only a village, and some years later Pau- 
sanias informs us it was in ruins. In Lapie's 
map the vestiges of Helos are placed at Tsyli, 
about five miles from the Eurotas ; and Sir W. 
Gell observes that" the marsh of Helos is to the 
east of the mouth of that river." Cram. 

Helots, the inhabitants of Helos. Vid. 
Helos. 

Helvetia, the eastern part of Celtica, sur- 
rounded in the time of Coesar by the Rauraci, 
Tulingi, and Latobrigi upon the north, the Sa- 
runetes on the east, the Lepontii, Seduni, and 
Nantuates on the south, and by the Sequani, 
who were separated from them by mount Jura 
on the west. Helvetia was at this period cir- 
cumscribed within a narrow sphere between the 
Alps, the Jura mountains, the Lacus Lemanus, 
and the Lacus Brigantinus. Of the subdivi- 
sions of Helvetia very little remains to be ob- 
served, nor is it possible distinctly to define the 
limits and extent of the four principal cantons 
into which it is understood to have been divided. 
The Tigurinus, however, is received as the 
greatest, and the first, together with the Aven- 
ticus, whose principal city of Aventicum may 
pass for the capital of Helvetia. The Helvetii 
were among the most warlike of the Gallic 
tribes, and though there is little recorded history 
of their achievements, we know that they were 
long refractory, and that they with difficulty 
submitted to receive the yoke of their Roman 
conquerors. Cas. Bell. G. 1, &c. — Tacit. Hist. 
1, c. 67 and 69. 

Helvh, a people of Gallia Provincia, sepa- 
rated by the mons Cebenna from the Velauni, 
and having on the south the Arecomaci. Thus 
situated, the Helvii must have occupied a por- 
tion of the department of Arverche, in which 
some vestiges are still to be found of their an- 
cient capital. Alba Augusta, at a spot which, 
in the name of Alps, still shows some traces of 
its origin. This spot is in the immediate vicinity 
of Viviers. Plin. 3, c. 4. 

Heneti, a people of Paphlagonia, who are 
said to have settled in Italy near the Adriatic 
where they gave the name of Vemtia to their 
habitations. Liv. 1, c. 1. — Eurip. 

HENiocm, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia, near 
Colchis, descended from Amphytus and Tele- 
chius, the charioteers (jV'oxo') of Castor and 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



Pollux, and thence called Lacedaemonii. Mela^ 
1, c. 21.— Pater c. 2, c. ^O.—Flacc. 3, v. 270, 1. 
6, V. 42. 

Keptapylos, a surname of Thebes in Boeo- 
tia, from its seven gates. 

Heraclea, I. " situated between the Aciris 
and Liris, was founded by the Tarentini after 
the destruction of the ancient city of Siris, ^A■hich 
stood at the mouth of the latter river, A. C. 428. 
This city is rendered remarkable in history as 
being the seat of the general council of the 
Greek states. Alexander of Epirus is said to 
have attempted to remove the assembly from the 
territory of the Tarentines, who had given him 
cause for displesLsure, to that of Thurii. Anti- 
quaries seem agreed in fixing the site of this 
town at Policoro, about three miles from the 
mouth of the river Aciris, now Agri, where con- 
siderable remains are yet visible." II. A city 

in the territory of the L}Ticestae in Macedonia, 
" surnamed L5^ncestis by Ptolemy, and which 
we know stood on the Egnatian Way, both from 
Polybius, as cited by Strabo, and also from the 
Itineraries. The editor of the French Strabo 
says, its ruins still retain the name of Erekli. 
Stephanus speaks of a town called Lyncus ; 
which is probably the same as Heraclea, unless 
he has mistaken the name of the district for that 

of a town." Cram. III. " The principal 

town of the Sinti was Heraclea, surnamed Sin- 
tice, by way of distinction, or Heraclea ex Sin- 
tiis. The same historian states, that Demetrius, 
the son of Philip, was here imprisoned and 
murdered. Heraclea is also mentioned by Pliny 
and Ptolemy. Mannert thinks it is the same 
as the Heraclea built by Amyntas, brother of 
Philip, according to Steph. Byz. The Table 
Itinerary assigns a distance offifty miles between 
Philippi and Heraclea Sintica : we know also 
from Hierocles that it was situated near the 
Strymon, as he terms it Heraclea Strymonis." 

Cram. IV. A town in the territory of Tra- 

chis in Thessaly, built by a colony of Lacedae- 
monians, aided by the Trachinians. It was 
" distant about sixty stadia from Thermopylae 
and twenty from the sea. Its distance from 
Trachin was only six stadia. The jealousy of 
ihe neighbouring Thessalian tribes led them fre- 
quently to take up arms against the rising colo- 
ny, by which its prosperity was so much im- 
paired, that the Lacedaemonians were more than 
once compelled lo send reinforcements to its 
support. On one occasion the Heracleans were 
assisted by the Boeotians. A sedition having 
arisen within the cit}--, it was quelled by Eripi- 
das, a Lacedaemonian commander, who made 
war upon and expelled the CEtseans, who were 
the constant enemies of the Heracleans. These 
retired into Bceotia ; and at their instigation the 
Boeotians seized upon Heraclea, and restored 
the CEtaeans and Trachinians, who had also 
been ejected by the Lacedaemonians. Xenophon 
reports that the inhabitants of Heraclea were 
again defeated in a severe engagement with the 
CEtaeans, in consequence of their having been 
deserted by their allies, the Achaeans of Phthia. 
Several years after, the same historian relates, 
that this city was occupied by Jason of Pherae, 
"who caused the walls to be pulled down. He- 
raclea, however, again rose from its ruins, and 
became a flourishing city under the jEtolians, 
who sometimes held their general council within 



its walls. According to Livy, the city stood 
in a plain, but the Acropolis was on a hill of 
very difhcult access. After the defeat of Anti- 
ochus at Thermop)dce it was besieged by the 
Roman consul, Acilius Glabrio, who took it by 
assault. Sir W. Gell observed ' the vestiges of 
the cit5r of Heraclea on a high flat, on the roots 
of mount CEta. Left of these, on a lofty rock, 
the citadel of Trachis, of which some of the 
walls are destroyed by the fall of the rock on 
which they were placed. Hence the views of 
the pass of Thermopyte and the vale of the 

Sperchius are most magnificent.' " Cram. 

V. A towTi in Thrace, situated on the Propon- 
tis, near the extremity of the Macrontichos. 
Its first name was Perinthus, which was changed 
to Heraclea, whence is derived the name ^r^/rZi, 
applied to the ruins that now occupy the site of 
the ancient city. " Byzantium, become Con- 
stantinople, caused the decay of Heraclea,whose 
see, notwithstanding, enjoys the pre-eminence 
of metropolitan in the province distinguished in 
Thrace by the title of Europa." D'Anville. 
■VI. PoNTiCA, a city of Bithynia, situated 



on the bend, which forms a gulf terminated on 
the north by the Acherusian Chersonese. Ac- 
cording to Mela this city was founded by the 
Argive Hercules, who was said to have dragged 
Cerberus from hell through a cavern in the pro- 
montory^ at the extremity of the peninsula above- 
mentioned. Strabo, on the other hand, says 
that the Milesians first founded Heraclea, while 
Xenophon makes it a colony of Megara." 3Jela, 

1, 19.— Strab. 12. VIT. Another in Syria. 

VIII. Another in Chersonesus Taurica. 

-IX. Another in Thrace, and three in 



Egypt, &c. There were no less than forty cities 
of that name in different parts of the world, all 
built in honour of Hercules, whence the name 
is derived. 

Heracleum, or Heraclea, a town of Ma- 
cedonia, situated " five males beyond Phila, and 
half way between Dium ana Tempe. It pro- 
bably stood on the site of Litochori, midway 
between the mouth of the Peneus and Standia, 
which occupies the site of Dium, and five miles 
from Platamona or Phila. Li\y informs us it 
was built on a rock which overhung a river. 
Scylax describes Heracleum as the first town of 
Macedonia after crossing the Peneus ; but we 
must remember that at this period Phila did not 
exist. Heracleum was taken in a remarkable 
manner by the Romans in the war with Perseus, 
as related by Liv}^ Having assailed the walls 
under cover of the manoeuvre called testudo, they 
succeeded so well with the lower fortifications, 
that they were induced to employ the same 
means against the loftier and more difficult 
works ; raising, therefore, the testudo to an ele- 
vation which overtopped the walls, the Romans 
drove the garrison from the ramparts and cap- 
tured the town." Cram. 

Her^a, a towTi of Arcadia, " was placed on 
the slope of a hill rising gently above the right 
bank of the Alpheus, and near the frontier of 
Elis, which frequently disputed its possession 
with Arcadia. Before the Cleomenic war, this 
town had joined the Achaean league, but was 
then taken by the ^tolians and recaptured by 
Antigonus Doson, who restored it to the Achae- 
ans. In Sirabo's time, Hei'aea was greatly re- 
duced ; but when Pausanias visited Arcadia it 
141 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



appears to have recovered from this state of 
decay, since he speaks of baths, and of planta- 
tions of myrtles and other trees along the Al- 
pheus; he also mentions several temples, of 
which two were sacred to Bacchus and one to 
Pan, That of Juno was in ruins. Stephanus 
remarks that this town was also known by the 
name of Sologorgus. ' Its site is now occupied 
by the village of Agiani^ which stands on a 

Eretty eminence projecting from the hills which 
ound the vale of the Alpheus on the north. 
The city appears to have been very respectable, 
though from the soil being cultivated its remains 
are few; buildings have here existed of the 
Doric order, but the columns now on the spot 
do not exceed a diameter of eighteen inches.' " 
Cram. 

Her^um, a temple and grove of Juno, situate 
between Argos and Mycenae. 

Herculaneum, a town of Campania, swal- 
lowed up with Pompeii, by an earthquake pro- 
duced from an eruption of mount Vesuvius, 
August 24th, A. D. 79, in the reign of Titus, 
After being buried under the lava for more than 
1600 years, these famous cities were discovered 
in the beginning of the present century ; Her- 
culaneum in 1713, about 24 feet under ground, 
by labourers digging for a well, and Pompeii, 
40 years after, about 12 feet below the surface, 
and from the houses and the streets, which in 
a great measure remain still perfect, have been 
draAvn busts, statues, manuscripts, paintings, 
and utensils, which do not a little contribute to 
enlarge our notions concerning the ancients, 
and develope many classical obscurities. The 
valuable antiquities, so miraculously recovered. 
are preserved in the museum of Portici, a small 
town in the neighbourhood, and the engravings, 
«&c. ably taken from them, have been munifi- 
cently presented to the different learned bodies 
of Europe. " Cluverius was right in his cor- 
rection of the Tabula Theodosiana, which 
reckoned twelve miles between this place and 
Neapolis, instead of six, though he removed it 
too far from Portici when he assigned to it the 
position of Torre del Greco. Nothing is kno\ATi 
respecting the origin of Herculaneum, except 
that fabulous accounts ascribed its foundation 
to Hercules on his return from Spain. It may 
be inferred, however, from a passage in Strabo, 
that this town was of great antiquity. At first 
it was only a fortress, which was successively 
occupied by the Osci, Tyrrheni, Pelasgi, Sam- 
nites, and lastly by the Romans. Being situated 
close to the sea, on elevated ground, it was ex- 
posed to the south-west wind, and from that 
circumstance was reckoned particularly heal- 
thy. We learn from Velleius Paterculus, that 
Herculaneum suffered considerably during the 
civil wars. This town is mentioned also by 
Mela and by Sisenna, a more ancient writer 
than any of the former ; he is quoted by Nonius 
Marcellus. Ovid likewise notices it under the 
name of ' Urbem Herculeam.' It is probable 
that the subversion of this town was not sudden, 
but progressive, since Seneca mentions a par- 
tial demolition which it sustained from an 
earthquake." Cramer. — Seneca. Nat. Q. 6, c. 
1 and 26.— Cic. Att. 7, ep. Z.—Mela, 2, c. 4.— 
Paterc. 2, c. 16. 

Hercui.eum promontorium, now Capo Spar- 
tivento. the most southern angle of Italy to 
142 



the east. Freitjm, the straits of Gibraltar. 

Herculis columns. Vid. Columnce Hercu- 

lis. Monaeci Portus, now Monaco, a port 

town of Genoa. Tacit. H. 3, c. 42. — iMcan. 1, 

V. 405. — Virg. uEn. 6, v. 830. Labronis vel 

Liburni Portus, a sea-port town of Etruria, now 

Leghorn. Insulae, two islands near Sardinia. 

Plin. 3, c. 7. Portus, a sea-port of the Brutii, 

on the western coast. A small island on the 

coast of Spain, called also Scombraria, from the 
tunny fish {Scomoros) caught there. Strab. 3. 

Hercyne, a river of Boeotia, which " took 
its rise near the town of Lebadea, in a cave, 
from whence issued two springs, called Lethe 
and Mnemosyne, which, uniting, formed the 
stream in question. It is now called the river 
of Libadia. ' The sacred fountain,' says Dod- 
well, ' issues from the rock by ten small spouts ; 
the water is extremely cold and clear. On the 
opposite side of the channel is the source of the 
other fount, the water of which, though not 
warm, is of a much higher temperature than 
that of the other spring ; it flows copiously from 
the rock. The two springs, blending their wa- 
ters, pass under a modern bridge, and immedi- 
ately form a rapid stream, the ancient Hercyne. 
In its way through the town it turns several 
mills ; and, after a course of a few miles, enters 
the Copaic lake.' " Cram 

Hercynia siLVA, a forest of Germany, call- 
ed by Ptolemy, Eratosthenes, and other Greek 
writers, Orcynium, " so vast, that it seemed to 
cover the whole country, whose ancient condi- 
tion might well have merited the description 
that Tacitus has given of it, however inapplic- 
able to its present state. We must add that 
Hercynia is a generic term, there being several 
places in Germany named der Hartz : and if 
there be found other names of forests, as that of 
Gabreta Silva, they are proper only to parts of 
this immense continuity of wood, which extend- 
ed from the banks of the Rhine to the limits of 
Sarmatia and Dacia." {D'Anville.) Caesar, in 
his description of this celebrated forest, says 
that its breadth was such that it was nine days' 
march across it ; while its length had not yet 
been ascertained even by those who had travel- 
led through it uninterruptedly for 60 days. He 
mentions that report assigned to it several spe- 
cies of animals no where else to be found. B. 
G. 6, 25. 

Hercynh montes. These mountains re- 
ceived their name from the immense forest 
which is described in the article above, and 
which covered the sides and summits of that 
range of mountains which may be distinguished 
from the Alpine chain by the name of Hercy- 
nio-Ca^pathian mountains. We extract from 
Malte-Brun the following account of this range: 
" The great plain of the Danube, or the boun- 
dary of the Alpine range, is in several places so 
much confined, that the Alps appear to be con- 
nected with the Hercynio-Carpathian moun- 
tains in many parts of Austria. Although se- 
parated by the higher plains of Bavaria, the 
mountains of the Black Forest, near the sources 
of the Danube, connect the two ranges, and a 
junction is also marked b)'- the falls of the 
Rhine. The Hercynio-Carpathian mountains 
are bounded on the west by the course of the 
Rhine, by the valley of the Danube on the south, 
and the 'Dniester on the east. From their 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



northern declivities descend all the rivers which 
water the plains of Poland, Prussia, and north- 
ern Germany. The Hercynian and Carpathian 
mountaiDS rise above the Sarmatian and Teu- 
tonic plains, but their summits cannot be com- 
pared with the majestic heights of the Alps. 
Considered in this point of view, they appear 
to be the appendage of a greater range, and to 
form the northern extremity of the Alps and 
the counterpart of the Appenines. But the great 
difference between the Herc)Tiio-Carpathian 
chain and the Appenines, consists m the latter 
being very distinctly separated from the Alps 
by the deep valley of the Po, and the Adriatic, 
while the valley of the Danube is less excavated, 
and confined in its upper part, as has been al- 
ready remarked, by the branches of the eastern 
Alps and the mountains of Bohemia. The 
mountains connected with the Alps on the west, 
are united with the Hercynian chain, not only 
by the Black Forest, but by the continuation 
of the Vosges in the neighbourhood of Bingen. 
There is a more obvious difference between 
the Appenines and the Hercynio-Carpathian 
range ; the first are a continuous and regular 
chain, and the others, if correctly observed, seem 
to form a series of lofty plains, on which several 
small chains rise, and although their summits 
are evidently separated , all of them are supported 
on a common base. This table land, crowned 
with mountains, inclines to the north and the 
north-east. That fact cannot be disputed, it is 
proved by the course of the Vistula, the Oder, 
and the Elbe ; but local irregularities are occa- 
sioned by several chains which rest on these 
elevated plains. Thus the Erze-Gebirge in Sax- 
ony terminated in rapid declivities towards Bo- 
hemia, and appear to interrupt the general in- 
clination." 

Herdonia, a town of Apulia, " now Ordo- 
na, stood on a branch of the Appian "Way, and 
about twelve miles to the east of JEca. hivj 
states that this town witnessed the defeat of the 
Roman forces in two successive years, when 
they were commanded on both occasions by 
two prsetors named Fulvius. After the last en- 
gagement, Hannibal is said to have removed the 
inhabitants of Herdonia from that place, and 
to have destroyed it by fire. It must, however, 
have risen afterwards from this state of ruin, 
since we find it mentioned as a colony by Fron- 
tinus, under the corrupt name of Ardona. Stra- 
bo calls it Cerdonia, and places it on the conti- 
nuation of the Via Egnatia, between Canusium 
and Beneventum. It is also named by Ptolemy 
and Silius Italicus." Cram. 

HERI.E, a gate of Athens. Vid. Athence . 

Hermjeum, a promontory of Lemnos, noticed 
by JEschylus in the Agamemnon, and by So- 
phocles in the Philoctetes. 

Hermione, a town of Argolis, on its south- 
ern coast, nearly opposite the island Hydrea. 
" According to. Herodotus it was founded by 
the Dryopes, wliom Hercules and the Melians 
had expelled from the banks of the Sperchius 
and the valleys of GEta. It sent three ships 
to Salamis and 300 soldiers to Platcea. The 
Athenians ravaged the Hermionian territory' 
during the Peloponnesian war. Xeno, tyrant 
of Hermione, after the capture of Acrocorinthus 
by Aratus, voluntarily relinquished his power, 
and joined the Achaean league. Pausanias 



I describes this city as situated on a hill of mo- 
derate height, and surrounded by walls. It 
was embellished by numerous buildings, several 
of which contained statues worthy of notice. 
The temple of Venus Pontia is first mentioned 
by that ancient writer. The statue was of 
white marble, and colossal in its proportions. 
He also points out the temple of Bacchus Mela- 
neegis, in whose honour contests were yearly 
held in music, diving, and rowing ; the temples 
of Diana, Iphigenia, and Vesta ; and those of 
Apollo and Fortune. The statue of the latter 
was colossal, and of Parian marble. Two 
aqueducts supplied the town with water ; one 
was of considerable antiquity, the other modem. 
The temple of Ceres, situated on the hill named 
Pron, was said to have been erected by Clyme- 
nus, son of Phoroneus, and his sister Chthonia, 
Its sanctuaiy afforded an inviolable refuge to 
suppliants, whence arose the proverb dib' Ep- 
/((dv'jf, ' as safe an asylum as that of Hermione.' 
The vestibule was adorned with the effigies of 
the priestesses of the goddess. Opposite to this 
edifice was a temple of Clymenus, by which 
name Pausanias conceives Pluto to have been 
designated. Not far from thence was a cave 
supposed to communicate with the infernal re- 
gions. It vras probably owing to this speedy 
descent to Orcus that the Hermionians, as Stra- 
bo informs us. omitted to put a piece of money 
in the mouths of their dead. This ancient city 
is noticed by Homer in the Catalogue. ^Lasus, 
an early poet of some note, said to have been 
the instructor of Pindar, was a native of Her- 
mione. We are informed by Sir W. Gell, that 
the ruins of Hermione are to be seen on the 
promontory below Kastri, a toAvn inhabited by 
Albanians nearly opposite to the island of Hy- 
dra. The walls remain, and many foundations 
of the temples. Pausanias affirms that Hermi- 
one originally stood at a distance of four stadia 
from the site it occupied in his day, and though 
the inhabitants had long removed to the new 
city, there yet remained several edifices to mark 
the spot. The temple of Neptune was close to 
the beach, and above it was that of Minerva, 
with the stadium of the Tyndaridag. The grove 
of the Graces, the temples of Minerva, of the 
Sun, and of Isis and Serapis, also subsisted, 
and were still frequented by the Hermionians. 
The temple of Ceres Thermasia was placed at 
the extremity of the territory^ of the city towards 
Troezene." Cram. 

HsRivnoNEs, a people of Germany, whom 
Mela places in the remotest parts of that coun- 
tiy, that is to say, along the Vistula, on the bor- 
ders of Sarmatia. In Tacitus Herrainones is 
generally read, for which Cluverius incorrectly 
substitutes Helleviones. The Helleviones and 
Hermiones were both distinct tribes of the Sue- 
vie family; although Pliny makes Hermiones, 
and not Suevi, the generic term. (For the po- 
sition of the Hermiones according to the geo- 
graphy of Pliny, see Germayna.) Tacitus dis- 
tinguishes theHelleviones, under the name of 
Helvecones, from the Hermiones. Great con- 
fusion arises in relation to the barbarian nations, 
from the various forms under which their 
names are presented by different authors. Thus 
the same people are stvled Hermiones, Herme- 
chiones, Hermechii. Hormechii, and Hermi- 
nones. Mela, 3, 3, 46. and Vosa. ad loc 
143 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



Hermionicus sinus, a bay on the southern 
coast of Argolis, which took its name from the 
city Hermione. 

Hbrmon, a part of the range of mount Li- 
banus, at the foot of which the Jordan takes its 
ris e. The name itself means ' ' the highest part 
of a mountain," and this ridge Avas the loftiest 
of the range to which it belonged. The Sido- 
nians called it Sirion, while the Amoriles styled 
it Shenir ; both which names answer to the La- 
tin lorica, " a breast-plate," referring, no doubt, 
to the natural defence which the mountain af- 
forded to the country. In like manner we find 
a mountain in Magnesia called Gwpa^, which 
means " a breast-plate ;" and a part of the Alps, 
which received the name of Brennus, derived 
from Bren or Bryn, the old German for " a hel- 
met." Deuteronomy, 3, 9. — Rosenmuller, ad loc. 
— Heylin. 

Hermopolis, a town of the Delta in Egypt, 
" with the qualification of Parva to distinguish 
it from one in the Heptanomis. It accords with 

the position of Demenhury " The position 

of Hermopolis Magna, or the Great City of 
Mercury, is well known to be that retained by 
Ashmunein ; which, if a tradition of the coun- 
try may be credited, owes this name to Ishmim, 
son of Mizraim, the ancestor of the ^Egyptian 
nation." This city was in the Heptanomis, on 
the western bank of the Nile. D'Anville. 

Hkrmunduri, a people of Germany, subdued 
by Aurelius. They were at the north of the 
Danube, and were considered by Tacitus as a 
tribe of the Suevi, but called, together with the 
Suevi, Hermiones by Pliny. The Hermun- 
duri, as a reward for their fidelity to their Ro- 
man conquerors, were allowed peculiar commer- 
cial privileges, being permitted to cross the Da- 
nube, and trade in the Rhaetian province. The 
Albis takes its rise in their territories. Tac. 
Germ. 41. — Plin. 4, c. 14. — Tacit. Ann. 13, 
extra.— Veil. 2, c. 106. 

Hermus, a river of Asia Minor, whose sands, 
according to the poets, were covered with gold. 
It flows near Sardis, and receives the waters of 
the Pactolus and Hyllus, after which it falls into 
the Smyrnaeus Sinus, to the south of Smyrna. 
It gives the name of Hermi-Campi to the plains 
through which it flows between Smyrna and 
Sardis. It is now called Kedous or Sarabat. 
Virg. G. 2, v. yi.—Uican. 3, v. ^IQ.— Martial. 
8, ep. IS.—Sil 1, V. 159.— Plin. 5, c. 29. 

Hernici, a people of Italy, who possessed 
that portion of New Latium which bordered on 
the Mqui and Marsi before it was included 
within the Latin limits. " No description of 
the character of this small tract of country is 
equal to that which is conveyed by one line of 
Virgil : 

Quique altum Prceneste viri,quique arva Gahince. 
Junonis, gelidumque Anienem, et roscida rivis 
Hernica saza colunt. JEn. vii. 682. 

It was maintained by some authors, that the 
Hernici derived their name from the rocky na- 
ture of their country, he ma, in the Sabine dia- 
lect signifying a rock. Others were of opinion 
that they were so called from Hernicus, a Pe- 
lasgic chief; and Macrobius thinks Virgil al- 
luded to that origin when he describes this peo- 
ple as going to battle with one leg bare. The 
former etymology, however, is more probable, 
144 



and would lead us also to infer, that the Herni- 
ci, as well as the Mqui and Marsi, were de- 
scended from the Sabines, or generally from the 
Oscan race. There is nothing in the history of 
this petty nation which possesses any peculiar 
interest, or distinguishes them from their equally 
hardy and warlike neighbours. It is merely an 
account of the same ineffectual struggle to re- 
sist the systematic and overwhelming prepon- 
derance of Rome, and of the same final submis- 
sion to her transcendent genius and fortune. It 
may be remarked, that it was upon the occasion 
of a debate on the division of some lands con- 
quered from the Hernici that the celebrated 
Agrarian law was first brought forward, A. U. 
C. 268. The last effort made by this people to 
assert their independence was about the year 
447 U. C. ; but it was neither long nor vigo- 
rous, though resolved upon unanimously by a 
general council of all their cities." Cram. 

Heroopolis, " from which one of the creeks 
of the Arabic gulf was called Heroopolites, is 
the Pithom mentioned in the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures as a city constructed by the Israelites, and 
the Patumos of the Arabic country of Egypt in 
Herodotus. And it may be added from concur- 
rent circumstances, that the place of arms of 
vast extent, called Anaris by Josephus, where 
the shepherd kings held Egypt in subjection, 
was the site of Heroopolis." {D'Anville.) It 
is probably now the village of Heron, of which 
Baudrand speaks. Cha^issard. 

Herth^ Insula, an island of the Northern 
ocean, according to Tacitus ; although it has 
been proposed to alter the reading in the passage 
of the Germany where this island is mentioned, 
by substituting in silva Baceni for the words in 
insula Oceani. This island was" consecrated 
to a religious ceremony in honour of Hertha, or 
the mother Earth. Though it be the opinion ^J 
of many that this island is the same with Ru- M 
gen, there is greater probability of recognising 
it in the name of Heilig-land, which signifies 
the Holy Isle. It is situated in the distance off 
the mouth of the Elbe, and of it only, an emi- 
nence now remains, the sea having covered a 
shore much more spacious." D'Anville. — Tac. 
de mor. Germ. 40. 

Heruli, a savage nation in the northern parts 
of Europe, who attacked the Roman power in 
its decline. " It is difficult in the dark forests ^ 
of Germany and Poland to pursue the emi- 9 
grations of the Heruli, a fierce people, who dis- 
dained the use of armour, and who condemn- 
ed their widows and aged parents not to sur- 
vive the loss of their husbands or the decay of 
their strength." {Gibbon.) " The Heruli, un- 
der the conduct of Odoacer, conquered Italy, 
whereof he was proclaimed king by the Romans J| 
themselves ; but Odoacer being vanquished near ^ 
Verona by Theodoric, king of the Goths, the 
Heruli had Piedmont allotted to them by the 
conqueror for their habitation. They had not 
held it long when it was subdued by the Lom- 
bards, of whose kingdom it remained a part till 
given by Aripert, the seventeenth king of the 
Lombards, to the church of Rome ; affirmed by 
some to be the first temporal estate that ever 
the popes of Rome had possession of" Heyl. 
Cosm. 

Hesperia, a large island of Africa, once the 
residence of the Amazons. Diod. 3. A 



HE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



name common both to Italy and Spain. It is 
derived from Hesper or Vesper, the setting sun, 
or the evening, whence the Greeks called Italy 
Hesperia, because it was situate at the setting 
sun or in the west. The same name, for similar 
reasons, was applied to Spain by the Latins. 
Vir^ jEn. 1, V. 634, &c.—Horat. 1, od. 34, v. 
4, 1. 1, od. 27, V. ^.-Sil. 7, V. Id.-Ovid. Met. 

' Hespekidum iNSULiE. The authors of the 
several ingenious attempts to define with accu- 
racy the Hesperidum InsulaB, do not appear to 
have borne sufficiently in mind the nature of 
the investigation in which they were engaged, 
and an eager search for the real Hespendes 
would frequently induce the reader to forget that 
they were, after all, but a fabulous creation. 
The only inquiry ought to be as to the place 
or places contemplated by the various authors 
who have mentioned and referred to the Hes- 
pendes. Some have placed them m Magnesia, 
and some among the Hyperboreans. More fre- 
quently, however, they are assigned to Africa, 
but the query still remains as to the particular 
site The Cyrenaica and Marmarica have also 
been considered the abode of these mythologi- 
cal personages, while many situate them in isl- 
ands by the Straits of Gibraltar, or in some of 
the African islands in the Atlantic. Plmy and 
Pomponius Mela mention two, which do, mdeed, 
appear to have borne this name, and are believed 
by modern writers to have been either the For- 
tunate Islands, or those called Cape de Verd. 
We may observe, that they were most frequent- 
ly referred to as being in the vicinity of Mount 
Atlas, itself no less a subject of poetic embellish- 
ment. Vid/Hesperides, Part III. 

Hesperis, a town of Cyrenaica, now Beroiic 
or Bengazi, where most authors have placed 
the garden of the Hesperides. This town was 
afterwards called Berenice by the Greeks. Voss. 
ad Mel. 

Hesti^a. Vid. Histiaa. 
Hesti^otis, " according to Strabo, was that 
portion of Thessaly which lies near Pmdus, and 
between that mountain and upper Macedonia. 
This description applies to the upper valley of 
the Peneus, and the lateral valleys which de- 
scend into it from the north and the west. The 
same writer elsewhere informs us, that, accord- 
ing to some authorities, this district was origm- 
ally the countiy of the Dorians, who certainly 
are stated by Herodotus and others to have once 
occupied the regions of Pindus, but that after- 
wards it took the name of Hestiseotis from a 
district in Euboea so called, whose inhabitants 
were transplanted into Thessaly by the Perrhae- 
bi. The most northern part of Hestiasotis was 
possessed by the ^thices, a tribe of uncertain, 
but ancient origin, since they are mentioned by 
Homer, who states, that the Centaurs, expelled 
by Pirithous from mount Pelion, withdrew to 
the ^thices, . 
"HiiarL To5 ore <pripai IriaaTO >.axvfievTai' 

11. B. 744. 



Strabo says they inhabited the Thessalian side 
of Pindus, near the source of the Peneus, but 
that their possession of the latter was disputed 
by the Tympheei, who were contiguous to them 
ontheEpirotic side of the mountain. Marsyas, 
Part L— T 



a writer cited by Stephanus Byz. described the 
iEthices as a most daring race of barbarians, 
whose sole object was robbery and plunder." 

Hetruria. " Of all the ancient nations of 
Italy, none appear to have such claims upon 
our notice as that of the Tuscans. Their ce- 
lebrity at a time when Rome as yet had no ex- 
istence ; the superiority of their political insti- 
tutions ; their progress in navigation, commerce, 
and many other arts of civilized life, when the 
surrounding nations were to all appearance en- 
veloped in ignorance and barbarism ; are cir- 
cumstances which, even in the present day, must 
arrest inquiry, and command alike the attention 
of the historian and philosopher. But so evi- 
dent has the insufficiency of the historical infor- 
mation on the origin of the Tuscans appeared, 
that many antiquaries of celebrity in the last 
century, despairing of obtaining any clue to this 
search from the conflicting testimony of ancient 
writers, have not hesitated to quit altogether the 
beaten track of history, and to venture amidst 
the untrodden and alluring mazes of conjecture. 
The consequence of this mode of investigation 
was easy to be foreseen •, system followed sys- 
tem, till there scarcely remained any nation of 
acknowledged antiquity, to which the honour of 
having colonized Etruria was not attributed. 
Thus it was supposed that the Tuscans might 
be descended from the Egyptians, the Canaan- 
ites, or the Ph^nicians. Others again contend- 
ed for their Celtic origin. Freret ascribed it to 
the Rheeti, Hervas to the ancient Cantabri ; 
while some again gave up all hope of arriving 
at any certain conclusion in this puzzling ques- 
tion, and seemed to consider it as one of those 
historical problems which must for ever remain 
without a solution. The multiplicity of the 
opinions which have just been noticed, is the 
best proof of the little dependance that is to be 
placed on systems which trust for support to 
conjecture alone. There are three sources from 
which we may expect to derive information re- 
specting the origin of the ancient Tuscans. 1st, 
The accounts of Greek writers. 2d, Those of 
the Romans. 3d, The existing national monu- 
ments discovered in Etruria. With respect to 
ihe Romans, it is well known that they concern- 
ed themselves but little about inquiries into the 
origin of nations, and received without much 
examination all the accounts even of the early 
population of Italy, which were transmitted to 
them by the Greeks, their masters m every spe- 
cies of literature ; so that little original infor- 
mation can be derived from them m an inquiry 
which is to be traced considerably higher than 
the foundation of their city. The evidence 
which is supplied by the inscriptions and coins 
of Etruria, respecting the origin of its inhabit- 
ants has hitherto done little towards settling 
the question ; and since the age of these monu- 
ments, which had been greatly overrated, has 
been proved by able judges to be posterior to the 
commencement even of the Roman republic, we 
are obliged to seek among the historians and 
poets of Greece for the earliest records of Etrus- 
can history. It is well known that the inhabit- 
ants of that country are always spoken of by 
the Greeks under the name of Tyrseni, or Tyr- 
rheni, while the Romans designate them by that 
of Etrusci, or Tusci. This difference of no- 
145 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



HE 



menclature will be considered more fully here- 
after ; but it may be observed at present, that it 
seems too decided to allow of the supposition 
that either is a corruption of the other ; whence 
we should be led to infer, that the Tyrrheni and 
Tusci were not originally the same people, even 
ii history did not farther establish the fact. 
Who then were the Tyrrheni of the Greeks, 
and whence did that name originate 1 This is 
in fact the problem, on the solution of which the 
whole difficulty of the present question seems 
to hang. If we are to credit the famous Lydian 
tradition recorded by Herodotus, that ancient 
people ought to be considered as the parent 
stock of the Tyrrhenians. It is to be observed, 
that Herodotus simply delivers this account as 
he received it from the Lydians, without vouch- 
ing for the truth of the remarkable event it 
was intended to record. But it would not be 
difficult to show that he himself gave credit to 
the legend, or at least saw no improbability in 
the facts which it related. He was well ac- 
quainted with the Tyrrheni and Umbri of Ita- 
ly, and was therefore a competent judge of the 
truth or probability of the Lydian tale. But 
even allowing its improbability, it ought not for 
that reason merely to be rejected, since we should 
be led, a priori, to except in this matter some- 
thing out of the common course, in order to ac- 
count for the marked difference which original- 
ly existed between the Tuscans and the other 
ancient nations of Italy. But the greatest ar- 
gument in its favour, after all, must be allowed 
to consist in the weight of testimony which can 
be collected in support of it from the writers of 
antiquity, especially those of Rome, who, with 
few exceptions, seem to concur in admitting the 
fact of the Lydian colony. In short, the pre- 
sumption would appear so strong in favour of 
this popular account of the origin of the Tyr- 
rheni, that we might consider the question to 
be decided, were not our attention called to the 
opposite side by some weighty objections, ad- 
vanced long since by Dionysius of Halicarnas- 
sus, and farther strongly urged by some modern 
critics of great learning and reputation. Dio- 
nysius seems to stand alone among the writers 
of antiquity, as invalidating the facts recorded 
by Herodotus ; and though his own explana- 
tion of the origin of the Tyrrhenians is evident- 
ly inconsistent and unsatisfactory, still it must 
be owned that his arguments tend greatly to 
discredit the colony of the Lydian Tyrrhenus. 
But the objection which, after all, must be reck- 
oned as most conclusive against the Lydian ori- 
gin of the Tyrrheni, is the absence of all con- 
formity in the important relations of customs, re- 
ligion, and language, between the mother coun- 
try and its pretended colony, which certainly 
would not have been the case, if a migration to 
such an extent as Herodotus reports had really 
taken place from one country to the other. 
There are, it is true, some exceptions to this ge- 
neral assertion of Dionysius, and some features 
of resemblance have been traced between the 
two nations; but they seem too faint and imper- 
fect to throw much weight into the scale. It is 
remarked, that, divination and augury, which 
form so leading a distinction in the religion of 
Etruria, took their rise in Caria, acccording to 
Pliny ; and w^e hear frequently in Herodotus of 
the diviners of Telmissus as having exercised 
146 



their art at a very remote period. The super- 
stitions of Phrygia are also frequently observa- 
ble in the monuments of Etruria. The insignia 
of royalty, such as the curule chair and the pur- 
ple robe, which the Romans borrowed from the 
Tuscans, are recognised by Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus himself, as Lydian badges of honour ; 
and the eagle standards of Rome,also originally 
Tuscan, appear to have been common to the ar- 
mies of Persia. The comic dancers of Etru- 
ria, called Ludii, were celebrated for their agili- 
ty and grace, and according to Val. Maximus, 
who mentions their introduction at Rome, they 
derived this talent from the Curetes and Lydi- 
ans. Lastly, it is singular enough that two cus- 
toms peculiar to the Etruscans, as we discover 
from their monuments, should have been noticed 
by Herodotus as characteristic of the Lycians 
and Caunians in Asia Minor. The first is, that 
the Etruscans invariably describe their paren- 
tage and family with reference to the mother, 
and not the father. The other, that they ad- 
mitted their wives to their feasts and banquets. 
These are all the points of similarity between 
the two nations which we have been able to 
trace or collect from the observations of others ; 
and though they "tend perhaps to establish a 
notion of a communication between Asia Minor 
and Etruria, we are far from thinking that they 
make out a case in favour of Lydia ; for if they 
prove any thing, it is that the Carians, Lycians, 
and Phrygians, have as good a claim to the 
honour of colonizing Italy, as their neighbours 
the Lydians. It is a fact sufficiently established 
on good authority, that the Greeks were ac- 
quainted with a people whom they called Tyr- 
rhenians, but whose geographical position was 
very different from that of their Italian name- 
sakes. According to Herodotus, they occupied 
a district contiguous to that of the city of Cres- 
thona on the Thracian border of Macedonia ; 
and Stephanus Byz. mentions .^ane and Elym- 
nea as two of their towns in Macedonia. Thu- 
cydides has also noticed them in the Chalcidic 
region near Mount Athos, and describes them 
as the Tyrrheni, who once dwelt at Athens 
and in the island of Lemnos. From other 
sources w^e learn, that these Tyrrheni, or Pelas- 
gi, as they are often called, had built for the 
Athenians the wall which surrounded their 
acropolis; but being afterwards driven out of 
Attica, are said to have retired to the islands of 
Lemnos and Imbros, after having expelled the 
descendants of the Argonauts. The father of 
Pythagoras is said to have been one of these 
Tyrrhenians. We hear, too, of the Tyrrhe- 
nians in the island of Lesbos; also about the 
Hellespont in the neighbourhood of Cyzicas, 
and on the shores of the Chersonese. Here 
then is sufficient evidence of the existence of 
the Tyrrheni as a people known to the Greeks 
under that specific appellation, though they are 
frequently designated by the generic name of 
Pelasgi ; and if w^e admit that it was this 
people which at an early period migrated from 
Thrace and the north of Greece into Italy, 
there will be found, we apprehend, no better 
system for reconciling the various and contra- 
dictory opinions, which have been entertained 
on this point of history by many writers both in. 
ancient and modern times. We are aware, 
, however, that it will here be necessary toprovo 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



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one important particular; namely, that the 
Tyrrheni spoken of in the passages just cited 
were an original people, and not, as Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus imagined, apparently on the 
authority of Hellanicus of Lesbos, a remnant of 
the Pelasgi ; who, after leaving Italy, brought 
back with them into Greece the name of Tyr- 
rhenians, as commemorative of their residence 
in the former country. But whatever may be 
the origin of that name used specifically, we 
cannot doubt that it was afterwards applied to 
tribes of different origins, as indicative of their 
wandering and unsettled habits. There can be 
no better argument for disproving the system of 
Dionysius, with regard to the Tyrrheni Pelas- 
gi, than that which establishes the existence of 
this nation in the most distant period of the 
history of Greece, and much prior to the siege 
of Troy, about which time it is pretended they 
returned from Italy. Lastly, in proof of the 
antiquity of the Tyrrhenian name in Greece, 
we would cite the passage which Dionysius 
quotes from the Inachus of Sophocles, wherein 
the poet makes them contemporary with that 
prince. We must now hasten to the historical 
evidence, which establishes the fact of a migra- 
tion of these Tyrrheni at a remote period into 
Italy. Dionysius has only acquainted us with 
the name of one of those many writers from 
whom he dissented on this point; but it is 
curious that this is the very author from whom 
he has taken most of his account of the adven- 
tures of the Pelasgi during their residence in 
Italy, that is, Myrsilus of Lesbos, an ancient 
historian, of whom little is otherwise known, 
and of whose sources of information no correct 
estimate can -now be formed. From him we 
learn, that the people who colonized Italy were 
called Tyrrheni; that they were the same who 
built the Pelasgic wall at Athens ; and that the 
Athenians gave them the nickname of TLE'Xapyol, 
or storks, on account of their propensity to 
migrate from their country, which, as we have 
seen, was originally Thrace, Samothrace, Lem- 
nos, and Imbros. There is, indeed, an obscurity 
in Dionysius's accotmt of the Tyrrheni, which 
hardly admits of explanation ; for he goes on to 
tell us, that the Pelasgi, after a long series of 
misfortunes, lost all their possessions in Italy, 
most of their towns falling into the hands of the 
Tyrrheni, who were their neighbours; and 
elsewhere we are informed, in order to account 
for the skill and practice in naval afiairs for 
which the Pelasgi were distinguished, that they 
had acquired their experience from their resi- 
dence among the Tyrrheni. But whence or how 
this people obtained their knowledge we are 
left to guess, since their position is so undeter- 
mined ; and besides, Dionysius has never told 
us that the Pelasgi had resided with the Tyr- 
rheni, but with the Aborigines. It is therefore 
pretty evident that Dionysius's system is un- 
tenable ; his error must be attributed chiefly to 
his supposition that the Pelasgi and Tyrrheni 
were a different people. The name of Rasena, 
which he gives to the latter, appears to us to be 
corrupted from that of Tyrseni or Tyraseni. 
Another source of confusion in this part of 
Dionysius's antiquities, is his notion with re- 
spect to the Aborigines, whom he supposes to 
be the descendants of a pretended colony of 
Arcadians, afterwards called (Enotrians. All 



judicious critics and antiquaries seem agreed 
in rejecting this hypothesis; and that being 
the case, the Aborigmes, who, according to 
Dionysius's own account, and the concurrent 
testimony of many ancient writers, lived in the 
same country with the Pelasgi, survived their 
disasters, and rose on the ruins of their power, 
must be the Etrusci, or Tusci of the Romans, 
a branch doubtless either of the Umbrian or 
Oscan race, if indeed these do not belong to 
the same primitive Italian stock. The analogy 
Which subsists betr^'een the forms Tusci, Osci, 
and Volsci, would furnish a presumption in 
favour of the indigenous origin of the former ; 
but that point seems abundantly established 
by the fundamental similarity of language which 
has been discovered to exist between the Etrus- 
can and the other native dialects of Italy. Hav- 
ing thus far tried to explain the origin of the 
Tuscan people, it remains for us to see how 
far their improved civilization and political su- 
periority can be traced to the settlements form- 
ed by the Tyrrhenians amongst them. The 
easiest and most obvious way by which the 
Tyrrheni, coming from Thrace and the north 
of Greece, maybe supposed to have reached Ita- 
ly, would be by the Danube, and then by the 
Save up to the Julian Alps and the head of the 
Adriatic. It is on this sea, doubtless, that his- 
tory, however faint in its records of these trans- 
actions, places their first settlements, whether 
they reached it by land or in a fleet. Diony- 
sius, on the authority of Plellanicus, says, that 
they arrived by sea at the mouth of the Spine- 
tic branch of the Po. But Freret is of opinion 
that the Pelasgi reached Italy by land ; this is a 
point however we would by no means insist up- 
on : they were unquestionably a maritime peo- 
ple; and their first settlements, Hadria, Spina, 
and Ravenna, were sea-port towns. If we fol- 
low the plain thread of history, divested of the 
romantic circumstances which Dionysius has in- 
terwoven in his narrative of the transactions of 
the Pelasgi with the Aborigines, it will appear 
that the former gradually advanced from the Po 
into the country of the Umbri, who, being then 
at war with the Siculi, gladly received their as- 
sistance, and after the expulsion of the enemy, 
gave them settlements and lands in the newly 
acquired territory, which was Etruria Proper. 
According to the same historian, the migration 
of the Siculi took place about eighty years be- 
fore the siege of Troy , which agrees nearly with 
the date assigned to the same event by Hellani- 
cus. So that we shall not be very far from the 
mark, in assigning the date of about one hun- 
dred years before the Trojan war to the settle- 
ment of the Tyrrheni Pelasgi in Etruria. Here 
then they founded, with the assistance of the 
natives, their first twelve cities ; and if we con- 
ceive this people bringing with them all the im- 
provements in war, navigation, and general ci- 
vilization, which Greece was then beginning to 
derive from her proximity to the east and to 
Egypt, into a country only inhabited , and that 
partially, by rude and savage clans, we shall ea- 
sily form an idea of the great and rapid influ- 
ence which they would exercise over the moral 
and political state of Italy. The Tyrrhenian 
pirates, who had hitherto infested the JEgean, 
would naturally retire, when that sea was pro- 
tected by the navy of Minos, to the seas of Ita- 
147 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



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. y, to exercise there the habits which they had 
acquired from the Phoenicians, and which re- 
mained so long a characteristic of their nation. 
We learn from Strabo, that the Greeks did not 
venture to send colonies into Sicily till long af- 
ter the fall of Troy, owing to the dread inspir- 
ed by those formidable depredators. From the 
traditions preserved by Lycophron, it would ap- 
pear that they formed settlements on almost ev- 
ery part of the coast washed by the Tyrrhenian 
sea. But it was in Etruria, properly so called, 
that the Tyrrheni laid the first foundation of 
this power, and established, under Tarchon their 
leader, a confederacy of twelve cities. The m- 
formation which Strabo likewise supplies on this 
head is curious and important. He represents 
the Tuscans as being perpetually engaged in 
hostilities with the Umbri, from whom they 
were only separated by the Tiber ; and we are 
led to infer, that the advantage rested decidedly 
with the former people, since he goes on to 
state that they gradually extended the confines 
of their territory, and finally possessed them- 
selves of the plains watered by the Po. It is 
to this acquisition of dominion that Pliny pro- 
bably refers, when he reports that the Tuscans 
wrested no less than three hundred cities from 
their Umbrian antagonists. In the prosecution 
of their successful career, the Tuscans, having 
arrived on the shores of the Adriatic, obtained 
possession also of the original Tyrrhenian set- 
tlements of Hadria and Spina, which the Tyr- 
rheni, being too weak to defend them,abandoned, 
as Strabo relates, to the invaders, while Raven- 
na fell into the hands of the Umbri. It is in 
Etruria that we can best trace the influence of 
the Tyrrhenian colony, in changing the habits 
and improving the condition of its natives. It 
is to the Tyrrheni that we would ascribe that 
mixture of the religions of Greece and Italy 
which is known to have obtained in the Etrus- 
can rites. Thus, with the deities peculiar to the 
country, such as Voltumna, Norcia, and the Dii 
Consentes, we find they worshipped Aplu, or the 
Pelasgic Apollo, Thurms, or Hermes, Juno, 
Minerva, and other divinities common to the 
Greeks. Of the influence of the Pelasgi on the 
language of Italy there seems no question, the 
fact being admitted by ancient as well as modern 
writers. We are inclined to think that the 
Tyrrheni introduced the Pelasgic characters in 
Etruria andUmbria, and likewise communicat- 
ed them to the Oscans, whose characters are 
somewhat more rude and uncouth. Tacitus 
however seems to say, that letters were brought 
by Damaratus of Corinth, but Gori and Lanzi 
think, and it seems more natural so to interpret 
Tacitus, that Damaratus only improved the 
Etruscan alphabet by the addition of some let- 
ters. These are the principal points in which 
the effects of the Tyrrhenian colony are visible 
in improving and civilizing Etruria. With re- 
spect to particular customs, we are too little ac- 
quainted with the history of that country to 
distinguish what was indigenous and what 
borrowed ; but it seems sufficient to know that 
they infused a spirit of enterprise and conquest 
in the nation into which they had been adopted ; 
a spirit which long prevailed, and increased 
after the original Tyrrheni had removed or 
disappeared, as they are said to have done 
towards the period of the Trojan war. Com- 
M8 



merce and the cultivation of the fine arts, for 
which this inventive people appear to have had 
a natural turn, would add to their refinement, 
and complete their superiority over the other 
comparatively barbarous tribes of Italy ; circum- 
stances which will account for their having 
been distinguished by the Greeks, from the 
days of Hesiod to those of Thucydides and 
Aristotle, when Rome was unknown, or was 
thought to be a Tyrrhenian city. Whether 
it was really so may be a matter of speculation, 
in which it will not be forgotten how much 
she borrowed from Etruria in the formation 
of her religious and political institutions, and 
in the detail of her civil and military economy. 
Had the Tuscans formed a regular and effective "M 
plan for securing their conquests and strength- ^ 
enmg their confederacies, they would have been 
the masters of Italy, and perhaps of the world, 
instead of the Romans. But their enterprises 
after a certain period, seem to have been desul- 
toiy, and their measures ill combined and in- 
effectual. A fatal want of internal union, which 
prevailed amongst their states, as Strabo judi- 
ciously observes, rendered them an easy con- m 
quest to their Gallic invaders in the north of J| 
Italy, and to the hardy Samnites in Campania ; 
while Rome was aiming at the very centre oi 
their power and existence those persevering and 
systematic attacks, which with her were never 
known to fail. The history of the Tuscans 
subsequently to the foundation of Rome is to be 
gleaned from Livy, and, at intervals, from short 
detached notices in the Greek historians and 
poets ; but a rich field is left open to the anti- 
quary, who would illtistrate the annals of this 
interesting people from the monuments that are 
daily discovered in their country, which seems 
destined to be the seat of the arts and of good 
taste through a perpetuity of ages. If the books 
of Aristotle and Theophrastus on the civil in- - 
stitutions of the Tyrrheni, or even the history 
of the emperor Claudius, had been preserved to 
us, we should doubtless have been better ac- 
quainted with the causes of that ascendency 
which they are said to have once exercised over 
the whole of Italy. Etruria, considered as a 
Roman province, was separated from Liguria 
by the river Macra; from Cisalpine Gaul and 
IJmbria, to the north and north-east, by the 
Appenines ; from Umbria again, from the Sa- 
bines, and Latium, by the Tiber to the south- 
east and south." Cram, 

HiBERNTA, and Hybernia, the ancient name 
of Ireland, situated to the west of Britain, from 
which it was separated by the Verginium Mare, 
in modern geography, the Irish Sea. Of its 
interior little was known to the ancients, as 
it was never subjected to the Roman rule. Its 
situation and size were, however, with tolerable 
accuracy, defined by Caesar and Tacitus ; but, 
with the exception of these, and of the appear- 
ance of its coast, very little was to be obtained 
from these writers, and much less from the other 
authors who pretended to treat of it. An ac- 
count of the vicissitudes of this island, though 
we have reason to believe that it was early 
civilized, would not belong at least to the classic 
ages of antiquity ; for only on the fall of the 
empire do its people begin to make their appear- 
ance in history. Still something may be con- 
jectured of its early state, of the era at which it 



EI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



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T^'as first inhabited, and of the people by whom 
the first settlements were made. There is 
abundan. reason to presume, that the early- 
population of Hibernia, like that of Britannia, 
was of Celtic origin ; and among the few re- 
mains ofthat once extensively circulated tongue, 
the language of the Irish is still the most re- 
markable relic. But if this people were of the 
common Celtic stock, it is not easy to fix the 
era of their arrival in Hibernia, nor that of their 
subsequent expulsion from those parts in which 
The Scoti were found afterwards. When the 
Romans became sufliciently acquainted with 
this island to observe the divisions of the inhabit- 
ants, to mark their boundaries, and to assign 
them names, they entitled Lagenia that part 
which was afterwards denominated Leinster ; 
to Meath they gave the name of Midia ; that of 
Ultonia to tjlster : to Connaught that of Con- 
naccia ; and that of Momonia to Munster. The 
various appellations of this island were, accord- 
ing to the ancients, Hibernia, by which title it 
continues to be designated ; lerne, whence some 
deduce the name of Erin by which the natives 
denoted it ; Iverna, a modification perhaps of 
lerna, and Iris, the latter name being derived 
from the authority of Diodorus Siculus. In the 
language of the Britons, Ireland was called 
Yverdon. Referring to the Carthaginian settle- 
ment, the curious Bochart deduces the name 
from the" Punic Ibem^, signifying the most 
remote habitation; Ireland being for a long 
time considered the most western region, of the 
world. We have not pretended to give an 
account of all the theories which have been 
founded and raised upon the origin, name, and 
history of the. Hibernians. They belong to a 
period of histoiy which is not embraced within 
the limits of a dictionary that professes to treat 
of the classic ages of antiquity. Camb. Brit. 

HiERA, one of the Lipari Islands, called also 
Theresia, now Vulcano. Paus. 10, c. 11. 

HiERAPOLis, I. a town of Syria, on the west 
of the Euphrates and south of Zeugma. The 
name by which it was known to the natives in 
antiquity was Bambyce ; and that of Hierapo- 
lis was conferred upon it by the Macedonians, 
after their conquest of the east, from the pecu- 
liar reverence which was there paid to the 
Syrian goddess Atargatis, as well by foreigners 
as by the inhabitants. Heylin gives the follow- 
ing description of her fanious temple, from the 
great resort to which the name of Hierapolis 
was derived : " The temple was built by Stra- 
tonice, the wife of Seleucus, in the midst of the 
city, encompassed with a double wall about the 
height of 300 fathoms ; the roof thereof was in- 
laid with gold, and made of such a fragrant 
wood, that the clothes of those who came thither 
retained the scent thereof for a long time after. 
Without the temple there were places enclosed 
for oxen and beasts of sacrifice ; and not far off" 
a lake, of 200 fathoms in depth, wherein they 
kept their sacred fishes, (Vid. Astarte and 
Derceto.) The priests attending here amount- 
ed in number to 300, besides many more sub- 
servient ministers." In eastern geography the 
name of the ancient Hierapolis is Menbis[z. 

II. A city of Phrvgia, on the Meander, 

near the mouth of the Lycus and towards the 
borders of Lydia. According to D'Anville, the 
Lycus passed between this city and another 



at no great distance, called Laodicea. Hie-' 

rapolis and its vicinity are called by the Turks 
" Bamhuk-kalasi, or the castle of cotton, be- * 
cause the neighbouring rocks resembled 'that 
substance in their whiteness." D'Anville. 

HiERAPYTNA, a toMTi iu the island of Crete, 
on the coast of the Libyan Sea. It was almost 
directly south of Minoa, between which place 
and Hierapytna was the narrowest part of 
Crete, The antiquity of this town was very 
great, being referred to the early Corybantes, 
who, if not a fabulous race or caste, have their 
histoiy at least obscured and enveloped in fable. 

HiERicHUs, {untis,) the name of Jericho in 
the Holy Land, called the city of Palm-trees 
from its abounding in dates. Plin. 5, c. 14. — 
Tacit. H. 5, c. 6. 

HiEROsoLYMA. " As wc approach the cen- 
tre of Judsea," says a celebrated writer, " the 
sides of the mountain enlarge, and assume an 
aspect at once more grand and more barren ; by 
little and little the vegetation languishes and 
dies ; even mosses disappear ; and a red and 
burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the 
rocks. In the centre of the mountains there is 
an arid basin, enclosed on all sides with yellow 
pebble-covered summits, which afford a single 
opening to the east, through which the surface 
of the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Arabia 
present themselves to the eye. In the midst of 
this country of stones, encircled by a wall, we 
perceive extensive ruins, scanty cypresses, bush- 
es of the aloe and the prickly pear ;^ some 
Arabian huts, resembling white-washed sepul- 
chres, are spread over this heap of ruins. This 
spot is Jerusalem." This touching description 
of the holy city, as it existed in the third cen- 
tury, has applied too nearly to its. modern con- 
dition. Though peopled with 20 or 30,000 in- 
habitants, according to the varying estimates 
of travellers, this city is described by many 
who have visited it, as presenting to our view 
nothing but cabins resembling prisons rather 
than houses. Few cities have undergone so 
many revolutions as Jerusalem. Once the 
metropolis of the powerful kingdom of David 
and of Solomon, it had its temples built of the 
cedar of Lebanon, and ornamented with the 
gold of Ophir. After being laid waste by the 
Babylonian army, it was rebuilt in more than 
its original beauty under the Maccabees and the 
Herods, The Grecian architecture was now 
introduced, as is shown by the royal tombs 
on the north of the city. It then contained 
oome hundred thousands of inhabitants ; but in 
the year 70 of the Christian era it was visited by 
the signal vengeance of heaven, being razed to 
the foundation by the Roman Titus. Adrian 
built in its stead the city of JElia Capitolina ; 
but in the time of Constantine, the name of 
Jerusalem was restored, and has ever since 
been retained. Helen, this emperor's mother, 
adorned the holy city with several monuments. 
In the seventh century it fell under the power 
of the Persians and Arabians. The latter 
called it El-Kods, ' the holv,' and sometimes 
El-Sherif, ' the noble.' In 1098, the chevaliers 
of Christian Europe came to deliver it from 
the hands of the Mahometans. The throne 
of the Godfreys and of Baldwin imparted to it 
a momentary lustre, which was soon effaced by 
. intestine discord. In 1187 Saladin replaced the 
149 



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GEOGRAPHY. 



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crescent on the hills of Zion, Since that pe- 
riod, conquered at different times by the sul- 
tans of Damascus, of Bagdat, and of Egypt, it 
finally changed its masters, for the seventeenth 
time, by submitting in 1517 to the Turkish 
arms." 

HiLLEVioNES, The only inhabitants of Scan- 
dinavia really known to the Romans were 
called Hilleviones, according to the relation of 
Pliny; and the later authority of Jornandes 
makes known the country of the same people, 
which he denominates Hallin, " That which 
is contiguous to the particular province of Skane 
is still called HallandV D'Anville. 

HiMERA, I. now Fiume Salso, a considerable 
river of Sicily, rising in the mountains that run 
almost across the island from west to east. The 
source of the Himera was not far from that of 
the Monalus, which, running north, discharged 
itself into the Mare Inferum ; while the Himera 
emptied into the Africum Mare. The two 
formed thus very nearly a division of the island 

into two. II. Another river of the same 

name rose on the northern side of the moun- 
tains further towards the east, and emptied 
into the sea between the city of Himera and the 

Thermae Himerenses, III. A city of Sicily, 

built by the people of Zancle, and destroyed by 
the Carthaginians 240 years after. Strab. 6. 
It retains the name of Termini, derived from 
that of Thermae, which it received from the 

baths in its vicinity. The ancient name of 

the Eurotas. 

Hippo Zarytas, I, a tovm of Africa Propria, 
to the east of Utica, and north-west of another 
Hippo, called, for the sake of distinction, Re- 
gius, The surname of Zarytas referred to its 
situation among a number of artificial canals, 
excavated in order to connect the waters of the 
sea with those of a large lake in the vicinity. 
Its modern name of Biserte is a corruption of 
that of Benzert, by which it is known in an- 
cient geography. II. The Hippo, surnamed 

Regius, belonged to Numidia, and, standing 
on the coast towards the borders of the Car- 
thaginian territory, occupied the site on which 
the more modern Bona was built. The parti- 
cular appellation, Regius, denotes the residence 
of the sovereign ; and, in fact, we know that 
Hippo was a principal city, and perhaps a royal 
residence of the Numidian kings. 

HiPPocENTAURi, a race of monsters who dwelt 
in Thessaly. Vid. Centauri, Part III. 

HiPPocRENE. Vid. Aganippe and Helicon. 

HiPPONiuM, a town of Magna Graecia, be- 
longing to the country of the Brutii. It is said 
to have been founded by the Epizephyrian 
Locri, and underwent the vicissitudes to which 
the other towns of Magna Grascia were also 
too frequently subject. In the time of Dionysius 
it fell into the hands of the Sicilians, by whose 
oppression it was greatly reduced ; the Cartha- 
ginians, however, rebuilt it, from enmity to the 
islanders, by whom it had been subdued. It 
was again greatly harassed by Agathocles ; 
but on the approach of the Brutii, by whose 
occupation all the country in which the Greeks 
had established themselves on the expulsion 
of the Aborigines, was again restored to the 
Italians, Hipponium became a part of their 
possessions. Receiving a Roman colony in 
the year of the city 560, it changed its name 
150 



to that of Vibo Valentia, and rose to opulence 
and celebrity, " In the vicinity of Hipponium 
was a grove and meadow of singular beauty ; 
also a building said to have been constructed 
by Gelon of Syracuse, called Amalthaea's horn. 
It was here probably that the women of the 
city and its vicinity assembled, as Strabo af- 
firms, on certain festivals, to gather flowers, 
and twine garlands for their hair in honour of 
Proserpine, who had herself, as it was said, 
frequented this spot for the same purpose, and 
to whom a magnificent temple was here erected. 
Antiquaries and topographers are generally of 
opinion that the modern town of Monte Leone 
represents the ancient Hipponium, and they re- 
cognise its haven in the present harbour of 
Bivona.'' Cram. 

HipPOMOLGi, a people of Scythia, who, as the 
name implies, lived upon the milk of horses. 
Hippocrates has given an account of their man- 
ner of living. De aqua et aer. 44, — Dionys. 
Perieg. 

HippoNiATEs, a bay in the country of the 
Brutii, so called from the city of Hipponium, 
which stood upon its southern shore. It was 
directly opposite to the Scyllacius Sinus, and 
between these two bays was the narrowest part 
of Italy. Terina, which stood at about the 
same distance from the northern shore, commu- 
nicated also its name to this bay, which was 
sometimes called also Terinseus Sinus ; in 
modern geography the Golfo di Santa Eu- 
femia. 

Hippop5des, a people of Scythia, who had 
horses^ feet. Dionys. Perieg. 

HiRA. Vid. Alexandria. 

HiRpn, a people of Hetruria, in the vicinity 
of the mons Soracte. On the summit of this 
hill the Hirpii Avere accustomed to offer sacri- 
fice to Apollo, and were on, that account re- 
spected with a kind of sacred veneration, and 
exonerated from all the burthensome duties of 
other commimities, such as the performance of 
military services, &c. 

HiRPiNi, a people of Samnium, in the south- 
ern part. They are generally considered, though 
confessedly of Samnitic origin, to have formed 
an independent division of that race. 

HisPALis, now Seville, an ancient and fa- 
mous city of Hispania, in Baeturia, on the left 
bank of the Baetis, below Italica, and between 
that place and the Libystinus lacus. It was a 
town of Punic origin, as the name sufliciently 
denotes, and was twice colonized from Italy. 
On the arrival of the second colony in the time 
of Caesar, Hispalis assumed the name of Julia 
Romulea or Romulensis, and was afterwards, 
though with its former name, invested with 
the dignity of a juridical Conventus upon the 
subdivision of the Farther Spain. The fortunes 
of thi-s city were more remarkable in the years 
of the lower empire, and its commerce, on the 
discovery of America, was long the greatest 
source of revenue to the crown of Spain. When 
wrested from the Moors by the Spanish monarch 
Ferdinand the 2d of Castile, A. D. 1248, it 
was annexed to the dominions of that prince, 
and formed a separate realm in his dominions ; 
so that to the title of king of Spain, was added 
that too of king of Seville. The reason of this 
was, that before the expulsion of the Moors, 
Seville had formed a kingdom by itself, and, as 



HI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HI 



an independent state, had resisted the power of 
the CathoJic arms, 

HisPANiA, the most western country of En- 
rope, lying between the Atlantic ocean and the 
Mediterranean. It forms, with Porragal, a pe- 
ninsula of about 630 leagues in circumference. 
Various names were assigned to this country 
in antiquity ; the Greeks denominated it Iberia, 
and knew but the portion which afterwards 
retained that name ; the Latins called it Hespe- 
ria, from its situation towards the west ; and 
the name of Hispania, which outlasted all, has 
reached the present day in that of Spain, Es- 
pagtie, Spagna, &c. This title it probably re- 
ceived from its Carthaginian inhabitants. The 
whole country was divided between the Iberi 
and the Celtiberi, from whence the regions 
inhabited by those people were designated re- 
spectively Iberia and Celtiberia. After the se- 
cond Punic war, the Durius, from its mouth to 
the borders of Leon, and thence a line to meet 
the Orospeda mons, together with that range, 
were taken as a dividing line, and formed the 
separatioB between Hispania Citerior and His- 
pania Ulterior. It was not till the time of 
Augustus that the provinces Tarraconensis, 
Baetica, and Lusitania, were definitively marked 
as divisions of the whole peninsula. Hispania 
is separated from Africa by the narrow straits 
of Gibraltar, which, it is conjectured, did not 
always connect the waters of the inland sea 
with the vast expanse of the Atlantic. Of the 
geography of Hispania before the extension of 
the Roman dominion beyond the Pyrenees, or, 
at least, before the introduction of the Roman 
armies and arms, it is not possible to speak 
with any degree of certainty ; but the accounts 
of Roman geographers, and perhaps also the 
geographical distribution of its Roman masters, 
refer in a great measure to the divisions of ter- 
ritory and the distinctions of races which they 
found on succeeding to the possessions of the 
Carthaginians in Spain. We look, therefore, 
on the Iberians as the first and proper inhabit- 
ants of the Spanish peninsula, and on the 
Celtiberi as a mixture of the Iberi and the 
Celts. Of the former we might treat theore- 
tically at some length, but the authority of his- 
tory is wanting to give them place in a work 
like this. For the early settlements of the Cel- 
ta3 themselves we depend too much on conjec- 
ture ; yet some authority, founded upon fads, 
there is to justify a brief inquiry as to the pe- 
riod, manner, and cause of their passage into 
the possessions of the people of Iberia. It is 
by no means a settled point that the Celtag of 
Iberia were of the same line as those of Gaul ; 
yet the best authorities of antiquity support that 
opinion. On the other hand, they are supposed 
by some to have been lUyrians, who, passing 
into Italy and along the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean, were only so far connected with Gaul 
as they may have become, in passing along its 
sea-board fpom the Alps to the Pyrenees, The 
period of the Celtic establishment in Gaul may 
be, with some degree of plausibility, referred to 
a very celebrated era of antiquity; to that, 
namely, in which Sesac flourished in Egypt 
and Charilaus in Lacedsemonia, B. C. about 
860 years, and near the time in which the 
affairs of Greece and Asia were receiving their 
first historical importance in the rhapsodies of 



Homer. The same calculation which fixes this 
epoch in the accounts of the Celtae, supposes 
them to have entered from Aquitaine in Gaul, 
not long after their occupation of that country, 
and to have migrated slowly along the shores 
of the Atlantic, settling first the regions of 
Gallicia and Lusitania, and passing at a later 
period into Bastica. Firmly established in this 
part of the peninsula, and giviQg their name to 
the inhabitants, who were thence called Celti- 
beri, by the time that the Phoenicians arrived 
upon the southern coast the Celtse had spread 
themselves over the whole country from the 
Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and from beyond 
the Iberus to the Herculeum Fretum. The 
adventurous merchants of Phcenicia were long 
acquainted with that part of Hispania which 
lay nearest to their continent, before the extent 
of their knowledge was made known to the 
nations which might have emulated them in 
commercial enterprise : and for a long time after 
it became notorious that they had communica- 
tion with the western parts of Europe, it was but 
vaguely conjectured that their intercourse was 
carried on with some distant region in the re- 
motest west, or, as they expressed it, the limits 
of the world. The first settlement of this Asia- 
tic people in Europe beyond the pillars of Her- 
cules, appears to have been effected in the little 
island of Erythia, from whence they extended 
themselves, building their first great city, and 
foimding their first great colony, at Gades, 
B. C. perhaps about 1000. This, to be sure, 
would make their arrival anterior to that of the 
Celts, and perhaps, though the Phoenicians 
certainly did not extend themselves over the 
peninsula so early as the former people, they 
may have efiected this first colonization. It is 
more probable, however, that the account of 
Veil. Paterculus, on whose authority this date 
is principally assumed, may be erroneous. The 
dominion of these bold navigators and indefati- 
gable traders was not established by conquest in 
any part of Spain, but introducing their arts, 
and in some measure their civilization, among 
the Celtiberians, and bartering with them on 
the most friendly terms, they contrived to gain 
an influence and to settle colonies without mo- 
lestation through the greater part of what was 
afterwards called Bsetica. While the Phoeni- 
cians were thus quietly founding colonies upon 
the Spanish coasts, the Carthaginians, them- 
selves a Tyrian people and inheriting the com- 
mercial spirit of their fathers, with a more war- 
like character, appeared to dispute the posses- 
sion of this rich territory. In a short time the 
Phoenicians lost their principal cities, and the 
Carthaginians established themselves in their 
stead, not as the tenants, but as the masters 
of the soil which they occupied. In the mean 
time these were not the only people who intro- 
duced, in this western corner of Europe, the 
manners and character of more eastern coun- 
tries. The Rhodians, Samians, and Phocaeans, 
founded also colonies in these distant regions, 
and mingled with the Iberian, Celtic, and Phoe- 
nician, the character and language of the Asia- 
tic Greeks. The islanders of Zante at the 
same time laid the foundation of Saguntum, 
and the Phocjeans of Marseilles erected the 
city of Ampurias, the Emporiae of the Romans. 
These cities, beholding with jealousy the ad- 
151 



HI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HI 



vances of the Carthaginians, had recourse to 
the alliance of Rome, and, as the allies of the 
Ampuritans, the Romans first displayed iheir 
ensigns beyond the Pyrenees. The various 
incidents of the war that followed belong to 
history, and we have here only to observe, that 
with this began the Roman dominion in His- 
pania. The natives did not, indeed, immedi- 
ately submit to the rule of the friends whose 
assistance they had unadvisedly sought ; but 
the Romans did not the less proceed to divide 
the whole peninsula into the Nearer and the 
Farther Spain, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, 
the former extending from the Pyrenees to the 
head waters of the Tagus and the Anas, now 
the Guadiana and the Batis, along the Oros- 
peda mons to the Mediterranean. Under their 
native Lusitanian leader Viriatus, the inhabit- 
ants made an effort to regain their indepen- 
dence ; but the destiny of Rome prevailed, and 
the valour and conduct of this unblemished 
patriot were exercised in vain. The magni- 
ficent attempt of Sertorius to re-establish the 
ancient liberty now perishing at Rome, in this 
far distant province, was frustrated by the 
treachery of one of his officers ; three years of 
glorious resistance under the younger Pompey, 
were terminated by the victory of the Roman 
legions, whose numbers had overwhelmed the 
young warriors of Lusitania; and Spain had 
made her last stand for liberty. A partial 
rising in the north-west was easily but not 
cheaply quelled by the imperial forces, and 
nothing remained for the people of Hispania 
but submission wad a hopeless peace. " Under 
Augustus, the ulterior province was again part- 
ed into two, Bcetica and Lusitania ; at the 
same time that the citerior assumed the name 
of Tarraconensis, from Tarraco, its metropolis. 
This Tarraconois occupied all the northern 
part from the foot of the Pyrenees to the mouth 
of the Durius, where Lusitania terminated; 
and the eastern, almost entire, to the confines 
of Bsetica, which, deriving this name from the 
river Batis, that traversed it during its whole 
course, extended from the north to the west 
along the bank of the river Anas, by which it 
was separated from Lusitania ; whilst this last- 
mentioned province was continued thence to 
the ocean, between the mouths of the Anas 
and Durius. This division of Spain must be 
regarded as properly belonging to the principal 
and dominant state of ancient geography. It 
was not till about the age of Dioclesian and 
Constantine, when the number of provinces 
was multiplied by subdivisions, that the Tarra- 
conois was dismembered into two new pro- 
vinces ; one towards the limits of Bsetica, and 
adjacent to the Mediterranean, to which the 
city of Carthago nova communicated the name 
of CartTiaginensis ; the other on the ocean to 
the north of Lusitania, and to which the na- 
tion of Callaici or Callczci, in the angle of Spain 
which advances towards the north-east, has 
given the name CallcBcia, still subsisting in that 
of Gallicia. Independently of this distinction 
of provinces, Spain under the Roman govern- 
ment was divided into jurisdictions, called Con- 
'uentus, of which there are counted fourteen; 
each one formed of the union of several cities, 
who held their assizes in the principal city of 
the district. We proceed now to a particular 
152 



description of each province." (D^Anville.) It 
is probable that Bsetica was among the earliest 
inhabited, or at least among the first that re- 
ceived a foreign colony. The principal people 
by which it was inhabited were the following : 
1st. The Turdetani, the most powerful of all, 
and so extensively spread throughout the pro- 
vince, that the name of Turdetania was some- 
times applied to it instead of that of Baetica. 
Near to these in Baetica, and also in Lusitania. 
were the Turduli, confounded often with their 
more powerful neighbours. The southern 
coast of this province, the earliest that bent to 
the' fortune of Rome, was occupied by the 
Bastuli, who, from their surname of Paeni, are 
thought to have been of Carthaginian origin, 
and later, therefore, in the peninsula than the 
other people mentioned above. The people 
who after the dissemination of the race of Celts 
throughout the country, still retained the name 
of Celtici in contradistinction to all the rest, 
resided near the Anas, between that river and 
the Tagus, on the coast. In Lusitania, the 
people from whom that province took its name, 
extended from the Tagus, also on the coast, to 
the Durius, and inland as far as the country of 
the Vettones, on the borders of Tarraconensis. 
In the western part of the latter dwelt the Cal- 
laici, a people, or perhaps a number of people, 
remarkable for their valour and unyielding love 
of liberty. The Artabri, who may have be- 
longed to this confederacy, were, however, sep- 
arately, a considerable nation inhabiting the 
district terminating in the promontory Artabro, 
Cape Finisterre. Eastward of these, between 
the Pyrenees and the coast, were the Astures, 
in the modern Asturias ; and still farther in 
the same direction, and within the same moun- 
tains and the sea, were the Cantabri, composed 
of many smaller families, and all partaking of 
the character of the Celts, who first, upon their 
march from Gaul, pursued the line of coast 
which their posterity retained. Eastward of 
these people, and on the Spanish side of the 
Pyrenees, were settled the Vascones, who at a 
later period entered Gaul, and gave their name, 
then slightly modified, to Gascony. They ex- 
tended to tiie banks of the Iberus or Ebro, in 
the country named in modern times Navarre. 
Still father east, between the mountains, the 
river, and the coast, were the Illergetes, the 
Ceretani, the Indigetes, the Ausetani, the Lale- 
tani, the Cosetani, &c. in that country, the 
present inhabitants of which are designated Ca- 
talans. The Bastitani, Contestani, Edetani, 
and Oretani, with many other nations, occupied 
the rest of Tarraconensis as far as the borders 
of the province of Bsetica. Among these de- 
serving of peculiar notice, are the Carpentani 
and the Celtiberi, masters, according to Polyb j us, 
of 300 flourishing cities. A long repose suc- 
ceeded the final extension of the imperial power 
over all the territories possessed by all these 
people ; the wars of Rome with the barbarians, 
and the occupation of the provinces of the 
empire by the northern warriors, were the first 
interruption of the long tranquillity enjoyed by 
the subdued but not oppressed peninsula. The 
policy of the emperors used the ambition and 
rapacity of one barbarian horde as a defence 
against another ; and the fierce people from the 
borders of the Baltic, and th? forests of northern 



HI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HI 



Germany, who, under the name of Vandals, 
Sueves, and Alans, in the reign of Honorius 
endeavoured to force the farthest barriers of the 
provinces, were for a time repelled by the arms 
of the stipendiary Goths, who, about the same 
time, partly as tributaries and partly as con- 
querors, had established themselves in Catalo- 
nia. About the year 419, the Gothic leader 
having died, the Vandals rose again, and pass- 
ing into Spain, affixed their name in that of 
Vandalusia, now Andalusia, to that part of 
BaBtica which lay between the Marianus and 
Orospeda montes and the littoral of the Medi- 
terranean. The wars that succeeded were 
almost without intermission, and left at last in 
possession of the Goths the whole of Spain 
except Galicia, which remained in the hands 
of the Suevi, together with the part of Lusitania 
between the Minius and theDutrius, Asturia 
and a portion of the Tarraconensis forming 
afterwards a part of the kingdoms of L€o7i and 
of Old Castile. Till 712 the Goths retained 
possession of this country, engrafting on the 
various manners, customs, and languages of the 
different people by which it was populated, their 
own peculiar characteristics, when a new people, 
crossing over from Africa, put an end to their 
rule, and fixed a Moorish monarchy in Spain. 
The fall of this empire, and the expulsion of the 
Moors from Granada by the Catholic king Fer- 
dinand, may be considered as the final establish- 
ment of the Spanish monarchy. The manner 
in "which the country was first colonized, the 
numberless changes which it underwent, affect- 
ing radically the character of its various popula- 
tions, have deprived the Spaniards of all nation- 
al characteristics, and made the people as various 
as the climate and the soil. Galicia and the 
north bear yet the evidence of having entertain- 
ed the bold and hardy children of the wild forests 
and frozen seas of Germany ; while the sea- 
coast of the Mediterranean is covered with a 
population that yet betrays its Moorish origin. 
The following account of the rivers and moun- 
tains of Spain is taken from D'Anville : "On 
the side where it is not environed by the sea, it 
is enclosed by the Pyrenees, which separate it 
from Gaul. Iberus, the Ebro, is the most north- 
ern of its rivers. Durius, the Dmro, (or, ac- 
cording to the Portuguese, Douro,) and the 
Tagus, or the Tajo which traverse the middle 
of this continent, shape their courses almost in 
a parallel direction towards the west. In the 
southern part Anas, or Guadi-Ana and Balis, 
which, under the domination of the Maures in 
Spain, assumed the appellation of Guadi-al-Ki- 
bir, or the Great River, run more obliquely from 
the east towards the south. Sucro, or the Xu- 
car, which empties itself into the Mediterra- 
nean ; and Minius, or the Minho (which should 
be pronounced Migno,) having its mouth in the 
ocean northward of the Durius, may also be 
cited here ; omitting at present the mention of 
other rivers, which will more properly be found 
in the detail of particular provinces. Among 
the mountains described by the ancients, that of 
Idubeda extends its name to a long chain, 
which, from the country of the Cantabrians 
towards the north, continues southward to that 
of the Celtiberians. Orospeda, is a circle of 
mountains enveloping the sources of the Bce- 
tis: and what is now called Sierra Morena 
P.4RT I.— U 



derives its name from Marianus mons, between 
Castile and Andalusia. This continent forms 
many promontories, of which three are suffi- 
ciently eminent to be distinguished here: Cha- 
ridemum on the Mediterranean, now Cape Ga- 
la; Sacrum, and Artabrum or Nerium, on the 
ocean ; the first of which has taken the name of 
St. Vincent, and the other that of Finisterre. 
And these are the features of nature most pro- 
minent and remarkable in this country." The 
precious metals, which, in the early ages the 
mountain regions of this peninsula so abundant- 
ly produced, have long disappeared ; the mines 
have been exhausted, and nothing but the au- 
thority of the historian remains to give ciedi- 
bility to the relations of antiquity concerning the 
prodigious supplies of gold, &c. which not only 
the Phoenicians, but in much later days the 
Romans, drew from this affluent soil. Yet 
concurrent testimonies prove, that, on the first 
arrival of the Phoenicians, so abundant was the 
return of this first of all the metals which they 
obtained for their trifling wares, that their 
ships being insufficient for its transportation in 
freight, they were obliged to cast it into the 
form of anchors, and other necessary imple- 
ments, to convey it across the waters. Bossi 
St. Spagn. 

HisTi^A, " one of the most considerable of 
the Euboean cities, founded, as it is said, by an 
Athenian colony, in the district of Ellopia, 
which once communicated its name to the 
whole country. Scymnus of Chios, hoVever, 
ascribes a Thessalian origin to this town. It 
fell into the hands of the Persians after the 
retreat of the Grecian fleet from Artemisium. 
But it did not remain long in their possession, 
and on the termination of the Persian w^ar it 
became, with the rest of Euboea, subject to 
Athens. In the attempt afterwards made to 
skake off the galling yoke of this power, Histiasa 
probably took a prominent part, if we may 
judge from the severity displayed towards its 
unfortunate inhabitants by Pericles, who ex- 
pelled them from their possessions, and sent 
Athenian colonists to occupy the lands which 
they had evacuated. Strabo, on the authority 
of Theopompus, informs us, that the HistJaeans 
withdrew on this occasion to Macedonia. From 
henceforth we find the name of their town 
changed to Oreus, which at first was that of a 
small place dependent on Histiaea, at the foot of 
mount Telethrius, and near the spot called Dry- 
mos on the banks of the river Callas. This 
city no longer existed in Pliny's time. Its ruins 
are still to be seen near the coast opposite to 
the cape Volo of Thessaly." Cram. Gr. 

HisTONroM, " once the haunt of savage pi- 
rates, who, as Strabo reports, formed their 
dwellings from the wrecks of ships, and in other 
respects lived more like beasts of prey than 
civilized beings. This town is, however, after- 
wards enumerated by Frontinus among the 
colonies of Rome ; and its ruins, which are still 
visible, attest that it was not wanting in splen- 
dour and extent." This place was in the coun- 
try of the Frentani, north of the mouth of the 
Trinius. It is now called Vasta d^Ammom. 
Cram. It. 

HisTRiA, that part of Venetia which lay 
below the river Formio in the shape of a penm- 
sula, between the waters of the Tergesticus 
153 



HO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HO 



Sinus, the Adriatic, and the Flanaticus Sinus, 
or rather the river Arsia. Before the time of 
Augustus, Histria formed no part of Italy, 
which was terminated on the north-east by the 
Formio ; but that emperor having extended the 
limits of Cisalpine Gaul, one of his Italian 
provinces, as far as the Arsia, of course included 
Histria in Italy. The Histrians were originally 
an Illyrian people, and like the other lUyrians, 
probably of Thracian origin. Ancient fable 
has rendered Histria more famous than it would 
have become from its political or historical im- 
portance ; and the fiction of the Argonauts, with 
the tragic story that gave name to the Absyr- 
tides, according to mythological traditions, has 
given it a frequent place in the pages of the first 
poets of antiquity. 

HoMOLE. " Mount Homole, the extreme 
point of Magnesia to the north, was probably a 
portion of the chain of Ossa ; and celebrated 
by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen- 
taurs and Lapithae, and a favourite haunt of 
Pan. 

Ceu^ duo nubigencB quum vertice montis ah alto 
De&cendunt Centauri, Homolen Othrymque ni- 

valem 
Linquentes cursu rapido. JEtW. 7, 674. 

From Pausanias we learn that it was extremely 
fertile, and well supplied with springs and foun- 
tains. One of these were apparently the Libe- 
thrian fountain. Sirabo says that mount Ho- 
mole was near the mouth of the Peneus, and 
Apollonius describes it as close to the sea." 
Cram. 

HoMOLOiDES, one of the seven gates of 
Thebes. Stat. Theb.l,Y.'ii>b2. 

HoMONADA, now Ermenak, on the Caly- 
cadnus, among the Taurus mountains, and 
towards the borders of Isauria. This town of 
Cilicia Trachaeawas situated in such a manner 
as to be almost impregnable ; and the inhabit- 
ants, like all the other people of those regions, 
( Vid. Cilicia,) being greatly addicted to a pre- 
datory life, were enabled in these fastnesses to 
carry on in the surrounding country an harass- 
ing war of depredation with the greatest secu- 
rity. 

HoREST^, a Caledonian people inhabitmg 
the northern margin of the Frith of Tay, and 
extending perhaps to the southern bank of the 
Esk. D^Anville. 

HoRTA, or HoRTiNUM, a town of the Sabines, 
on the confluence of the Nar and the Tiber. 
Virg. Mn. 7, v. 716. 

HoRTi, I. (Agripp^.) Near to the Pantheon 
were the gardens and baths of Agrippa, be- 
queathed by that proprietary to the people of 
Rome. In these gardens was the collection of 
water upon which the emperor Nero entertained 
himself with sea-fights and aquatic sports. A 
part of this piece of water was called the Eu- 
ripus. II. C^saris. The celebrated gar- 
dens of Ceesar, bequeathed also by that destroy- 
er of the people's rights to the people he had 
destroyed, were situate in the region called 
Transtyberina. 

" Moreover he hath left you all his walka 
His private arbours and new planted orchards 
On this side TWer ; he hath left them yon 
To walk abroad and recreate yourselves^ 

134 



III. DoMiTi.^.. The gardens of Domitia, 

the aunt of Nero, were also in this region, in 
the Campus Vaticanus. Long afterwards the 
emperor Hadrian erected there a mausoleum 
for himself, which, the principal defence of mo- 
dern Rome, has gained still more celebrity as 
the Castle of St. Angelo, the last resort of the 
Roman pontiffs in cases of sedition and attack, 
than as the proud structure intended to enno- 
ble the worthless remains of a vain Roman 
emperor. IV. Lamije. The gardens of La- 
mia, in which were deposited the last remains 
of Caligula, adjoined those of Maecenas in the 

region called Esquilina. V. Julh Martia- 

Lis. These retreats, commemorated by the 
poet Martial, the nephew of the person to whom 
they belonged and whose name they bore, were 
situated on the side of the hill now known as 
the Monte Mario, in the region Transtyberina, 
among the ancient Romans the Clivus Cinnae, 

VI. Neronis. a little farther from the 

banks of the river were the gardens of Nero, 
and here the imperial executioner stood to de- 
light in the torments inflicted by his orders on 
the persecuted disciples of the new religion of 
the Galilaeans. VII. Sallustii. In ihe re- 
gion called Alta Semita, near the baths of Dio- 
clesian and the circus of Flora, were-the famous 
gardens of Sallust. The brief remarks of 
Eustace on the gardens of Sallust, and on 
those of the Romans in general, will serve to 
give some notion of those elegant retreats of 
the ancient poet, philosopher, or sensualist. 
"The various villas that encircle modern Rome 
form one of its characteristic beauties, as well 
as one of the principal features of its resem- 
blance to the ancient city, which seems to have 
been environed with gardens, and almost stud- 
ded with groves and shady retirements. Thus 
Julius Cassar had a spacious garden on the 
banks of the Tiber, at the foot of the Janiculum, 
which he bequeathed to the Roman people: 
Maecenas enclosed, and converted into a plea- 
sure-ground, a considerable part of the Esqui- 
line hill, which before had been the common 
burial-place of the lower classes and the resort 
of thieves and vagabonds; an alteration which 
Horace mentions with complacency in his 
eighth satire. To these we may add the Horti 
L/iLcullani and ^S'er^'^Z^am, incident ly mentioned 
by Tacitus, and particularly the celebrated re- 
treat of the historian Sallust, adorned with so 
much magnificence and luxury that it became 
the favourite resort of successive emperors. 
This garden occupied the extremities of the 
Viminal and Pincian hills, and enclosed in its 
precincts a palace, a temple, and a circus. The 
palace v/as consumed by fire on the fatal night 
when Alaric entered the city. The gardens of 
Lucullus are supposed to have bordered on 
those of Sallust, and with several other deli- 
cious retreats, which covered the summit and 
brow of the Pincian mount, gave it its ancient 
appellation of Collis Hortulorum. To the in- 
termingled graces of town and country that 
adorned these fashionable mansions of the rich 
and luxurious Romans, Horace alludes, when, 
addressing Fuscus Aristius, he says 

Nempe inter varias nutritur sylva columnas — 
as in the verse immediately following 



HU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HU 



LaudaHroue domus longos qua prospicit agros. 
^ Hor. Ep. 1, 10. 

he evidently hints at the extensive views which 
might be enjoyed from the lofty apartments, 
erected expressly for the purpose of command- 
ing a wide range of country." 

HosTiLiA, a town on the Po. Tacit. Ann. 
2, c. 40.— Plin. 21, c. 12. 

HuNNi, a people of Sarmatia, who invaded 
the empire of Rome in the fifth century, and 
settled in Pannonia, to which they gave the 
name of Hungary. Of all the barbarian in- 
vaders of the Roman empire, there are none 
whose immediate origin is more obscure, or 
whose early progress is more unsatisfactorily 
traced, than that of the Huns. Two modes 
may be adopted in the investigation of their 
rise, which, leading at first to apparently diffe- 
rent results, may yet perhaps be reconciled. 
The former of these observes the analogy, in 
customs, language, habits, and traditions, be- 
tween the Hunni and other northern and north- 
eastern tribes; the latter argues from the re- 
ports, imsatisfactory and insufficient, that clas- 
sic authors, or rather authors living after the 
classic ages, have handed down to us. The 
argument deduced from affinities of language 
join the population of Hungary to the Finnish 
tribes that dwelt about the Uralian countries ; 
but this refers rather to the people who occu- 
pied the countries within which the later Huns, 
on their first arrival, fixed themselves, than to 
those Huns or Magiars themselves. The Huns 
of Asia, however, long before their passage 
towards Europe, had extended from the Chi- 
nese wall over a large portion of the northern 
parts of Asia, when the increase of the impe- 
rial power on the south, and the hostility of 
innumerable smaller nations that had swelled 
the Hunnish power within the first century of 
our era, reduced that haughty race to the alter- 
native of servitude or emigration. While sub- 
mission and subjection seemed to many prefer- 
able to the abandonment of their homes, large 
nimibers resolved to follow their fortunes in the 
wide regions, both cultivated and uncultivated, 
that lay before them. One body, pushing their 
march towards the borders of the Persian em- 
pire, possessed themselves of the province of 
Sogdiana ; while another, proceeding still fur- 
ther in the direction of Europe, established a 
temporary abode on the banks of the Volga, in 
the country named from them Great Hungary. 
" The Ouni," says Malte-Brun, " inhabited the 
northern shores of the Caspian Sea in the first 
century of the Christian era, and a hundred 
years afterwards they were settled on the banks 
of the Borysthenes. These people were in all 
probability the Huns who rendered themselves 
illustrious in the fourth and fifth centuries ; they 
occupied the same countries, they were distin- 
guished by the same names." To the same ef- 
fect writes that soundest geographer, D' An ville, 
who adds that they were also still masters of 
their seats beside the Caspian as late as the 
close of the 5th century. " In the description," 
he continues, " that wehave of the person of At- 
tila, we recognize the features of the Cal mucks 
who wander over the immense plains of Tarta- 
ry, which extend from the north of the Caspian 
Sea to the frontier of China. For he was short 



of stature, with high shoulders, broad head, lit- 
tle eyes, flat nose, of swarthy tint, and almost 
without beard. Sabiri was a particular name 
to those Huns established at the foot of Cauca- 
The crossing of the Volga by this peo 



sus. ._, w . 

pie was the beginning of new contests, in which 
it was again to be engaged for many years, but 
always as a conqueror. The Alani were the 
first subdued by them, and the Hunnish ranks 
were swelled by immense numbers of the va- 
liant Alani, who were suffered to unite with 
their conquerors. The Gothic empire of Her- 
manric, extending from the Baltic to the Eux- 
ine, next yielded to the Hunnish power ; and 
these victorious tribes pursued the dying hordes, 
less valiant and less dreaded only than them- 
selves, to beg protection within the still shelter- 
ing power of the Roman dominions. ( Vid. Got- 
thi.) This was the first appearance of the 
Turkish race in Europe, for it is evident that, 
though in their Finnish relations they are con- 
nected with the people of the north, in their 
Asiatic origin they belong to the Tartar race of 
the Altai, as do also the Turks, whose migra- 
tions are only of a later date. The Huns now 
spread themselves from the Volga to the Da- 
nube, committing depredations, and still the 
terror as well of the less savage barbarians as 
of the empire, but yet without a settled govern- 
ment. About the year 433 this government 
was established, the kingdom of Attila was 
spread over Germany, and Scylhia, and a large 
division of the eastern empire was delached^from 
the dominion of the emperor and added to the 
Hunnish monarch's throne, while his power was 
felt, if his authority and right were not acknow- 
ledged, by tribute, over all the region through 
which the earlier Huns had passed to the walls 
of the distant Chinese territory. But this ex- 
tensive empire lasted only while its foundei: 
lived to rule and animate, and add to it ; and 
the revival of the thrones of the GepidiE and 
the Ostrogoths betokened the dissolution of the 
Hunnish dominion. The remains of this peo- 
ple, who had retreated to the narrow country of 
the Lesser Scythia, were soon after overwhelm- 
ed by new comers from the inexhaustible north. 
Thus were extinguished for a time the name 
and power of the Huns who had ventured with- 
in the pale of the empire ; but an immense num- 
ber had remained, or had since been born, of 
those that had been left in the forests of Sar- 
matia, and still continued, under the name of 
Bulgarians, to threaten the civilized inhabitants 
of the west. Meanwhile new revolutions in the 
centre of Asia were preparing new enemies for 
Europe ; and the Avars, another horde of sava- 
ges, descended from the same stock as the Huns, 
being driven by the oppressive power of the Tar- 
tars, who had now received the name of Turks, 
appeared to dispute with the Bulgarians and 
Slavonians the possessions of extensive coim- 
tries in the European Sarmatia. In the wars of 
the Lombards and Gepidse, these Avars com- 
bined with the former, and on the extermination 
of their enemies they transferred themselves to 
the milder seats which had thus been rendered 
destitute, and spread themselves in the pro- 
vinces of Moesia and Dacia, in the modern coun- 
tries of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, 
and Hungary, on the farther side of the Danube. 
When Alboin, the Lombard king, evacuating 
155 



HU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HU 



Pannonia, passed to the invasion and conquest 
of Italy, the Huns or Avars, transporting them- 
selves over the Danube, effected the settlement 
of the province thus abandoned by their allies 
and friends. Here, for upwards of 200 years, 
they remained without any considerable inter- 
ruption of their rule, when, after that lapse of 
time, the authority of the new empire of the 
west, revived in Charlemagne, was extended 
over this province of ihe former emperors. Such 
is a brief outline of the progress and settlement 
of the Huns and Avars in Europe, the later in- 
cursions of the Hungarians are yet to be traced 
and elucidated. It does not appear that the first 
invaders of Europe from the Tartar countries 
at any time forgot their distant homes and Asia- 
tic origin, and the borders of Persia were inha- 
bited by a race which, as well as the shepherds 
of the Volga, acknowledged an affinity with the 
descendants of the Huns of Attila. We have 
already seen a later branch of the same people, 
with the name of Turks, pursuing the march 
of their brethren from the confines of China, 
and driving before them the weaker but uncon- 
querable Avars. The eastern name of these 
people seem to have been Magiars, and this 
also is the name of a portion of that people by 
whom the last barbarian conquests were effect- 
ed in Hungary, and who still form apart, though 
not a large one, of the population of that coun- 
try. The following is the Hungarian account 
of this migration and incursion, in which the 
scattered bodies of the former tribe, collecting 
from all parts of uncivilized Europe, united 
with the Magiars, forming what is called the 
Hungarian horde, to establish the kingdom of 
Hungary. " We learn from the old national 
songs of the Magiars that three countries are 
situated in the heart of Scythia, Dens or Dentu, 
Moger or Magar, and Bastard. The inhabit- 
ants of these regions are clothed in ermine ; gold 
and silver are as common as iron, the channels 
of the rivers are covered with precious stones. 
Magog, the eastern neighbour of Gog, was a 
grandson of Japheth, and the first king of Scy- 
thia. According to a different tradition, Ma- 
gor and Hunor, the first Scythian monarchs, 
left a hundred and eight descendants, the found- 
ers of as many tribes. Ethele or Attila was 
sprung from Japheth, and Ugek from Attila. 
The second migration of the Hungarians from 
Scythia took place under the son of Ugek or 
Almus, whose birth was foretold in a dream ; 
the first happened in the time of Attila. A re- 
dundant population was the cause of these mi- 
grations. Two thousand men departed from 
every one of the 108 tribes, and the total num- 
ber amounted to 216,000, who were divided into 
seven armies, each of which was made up of 
30,857, warriors, commanded by seven princes 
or dukes, the Hetou Moger or the seven Ma- 
giars. The names of the leaders, which are 
still preserved, were Almus, Eleud, Kundu, 
Ound, Tosu, Thiba, and T\ihuhim. The Hun- 
garians passed the Wolga near the town of 
Tiilbora, and marched on Sousdal, which might 
have been the same as Susat, the ancient 
capital of Attila's empire. They removed from 
that place and settled in Lebedias, probably in 
the neighbourhood of Lebedian, a town in the 
government of Varonez (Woronesch.) They 
were invited from their new territory by king 
156 



Arnolphus of Germany to combat Sviatopolk, 
king of Great Moravia. Duke Almus put him- 
self at the head of an army, passed through the 
country of the Slavonians in Kiovia (Kiow,) 
defeated the troops that opposed him, and reach- 
ed the confines of Hungary by the Russian 
principality of Lodomiria or Wladimir. Arpad, 
his son, crossed the Carpathian mountains, 
and invaded the country on the Upper Theiss, 
which is now protected by the fortress of Ungh- 
Var that was built in 884. But according to 
another account the Hungarians entered Tran- 
sylvania in 862, and were driven from it in 889 
by the Patzinakites or Petchenegues. These 
tribes, however, were not perhaps under the do- 
minions of Arpad. Such is the history of the 
Hungarian migrations according to their own 
traditions, which unfortunately are disregarded 
and rejected by the monks, the only persons who 
could have preserved them entire. The three 
regions, Dentu, Mager, and Bosto.rd, were Tev^ 
duck or Turf an, Great Hungary or the country 
of the Magiars, and Baschirs or Bushkurst, the 
Pascatir of Rubruquis. The first was ruled 
by kings of the Unghs, and the second was the 
earliest known country of the Magiars. It fol- 
lows from these- statements that the Hrmga- 
rians must have occupied at one time a very 
extensive country, but the details are not for that 
reason incorrect ; on the contrary, other facts, 
independently of the seven princes and the se- 
ven tribes, appear to corroborate them. When 
compared with the statements of different histo- 
rians, and combined with our hypothesis con- 
cerning the Huns and Fins, the migrations of 
the Hungarians across Russia, then peopled by 
hordes of the same race, and their settlements 
in the Hunni-Var, cannot be thought improba- 
ble or fabulous. The epoch of the migration, 
which is said to have taken place before the j'^ear 
800, may not be accurately known ; but it may 
be maintained, without inquiring whether the 
early exploits of the Huns under Attila were 
confounded with the achievements of the Ma- 
giars, that the latter possessed Lebedias longer 
than is generally believed. The passages in 
Constanline Porphyrogenetes concerning the 
respective countries of the Mazares, Chazares, 
and Russians, in the early part of the tenth cen- 
tury, are very obscure; still, according to the 
text, and exclusive of every arbitrary correc- 
tion, they prove, in our opinion, that the Ma- 
giars inhabited the banks of the Upper Don af- 
ter the Ougres, whom the Byzantines confound- 
ed with the Turks, were settled in the Hunni- 
Var. As we cannot enter into the long discus- 
sions to which the subject might lead, it only re- 
mains for us to state briefly the causes or events 
by which the limits of Hungary have at differ- 
ent times been altered. The irruptions of the 
Hungarians into Germany and Italy were final- 
ly checked by the victories of Henry the 1st at 
Merseburg in 933, and of^Otho the 1st at Augs- 
burg in 955. The Hungarians were then a 
barbarous people, addicted to superstition and 
magic, like the Finns ; eating horse-flesh at their 
religious feasts like the Scandinavians. The 
names of their divinities are now unknown." 
A summary of this latter invasion is given by 
the same writer in the following words : " The 
Hungarians entered the basin of the Theiss 
and the Danube by the plain now protected oy 



HY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HY 



the forts of Ungh^Var and MunJcatsch ; they 
invaded all the low country, and left the moun- 
tainous districts on the north and north-west to 
the Slovacks, once the subjects of the Moravian 
or Maravanian monarchy. They advanced on 
the south-west to the base of the Styrian and 
Croatian mountains, and met in these regions 
Slavonic tribes, the Wends and Croatians. The 
Hungarians were accustomed to a pastoral life, 
and possessed numerous flocks and herds, for 
which the large plains were well adapted. The 
same country had been successively subdued 
by the Pannonians, Sarmatians, Huns, and 
Awares ; but several Hungarian tribes inhabit- 
ed, probably at an early period, the mountains 
in the north-west of Transylvania, or the basin 
of the two Szamos, which was called Black 
Hungary in the year 1002, or at the time of its 
imion with Hungary Proper. It has been seen 
that the Szecklers in the eastern part of Tran- 
sylvania are a Hungarian or semi-Hungarian 
tribe, that have existed in their present country 
since the ninth century. The population of 
the whole nation, including the Cumanians and 
Jazyges, amounts to four millions, of whom 
nearly 500,000 are settled in Transylvania." 
Malte-Brun. 

Hyampeia, one of the rocks, which, rising 
above the city of Delphi, belonged to Parnassus, 
and caused the mountain to receive the epithet 
of AiKopvcpos. Between this summit and that 
called Naupleia was precipitated the fountain 
of Castaly; and from them also the criminals 
convicted of sacrilege were precipitated. The 
name of Phsedriades was given to these sum- 
mits when spoken of in connexion. Herodotus^ 
8, 29.—Diodor. Sic. 16, 523.— >So^A. Ant. 1126. 

Hyampolis, a city of Phocis, on the Cephi- 
sus, founded by the Hyanthes. Herodot. 8. 

Hyanthes, the ancient name of the inhabit- 
ants of Boeotia, from king Hyas. Cadmus is 
sometimes called Hyanthius, because he is king 
of Boeotia. Ovid Met. 3, v. 147. 

Hyantis, an ancient name of Boeotia. 

Hybla, a mountain in Sicil)'', where thyme 
and odoriferous flowers of all sorts grew in 
abundance. It is famous for its honey. There 
is, at the foot of the mountain, a town, called, 
to distinguish it from others of the same name 

in the island. Magna. Another Hybla, south 

of the former, and not far to the north of Syra- 
cuse, was called also Megaris. Paus. 5, c. 23. — 
Slrab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Cic. Verr. 3, c. 43, 1. 

5, c. 25.— SiZ. 14, V. 26.— Stat. 14, v. 201. 

A city of Attica bears also the name of Hj^bla. 

Hydaspes. This river, celebrated for the 
passage of Alexander before engaging with 
Porus, was known to the ancients by a variety 
of names ; nor do the moderns recognise it by 
fewer designating appellations. Like many 
other of the head waters of the Indus, this ri- 
ver, a principal tributary of that famous stream, 
is created by the springs of the vast Himalah, 
and, flowing through the district of Cashmire, 
it is navigable for vessels of a great tonnage 
from the capital of that province to its conflu- 
ence with the Acesines, with which it sends its 
waters to the Indus and the Arabian Sea. The 
modern name is Behut, but D'Anville calls it 
the Shantrou. 

Hydraotes, a river of India, whose course is 
not accurately known, according to the jarring 



accounts of antiquity. If it be the same as the 
Persian Ravee or Rawi, it rose like the Hy- 
daspes, in the Himalah mountains to the east of 
the sources of that river and of the Acesines, 
and running through that part of the anciently 
ill-deiuied India, or the modem Cashmire, La- 
hore, and Mooltar, discharged itself at some dis- 
tance below the junction of those rivers above 
their confluence with the great river which ab- 
sorbed them all. Chaussard. 

Hydruntum, and Hydrus, a city of Cala- 
bria, 50 miles south of Brundusium. As the 
distance from thence to Greece was only GO 
miles, Pyrrhus, and afterwardsVarro, Pompey's 
lieutenant, meditated the building here a bridge 
across the Adriatic. Though so favourably si- 
tuated, Hydrus, now called Otranto, is but an 
insignificant towTi, scarce containing 3000 in- 
habitants. Plin. 3, c. 11.— Czc. 15, Att. 21, 1. 
16, ep. 5. — Lucan. 5, v. 375. 

Hylas, a river of Bithynia. This river was 
connected with the fable of Hylas. Vid. Part 
III. 

Hyle, a town of Boeotia, on the Hylice Pa- 
ins, which derived its name from that of the 
town. This little spot, though inconsiderable 
in size and population, was of great antiquity, 
and is twice mentioned by Homer. The waters 
of the lake on which it stood were derived from 
the Copaic lake b)'- one of its numerous subter- 
ranean passages ; and on their banks, extending 
perhaps a distance of about five miles, the ruins 
of Hyle are still discernible. 

Hylias, a river of Magna Greecia. " The 
river Hylias, which formed, as may be collected 
from Thucydides, the line of separation be- 
tween the territories of Thurii and Crotona, 
answers according to Romanelli, to a rivulet 
named Calonato. The Greek historian informs 
us, that the Athenian troops which were sent 
to reinforce their army in Sicily, having landed 
at Thurii, marched along the coast till they ar- 
rived on the banks of the Hylias, where they 
were met by a deputation sent from Crotona to 
interdict their progress through the territory of 
that city." 

Hylice Palus. Vid. Hyle. 

Hyllus, a river of Lydia, flowing into the 
Hermus. It is called also Phryx and Phrygius. 
Liv. 37, c. 'i'$,.— Herodot. 1, c. 180. 

Hymettus, a mountain of Attica, about 22 
miles in circumference, and about two miles 
from Athens. " This celebrated mountain forms 
the southern portion of the considerable chain 
which, under the several names of Parnes, Pen- 
telicus, and Brilessus, traverses nearly the whole 
of Attica from north-east to south-west. It was 
divided into two summits, one of which was 
Hymettus properly so called, the other, Anydros, 
or the dry Hymettus. The former is now Tre- 
lovouni, the latter, Lampro vouni. Hymettus 
was especially famous for its fragrant flowers 
and excellent honey. It produced also marbles 
much esteemed by the Romans, and, according 
to some accounts, contained silver mines. He- 
rodotus affirms that the Pelasgi, who, in the 
course of their wanderings, had settled in Atti- 
ca, occupied a district situated under mount Hy- 
mettus : from this, however, they were expelled, 
in consequence, as Hecateus aflSrmed, of the 
jealousy entertained by the Athenians on ac- 
count of the superior skill exhibited by these 
157 



HY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



HY 



strangers in the culture of land. Some ruins, 
indicative of the site of an ancient lown, near 
the monastery of Syriani, at the foot of moimt 
Trelo vou7ii, have been thought to correspond 
•with this old settlement of the Pelasgi, appa- 
rently called Larissa. On the crest of the moun- 
tain stood a statue of Jupiter Hymettius, and 
the altars of Jupiter Pluviusand Apollo Provi- 
dus. ' Hymettus,' says Dodwell, ' rises gently 
from the northern and southern extremities to 
its summit ; its eastern and western sides are 
abrupt and rocky; its outline, as seen from 
Athens, is even and regular, but its sides are 
furrowed by the winter torrents, and its base is 
broken into many small insular hills of a conical 
shape. When viewed from Pentelikon, where 
its breadth only is seen, it resembles mount 
Vesuvius in its form. The rock of this moun- 
tain is in general composed of a calcareous 
yellow stone. On the western side, near the 
monastery of Kareas, is an ancient quarry of 
grey marble, which contains some line masses 
of white marble ; but it is so much mixed with 
strata of green mica, that it is not comparable 
to the Pentelic' The honey of mount Hy- 
mettus is still in great estimation ; the best is 
procured at the monasteries of Sirgiani and 
Kareas. Dodwell remarks that the Athenians 
use it in most of their dishes, and conceive 
that it renders them long-lived and healthy. 
The modern name of Hymettus is Trelo-vouni, 
or the Mad mountain. This singular appellation 
is accounted for from the circumstance of its 
having been translated from the Italian Monte 
Matto, which is nothing else than an unmean- 
ing corruption of mons Hymettus. It appears 
from Horace's account to have been once cover- 
ed with forests, if he is not rather alluding to 
the marble blocks cut from the mountain. 

Non traces HymetticB 
PremvMt recisas ultima colwnnas 
Africa. Od. IL 17, 3. 

It is now no longer sheltered by woods, but is 
exposed to the winds, and has a sun-burnt ap- 
pearance." Cram. 

HYP.EPA, or Ipep^, now Berki, a town of 
Lydia, sacred to Venus, between mount Tmo- 
lusandthe Caystrus. Strab. 13. — Ovid. Met. 
11, V. 152. 

Hypanis, a river of European Scythia, now 
called Bog, which falls into the Borysthenes, 
and with it into the Euxine. Herodot. 4, c. 52, 
&c.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 285. 

Hypates, a river of Sicily, near Camarina. 
Ital. 14, V. 231. 

Hypata, a town of Thessaly on the Sper- 
chius, the chief city of the CEniones, The na- 
tional councils of the iEtolianswere frequently 
held in this place, which is said to have fallen 
into the possession of that people ; and the ma- 
gic art was thought to be practised there to a 
very great extent and with the greatest success. 
In the geography of the lower empire, this place 
was designated by the name of Neae Patrae, and 
its ruins are even yet discoverable near the 
present I'atragicJc. Liv. 41, c. 25. 

Hyperborei, a nation in the northern parts 
of Europe and Asia, who were said to live to 
an incredible age, even to a thousand years, and 
in the enjoyment of all possible felicity. The 
sun was said to rise and set to them but once 
158 



a year, and therefore perhaps they are placed 
by Virgil under the north pole. The word signi- 
fies people who inhabit beyond the wind Boreas. 
Thrace was the residence of Boreas, according 
to the ancients. Whenever the Hyperboreans 
made offerings, they always sent them towards 
the south, and the people of Dodona were the 
first of the Greeks who received them. The 
word Hyperboreans is applied, in general, to all 
those who inhabit any cold climate. Plin. 4, c. 
12, 1. 6, c. 11.— Mela, 3, c. 5.— Virg. G. 1, v. 
240, 1. 3, V. 169 and ^Ql.— Herodot. 4, c. 13, 
&c.— Cic. N. D. 3, c. 23, 1. 4, c. 12. 

Hyperea, and Hyperia, I. a fountain of 
Thessaly, with a town of the same name. Strab. 
9. II. Another in Messenia, in Peloponne- 
sus. Flacc. 1, V. 375. 

Hyphasis, called also Hypanis, according to 
the oriental geographers Beah or Biah, a river 
of India. To the south-east of the sources of 
the Hydaspes, Acesines, and Hydraotis, this ri- 
ver rose in the high mountains of Asia, between 
India and Scythia, and, after flowing through 
that ill-explored country which Alexander's 
conquests only reached, it fell into the Acesines, 
or, as some believed, into the Indus itself. The 
modern Lahore is watered on the east by this 
river, after it comes from Cashmire ; and its 
waters on the south-eastern confines of the for- 
mer district, taking a western bend, divide the 
provinces oi Mooltan, Beerkanair, ajidDaopotra. 
This is generally considered to have marked the 
limit of the conquests of the mad Macedonian. 

Hypsa, now Belici, a river of Sicily, falling 
into the Crinisus, and then into the Mediterra- 
nean near Selinus. Hal. 14, v. 228. 

Hyrcania, I. a country of Asia, bounded on 
the north by the Hyrcanian or Caspian Sea, on 
the east by Margiana, on the south by Parthia, 
and on the west by Atropatia or Atropatene, 
the northern part of Media. " Divided from 
Parthia by the interposition of Coronus, part 
of the main body of mount Taurus ; the way 
through which, said by the Persians to be cut 
at one blow by the scymitar of Mortis Hali, 
their second Mahomet, is not above forty yards 
in breadth in the broadest parts of it ; the hills 
on both sides towering to the very clouds ; with 
small strength easily defended against mighty 
armies. It took the name of Hyrcania from 
Hyrcana, a large and spacious forest between it 
and Scythia : sometimes called Caspia also, from 
the Caspii, a chief people of it; of whom it is 
reported, that when their parents came to the 
age of 70 years, they used to shut them up and 
starve them, as being then no longer useful to 
the commonwealth. But both these names 
growing out of use, it is by Mercator called Di- 
argument, by some late travellers Mezendram, 
and by some others CorcamP The ancient ca- 
pital of the country was Hyrcania, now Jorjan 

or Corcan. Heyl. Cosm. II. A town of 

Lydia, destroyed by a violent earthquake in the 
time of Tiberius. It was situated in the plain 
to the north of the Hermus, and received its 
name from a body of Hyrcanians, transported 
thither under the kings of Persia from the bor- 
ders of the Caspian. Marmora probably occu- 
pies its site. D'Anville. 

Hyrcanum mare, a large sea, called also 
Caspian. Vid. Caspium Mare. 

Hyreicm, or Uria, a town of Apulia, which 



HY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



lA 



gave name to the Sinus Urias. Its " position 
has not yet been clearly ascertained, partly from 
the circumstance of there being another town 
of the same name in Messapia, and partly from 
the situation assigned to it by Pliny, to the 
south of the promontory of Garganus, not agree- 
ing with the topography of Strabo. Hence 
Cluverius and Cellarius were led to imagine 
that there were two distinct towns named Uria 
and Hyrium ; the former situated to the south, 
the latter to the north of the Garganus. It 
must be observed, however, that Dionysius Pe- 
riegetes, and Ptolemy mention only Hyrium, 
and therefore it is probable that the error has 
originated with Pliny. At any rate, we may 
safely place the Hyreium of Strabo at Rodi. 
Catullus probably alludes to this town in his 
address to Venus." Cram. 

Hyria, I. a borough of BcEotia, near Aulis, 
with a lake, river, and town, of the same name. 

II. or Uria, a town in the northern part 

of the lapygian peninsula, " betw^een Brindisi 
and Tarento, apparently of great antiquity, 
since its foundation is ascribed by Herodotus to 
some Cretans, who formed part of an expedition 
to avenge the death of Minos, who perished in 
Sicily, whither he went in pursuit of Dsedalus. 
After the failure of this second enterprise, the 
remaining Cretans, as Herodotus relates, being 
wrecked on their return home near the shores 
of lapygia, settled there, and founded the city 
of Hyria, together with other colonies ; and 
from their intermixing with the natives of the 
country, these Cretans were henceforth called 
lapygian Messapians. It was this circumstance 
probably which gave rise to the notion that the 
lapygians were a colony of Crete. The same 
historian relates, that the Tarentines made se- 
veral attempts to destroy these Cretan settle- 
ments, but that on one occasion, they, with their 
allies, the people of Rhegium, met with so sig- 
nal an overthrow, that their loss in the field was 
greater than had ever before been experienced 
by any Grecian city. Strabo, in his description 
of lapygia, does not fail to cite this passage of 
Herodotus, but he seems undetermined whether 
to recognise the town founded by the Cretans 
in that of Thyrsei, or in that of Veretum. By 
the first, which he mentions as placed in the 
centre of the isthmus, and formerly the capital 
of the country, he seems to designate Oria ; 
Veretum, it is well known, being situated near 
the sea, towards the extreme point of the pe- 
ninsula. It is probable the word Thyraei is cor- 
rupt; for elsewhere Strabo calls it Uria, and de- 
scribes it as standing on the Appian Way, be- 
tween Brundusium and Tarentum. Reference 
is also made to Uria by Appian, and by Fron- 
tinus, who speaks of the Urianus ager'; and it 
is likewise marked in the Table Itinerary." 
Cram. 

Hyrmine, a town and promontory of Elis, 
the former ofwhich had disappeared in Strabo's 
time, while the latter remained. It was near 
the port of Cyllene, and now bears the name of 
Cape Chiarenza. Cram. 

Hysi^, a town of BcEotia, " at the foot of 
Cithffiron, and to the east of Plataea, which ap- 
pears at one time to have been included within 
the limits of Attica, since Herodotus terms it 
one of the border demi belonging to that pro- 
vince ; elsewhere he leads us to infer that it was 



assigned to the Piatseans bv a special arrange- 
ment of the Athenians. Stjabo affirms that it 
was founded by Nycteus, father of Antiope, in 
the Parasopian district. Pausanias expressly 
states that Hysise was a Boeotian town, but in 
his time it w^as in ruins. The vestiges of Hy- 
sia3 should be looked for near the village of 
Platania, said to be one mile from Plataea, ac- 
cording to Sir W. Gell." Cram. 



I. 



Ialysus, a town of Rhodes, built by lalysus, 
of whom Protogenes was making a beautiful 
painting when Demetrius Poliorcetes took 
Rhodes. Ovid. Met. 7, fab. 9.—Plin. 35, c. 6. 
— Cic. 2, ad Attic, ep. 21. — Plut. in Dem. — 
jElian. 12, c. 5. 

Janiculum, and Janicularius mons, one of 
the seven hills at Rome, joined to the city by 
Ancus Martins, and made a kind of citadel to 
protect the place against an invasion. This 
hill, which w^as on the opposite shore of the 
Tiber, was joined to the city by the bridge 
Sublicius, the first ever built across that river, 
and perhaps in Italy. It was less inhabited 
than the other parts of the city, on account of 
the grossness of the air, though from its top the 
eye could have a commanding view of the whole 
city. It is famous for the burial of king Numa 
and the poet Italicus. Porsenna, king of Etru- 
ria, pitched his camp on mount Janiculum, and 
the senators took refuge there in the civil wars, 
to avoid the resentment of Octavius. Liv. 1, c. 
33, &.c.—Dio. 41.— Ovid. 1, Fast. v. 246.— 
Virg. 8, V. 3bS.—Mart. 4, ep. 64, 1. 7, ep. 16. 

Iapydes, or Iapodes, a people who occupied 
that part of the lllyrian coast to the south of 
Histria which intervened betw^een Greece and 
Italy. Their territory extended from Histria 
on the north, along the shore of the Flanaticus 
Sinus and the Hadriatic to the south, a distance 
of 1000 stadia ; although, from Virgil's expres- 
sion, lapydis arva Timavi, we would infer that 
it once reached as far north at least as the Ti- 
mavus. The Iapydes w^ere reduced by Augus- 
tus. Cram. — Strab. 7, 315. — Appian. Illyr. 18. 

Iapyges, Vid. lapygia. 

Iapygia, a name given by the Greeks to the 
peninsula, which may be termed the heel of the 
boot, to which Italy has been likened. The 
lapygian peninsula was w^ashed on the east and 
south by the Ionian Sea, and on the west by the 
gulf of Tarentum. It included within its limits 
the territories of the Sallentines, Calabrians, 
Tarentines, and Messapians. The Iapyges un- 
questionably deserve to be classed among the 
earliest tribes of Italy, and settled in the coun- 
try before the date of the first Grecian colony 
that migrated to the Italian peninsula. The 
language of this people, if we may place confi- 
dence in an old inscription found near Otranto, 
seems to be compounded of Greek and Oscan. 
Herod. 7, 170. — Thvcyd. 7, 33. — Pausan. 10, 
10. — Lanzi, t. 3, p. 620. — Cram. 

Iapygium. or Sai.lentinum promontorium, 
the promontory in which the lapj^gian peninsu- 
la terminates towards the south. " When the 
art of navigation was yet in its infancy, this 
great headland presented a conspicuous land- 
mark to mariners bound from the ports of Greece 
to Sicily, of which thev always availed them' 
159 



IB 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IC 



selves. The fleets of Athens, after having cir- 
cumnavigated the Peloponnese, are represent- 
ed on this passage as usually making for Cor- 
cyra, from whence they steered straight across 
to the promontory, and then coasted along the 
south of Italy for the remainder of their voyage. 
There seems indeed to Jiave been a sort of ha- 
ven here, capable of affording shelter to vessels 
in tempestuous weather. Strabo describes this 
celebrated point of land, now called Capo di 
Leuca, as defining, together with the Ceraunian 
mountains, the line of separation between the 
Adriatic and the Ionian seas, whilst it formed, 
with the opposite cape of Lacinium, the en- 
trance to the Tarentine gulf; the distance in 
both cases being 700 stadia." Cram. 

Iapygum Tria Promontoria, three capes in 
the Brutian territory, south of the Lacinian 
promontory, now called Capo delle Castella, 
Capo Rizzuto, and Capo delta Nave. Cramer. 

Iasus, an island with a town of the same 
name, on the coast of Caria, now Assem Cala- 
si. The bay adjoining was called lasius Si- 
nus. Plin. 5, c. 2S.—Liv. 32, c. 33, 1. 37, c. 17. 

Iaxartes, now Dar-Syria, a river of Asia, 
confounded by the historians of Alexander with 
the Tanais. According to the ancient geo- 
graphers the Iaxartes and Oxus both emptied 
into the Caspian Sea. The sea of Aral was 
not known by them to be distinct from the Cas- 
pian ; and the latter was extended to the east 
so as to enclose within its waters those of the 
former. Malte-Brun. 

Iaziges, " a Sarmatic nation, who were sur- 
named Metanastse, which denotes them to have 
been removed or driven from their native seats. 
We find other Iaziges also on the Palus Meeo- 
tis. Of the Iaziges it is remarkable that, not- 
withstanding the revolutions which Hungary 
has sustained, they are still known in the envi- 
rons of a place about the height of Budo,, whose 
name of laz-Berin signifies the Fountain of the 
Iaziges." D'Anville.— Tacit. A. 12, c. 29.— 
Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 191.— Pont. 4, el. 7, v. 9. 

Iberia, a country situated on the Caucasian 
isthmus, midway between the Euxine and Cas- 
pian seas. On the v/est it was separated from 
Colchis by a ridge of mountains which branch 
ofi" from the chain of Caucasus in a southerly 
direction; to the north the Caucasian range 
formed a natural barrier against the incursions 
of the barbarian hordes of Scythia and Sarma- 
tia ; on the east Albania intervened between 
Iberia and the Caspian; and a common boun- 
dary marked the limits of Iberia on the south, 
and of Armenia on the north. The Caucasian 
isthmus is at present occupied by innumerable 
tribes, partly indigenous, and partly remnants of 
the numerous migrating bodies that have passed 
through this region at different periods in their 
progress towards the Avest, or perhaps roving 
parties from the country north of Caucasus, 
which have forced their way through the pas- 
sages of that range. Of the native races the 
Georgians are peculiarly deserving of notice, 
since they occupy the whole extent of country 
included within the boundaries of the ancient 
Colchis and Iberia. The Georgians may be 
divided into, 1. Georgians, properly so called. 
2. Imeritians. 3. Gurians. 4. Mingrelians. 
5. Suanes. Ancient Iberia answers to the 
territory now occupied by the Imeritians and 
160 



Georgians, properly so called. Imeritia is de- 
rived from Iberia or Iweria, a term under which 
the native writers comprehend the four king- 
doms of Hartueli, Imeritia, Mingrelia, and Gu- 
ria ; and therefore more extensive than the Ibe- 
ria of antiquity, as above described. The Ime- 
ritians occupy that part of Iberia which was 
contiguous to Colchis. They join the Geor- 
gians on the north-west, and speak the Geor- 
gian dialect. " The indolence of the inhabit- 
ants allows the rich gifts of the soil to perish in 
a most useless manner. It was here that, in 
old times, the Rione or Phasis had 600 bridges 
over it ; and where there was a continual trans- 
fer of merchandise, that united this river in some 
measure to the Cyrus, and consequently the 
Caspian to the Black Sea ; it is now only cross- 
ed in boats of the hollowed trunks of trees. 
Georgia, properly so called, which the Russians 
call Grusia and the Persians Gurgistan, is 
south-east of Imeritia. It probably derived its 
name from that of the river Cyrus, which wa- 
ters the great valley of Georgia, and is now 
known as the Kur or Kor. Hence the more 
correct form of the name of the province would 
be Kurgia or Korgia,. The Georgians, or ra- 
ther the IberianSj'a native people of Caucasus, 
speak a language radically different from all 
other known languages, and in which, in the 
twelfth century, a great many historical and 
poetical works were composed. They imagine, 
however, that they are descended from a com- 
mon stock with the Armenians." Malte- 
Brun. " Iberia was not subjected to the Medes 
or Persians ; nor could it have been well known 
in the west, before the Roman arms, under the 
conduct of Pompey, penetrated through Albania 
to the Caspian Sea, or till the affairs of Armenia 
occasioned discord with the kings of Iberia." 
D'Anville. — Plut. in Luc. Acton, &c. — Dio. 
36. — Fior. 3. — Flacc. 5, v. 166. — Appian. Parth. 
c— — An ancient name of Spain. Vid. His- 
pania. L/ncan. 6, v. 258. — Horat. 4, od. 14, 
V.50. 

Iberus, I. a river of Spain, now called Ebro, 
which, after the conclusion of the Punic war, 
separated the Roman from the Carthaginian 
possessions in that country. It takes its rise 
in the territories of the Cantabri, above Julio- 
briga, and near the apex of the triangle whose 
sides are formed by the Pyrenees and the range 
of mount Idubeda, while its base is represented 
by the line of the coast from the mouth of the 
Turia to the Pyrensean promontory. The 
course of the river divides the country within 
these limits into two nearly equal sections. 
iMcan. 4, V. 335. — Plin. 3, c. 3. Horat. 4, od. 

14, V. 50. II. A river of Iberia in Asia, 

flowing from mount Caucasus into the Cyrus. 
Strab. 3. 

IcARiA, I. a small island in the ^gean Sea, 
between Chio, Samos, and Myconus, where the 
body of Icarus was thrown by the waves, and 
buried by Hercules. Ptol. 5, c. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 

—Strabo, 10&14. II. A demus of Athens, 

probably in the vicinity of mount Icarius, which 
was situated to the north-west of Athens. 
Here, according to Athenseus, tragedies, or ra- 
ther farces, were first performed in the time of 
vintage. Icaria belonged to the tribes of iEgeus. 
Cram. — Plin. 4, 7. — Steph. Byz. 

IcARiUM MARE, a part of the ^gean Sea, 



ID 



GEOGRAPHY. 



JE 



near the islands of M3'cone and Gyaros. Vid. 
Icarus. 

IcENi, an ancient people of Britannia, who 
occupied that part of the island which, under 
the Saxon heptarchy, was included within East 
Anglia, answering in the present time to Suf- 
folk, Norfolk, Camdridgeshire, and Huntingdon- 
shire, Ptolemy gives this people the name of 
Simeni, and Caesar that of Cenimagni. The 
Greek translator of Caesar uses the form Ceni- 
mani, from which Vossius thinks that the pro- 
per reading is Cenomani, and that the British 
nation was of the same family as the Gallic 
tribe of that name. Their chief city, or rather 
fortified place, was Venta Icenoram, now Cas- 
ter, near Norivich in Norfolk. In the reign of 
Claudius the Iceni rebelled against the Romans, 
but were defeated in a decisive engagement by 
Ostorius Scapula. Afterwards Prasutagus, 
their king, in the vain hope of conciliating the 
favour of the Romans, made the emperor Nero 
his heir. The characteristic selfishness of the 
Roman provincial ofiicers exhibited itself with 
more than usual atrocity in their treatment of 
Boadicea and her daughters. This heroic queen 
exacted ample atonement from her enemies, but 
was at last obliged to yield to the skill of Sue- 
tonis Paulinus. Camden. — Cccsar. Lem. ed. 

IcHNtJSA, an ancient name of Sardinia, which 
it received from its likeness to a human foot. 
Paiis. 10, c. ll.—Ital. 12, v. 358.— Plin. 8, c. 7. 

IcHTHYOPHAGi, a people of ^Ethiopia, who 
received this name from their eating fishes. — 
There was also an Indian nation of the same 
name, who made their houses with the bones of 
fishes. Diod. 3. — Strab. 2. and 15. — Plin. 6, c. 
23, 1. 15, c. 7. 

IcoNiuM, now Konieh, "the metropolis of 
X.ycaonia when a Roman province ; a place of 
great strength and consequence, situated advan- 
tageously in the mountains for defence and safe- 
ty, and therefore chosen for the seat of the 
Turkish kings of Lesser Asia, at such time as 
they were most distressed by the western Chris- 
tians ; who, under the command and presence 
of the emperor Conrade, did in vain besiege it ; 
forced to depart thence with great loss, both of 
men and honour. Afterwards made the seat 
royal of the Aladine kings, the former race be- 
ing extinguished by the Tarta.rs ; and finally, 
of the kings of the house of Caram,an, whose 
kingdom, called the kingdom of Caramania, 
contained all the south parts of the Lesser Asia, 
that is to say, part of the province of Caria, all 
Lycia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Pisidia, and 
this Lycaonia." Heyl. Cosm. 

Ida, I. a celebrated mountain, or more pro- 
perly a ridge of mountains in Troas, chiefly in 
the neighbourhood of Troy. The abundance of 
its waters became the source of many rivers, and 
particularly of the Simois, Scamander, ^sepus, 
Granicus, &c. It was on mount Ida. that the 
shepherd Paris adjudged the prize of beauty to 
the goddess Venus. It was covered with green 
wood, and the elevation of its top opened a fine 
extensive view of the Hellespont and the adja- 
cent countries, from which reason the poets say 
that it was frequented by the gods during the 
Trojan war. Sfrab. 13.— Mela, 1, c. 18.— i^o- 
mer. II. 14, v. 283.— Fir^. JEn. 3, 5, &c.— 

Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 19.—Horat. 3, od. 11. II. 

A mountain of Crete, the highest in the island, 

Paet I.— X 



where it is reported that Jupiter was educated 
by the Corybantes, who on that account were 
called Idaei. Strab. 10. 

Idalium, a town of the island Cyprus, " near 
a mount of the same name, so called by acci- 
dent. For Chalcenor, the founder of it, being 
told by oracle that he should seat himself and 
build a city where he first saw the rising sun : 
one of his followers, seeing the sun begin to 
rise, cried out iSe R'Xiov, that is to say, ' behold 
the sun,' which omen taken by Chalcenor, he 
here built this city. But whether this were so 
or not, (as for my part I build not much upon 
it,) certain it is that Venus had here another 
temple, neighboured by the Idalian groves, so 
memorized and chanted by the ancient poets. 
Heyl. Cosm. 

Idalus, a mountain of Cyprus, at the foot of 
which is Idalium. Virg. JEn. 1, v. 685. — Ca- 
tull. 37 and 62.—Propert. 2, el. 13. 

Idessa, a town of Iberia, on the confines of 
Colchis. " It had borne the name of Phrixus. 
which, according to Greek fables, was antece- 
dent to the arrival of the Argonauts in the 
country." D'Anville. — Strab. 11. 

Idistavisus, a plain, now Hastenbach, where 
Germ aniens defeated Arminius, near Oldendorp 
on the Weser in Westphalia. Tacit. A.2,c. 16, 

Idubeda, a mountain in Spain, which branch- 
es off from the Cantabrian range, holds a south- 
easterly course towards that part of the Medi- 
terranean coast where stood the city of Sagun- 
tum, north of the mouth of the Turia. The 
Iberus, which rises near the junction of the Idu- 
beda and the Cantabrian branch of the Pyrenees, 
waters the country intervening between the 
tM^o ranges. 

Idumea, or the Land of Edom, was a country 
of Palestine, bounded on the east and south by 
Arabia Petraa, on the north by Judsea, and on 
the west by the Mediterranean. It derived its 
name, according to some writers, from the Idu- 
msei, a people of Arabia, but more probably from 
Edom, or Esau, who, having left Canaan to his 
brother Jacob, migrated to mount Seir, or the 
land of Seir, and thence expelled the Horites, 
its first inhabitants. " The country toward the 
sea-side very fat and fruitful ; but where it bend- 
ethtov/ards Arabia, exceeding mountainous and 
barren. Heretofore it afforded balm, not now ; 
but still it hath some store of palm-trees, for 
which it was much celebrated by some writers 
of ancient times ; as Arbusto palmarum dives 
Idume, in the poet Lucan. Sandy, and full of 
vast deserts, for which, and for the want of wa- 
ter, it is thought unconquerable. The people 
anciently rude and barbarous, and in love with 
tumults. Professed enemies of the Jews, till 
conquered by them: and Avhen compelled by 
Hyrcanus to the Jewish religion, they were at 
best but false friends ; and in the siege of Jeru- 
salem by Titus, did them more mischief than 
the Romans. At this time subject to the Turk, 
and differ not much in life and custom from the 
wild Arabians." Heyl. Cosm. 

Jericho, a city oi Palestine, besieged and ta- 
ken by the Romans under Vespasian and Ti- 
tus. Jericho was in the tribe of Benjamin; it 
was levelled to the ground by Joshua, by the 
sound of horns, and a curse pronounced on him 
who should rel)uild it. Notwithstanding the 
penalty to be inflicted on the builder, HIel of 
161 



IG 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IL 



Bethel afterwards restored it. Plin. 5, c. 14. 
—Strab. 

Jerne. Vid. Hibernia. 

Jerusalem. Vid. Hierosolyma. 

Igilium, now Giglio, an island of the Medi- 
terranean, on the coast of Tuscany. Mela, 2, 
c. l.—CcBs. B. C. I, c. 34. 

Iguvium, a town of Umbria. on the Via Fla- 
minia, " to the south of Tifernum, and at the 
foot of the main chain of the Appenines. It is 
now Eugtibbio, or more commonly Gubio, and 
was a municipal town ; and, as it would seem, 
from the importance attached to its possession 
by Caesar when he invaded Italy, of some con- 
sequence. {Civ. Bell. 1, 12.) Some critics have 
supposed that the mons Gyngynus of Strabo 
was to be referred to Iguvium. But this city 
has acquired greater celebrity in modern times 
from the discovery of some interesting monu- 
ments in its vicinity in the year 1440. These 
consist of several bronze tables covered with 
inscriptions, some of which are in Umbrian, 
others in Latin, characters. They have been 
the subject of many a learned dissertation and 
comment nearly from the time of their first ap- 
pearance ; but it was not till Lanzi had made 
his able and successful researches into the an- 
cient dialects of Italy, that any clear notion 
could be formed of their contents. Bourguet, 
and after him, Gori and Bardetti, considered 
them as prayers offered up by the Pelasgi du- 
ring those distresses into which they are said to 
have fallen on the decline of their power in Ita- 
ly. Buonarotti, in his supplement to Dempster, 
thought they were articles of treaty agreed upon 
by some of the confederate states of Uimbria ; 
while Maffei and Passeri conceived them to be 
statutes, or private acts of donations. But Lan- 
zi has satisfactorily proved, I think, that they 
relate entirely to the sacrificial and augural rites 
of certain Umbrian communities. Their names 
are mentioned in the Tables, which thus serve 
to illustrate the ancient topography of a district 
otherwise very little known. They are Claver- 
nia, Curiatis, Pieratis, Talenatis, Museiatis, 
Juviscana, Casilatis, Perasnania. The first of 
these answers to Chiaserna, a village near Gib- 
bio. The second refers to the Curiati of Pliny. 
Museiatis to Museia, Casilatis to Casilo, both 
hamlets in the vicinity of Gubio. Juviscana 
relates probably to that town. The Tarsinates 
Tuscom and Tarsinates Trifor are two other 
tribes, which have not been hitherto satisfac- 
torily accounted for. There is little doubt that 
these different tribes formed a confederacy ; a 
fact which is confirmed by Cicero, who talks of 
the Iguvinates as having made a league, and 
mentions them as being allied to the Romans. 
It appears also that they resorted to the temple 
of Jupiter Apenninus, to sacrifice, as the Etrus- 
cans did to the temple of Voltumna and the 
Latins to the Alban mount. The priests are 
called Frates Aterii, and the ceremonies de- 
scribed indicate a powerful and wealthy nation ; 
since in one of the Tables a sacrifice is speci- 
fied which amounts to a hecatomb. The tem- 
ple here alluded to is marked in the Table of 
Peutinger under the name of Jupiter Penninus. 
We know that it possessed an oracle, from the 
fact of its having being consulted by the empe- 
ror Claudius. It is also noticed by Claudian. 
D'Anville tells us that some vestiges of this 
162 



ancient edifice are still to be seen on Monte 
Sanf Vbaldo. The Eugubian Tables are par- 
ticularly important to the philologist, as they 
are calculated to throw great light on the for- 
mation of the Latin language, and may enable 
us to connect it with perhaps the oldest of the 
ancient dialects of Italy. According to Lanzi, 
the language in which these Tables are written 
is full of archaisms and ^olic forms, and bears 
great afiinity to the Etruscan dialect." Cram. 

Ilea. Vid. uEthalia. 

Ilercaones, and Ilercaonenses, a people 
of Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on the coast 
of the Mediterranean Sea at the mouth of the 
Jberus, between the Edetani and Tarraco. Pto- 
lemy calls them Ilercaoties, Livy Ilercaonenses, 
and Caesar Illurgavonenses or Illergavonenses, 
which some manuscripts, dropping the first syl- 
lable, have converted into Lurgavonenses. Pto- 
lemy assigns to them the city of Dertosa; 
and an inscription on a coin of Tiberius seems 
to confirm Ptolemy's account, although it is 
true that different interpretations have been 
given to this inscription, which is as follows; 
M. H. I. Illergavonia Dertosa, that is, Mu- 
nicipium, Hibera, Julia, Illergavonia, Dertosa. 
Vaillant reads Illergavonia Dertosanortmi, and 
supposes that, besides Dertosa, there was a 
city named Illergavonia, which belonged to the 
people of Dertosa. This supposition, however, 
is not justified by fact. Dertosa is nowhere 
mentioned as possessing an adjacent territory, 
and Ptolemy expressly declares that it belonged 
to the Ilercaones. Consequently it seems more 
consistent to make Illergavonia a gentilitious 
adjective, and to consider Illergavonia Dertosa 
as equivalent to Dertosa lllergavonensium. It 
has been objected to this, that Dortosa is known 
to have been a colony ; but M. may represent 
Magna ; or we may suppose that Dertosa was 
at first a Municipium, and that when it received 
a colony it was indifferently styled Colonia and 
Municipium. The H. in the inscription refers 
to its situation on the Iberus, and the I. to its 
having received a colony from Julius Ceesar. 
Cces. B. C. 1, 60, Lem. ed.—Liv. 22, 21. 

Ilerda, now Lerida, a town of Spain, the 
capital of the Ilergetes, on an eminence on the 
right banks of the river Sicoris in Catalonia. 
Liv. 21, c. 23, 1. 22, c. 2l.—Lucan, 4, v. 13. 

Ilergetes, a people of Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. The Sico- 
ris, Legre, separated them from the Lacetani. 

Ilion. Vid. lliiLm. 

Iltssus. " The Missus, from which Athens 
was principally supplied with water, is a small 
brook rising to the north-east of the town, and 
losing itself, after a course of a few miles, in 
the marshes to the south of the city. Every 
one is acquainted with the beautiful passage in 
which Plato alludes to it in the Phaedrus, from 
which it appears then to have been a perennial 
stream ; whereas now it is almost always dry, 
its waters being either drawn off to irrigate the 
neighbouring gardens, or to supply the artificial 
fountains of Athens." Cram. 

iLnjM, or Ilion. Vid. Troja. 

Illice, a town of Spain, on the Mediterra- 
nean, and in the south-eastern part of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, with a harbour and bay. Sinus 
and Portnis lllicitamts, now Alicant. Phn. 3, 
C.3. 



IL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IM 



Iluturgis, Iliturgis, or Ilirgia, a city of 
Spain, near the modern Andujar on the river 
Batis, destroyed by Scipio for having revolted 
to the Carthaginians. Liv. 23, c. 9, 1. 24, c. 
41, 1. 26, c. 17. 

Illyricum, Illyris, and Illyria. " The 
name of IllyricLns appears to have been common 
to the numerous tribes which were Einciently in 
possession of the countries situated to the west 
of Macedonia, and which extended along the 
coast of the Adriatic from the confines of Istria 
and Italy to the borders of Epirus. Still further 
north, and more inland, we find them occupy- 
ing the great valleys of the Save and Drave. 
which were only terminated by the junction of 
those streams with the Danube. This large 
tract of country, under the Roman emperors, 
constituted the provinces of lUyricmn and Pan- 
nonia. Antiquity has thrown but little light 
on the origin of the Illyrians ; nor are we ac- 
quainted with the language and customs of the 
barbarous hordes of which the great body of 
the nation was composed. It appears evident 
that they were a totally different race from the 
Celts, as Strabo carefully distinguishes them 
from the Gallic tribes which were incorporated 
with them. It ma)^ not be amiss to observe in 
this place, that the'lllyrians are not unlikely to 
have contributed to the early population of Italy. 
The Liburni, who are undoubtedly a part of 
this nation, had formed settlements on the Ita- 
lian shore of the Adriatic at a very remote pe- 
riod. It may be here also remarked, that the 
Veneti, according to the most probable account, 
were Illyrians. But, though so widely dispers- 
ed, this great nation is but little noticed in his- 
tory until the Romans made war upon it, in 
consequence of some acts of piracy committed 
on their traders. Previous to that time we 
hear occasionally of the Illyrians as connected 
tt^ith the affairs of Macedonia ; for instance, in 
the expedition undertaken by Perdiccas in con- 
junction with Brasidas against the Lyncestcs, 
which failed principally from the support afford- 
ed to the latter by a powerful body of Illyrian 
troops. They were frequently engaged in hos- 
tilities with the princes of Macedon, to whom 
their Avarlike spirii rendered them formidable 
neighbours. This was more especially the case 
whilst under the government of Bardylis, who 
is known to have been a powerful and reno\\Tied 
chief, though we are not precisely acquainted 
with the extent of his dominions, nor over what 
tribes he presided. Philip at length gained a 
decisive victory over this king, who lost his life 
in the action, and thus a decided check was 
given to the rising power of the Illyrians. Alex- 
ander was likewise successful in a war waged 
against Clytus the son of Bardylis, and Glau- 
cias king of the Taulantii. The'lllyrians, how- 
ever, still asserted their independence against 
the kings of Macedon, and were not subdued 
till they were involved in the common fate of 
nations by the victorious arms of the Romans. 
The conquest of Illyria led the way to the first 
interference of Rome in the affairs of Greece ; 
and Polybius, from that circumstance, has en- 
tered at some length into the account of the 
events which then took place. He informs us, 
that about this period, 520 U. C. the Illyrians 
on the coast had become formidable, from their 
maritime power and the extent of their expe- 



ditions and depredations. They were govenved 
by Agron, son of Pleuratus, whose forces had 
obtained several victories over the jEtolvtns 
Epirots, and Achaans. On his death the emp. re 
devolved upon his queen Teuta, a woman of 
an active and daring mind, who openly sanc- 
tioned, and even encouraged, the acts of vio- 
lence committed by her subjects. Among those 
who suffered from these lawless pirates were 
some traders of Italy, on whose account satis- 
faction was demanded by the Roman senate. 
So far, however, from making any concession, 
Teuta proceeded to a still greater outrage, by 
causing one of the Roman deputies to be put 
to death. The senate was not slow in aveng- 
ing these injuries ; a powerful armament was 
fitted out under the command of two consuls, 
who speedily reduced the principal fortresses 
held by Teuta, and compelled that haught\' 
queen to sue for peace. At a still later period, 
the Illyrians, under their king Gentius, vrere 
again engaged in a war with the Romans, if 
the act of taking possession of an unresisting 
country may be so termed. Gentius had been 
accused of favouring the cause of Perseus of 
Macedon, and of being secretly in league with 
him ; his territory was therefore invaded by the 
praetor Anicius, and in thirty days it was sub- 
jugated by the Roman army. Illyria then be- 
came a Roman province, and was divided into 
three portions. So widely were the frontiers of 
Illyricum extended under the Roman emperors, 
that they were made to comprise the gr^at dis- 
tricts of Noricmn, Pannonia, and Moesia." 
Cram. 

Ilva. Vid. Mthalia. 

Iluro, now Oleron^ a town of Gascony in 
France, 

Ilyrgis, a town of Hispania Bsetica, now 
llora. Polyb. 

Lmaus, a large mountain of Scythia, which 
is a part of mount Taurus. It divides Scythia, 
which is generally called Intra Imaum and Ex- 
tra Imaum. It extends, according to some, as 
far as the boundaries of the eastern ocean. 
The Imaus is now called Altai in that part 
which divided Scythia into two parts. In a 
part of its course it answered to the Himalah 
mountains. This range is described by a cele- 
brated geographer as follows : " That part which 
forms the northern boundary of India, is a con- 
tinuation of the same range with that to the 
west of the Indus, known among the Afghans 
under the name oi Hindoo Coosh. To the east 
of that river, it increases in height, and assumes 
a character of additional grandeur, both from 
that circumstance and from its great extent in 
every direction. It forms, in fact, one of the 
sublimest features in the structure of the old 
continent and of the globe. Here a long range 
of summits, covered with perpetual snow, pre- 
sents itself to the Hindoo, who has in all ages 
raised towards it an eye of religious veneration. 
All the names by which it is distinguished are 
derived from the Sanscrit term Hem, signifying 
.snow. Hence have arisen the names Imaus 
and Emodus among the ancients, and the Hi- 
malah, Himadri, HiTnachal, and Himalaya, of 
the moderns. This old Indian root also brings 
to mind the Hemus of Thrace, the Hymettus 
of Attica, the Mons Imceus of Italy, and the 
different mountains called Himmel in Saxonv, 
163 



m 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IN 



Jutland, and other countries. The river Indus 
passed through a series of narrow defiles in 
lat. 55°, which scarcely offer any interruption 
to the mountain chain. The direction of the 
mountain is eastward, as far as the north-east 
point of the valley of Cashviere ; from this point, 
its direction is to the somh-east, extending 
along the sources of all the rivers which run 
across the Punjab to fall into the Indus, with 
the exception of the StUkdge, which, like the 
Indus itself, rises on the north side of the range, 
and takes its passage across its breadth. Pur- 
suing the same direction, the Himalah moun- 
tains cross the heads of the Jumna, the Ganges, 
and their numerous tributary rivers. Farther 
east they seem to be penetrated by several rivers 
as the Gimduk, the Arum, ihe Teesta, the Cosi, 
and the Brahmapootra. It is only of late that 
the height of the Himalah mountains on the 
north of India has been appreciated. In 1802 
Col. Crawford made some measurements, which 
gave a much greater altitude to these mountains 
than had been ever before suspected ; and Col. 
Colebrooke, from the plains of Eohilcund, made 
a series of observations, which gave a height 
of 22,000 feet. Lieut. Webb, in his journey 
to the source of the Ganges, executed measure- 
ments on the peak of Jamunav atari, which gave 
upwards of 25,000 feet. The same officer, in 
a subsequent journey, confirms his former ob- 
servations. The line of perpetual snow does 
not begin till at least 17,000 feet above the level 
of the sea. The banks of the Sutledge, at an ele- 
vation of 15,000 feet, afforded pasturage for cat- 
tle, and yielded excellent crops of Ooa or moun- 
tain wheat. This mild temperature, at so great 
an elevation, is confined to the northern side of 
the Himalah. At Kedar-nath and other points 
on the southern side, perpetual snow commences 
not much higher than 12,000 feet. The fol- 
lowing are the heights of some of the peaks 
which have been ascertained ; Dhawalagivri, or 
the White Mountain, near the sources of the 
Gunduk river, above the level of the sea, 26,862 ; 
Jamootri, 25,.500; Dhaiboon, seen from Cat- 
mandoo, 24,768. Through this stupendous 
chain there are different passes, but all of them 
laborious to travel, and some highly dangerous. 
One of the most practicable is that which, in 
its upper part, follows the bed of the river Sut- 
ledge:' Malte-Brun.—Plin. 6, c. ll.—Strab. 1. 

Imbarus, a part of mount Taurus in Armenia. 

Imbrasus, or Parthenius, a river of Samos. 
Juno, who was worshipped on the banks, re- 
ceived the surname of Imhrasia. Pans. 7, c. 4. 

Imbros, now Embro, an island of the JEgean 
sea, near Thrace, 32 miles from Samothrace, 
with a small river and town of the same name. 
Imbros was governed for some time by its own 
laws, but afterwards subjected to the power of 
Persia, Athens, Macedonia, and the kings of 
Pergamus. It afterwards became a' Roman 
province. The divinities particularly wor- 
shipped there were Ceres and Mercury. Thu- 
cyd. S.—Plin. 4, c. 12.— Homer. 11. 13.— Strab. 
2.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Ovid. Trist. 10, v. 18. 

Inachia, a name given to Peloponnesus, from 
the river Inachus. 

Inachus, I. " The river Inachus flowed at 

ihe foot of the acropolis of Argos, and emptied 

itself into the bay of Nauplia. Its real source 

was in mount Lyrceius. on the confines of Ar- 

164 



cadia ; but the poets, who delighted in fiction, 
imagined it to be a branch of the Lmchus of 
Amphilochia, which, after mingling with the 
Acfielous, passed under ground, and re-appeared 
in Argolis. Pausanias states that the Inachus 
derived its source from mount Artemisium. 
Dodwell says, ' that the bed of this river is a 
short way to the north-east of Argos. It is 
usually dry, but supplied with casual floods af- 
ter hard rains, and the melting of snow on the 
surrounding mountains.' It rises about ten 
miles from Argos, at a place called Mushi, in 
the way to Tripoli in Arcadia. In the winter 
it sometimes descends from the mountains in a 
rolling mass, when it does considerable damage 
to the town. It is now called Xeria, which 

means dry." Cram. II. Another river in 

the Amphilocian district of Acarnania. Cra- 
mer gives the following account of it : " There 
were phenomena connected with the description 
given by ancient geographers of its course, 
which have led to a doubt of its real existence. 
It is from Strabo more especially that we collect 
this information. Speaking of the sub-marine 
passage of the Alpheus, and its pretended junc- 
tions with the waters of Arethusa, he says a 
similar fable was "related of the Inachus, which, 
flowing from mount Lacmon in the chain of 
Pindus, united its waters with the Achelous, 
and passing mider the sea, finally reached Ar- 
gos in Peloponnesus. Such was the account of 
Sophocles. Strabo, however, regards this as 
an invention of the poets, and says that Heca- 
taeus was better informed on the subject when 
he affirmed that the Inachus of the Amphilo- 
chians was a different river from that of the 
Peloponnesian Argos. According to this an- 
cient geographical writer the former stream 
flowed from mount Lacmus ; whence also the 
^Eas, or Aous, derived its source, and fell into 
the Achelous, having, like the Amphilochian 
Argos, received its appellation from Amphilo- 
chus. This account is sufliciently intelligible : 
and in order to identify the Inachus of Heca- 
taeus with the modern river which corresponds 
with it, we have only to search in modern maps 
for a stream which rises close to the Aous or 
Voioussa, and, flowing south, joins the Ache- 
lous in the territory of the ancient Amphilochi. 
Now this description answers precisely to that 
of a river which is commonly looked upon as 
the Achelous itself, but which we are persuaded 
is in fact the Inachus, since it agrees so well 
with the account given by Hecataeus ; and it 
should be observed, that Thucydides places the 
source of the Achelous in that part of Pindus 
which belonged to the Dolopes, a Thessalian 
people, who occupied, as we have seen, the 
south-eastern portion of the chain. Modern 
maps, indeed, point out a river coming from 
this direction, and uniting with the Inachus, 
which, though a more considerable stream, was 
not regarded as the main branch of the river. 
Strabo elsewhere repeats what he has said of 
the junction of the Inachus and Achelous. But 
in another passage he quotes a writer whose 
report of the Inachus differed materially, since 
he represented it as traversing the district of 
Amphilochia, and falling into the gulf This 
was the staternent made by Ephorus; and it 
has led some modern geographers and critics, 
in order to reconcile these two contradictory 



IN 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IN 



accounts, to suppose that there was a stream 
which, branching off from the Achelous, fell 
into the Ambracian gulf near Argos ; which is 
more particularly the hypothesis of D'Anville ; 
but modern travellers assures us that there is no 
such river near the ruins of Argos, and in fact 
it is impossible that any stream should there 
separate from the Achelous, on account of the 
Aviphilochian mountains which divide the val- 
ley of that river from the gulf of Arta. Man- 
ner! considers the small river Krikeli to be the 
representative of the Inachus; but this is a 
mere torrent, which descends from the moun- 
tains above the gulf, and can have no connex- 
ion with mount Lacmus or the Achelous. All 
ancient authorities agree in deriving the Ina- 
chus from the chain of Pindus. Aristotle said 
that the Inachus and Achelous both flowed 
from that ridge of mountains. So persuaded 
am I, on the authority of Hecatseus, that the 
Inachus ought to be considered as a branch of 
the Achelous, that I would venture to alter the 

words "IvaT^ov 61, rov 6ia rrii ^wpa? ptovra -rrora^ov 

elg Tov Ko'Sirav, in the passage which Strabo cites 
from Ephorus, into "Ivaxov 61, tov 6ia r^j x^P"-^ 

jtiovra norajidv-eii tov 'A;)^£Xwaj/." CrdTfl. 
Inarime. Vid. yEnaria. 
Inarus, a town of Egypt, in whose neigh- 
bourhood the town of Naucratis was built by 
the Milesians. 

India, the most celebrated and opulent of all 
the countries of Asia, bounded on one side by 
the Indus, from which it derives its name. Bac- 
chus was the first who conquered it. In more 
recent ages, part of it was tributary to the power 
of Persia. Alexander invaded it ; but his con- 
quest was checked by the valour of Porus, one 
of the kings of the country, and the Macedo- 
nian warrior was unwilling, or afraid, to engage 
another. Semiramis also extended her empire 
far in India. The Romans knew little of the 
country,, yet their power was so universally 
dreaded, that the Indians paid homage by their 
ambassadors to the emperors Antoninus, Tra- 
jan, &c. India is divided into several provinces. 
There is an India extra Gangem, an India in- 
tra Gang em, and an India, propria ; but these 
divisions are not particularly noticed by the an- 
cients, who, even in the age of Augustus, gave 
the name of Indians to the Ethiopian nations. 
" In riches, population, and importance, India 
exceeds one of the great divisions of the world. 
Here a nation, a language, and a religion, dis- 
tinguished for the most venerable antiquity, 
permanently maintain their ground amidst the 
fall of many successive empires. Under the 
classical appellation of India, the ancients, and 
most of the moderns, have comprised three 
great regions of southern Asia. The first is 
that which is watered by the Indus, the Ganges, 
and their tributaries, called at present Lidostan, 
in the strictest acceptation of this terra. On 
the south of the. river Nerbuddah begins that 
large triangular region sometimes called by Eu- 
ropeans the peninsula on this side of the Gan- 
ges, and by the Indians the Deccan, or ' c'^un- 
try of the south. ' To this the island of Ceylon, 
and the Maldives, though separated by anarm 
of the sea, form natural appendages. The 
other peninsular projection, which comprehends 
the Birman empire, the kingdoms of Tonquin, 
Cochiti-China, Carnbodia, Laos, Siam, and Ma- 



lacca, has at present no general name in uni- 
versal use. Sometimes it is vaguely denominat- 
ed ' the peninsula beyond the Ganges.' Seve- 
ral geographers have called it ' external India.' 
It is to these countries that the Sanscrit names 
of Djamboo-Dwyp, or the ' peninsula of the tree 
of life,' has been applied : also that of Medhiavii 
or Media-bhumi, ' the middle dwelling,' and 
Bharatkand, or the ' kingdom of the Bharat 
dynasty.' The countrj' is too extensive to have 
received one general name in the indigenous 
languages. But from the river which waters 
its western boundary having the name of Sind 
or Hind, which, like the name Nyl-Ab, is de- 
rived from its blue colour, the adjoining country 
received among the Persians the name of Hin- 
doostan, and the inhabitants were called Hin- 
doos. From the Persian language these names 
passed into the Syrian, Chaldee, and Hebrew: 
they were imitated in the appellations given by 
the Greeks and Romans ; but in the writings 
of the Indians, the name Sindhoostan denotes 
exclusively the countries on the river Sind. 
The oriental writers subsequent to the Maho- 
metan era have admitted a distinction between 
the name Sindh, taken in the acceptation now 
mentioned, and Hind, which they apply to the 
countries situated on the Ganges. This appli- 
cation of terms is equally foreign to the national 
geography of the Indians, with the appellation 
of Gentoos, which the English apply to the 
Hindoos, and which comes from the Portuguese 
term Gentios, signifying Gentiles or Pagans. 
The natural boundaries of India, on the north, 
are the Himalah mountains, (the Imaus and 
Eomdus of the ancients,) which separate Ben- 
gal, Oude, Delhi Lahore, and Cashmere from 
Thibet. On the Indian side of the loftiest range, 
a stripe of mountainous but inhabited country 
intervenes between TJiibet and the respective 
countries now mentioned, but these are consi- 
dered as belonging to Indostan. On the east 
the river Brahmapootra seems to be the natural 
boundary. On the south, Indostan is bounded 
by the ocean. On the west, the river Indus is, 
in the opinion of some learned men, its proper 
limit, although the oriental geographers, finding 
that many Indians live in Baloochistan and 
Mekran, often include these countries in their 
Sinde or Sindistan. The former is that which 
we shall adopt, and which seems to be con- 
formable to the nomenclature of the natives on 
both sides of the river. We are not yet in pos- 
session of exact data for determining the super- 
ficial extent of all India. The Indian, Ara- 
bian, and Persian authors, differ considerably 
in their calculations on this point ; a circum- 
stance which partly depends on the uncertainty 
of the lineal road, measures, especially the coss 
or mile, which is subject to great variations in 
the different provinces. The European travel- 
lers are also discordant in their estimates. Tie- 
fenthaler rates the whole superficial extent of 
India at 155,250 square geographical miles, 
although he supposes the peninsula to be of 
equal breadth through its whole extent. Pen- 
nant is guilty of the same error: but he thinks 
that India does not extend so far to the north as 
geographers have believed, and he rates the 
whole surface of that country at nearly 173,800 
square French leagues. Major Rennel con- 
tent^ himself with saving that Indostan Proper 
165 



Us 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IN 



is equal to France, Germany, Bohemia, Hun- 
gary, Switzerland, Italy, and the ISetherlands : 
and he compares the size of the Deccan to that 
of the British isles, Spain, and European Tur- 
key, united, which would amount to 120,000 
square leagues ; 66,780 for upper Indostan, and 
53,076 for the Deccan. Mr. Hamilton makes it 
1,280,000 British square miles. All the moun- 
tains of these regions, and the mass of elevated 
land included by them, are called in Hindoo 
mythology by the names, Meroo, Soomeroo, and 
Kailassam; names so renowned in the east, 
that their fame reached the Greek and Roman 
authors. These names designate the Indian 
Olympus, the native dwelling of gods and of 
men. These mountains and elevated plains, 
rich in the precious metals, furnished, in the 
time of Herodotus and of Ctesias, that quantity 
of native gold and of auriferous sand which 
gave rise to the fables concerning pismires which 
industriously amassed stores of this precious 
metal, and fountains from which it bubbled up. 
These golden mountains of the Indians bear 
an equivalent name among the Mongols and 
the Chinese." Malte-Brun. — Diod. 1. — Strab. 
1, &c.—Mela, 3, c. l.—Plin. 5, c. 28.— Curt. 
8, c. 10. — Justin. 1, c. 2, 1. 12, c. 7. 

Indus. " The sources of this river have not 
yet been fully explored. But our information 
extends higher in its course than it did a few 
years ago. We have been enabled, at least, to 
correct the error of mistaking this river or some 
of its eastern tributaries, for the source of the 
Ganges, an error which we find adopted in the 
construction of maps till a very recent period. 
The commencement of this river is fixed, by the 
most probable conjecture, in the northern de- 
clivity of the Cailas branch of the Hhnalah 
mountains, about lat. 31° 30 N. and long, 80° 
30' E. not far from the town of Gortop in the 
Undes, a territory now under the dominion of 
China, and within a few miles of the lake Ra- 
wanshead and the sources of the river Sutledge. 
It is supposed to flow for 400 miles in a north 
north-west direction, then assuming a south- 
west course, comes to Brass, a town of Little 
Thihet ; here it is seventy yards broad, and ex- 
cessively rapid, and ii receives another large 
branch, called the Ladak river, which flows past 
the town of Ladak. It is only below Drass that 
its course is known with certainty, the diflicult 
and desolate nature of the country having check- 
ed inquiries in its higher parts. From Drass, 
the Indus pursues its solitary course for above 
200 miles, through a rude and mountainous 
country to Midlai, where it receives the Abas- 
seen, penetrates the highest Hindoo Coosh 
range, passes for fifty miles through the lower 
parallel ranges, to Torbaila, where it enters the 
valley of Chuch, spreading and forming innu- 
merable islands. About forty miles lower down, 
it receives the Caubul river from the west, and 
soon after rushes through a narrow opening in- 
to the midst of the Soliman range of mountains. 
Its stream is extremely turbulent, and sounds 
like a stormy sea. When its volume is increas- 
ed by the melting of the snow, a tremendous 
whirlpool is created, and the noise is heard to a 
great distance. Here boats are frequently sunk 
or dashed to pieces. There are two black rocks 
in this part of the river, named Jellalia and Ke- 
Ttialia, which are pointed out bv the inhabitants 
166 



as the transformed bodies of the two sons of 
Peeree Taruk, (the Apostle of Darkness) found- 
er of the Rooshenia sect, who were thrown in- 
to the river by Akhoond, the oppenent of their 
father. At the town of Attock, the river, after 
having been widely spread over a plain, be- 
comes contracted to 260 yards, but is much more 
deep and rapid. When its floods are highest it 
rises to the top of a bastion about thirty-seven 
feet high. At Neelab, fifteen miles below Attock, 
it becomes still narrower. From this it winds 
among the hills to Calabag, passes through the 
salt range in a clear, deep, and placid stream, 
and then pursues a southerly course to the ocean, 
withou-t any interruption, or confinement from 
hills. It expands into various channels, which 
separate and meet again. Below Attock it re- 
ceives the Toe and other brooks from the west. 
At Kaggaioala, the Koorwni, a stream of con- 
siderable magnitude from the Soliman moun- 
tains, falls into it. The only one to the south 
of this point which it receives, is the Arul, 
which supplies very little water, being mostly 
drawn ofl'for irrigation in the north of Damaun. 
At Kaheree, the Indus, when at its lowest, is 
1000 yards in breadth, and rather shallow, being 
diminished by the separation of some branches 
from it. At Mittenda it receives the Pimjnud, 
formed by the union of five large tributaries. 
This immense stream previously flows parallel 
to the Indus for seventy miles ; at Ooch, which 
is fifty miles up, the distance across, from the 
Indus to the Punjnud, is not more more than ten 
miles. In July and August, this whole space 
is completely flooded. The most of the villages 
contained in it are temporary erections, a few 
only bemg situated on spots artificially elevat- 
ed. The whole country which it traverses is Ji 
of the same description, all the way to Hyder- " 
flhad, the capital of Sinde. On the left bank - 
are some considerable towns and villages, with 
canals for agricultural purposes. Though the 
Indus gives ofl" lateral streams as it approaches 
the sea, it does not form a Delta exactly analo- 
gous to that of Egypt. Its waters enter the 
sea in one volume, the lateral streams being ab- 
sorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean. 
It gives off an easterly branch called the Ful- 
lalee, but this returns its waters to the Indus at 
a lower point, forming in its circuit the island 
on which Hyderabad stands. From the sea to 
Hyderabad, the breadth of the Indus is gene- 
rally about a mile, varying in depth from two to 
five fathoms. The tides are not perceptible in 
this river higher up than sixty or sixty-five 
miles from the sea. The land near the mouth 
does not possess the fertility of the Delta of the 
Nile or the Ganges. The dry parts exhibit on- 
ly short underwood, and the remainder arid 
sands, putrid salt swamps, or shallow lakes. 
From the sea to Lahore, a distance of 760 geo- 
graphical miles, the Indus and its tributary the 
Ravey are navigable for vessels of 200 tons. In 
the time of Aurengzebe, a considerable trade 
was carried on by means of this navigation, 
but from the political state of the country it has 
long ceased. From Attock to Mooltan, this river 
is called by the natives the Attock, and further 
down it has the name of Soor, or Shoor ; but - 
among the Asiatics, it is generally known 
by the name of Sirvde. Though one of the 
largest rivers in the world, the Indus has never 



IN 



GEOGRAPHY. 



m 



obtained such a reputation for sanctity as many 
inferior streams in Indostan, a circumstance 
which may proceed from the barren and unin- 
teresting character of the country through which 
it flows. The live eastern tributaries which by 
their union form the Punjnud, are celebrated 
for having been the scene of some events con- 
spicuous m history. The most northerly is the 
Jylum, or Hydaspes, the Bahut of Abul Fazel, 
which takes its rise in the mountains on the 
south-east side of the valley of Cashmere, where 
it is called the Vedusta. The Chenab, or Ace- 
sines, the second tributary, and the largest oi 
the five, arises in the Himalah mountains, near 
the south-east corner of Cashmere, in the Al- 
pine district of Kishtewar. The Ravey, or H}^- 
draotes is the third of the Punjab rivers. It 
issues from the mountainous district of Lahore, 
but its sources have not been explored. This 
and the fifth, or Sutledge, meet before either 
has proceeded more than a fifth part of the dia- 
meter of the Punjab country ; and their united 
stream flows the rest of the distance to com- 
plete the conflux called the Punjnud. The 
Sutledge rises in the Undes to the north of the 
great Himalah range,within the territory claim- 
ed by the Chinese ; proceeds almost due west ; 
then gradually bends to the south in crossing 
the subordinate mountains. Ii is the Hesudrus 
of Pliny, the Zaradrus of Ptolemy, and the 
Serangese of Arrian. The union of all the five 
rivers into one before they reach the Indus, was 
a point in geography maintained by Ptolemy ; 
but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts, 
prompted by the splittings of the Indus, and 
the frequent approximation of streams running 
in parallel courses, we had been taught to cor- 
rect this as a specimen of that author's defi- 
ciency of in formation, till very recent and more 
minute inquiries have re-established that ques- 
tioned point, and along with it the merited cre- 
dit of the ancient geographer." Malte-Brun. 

Industru, a town of Liguria, situated on 
the right bank of the Po, above Forum Fulvii, 
Valenza. Its " position was for a long time a 
matter of conjecture to geographers and anti- 
quaries ; Cluverius and many others fixing it at 
Casal, till the discovery of its ruins at Monteu 
di Po, near the fortress of Verma, put an end 
to this uncertainty. We are informed by Pliny, 
that the Ligurian name of this city was Bodin- 
comagus, Bodencus being the appellation of the 
Po in that language, and signifying ' something 
which is unfathomable.' Here, in fact, that 
river becomes sufficiently deep to be navigable." 
Cram. 

Inferum Mare. Vid. Tyrrhenum Mare. 

Inopus, a river of Delos, which the inhabit- 
ants suppose to be the Nile, coming from Egypt 
under the sea. It was near its banks that 
Apollo and Diana were bom. Plut. 2, c. 103. 
—Place. 5, V. 105..— Strab. Q.—Paus. 2, c. 4. 

Insubres. " Next in order to the Lsevi and 
Libicii, are the Insubres, in Greek" lo-o/u^poi, the 
most numerous as well as most powerful tribe 
of the Cisalpine Gauls, according to Polybius. 
It would appear indeed from Ptolemy, that their 
dominion extended at one time over the Libicii ; 
but their territory, properly speaking, seems to 
have been defined by the rivers Ticinus and 
Addua. The Insubres took a very active part 
in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and zeal- 



ously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion 
of Italy. They are stated by Livy to have 
founded their capital Mediolanum, now Milano, 
on their first arrival in Italy, and to have given 
it that name from a place so called in the terri- 
tory of the ^dui in Gaul." Cram. 

Intemelium Vid. Albiurn Intemelium, or 
Albintemelium. 

Interamna, I. a town of Umbria, on the Fla- 
m;inian Way, in the valley of the Nar, " so called 
from its being situated between two branches of 
that river. Hence also the inhabitants of this 
city were known as the Interamnates Nartes, to 
distinguish them from those of Interamna on 
the Liris, a city of New Latium. If an ancient 
inscription cited by Cluverius be genuine, In- 
teramna, now represented by the well-known 
town of Terni, was founded in the reign of 
Numa, or about eighty years after Rome. It is 
noted afterwards as one of the most distinguish- 
ed cities of municipal rank in Italy. This cir- 
cumstance, however, did not save it from the 
calamities of civil war, during the disastrous 
struggle between Sylla and Marius. The 
plains around Interamna, which were watered 
by the Nar, are represented as the most pro- 
ductive in Italy; and Pliny assures us, that 
the meadows were cut four times in the year. 
We also find this city mentioned by Strabo." 
Cram. Eustace, in his " Classical Tour," thus 
speaks of the present condition of Interamna : 
" This ancient town retains no traces of its 
former splendour, if it ever was splendid, though 
it may boast of some tolerable palaces, and, what 
is superior to all palaces, a charming situation. 
The ruins of the amphitheatre in the episcopal 
garden consist of one deep dark vault, and 
scarcely merit a visit. Over the gate is an in- 
scription, informing the traveller that this colony 
gave birth to Tacitus the historian, and to the 
emperors Tacitus and Florian: few country 

towns can boast of three such natives." II. 

PRiETUTiANA, a city of Picenum, which 



Ptolemy assigns to the Praetutii, " which in 
consequence was usually called Praetutiana, to 
distinguish it from three other cities of the same 
name in other parts of Italy. From a passage 
in Frontinus it may be collected, that this city 
was first a municipium, and afterwards a Ro- 
man colony. Its modern name is Teramo, si- 
tuated between the small rivers Viziola and 
Turdino. The remains of antiquity which have 
been discovered here, prove the importance Oi 

this ancient city." Cram. III. A town 

of Latium on the Liris, " distinguished by the 
addition of ad Lirim from two other cities of the 
same name, one in Umbria and the other in 
Picenum. According to Livy, it was colonized 
A. U. C. 440, and defended "itself successfully 
against the Samnites, who made an attack up- 
on it soon after. Interamna is mentioned again 
by the same historian, when describing Hanni- 
bal's march from Capua towards Rome. We 
find its name subsequently among those of the 
refractory colonies of that war. Pliny informs 
us, that the Interamnates were surnamed Liri- 
nates and Succasini. In the following pas- 
sage of Silius Italicus, 



ArpitMS, accila pube Venafro 

Ac Larinatwra deztris, socia hispidus arma 
Commovel. 

167 



10 



GEOGRAPHY. 



10 



I would propose reading, * Ac Lirinatum dex- 
tris.' Cluverius imagined that Ponte Corvo 
occupied the site of Interamna j but its situation 
agrees more nearly with that of a place called 
Terame Castrum, in old recoi'ds, and the name 
of which is evidently a corruption of Interamna. 
Antiquaries assert that considerable ruins are 
still visible on this spot." Cram. 

loLCHOs. " lolcos was a city of great anti- 
quity, and celebrated in the heroic age as the 
birth-place of Jason and his ancestors. It was 
situated at the foot of mount Pelion, according 
to Pindar, and near the small river Anaurus, 
in which Jason is said to have lost his sandal. 
Strabo affirms that civil dissensions and tyran- 
nical government hastened the downfall of lol- 
cos, which was once a powerful city ; but its 
ruin was finally completed by the foundation of 
Demetrias in its immediate vicinity. In his 
time the town no longer existed, but the neigh- 
bouring shore still retained the name of lol- 
cos." Cram. 

loNEs. Less is known with certainty of the 
lonians than of any other Grecian nation. This 
is owing to their great antiquity, and to their 
having ceased to exist in Greece as a distinct 
people, before the period at which fable gave 
place to history. They were, as is generally 
believed, ofthe Hellenic family. The Hellenes, 
who, according to Malte-Brun, formed part of 
the Pelasgo-Hellenic branch of the Pelasgian 
race, were divided into four nations : 1. The 
Achssi or Achivi, in other words, the inhabit- 
ants of the banks of rivers. 2. The lones or 
laones, archers, or shooters of darts. 3, Dores 
or Dorians, men armed with spears. 4. ^(Eoli 
or ^olians, wanderers. The account generally 
given of the origin of these nations is as fol- 
lows : Hellen, son of Deucalion, had three sons, 
Dorus, ^olus, and Xuthus ; of whom Dorus 
and iEolus gave their names respectively to the 
Dorians and ^olians. Xuthus, having mi- 
grated to Attica, married the daughter of Erech- 
theus, by whom he had two sons, Achseus and 
Ion, who led colonies to the Peloponnesus. 
Achseus settled in Laconia, and gave his name 
to the Achseans, who were afterwards dispos- 
sessed by the Heraclidse, and removed to ^gia- 
lea, from them called Achaia. Ion established 
himself on the shore of the Corinthian gulf, be- 
tween Sicyonia and Elis, and from him the 
people were called lones. Whether ^gialea 
was called Ionia or not, is uncertain. Upon the 
return of the Heraclidse, the Achaeans either 
expelled the lonians from their possessions, or 
else the latter were incorporated with the former 
under the name of Achasans. Ion returned to 
Athens, and opposed Eumolpus and the Thra- 
cians. He gave his name to the Athenians, but 
did not succeed to the throne. In the reign of 
Melanthus, the lonians returned to Attica, and 
were afterwards led by Neleus and Androclus, 
sons of Codrus, to Asia Minor, where they 
seized the central and most beautiful portion of 
the Asiatic coast. The above is the account of 
the Grecians themselves ; we subjoin another, 
tracing the lones to Javan. It is in the words of 
Archbishop Potter. " The primitive Athenians 
were named lones and laones, and hence it 
came to pass that there was a very near affinity 
between the Attic and old Ionic dialect, as 
Eustathius observes. And though the Athe- 
168 



nians thought fit to lay aside their ancient name, 
yet it was not altogether out of use in Theseus's 
reign, as appears from the pillar erected by him 
in the isthmus, to show the bounds of the Athe- 
nians on the one side, and the Peloponnesians 
on the other ; on the esist side of which was 
this inscription : 

This is not Peloponnesus, but Ionia. 

And on the south side this : 

Tkis is not Ionia, but Peloponnesus. 

This name is thought to have been given them 
from Javan, which bears a near resemblance to 
law,v and much nearer, if (as grammarians tell 
us) the ancient Greeks pronounced the letter a 
broad, like the diphthong av, as in our English 
word all ; and so Sir George "Wheeler reports 
the modern Greeks do at this day. This Javan 
was the fourth son of Japheth,'and is said to 
have come into Greece after the confusion of 
Babel, and seated himself in Attica. And this 
report receiveth no small confirmation from the 
divine writings, where the name of Javan is in 
several places put for Greece. Two instances 
we have in Daniel ; ' And when I am gone 
forth, behold the Prince of Grcecia shall come,' 
And again, ' He shall stir up all against the 
realms of Grascia.' Where, though the vulgar 
translations render it not Javan, yet that is the 
v/ord in the original. And again in Isaiah, 
' And I will send those that escape of them to 
the nations in the sea in Italy, and in Greece ;' 
where the Tigurine version, with that of Ge- 
neva, retains the Hebrew words, and uses the 
names of Tubal and Javan, instead of Italy and 
Greece, But the Grecians themselves having 
no knowledge of their true ancestors, make this 
name to be of much later date, and derive it 
from Ion the son of Xuthus." The Ionic dia- 
lect is divided by Malte-Brun into, " 1. Ancient 
Ionian, or the Hellenic, polished by commercial 
nations, (language of JBomer, classical in epic 
poetry.) 2. Asiatic Ionian, still more polished ; 
(language of Herodotus.) 3. European Ionian, 
more energetic than the others. The Attic 
dialect forms its principal branch, (the language 
of orators and tragedians.") 

Ionia, a country of Asia Minor, bounded on 
the north by ^Eolia, on the west by the ^Egean 
and Icarian seas, on the south by Caria, and on 
the east by Lydia and part of Caria. It was 
founded by colonies from Greece, and particu- 
larly Attica, by the lonians, or subjects of Ion. 
Ionia was divided into 12 small states, which 
formed a celebrated confederacy, often mention- 
ed by the ancients. These twelve states were, 
Priene, Miletus, Colophon, Clazomenag, Ephe- 
sus, Lebedos, Teos, Phoceea, Erythrae, Smyrna, 
and the capitals of Samos and Chios. The in- 
habitants of Ionia built a temple about the cen- 
tre of their territory on the coast, in a sacred 
grove of mount Mycale, dedicated to Neptune, 
called Pan Ionium^ from the concourse of peo- 
ple that flock there from every part of Ionia. 
After they had enjoyed for some time their free- 
dom and independence, they were made tribu- 
tarv to the power of Lydia by Crcesus. The 
Athenians assisted them to shake off the slavery 
of the Asiatic monarchs ; but they soon forgot 
their duty and relation to their mother country, 
and joined Xerxes when he invaded Greece. 



JO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IS 



They were delivered from the Persian yoke by 
Alexander, and restored to their original inde- 
pendence. They were reduced by the Romans 
under the dictator Sylla. Ionia has been always 
celebrated for the salubrity of the climate, the 
fruitfulness of the ground, and the genius of its 
inhabitants. Herodot. 1, c. 6 and 28. — Strab. 

li.— Mela, 1, c. 2, &c. Pans. 7, c. 1. An 

ancient name given to Hellas, or Achaia, be- 
cause it was for some time the residence of the 
lonians. 

loNroM MARE, a part of ihe Mediterranean 
Sea, at the bottom of the Adriatic, lying between 
Sicily and Greece. The more northern por- 
tion, corresponding to the Adriatic, was deno- 
minated Ionium Sinus. That part of the Mge- 
an Sea which lies on the coasts of Ionia in Asia, 
is called the Sea of Ionia, and not the Ionian 
Sea. Strab. 7, &c. — Diomjs. Perieg. 

loPE, and JoppA, now Jafa, a famous town of 
Palestine, about forty miles from the capital of 
Judeea, and remarkable for a sea-port much fre- 
quented, though very dangerous, on account of 
the great rocks that lie before it. Strab. 16, &c. 
—Propert. 2, el. 28, v. 51. "This," says 
D'Anville, " was the ordinary place of debark- 
ation for Jerusalem," but it is now an absolute 
ruin. In sacred history Joppa is even more ce- 
lebrated-than in profane, and if the bones of the 
sea-monster which, but for the intervention of 
Perseus, would have destroyed Andromeda, 
were shown in ancient times to the travellers of 
Greece and Rome, the verses of whose poets 
had made that fable illustrious, we can find no 
less interest and satisfaction in contemplating 
the spot frohi which Jonas embarked for Tar- 
$hish, where the miracles of Simon Peter were 
performed, and where he was instructed in a 
vision to extend the benefit of the gospel to the 
Gentile world. Before this city the fleet of the 
Syrians was destroyed by Judas Maccabasus, 
while that hero presided over the affairs of 
Judaea ; and two other conflicts, in the last of 
which it was destroyed by the Romans, have 
given to this place an inauspicious celebrity. 

JoRDANEs, now called Jordan, a river of Pa- 
lestine. It rose in Upper Galilee, on the borders 
of Coelo-Syria, and emptied into the Dead Sea 
at its northern extremity. The mountain in 
which it had its springs was the celebrated Her- 
mon, but the exact spot is considered still ex- 
ceedingly doubtful. The rise of this river from 
the fountains Jor and Dan, near the city of Cse- 
sarea Philippi on the south of the Paneas mons, 
admits of no question but these fountains were 
themselves pretended to come from the other 
side of this natural bulwark by a subterranean 
passage from mount Phiala. A curious de- 
scription of this river, justified by collation with 
ancient authorities, and corroborated by recent 
investigation, is given by Heylin in the follow- 
ing words : " A river of more fame than length, 
breadth, or depth, running from north to south 
almost in a straight line to the Dead Sea, where 
it endelh its course, not navigably deep, nor 
above ten yards in breadth where broadest. 
Passing along it maketh two lakes, the one in 
Upper Galilee, by the ancients called Sama- 
chonitis, dry for the most part in summer, and 
then covered with shrubs and sedge, not men- 
tioned in Scripture; the other in the Loioer 
Galilee, about a hundred furlongs in length, 

Part I.— Y 



and forty in breadth, called the sea of Galilee 
from the country, the Lake of Tiberias from a 
city of that name on the bank thereof, and for 
the like cause called also the Lake of Geneza- 
reth. Through this lake the river passes with 
so swift a course that it preserves its waters dis- 
tinct both in colour and in taste." After leav- 
ing the lake Tiberias, the Jordan flows along 
the western side of the Campus Magnus, hav- 
ing on the opposite side as it approaches the 
lake Asphaltites the plains of Jericho. It is 
now, according to D'Anville, the Nahr-el-Ar- 
den, and is the only stream in those regions de- 
serving the appellation of a river. 

los, now Nio, an island in the Myrtoan Sea, 
at the south of Naxos, celebrated, as some say, 
for the tomb of Homer and the birth of his mo- 
ther. Plin. 4, c. 12. 

Ipsus, a place of Phrygia, celebrated for a 
battle which was fought there about 301 years 
before the Christian era, between Antigon us and 
his son, and Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, 
and Cassander. The former led into the field 
an army of above 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse, 
with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consist- 
ed of 64,000 infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 
elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Antigonus 
and his son were defeated. Plut. in Demetr. 

Ira, a city of Messenia, which Agamemnon 
promised to Achilles if he would resume his 
arms to fight against the Trojans. This place 
is famous in history as having supported a siege 
of eleven years against the Lacedasmonians. Its 
capture, B. C. 671, put an end to the second 
Messenian war. Hamer. II. 9, v, 150 and 292. 
— Strab. 7. Vid. Abia. 

Iresus, a delightful spot in Libya, near Gy- 
rene, near which Battus fixed his residence. 
The Egyptians were once defeated there by the 
inhabitants of Cyrene. Herodot. 4, c. 158, &c. 

Iris, a river of Pontus, rising in the moun- 
tains on the borders of Armenia Minor. From 
the centre of the province to which it belongs, 
after having flowed north-west till it receives the 
branch called the Scylax, it runs almost directly 
north, and empties into the Amisenus Sinus on 
the side opposite the mouths of the Halys. Not 
far from the coast it is joined by the Lycus, 
whose waters it conveys to the Euxinus Pontus. 
D'Anville gives the Jekil-Ermark for its mo- 
dern name. 

Is, and ^iopolis, now Hit. This was a 
town on the borders of Mesopotamia, on a river 
of the same name, falling into the Euphrates to 
the north of Babylon, and at the western extre- 
mity of the Murus Semiramidis. We find it 
related by Herodotus, that the walls of Babylon 
were cemented with bitumen furnished from 
this town, and the concurrent accounts of the 
quantity of that material furnished by this river 
would seem to justify the relation. 

Isar, and Isara, I. the Isore, a river of Gaul, 
where Fabius routed the Allobroges. It rises 
at the east of Savoy, and falls into the Rhone 
near Valence. Plin. 3, c. 4. — Lncan. 1, v. 

399. II. Another, called the Oyse, which 

falls into the Seine below Paris. 

IsAURA, («, or oruvi,^ the chief town of Isau- 
ria, destroyed in the war undertaken by the 
Romans against the robbers and pirates of Isau- 
ria and of Cilicia Aspera. Plin. 5, c. 27. 

IsAURiA, a country of Asia Minor, near mount 
169 



IS 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IT 



Taurus, whose inhabitants were bold and war- 
like. The Romans made war again st them and 
conquered them. Flor. 3, c. 6. — Strah. — Cic. 
15. Fam. 2. It is not easy to distinguish pre- 
cisely between the territories of Pisidia and Isau- 
ria, but it may be said, that so far as a distinc- 
tion can be made, Isauria lay upon the north 
and bordered upon Phrygia. As it lay exactly 
among the hills of the Taurus chain of moun- 
tains, it could not be watered by any streams of 
consequence ; and, indeed,, all its waters must 
have been mere fountains and springs. The 
same elevated range divided it from Pamphylia 
on the south. Another branch of this great 
Asiatic mountain ridge separated Isauria from 
Cilicia, though, as has been observed in the arti- 
cle Cilicia, the rugged district of that country 
adjoioing Isauria assumed its name in the geo- 
graphy of the eastern empire. 

IsMARUs, (IsMARA, pluT.) a luggcd mountaiu 
of Thrace, covered with vines and olives, near 
the Hebrus, with a town of the same name. Its 
wines are excellent. The word Ismarius is in- 
discriminately used for Thracian. Homer. Od. 
9.— Virg. G. 2, v. 37. ^n. 10, v. 351. 

IsMENiAs, a river of Boeotia, falling into the 
Euripus, where Apollo had a temple, from which 
he was called Ismenius. A youth was yearly 
chosen by the Boeotians to be the priest of the 
god, an office to which Hercules was once ap- 
pointed. Pans. 9, c. 10. — Ovid. Met. 2.— 
Strab. 9. 

IssEDONEs, a people of Asia, extending over 
the region called Serica. Their history is con- 
nected with that of China, and consequently 
very slightly with that of classic times and clas- 
sic countries. As they dwelt beyond the Imaus, 
and were known therefore even by name but im- 
perfectly, we can say but little of them, except 
that one of their principal towns, named Issedon, 
was surnamed Serica, and the other Sc5rthia; 
the former being now called Lop, and the latter 
Hara Shar, in English the Black Town. 

Issus, now Aisse, a town of Cilicia, on the 
confines of Syria, famous for a battle fought 
there between Alexander the Great and the 
Persians under Darius their king, in October, 
B. C. 333, in consequence of which it was cal- 
led NicopoUs. In this battle the Persians lost, 
in the field of battle, 100,000 foot and 10,000 
horse ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 
150 horse, according to Diodorus Siculus. The 
Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 
400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; and 61,000 of 
the former and 10,000 of the latter were left 
dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken pri- 
soners. The loss of the Macedonians, as he 
farther adds, was no more than 130 foot and 150 
horse. According to Curtius, the Persians slain 
amounted to 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse; 
and those of Alexander to 32 foot and 150 horse 
killed, and 504 wounded. This spot is like- 
wise famous for the defeat of Niger by Severus, 
A. D. 194. Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 11, c. 9. 
Curt. 3, c. 7. — Arrian. — Diod. 17. — Cic. 5, Att. 
20. Fam. 2, ep. 10. 

IsTER, a river of Europe. Vid. Daniobius. 
Isthmus, a small neck of land which joins 
one country to another, and prevents the sea 
from making them separate, such as that of Co- 
rinth, called often the Isthmus by way of emi- 
nence, which joins Peloponnesus to Greece. 
170 



Nero attempted to cut it across, and make a 
communication between the two seas, but in 
vain. It is now called Hezamili. Strab. I. — 
Mela, 2, c. 2.—Plin. 4, c. i.—Luca7i. 1, v. 101. 
IsTRiA, same as Histria. Strab. 1. — Mela, 2, c. 
3. — Liv. 10, &c. — Plin. 3, c. 19. — Justi7i,. 9, c. 2. 
Italia. " Without entering minutely into 
the examination of the several appellations 
which Italy appears to have borne in distant ages, 
it may be stated generally, that the name of Hes- 
peria was first given to it by the Greeks on ac- 
count of its relative position to their country, 
and that with those of Ausonia and Saturnia it 
is more commonly met with in the poets. The 
name of CEnotria, derived from the ancient race 
of the CEnotri, seems also to have been early in 
use among the Greeks, but it was applied by them 
to that southern portion of Italy only with which 
they were then acquainted. That of Italia is 
thought to have been deduced from Italus, a 
chief of the CEnotri, or Siculi. Others again 
sought the origin of the name in the Greek word 
ha'kds, or the Latin vitulus, which corresponds 
with it. But whatever circumstance may have 
given rise to it, we are told that this also was 
only at first a partial denomination, applied ori- 
ginally to that southern extremity of the boot 
which is confined between the gulfs of St. Evy 
phemia and Squillace, anciently Lameticus, and 
Scylleticus Sinus. It is well known, however, 
that in process of time it superseded every other 
appellation, and finally extended itself over the 
whole peninsula. This is generally allowed 
to have taken place in the reign of Augustus, 
and we may therefore fix upon that period as 
the most convenient for defining the ancient 
boundaries of Italy. At that time it appears 
that the Maritime Alps, or that part of the 
chain which dips into the Gulf of Genoa, the 
ancient Mare Ligusticum, formed its extreme 
boundary to the north-west. The same great 
chain sweeping round to the head of the Adri- 
atic, was considered as constituting, as it does 
now, its northern termination. The city of 
Tergeste, now Trieste, had been reckoned the 
farthest point to the north-east, till the province 
ofHistria was included by Augustus within the 
limits of Italy, which were then removed in that 
direction to the little river Arsa, VArsa,. The 
sea that bounded the western coast of Italy bore 
the se ver al names of Mar e Inf erum , Ty rrhenum, 
and Etruscum ; while those of Mare Superum, 
Hadriaticum or Hadriacum, were attached to 
the eastern or Adriatic sea. Ancient geographers 
appear to have entertained different ideas of the 
figure of Italy. Polybius considered it in its 
general form as being like a triangle, of which 
the two seas meeting at the promontory of Co- 
cynthus, Capo di Stilo, as the vertex, formed 
the sides, and the Alps the base. But Strabo 
is more exact in his delineation, and observes, 
that its shape bears more resemblance to a quad- 
rilateral than a triangular figure, with its out- 
line rather irregular than rectilineal. Pliny 
describes it in shape as similar to an elongated 
oak leaf, and terminating in a crescent, the 
horns of which would be the promontories of 
Leucopetra, Capo delV Armi, and Lacinium, 
Capo delle Colonne. According to Pliny, the 
length of Italy from Augusta Prastoria, Aosta, 
at the foot of the Alps, to Rhegium, the other 
extremity, was 1020 miles; but this distance 



IT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IT 



was to be estimated not in a direct line, but by - 
the great road which passed through Rome and 
Capua. The real geographical distance, ac- 
cording to the best maps, would scarcely furnish 
600 modem Italian miles, of sixty to the de- 
gree ; which are equal to about 700 ancient R-o- 
man miles. The same writer estimates its 
breadth from the Varus to the Arsia at 410 
miles ; between the mouths of the Tiber and 
Aternus at 136 miles ; in the narrowest part, be- 
tween the StQUS Scylacius, Golfo dl Squillace, 
and Sinus Terinaeus, Golfo di S. Eufeniia, at 
20 miles. The little lake of Cutilise, near Re- 
ate, Rieti^ in the Sabine country, was consider- 
ed as the umbilicus or centre of Italy. Iso 
writer is so eloquent and enthusiastic in the 
praises of Italy as Dionysius of Halicamassus : 
and we regret bemg obliged to give only a sum- 
mary of the passage, instead of presenting it to 
the reader in the historian's o^m warm and ani- 
mated language. ' Comparing Italy with other 
countries, he finds none which unite so many 
important advantages. The fertile fields of 
Campania bear three crops in the year. The 
wines of Tuscany, Alba, and Falemus are ex- 
cellent, and require little trouble to grow them. 
The olives of the Sabines, of Daunia, and Mes- 
sapia, are inferior to none. Rich pastures feed 
innumerable herds and flocks, of oxen and 
horses, of sheep and goats. Its mountains are 
clothed with the finest timber, and contain quar- 
ries of the choicest marbles and other kinds of 
stone, together with metallic veins of every sort. 
Navigable rivers afford a constant communica- 
tion between all its parts. Its forests swarm 
with game of -every description. Warm springs 
abound throughout ; and besides all these ad- 
vantELges, the climate is the most mild and tem- 
perate, in every season of the year, that can be 
imagined.' The origin of the first inhabitants 
of Italy, is a question on which it is proper to 
state that we kiiow but little. The information 
we derive on this point from the writers of anti- 
quity is so scanty, and withal so confused, that 
it can scarcely be expected we should, in the 
present day, arrive at any clear notions on the 
subject ; even though it is allowed that in some 
respects we are better qualified than the an- 
cients for investigating the matter, from being 
acquainted with the manner in which the earth 
■was first divided and peopled ; a knowledge 
which we derive from the earliest as well as 
most authentic records in existence. Ryckius, 
in an elaborate dissertation, has been diligent 
in collecting all that antiquity has transmitted 
to us on the subject ; but there is too little dis- 
crimination of what is fabulous from what is 
historical in his work, to allow of its being con- 
sidered in any other light than as useful for re- 
ference only. Freret, a learned French acade- 
mician, who seems to have directed his research- 
es more particularly to remote and obscure points 
of histoiy and chronology, has been at much 
pains to elucidate the question now before us ; 
the result of his investigation, or rather say his 
system, is given in the Memoires de I'Acade- 
mie. He conceives that Italy was altogether 
peopled by land, and therefore rejects all the 
early colonies which, according to Dionysius of 
Halicamassus, came by sea. He distinguishes 
three migrations of three separate nations ; the 
Ulyrians, Iberians, and Celts. There are some 



ingenious ideas in his scheme, but it is generally 
too bold and conjectural, and wants the support 
of histor}- in so many points, that his opinions 
cannot be allowed to have much weight in de- 
ciding the question. Pelloutier, Bardetti, and 
Durandi, have endeavoured to deduce the ori- 
gin of all the earliest nations of Italy from a 
Celtic stock. Other writers again, such as 
MaiFei, Mazzochi, and Guarnacci, have ima- 
gined that the first settlements were immediate- 
1}'' formed from the east. Where historical re- 
cords fail, the analysis of language is the only 
clue, it must be allowed, which can enable us to 
trace the origin of ancient nations with any 
probability of success ; but when the results are 
so much at variance with each other, as in the 
case of the writers above mentioned, much doubt 
must of necessit}'- attach to the process by which 
those results have been obtained. The know- 
ledge of the ancient languages of Italy, of which 
the Latin must be considered as a dialect only, 
though it became the prevailing one, is compa- 
ratively of recent date. , The Etruscan alpha- 
bet, the characters of which are the same as 
that of the Umbrian and Oscan dialects, had not 
been identified and made out with certainty till 
within the last fifty years ; for the inscribed mo- 
numents of these people being rare and scanty, 
it has been a work of time as well as of great 
industry and sagacit}^, to draw any well-esta- 
blished conclusion from them. These two last 
qualities are eminently displayed in the learned 
work of Lanzi on the Etruscan and other an- 
cient dialects of Italy; and it is but a small part 
of the praise due to him to say, that in his es- 
say he has done more towards making us ac- 
quainted with this curious branch of ancient 
philolog}', than all the writers who had preceded 
him taken collectively. Though Lanzi himself 
declines entering into the discussion immedi- 
ately under our consideration, it may be inferred 
from his researches, that as the Greek language 
in its most ancient form appears to enter largely 
not only into the composition of the Latin lan- 
guage, this being a fact which has always been 
acknowledged, but also into that of the other 
Italian dialects, the first settlers of Italy and 
those of Greece were the same race ; that as 
the latter country became more populous, its 
numerous tribes extended themselves along the 
shores of Epirus and Illyrium, till they reached 
the head of the Adriatic, and poured into Italv. 
We must however admit, that other nations of 
a different race soon penetrated into Italy from 
other quarters, and, by intermixing with its first 
inhabitants, communicated to the ancient lan- 
guage of that country that heterogeneous cha- 
racter by which it is essentially distinguished 
from the vernacular tongue of Greece. It is 
chiefly on these two principles, supported how- 
ever by the testimony of antiquity, that we ven- 
ture to ground the following system respecting 
the origin of the early population of Italy. The 
Umbri appear to have the best claim to'the title 
of its aboriginal inhabitants. They probably 
came from the eastern parts of Europe, and hav- 
ing reached Italy, gradually extended them- 
selves along the ridge of the Appenines to its 
southern extremitv. Considering the Umbri as 
the aborigines of Italy, we are inclined to derive 
from them the Opici, or Osci, andOEnotri, who 
are kno^^Ti to have existed with them in that 
171 



IT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



IT 



country before ihe siege of Troy. Nearly con- 
temporary with the Umbri were the Sicani, Si- 
culi, and Ligures, who all came from the west, 
and along the coast of the Mediterranean in the 
order in which they are here placed. The in- 
terval of time which intervened between these 
three colonies is unknown, but there is this dis- 
tinction to be made between them : — the Sica- 
ni were supposed to be Iberians; the Siculi 
were probably Celto-Ligurians ; the Ligures, 
properly so called, were certainly Celts. The 
Sicani having been gradually propelled towards 
the south of Italy by the nations which follow- 
ed, are known to have passed at a very remote 
period into Sicily, which from them obtained the 
name of Sicania. That a small part of their 
race remained in Italy is however probable ; and 
it is not impossible that the ancient Aurunci 
and Ausones, who are otherwise unaccounted 
for, may have been a remnant of this very early 
migration. The Siculi are known to have oc- 
cupied Tuscany and part of Latium for a long 
time, but being also driven south first by the 
Umbri aided by the Tyrrheni Pelasgi, and suc- 
cessively by the Opici and CEnotri, they also 
crossed over into Sicily, to which they commu- 
nicated their name. This event is said to have 
happened about eighty years before the siege of 
Troy. The Ligures occupied the shores of the 
Gulf of Genoa as far as the Arno, and peopled 
a great part of Piedmont, where they remained 
undisturbed till they were subjugated by the 
Romans. After the departure of the Siculi, 
considerable changes appear to have taken place. 
The Tyrrheni Pelasgi, who came probably from 
the north of Greece, and assisted the Umbri in 
their wars with the Siculi, occupied the country 
from which this latter people had been expelled, 
in conjunction with the Umbri, and together 
with them formed the nation of the Etrusci or 
Tusci. About the same period the Opici, or 
Osci, who seem to have occupied the central re- 
gion of Italy, extended themselves largely both 
west and east. In the first direction they form- 
ed the several communities distinguished by the 
name of Latins, Rutuli, Volsci, Campani, and 
Sidicini. In the central districts they consti- 
tuted the Sabine nation, from whom were de- 
scended the Picentes, as well as the ^qui, 
Marsi, Hernici, Peligni, Vestini, and Marruci- 
ni. From the Opici again, in conjunction with 
the Liburni, an Illyrian nation who had very 
early formed settlements on the eastern coast of 
Italy, we must derive ihe Apuli and Daunii, 
Peucetii and Poediculi, Calabri, lapyges, and 
Messapii. The Greeks, who formed numerous 
settlements in the south of Italy after the siege 
of Troy, found these several people and the 
CEnotri, still further south, in possession of the 
country. But the CEnotrian name disappeared, 
together with its subdivisions into the Leutar- 
nii, Chones, and Itali; when the Samnite na- 
tion, which derived its origin from the Sabines, 
had propagated the Oscan stock to the extre- 
mity of the peninsula, under the various deno- 
minations of Hirpini, Pentri, Caraceni, Pren- 
tani, and subsequently of the Leucani and Bru- 
tii. In the north of Italy the following settle- 
ments are considered as posterior to the siee^e of 
Troy. 1st, That of the Veneti, an Illyrian na- 
tion who fixed themselves between the river 
Adige and the Adriatic. 2d, That of the Gauls, 
172 



a Celtic race, who crossed the Alps ; and, hav- 
ing expelled the Tuscans from the plains of 
Lombardy, gave to the country which they oc- 
cupied the name of Cisalpine Gaul. These, 
with several Alpine tribes of uncertain origin, 
are all the inhabitants of ancient Italy to whom 
distinct denominations are assigned in history. 
We are informed by Pliny, that after Augustus 
had extended the frontiers of Italy to the Mari- 
time Alps and the river Arsia, he divided that 
country into eleven regions : viz. 1. Campania, 
including also Latium. 2. Apulia, to which 
was annexed part of Samnium. 3. Lucania 
and Brutium. 4. Samnium, together with the 
country of the Sabines, Marsi, iEqui, &c. 5. 
Picenum. 6. Umbria. 7. Etruria. 8. Flami- 
nia, extending from the Appenines to the Po. 
9. Liguria. 10. Venetia containing Hislria 
and the country of the Carni. 11. Transpa- 
dana, comprehending what remained between 
Venetia and the Alps. This division, though 
not to be overlooked, is too seldom noticed to 
be of much utility. The following distribution 
has been adopted, we believe, by most geogra- 
phical writers, and will be found much more 
convenient for the purposes of history. 1. Li- 
guria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Venetia, in- 
cluding the Carni and Histria. 4. Etruria. 5. 
Umbria and Picenum. 6. the Sabini, ^qui, 
Marsi, Peligni, Vestini, Marrucini. 7. Roma. 
8. Latium. 9. Campania. 10. Samnium and 
the Frentani. 11. Apulia, including Daunia 
and Messapia, or lapygia. 12. Lucania. 13. 
Brutii." Cram. It. . 

Italica, a town of Baetica, belonging to the 
Turdetani, on the Bsetis, between Hispalis and 
llerda, the birth-place of Trajan and Hadrian, 
now Sevilla la Vrieja, in Andalusia. Italica 
was founded by Scipio, aboUt A. U. C. 654, 
and Augustus afterwards conferred on it the 
honours and privileges of a municipium. 

Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian 
Sea, on the western parts of Greece, with a 
city of the same name, famous for being part of 
the kingdom of Ulysses. It is very rocky and 
mountainous, measures about 25 miles in cir- 
cumference, and is known by the name of Isola 
del Compare, or Theachi. Homer. II. 2, v. 139. 
— Od. 1, V. 186, 1. 4, V. 601, 1. 9, v. 20.—StraI>. 
1 and 8.— Mela, 2, c. 7. " Ithaca, now Tke- 
aki, lies directly south of Leucadia, from which 
it is distant about six miles. The extent of this 
celebrated island, as given by ancient authori- 
ties, does not correspond with modern compu- 
tation. Dicsearchus describes it as narrow, and 
measuring 80 stadia, meaning probably in 
length, but Strabo affirms, in circumference; 
which is very wide of the truth, since it is not 
less than 30 miles in circuit, and, according to 
Pliny, only twenty-five. Its length is nearly 
17 miles, but its breadth not more than 4. The 
highest and most remarkable mountain in the 
island is that so often alluded to under the name 
of Neritus. According to Mr. Dodwell the 
modern name is Anoi, which means lofty ; he 
observes also, that the forests spoken of by Ho- 
mer have disappeared ; it is at present bare and 
barren, producing nothing but stunted ever- 
greens and aromatic plants. It is e-vident from 
several passages in the Odyssey, that there was 
a city named Ithaca, probably the capital of the 
island, and the residence of Ulysses, which was 



JU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



XA 



apparently placed on a rugged height. Its ruins 
are generally identified with those crowning the 
summit of the hill of Aiio ; ' Part of the walls 
which surrounded the acropolis are said to re- 
main ; and two long walls on the north and 
south sides are carried down the hill towards 
the bay of Aitos. In this intermediate space 
was the city. These walls are in the second 
style of early military architecture, composed 
of well-joined irregular polygons, like the walls 
of the Cyclopian cities of Argos and Mycenae. 
The whole was built upon terraces, owing to 
the rapid declivity of the hill.' The port called 
by Homer Phorcys, and which he describes so 
accurately, is now known by the name of Port 
Molo. The present population of the island 
amounts to about 8000 souls. It produces only 
corn sufficient to maintain the inhabitants half 
the year." Cram. 

Ithacesije, three islands opposite Vibo, on 

the coast of the Brutii. Baise was called also 

Ithacesia, because built by Bajus, the pilot of 
Ulysses. Sil. 8, v. 540, 1. 12, v. 113. 

Ithome, a town of Messenia, which surren- 
dered, after ten years' siege, to Lacedaemon, 724 
years before the Christian era. Jupiter was 
called Ithomates, from a temple which he had 
there, where games were also celebrated, and 
the conqueror rewarded with an oaken crown. 
Pans. 4, c. 32.— Stat. Tkeb. 4, v. 179.— 
Strab.%. 

Itius Portus, a town of Gaul, now Wit- 
sand, or Boulogne in Picardy. Caesar set sail 
thence on his passage into Britain, Ccbs. G. 4, 
c. 101, 1. 5, c. 2 and 5. 

Ituna, a river of Britain, -now Eden in Cum- 
berland. -This name belonged also to the 

Sohoay Frith, into which the Eden discharges 
itself. Camb. 

Itur/ea, a province of Syria on the confines 
of Arabia. It lay between the Trachonitis and 
• Auranitis, which constituted the border region 
between these countries, and had on the east 
the mountain of Hermon, which separated it, 
in part from Batanea and Palestine. 

JuDiEA, a part of Palestine, extending from 
the borders of the stony Arabia along the Dead 
Sea upon the east, and the country of the Phil- 
istines, which lay on the coast of the Mediter- 
ranean, on the west. On the north it had Sa- 
maria, and it contained within these limits the 
early tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Si- 
meon. After the return from Babylon the name 
of Judffia was first given to this country, ex- 
tending for the most part over the former king- 
doms of Judah and Israel. The ruins of its 
former distinguished cities still appear ; the ci- 
ties themselves have for the greater part perish- 
ed. Joppa, Gaza, and Jerusalem, however, re- 
main, and the natural richness of the soil yet 
marks the Promised Land. Judaea constituted 
the kingdom of Herod under the protection of 
Rome, and was at last absorbed in one of the 
three Palestines into which all the surrounding 
country was divided, about the beginning of the 
fifth centurj' of our era. Even before, though 
the limits as given above were recognised in the 
authority secured to Herod, the friend of the 
Romans, it was not acknowledged, apart from 
Palestine, in the provincial distribution of the 
empire. 

JuLioMAGUs, a city of Gaul, now Angers in 



Anjou. Its modern name is derived from the 
name of the people whose capital it was in an- 
cient times. Those people were the Andes or 
Andecavi, who dwelt about the confluence of 
the Liger and the Meduana, the Loire and the 
Maienne. 

JuLiopoLis. Vid. Gordium. 

JiJLis, a town of the island of Cos, which 
gave birth to Simonides, &c. The walls of this 
city were all marble, and there are now some 
pieces remaining entire, above 12 feet in height, 
as the monuments of its ancient splendour. 
Plin. 4, c. 12. 

JuNoNis Promontorium, now Cape Trafal- 
gar. It is on the Atlantic side of the Straits 
of Gibraltar, which may be considered to com- 
mence from this point. Voss. ad Mel. 

Jura, a high ridge of mountains separating 
the Helvetii from the Sequani, or Switzerland 
from Burgundy. Cces. G. 1, c. 2. 



Labeatts Palus, a lake in Dalmatia, to- 
wards the borders of Illyria. It received the 
waters of the Oriundus and the Clausula from 
the north and east, and discharged its own 
through the Barbana into the Hadriaticum Mare 
west of the mouth of the Drinus. At its south- 
ern extremity was Scodra, Scutari, the name 
of which is sometimes given to the lake. ^ The 
people living in its vicinity were called tabea- 
tes. Liv. 44, c. 31, 1. 45, c. 26. 

Labi CUM, now Colonna, a town of Italy, called 
also, Lavicum, between Gabii and Tusculum, 
which became a Roman colony about four cen- 
turies B. C. Virg. jEn. 7, v. 196.-^Liv. 2, c. 39. 
1. 4, c. 47. 

Labotas, a river near Antioch in Syria. 
Strab. 16. 

Labron, a part of Italy on the Mediterra- 
nean, supposed to be Leghorn, Cic. 2, adfra 6. 

Laced^mon, a noble city of Peloponnesus, 
the capital of Laconia, called also Sparta, and 
now known by the name of Misitra. It has 
been severally known by the name of Lelegia, 
from the Leleges, the first inhabitants of the 
country, or from Lelex, one of their kings ; and 
(Ebalia, from CEbalus, the sixth king from Eu- 
rotas. It was also called Hecatompolis, from 
the hundred cities which the whole province 
once contained. Lelex is supposed to have 
been the first king. His descendants, thirteen 
in number, reigned successively after him, till 
the reign of the sons of Orestes, when the He- 
raclidse recovered the Peloponnesus, about 80 
years after the Trojan war. Procles and Eurys- 
thenes, the descendants of the Heraclidae, en- 
joyed the crown together, and after them it was 
decreed that the two families should always sit 
on the throne together. Vid. Eurysthenes. These 
two brothers began to reign B.C. 1102 ; their 
successors in the family of Procles were called 
ProclidcB, and afterwards Eurypontida, and 
those of Eurysthenes, Eurysthenidce, and after- 
wards Agida. The successors of Procles on 
the throne began to reign in the following order : 
Sous, 1060 B. C. after his father had reigned 
42 years: Eurypon, 1028: Prytanis, 1021: 
Euiioraus, 986 : Polydectes, 907 : Lycurg-us, 
898: Charilaus, 873: Nicander, 809: Theo- 
pompus, 770; Zeuxidamus, 723 : Anaxidamus, 
173 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



690 : Archidamus, 651 : Agasicles, 605 : Aris- 
ton, 564 ; Demaratus, 526 : Leotychides, 491 : 
Achidamus, 469 : Agis, 427 : Agesilaus, 397 : 
Archidamus, 361 : Agis 2d, 338 : Eudamidas, 
330: Archidamus, 295: Ecdamidas 2d, 268: 
Agis, 244 : Archidamus, 230 : Euclidas, 225 : 
Lycurgus, 219 : — The successors of Eurys- 
thenes were Agis, 1059 : Echestratus, 1058 : 
Labotas, 1023: Doryssus, 986: Agesilaus, 957: 
Archelaus, 913 : Teleclus, 853 : Alcamenes, 
813: Polydorus, 776 : Eurycrates, 724 : Anax- 
ander, 687 : Eurycrates 2d, 664 : Leon, 607 : 
Anaxandrides, 563: Cleomenes, 530: Leoni- 
das, 491: Plistarchus, under guardianship of 
Pausanias, 480 : Plistoanax, 466 : Pausanias, 
408 : Agesipolis, 397 : Cleombrotus, 380 : Age- 
sipolis 2d, 371 : Cleomenes 2d, 370 : Aretus or 
Areus, 309 : Acrotatus, 265 : Areus 2d, 264 : 
Leonidas, 257 : Cleombrotus, 243 : Leonidas 
restored, 241 : Cleomenes, 235 : Agesipolis, 219. 
Under the two last kings, Lycurgus and Agesi- 
polis, the monarchical power was abolished, 
though Machanidas, the tyrant, made himself 
absolute, B. C. 210, and Nabis, 206, for four- 
teen years. In the year 191 B, C. Lacedaemon 
joined the Achaean league,and about three years 
after the walls were demolished by order of Phi- 
lopcEmen. The territories of Laconia shared 
the fate of the Achaean confederacy, and the 
whole was conquered by Mummius, 147 B. C. 
and converted into a Roman province. The 
inhabitants of Lacedaemon have rendered them- 
selves illustrious for their courage and intrepidi- 
ty, for their love of honour and liberty, and for 
their aversion to sloth and luxury. They were 
inured from their youth to labour, and their 
laws commanded them to make war their pro- 
fession. They never applied themselves to any 
trade, but their only employment was arms, and 
they left every thing else to the care of their 
slaves. Vid. Helotce. They hardened their 
body by stripes and manly exercises ; and ac- 
customed themselves to undergo hardships, and 
even to die without fear or regret. From their 
valour in the field, and their moderation and 
temperance at home, they were courted and re- 
vered by all the neighbouring princes, and their 
assistance was severally implored to protect the 
Sicilians, Carthaginians, Thracians, Egj^Jtians, 
Cyreneans, &c. As to domestic manners, the 
Lacedaemonians as widely differed from their 
neighbours as in political concerns, and their 
noblest women were not ashamed to appear on 
the stage hired for money. In the affairs of 
Greece, the interest of the Lacedaemonians was 
often powerful, and obtained the superiority for 
500 years. Their jealousy of the power and 
greatness of the Athenians is well known. The 
authority of their monarchs was checked by 
the watchful eye of the Ephori, who had the 
power of imprisoning the kings themselves if 
guilty of misdemeanors; Vid. Ephori. The 
Lacedaemonians are remarkable for the honour 
and reverence which they pay to old age. The 
names of Tuacedczmon and Sparta are promis- 
cuously applied to the capital of Laconia, and 
often confounded together. The latter was ap- 
plied to the metropolis, and the former was re- 
served for the suburbs, or rather the country 
contiguous to the walls of the city. This pro- 
priety of distinction was originally observed, 
but in process of time it was totally lost, and 
174 



both appellatives were soon synonymous and 
indiscriminately applied to the city and coun- 
try. Vid. Sparta, Laconia. The place where 
the city stood is now called Paleo CAori, {the old 
io2on,) and the new one erected on its rums at 
some distance on the west, is called Misatra, 
Liv. 34, c. 33, 1. 45, c. 28.—Strab. 8.— Thucyd. 
1. — Pans. 3. — Justin. 2, 3, &c. — Herodot. 1, 
«&c. — Plut. in Lajc. &c. — Diod. — Mela, 2. 

LACEDiEMONii, and LicEDiEMONES, the in- 
habitants of Lacedaemon. Vid. Lacedamon. 

Lacides, a village near Athens, which de- 
rived its name from Lacius, an Athenian hero, 
whose exploits are unknown. Here Zephyrus 
had an altar sacred to him, and likewise Ceres 
and Proserpine a temple. Paus. 1, c. 37. 

Lacinium, a promontory of Magna Graecia, 
now cape Colonna, the southern boundary of 
Tarentum in Italy, where Juno Lacinia had a 
temple held in great veneration. It received 
its name from Lacinius, a famous robber killed 
there by Hercules. Liv. 24, c, 3, 1, 27, c, 5, 1, 
30, c, '20.— Virg. ^n. 3, v. 522, 

Lacobriga, now Lagos, on the bay of La- 
gos, near the Sacrum Promontorium, now Cape 
St. Vincent. It was in this city of Lusitania 
that Metellus besieged the rebel hero Sertorius, 

Laconia, Laconica, and Lacedjemon. " The 
little river Pamisus, and the chain of Taygetus, 
formed the Laconian limits on the side of Mes- 
senia. Towards Arcadia the boundaries were 
marked by the chain of mountains which gave 
rise on the northern side to the Alpheus, and on 
the southern to the Eurotas. A continuation 
of the same ridge served to separate the Spartan 
territory from the small district of Cynuria, 
which originally belonged to the Argives, but 
became afterwards a constant cause of conten- 
tion between the two states. From the tradi- 
tion collected by Pausanias, it appears that the 
Leleges were generally regarded as the first in- 
habitants of Laconia. It is to this ancient race 
that he traces the foundation of Sparta, and the 
origin of its earliest sovereigns ; but he has not 
informed us by what revolution the Tyndaridse, 
who were the last princes of the first Laconian 
dynasty, made way for the house of Pelops in 
the person of Menelaus, son-in-law, it is true, 
of Tyndareus, but who could not have succeed- 
ed to the crown in right of his wife. We must 
probably seek for an explanation of this fact in 
the power and influence obtained by Pelops and 
Atreus at this early period over nearly the whole 
peninsula. Thus, while Agamemnon reigned 
over Argos and Mycene, the domination of his 
brother Menelaus extended over the whole of 
Laconia and a great portion of Messenia. Ho- 
mer, as Strabo observes, employs the name of 
Lacedaemon to denote both the city and the 
country of which it was the capital ; but when 
the word Sparta is used, it is always with refe- 
rence to the town. Menelaus was succeeded 
by Orestes, and Orestes by his son Tisaraenus. 
It was during the reign of the latter that the 
Dorians and Heraclidae invaded Peloponnesus, 
and introduced great and permanent political 
changes throughout the whole peninsula. La- 
conia being conquered by the invading army, 
Tisamenus, with the Achaeans, withdrew to the 
TEgialus, then occupied by the lonia.ns. In the 
division which took place of the conquered ter- 
ritory, Argos was assigned to Temenus, Mes- 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



senia to Cresphontes, and Laconia to Aristode- 
mus ; but the latter dying before the partition 
had been carried into effect, it was adjudged thai 
liis two sons Eurysthenes and Procles should be 
joint heirs of the possessions allotted to their fa- 
ther; and they thus became the progenitors of 
a double line of kings, who reigned at Sparta 
for several generations with equal power and 
authority. According to Ephorus, as cited by 
Strabo, Eurysthenes and Procles divided Laco- 
nia into six portions, which were governed by 
deputies, they themselves residing at Sparta. 
The inhabitants of this city, called Spartiatas, 
enjoyed peculiar rights and privileges. Next 
to these were the Perioeci, or inhabitants of the 
country, who, though in some respects subject 
to the Spartan citizens, were yet governed by 
the same laws, and were equally eligible to the 
different offices of the state. The third class 
consisted of slaves named Helots, who, having 
been at first tributary, were, in consequence of 
their revolt, reduced to slavery, after an obsti- 
nate contest, called the war of the Helots. This 
name was said to be derived from Helos, a La- 
conian town, which was foremost in the rebel- 
lion. The Helots being considered as public 
slaves, their places of abode were regulated by 
the state, and certain duties imposed upon them. 
The laws relative to this unfortunate class of 
men are ascribed to Agis son of Eurysthenes. 
The first important change introduced by Ly- 
curgus in the Spartan constitution was the crea- 
tion of a senate,consisting of twenty-eight mem- 
bers, who, being in all matters of deliberation 
possessed of equal authority with the kings, 
proved an effectual check against any infringe- 
ment of the laws on their part, and preserved a 
just balance in the state, by supporting the crown 
against the encroachments of the people, and 
protecting the latter against any undue influ- 
ence of the regal power. It was also enacted 
that the people should be occasionally summon- 
ed, and have the power of deciding upon any 
question proposed to them. No measure, how- 
ever could originate with them ; they had only 
the right of approving or rejecting what was 
submitted to them by the senate and two kings. 
But, as danger was to be apprehended from va- 
rious attempts subsequently made by the people 
to extend their rights in these meetings, it was 
at length ordained, that, if the latter endeavour- 
ed to alter any law, the kings and senate should 
dissolve the assembly, and annul the amend- 
ment. With a view of counterbalancing the 
great power thus committed to the legislative as- 
sembly, and which might degenerate into oli- 
garchy, five annual magistrates were appointed, 
named Ephori, whose office it was, like that of 
the tribunes at Rome, to watch over the inte- 
rests of the people, and protect them against the 
influence of the aristocracy. Lycurgus, in or- 
der to banish wealth and luxury from the state, 
made a new division of lands, by which the in- 
come and possessions of all were rendered equal. 
He divided the territory of Sparta into 9000 
portions, and the remainder of Laconia into 
30,000, of which one lot was assigned to each 
citizen and inhabitant. These parcels of land 
"Were supposed to produce seventy medimni of 
grain for a man and twelve for a woman, besides 
a sufficient quantity of wine and oil. The more 
effectually to banish the love of riches, the Spar- 



tan lawgiver prohibited the use of gold and sil- 
ver, and allowed only iron money, afhxing even 
to this the lowest value. He also instituted pub- 
lic repasts termed Phiditia, where all the citizens 
partook in common of such frugal fare as the 
law directed. The kings even were not exempt- 
ed from this regulation, but eat with the other 
citizens ; the only distinction observed with re- 
spect to them being that of having a double por- 
tion of food. The Spartan custom of eating in 
public appears to have been borrowed from the 
Cretans, who called these repasts Andria. At 
the age of seven all the Spartan children, by the 
laws of Lycurgus, were enrolled in companies, 
and educated agreeably to his rules of discipline 
and exercise, which were strictly enforced. 
These varied according to the ages of the boys, 
but were not entirely remitted even after they 
had attained to manhood. For it was a maxim 
with Lycurgus that no man should live for him- 
self, but for his country. Every Spartan there- 
fore was regarded as a soldier, and the city itself 
resembled a great camp, where every one had a 
fixed allowance, and was required to perform re- 
gular service. In order that they might have 
moreleisuj'eto devote themselvesto martial pur- 
suits, they were forbidden to exercise any me- 
chanical arts or trades, which, together with the 
labours of agriculture, devolved on the Helots. 
The condition of these ill-fated men cannot even 
now be considered without feelings of commise- 
ration for their sufferings, and execration and 
horror at the conduct of their oppressors. Aris- 
totle has recorded, that when the Ephori enter- 
ed upon their office they began by declaring war 
against the Helots, who were then liable to be 
attacked and murdered without any form of jus- 
tice whatsoever. Sometimes indeed the Spartan 
youths armed with daggers were ordered to place 
themselves in ambuscade, to surprise and put to 
death any of these unfortunate wretches whom 
they might chance to meet. These criptia, as 
they were called, took place most commonly at 
night ; but the unhappy objects of this barba- 
rous exercise were frequently assailed by day. 
and butchered whilst working in the fields. The 
two reigning houses of Lacedeemon took the 
name of Agidse and EuripontidaB from Agis 
and Eurypon, sons of Eurysthenes and Procles, 
the first Heraclid sovereigns; since, as Ephorus 
asserted, these were looked upon as having suc- 
ceeded to the throne in their own right, whilst 
their fathers obtained the crown by foreign aid. 
Sparta was already the first power of Greece, 
when Croesus was induced by the counsels of an 
oracle to court its alliance ; but the succours, 
which were to have been sent to the Lydian 
monarch, were stopped by the news of the siege 
and capture of Sardis. But for the unexam- 
pled instance of devotion in their country's 
cause, displayed by Leonidas and his 300 com- 
panions, the Lacedaemonian character would 
not have been distinguished in history for its 
energy or patriotic zeal during the Persian con- 
flict ; since tardiness and superstition prevented 
their sharing in the glories of the field of Mara- 
thon : the want also of energy and talent in their 
commander Eurybiades would no doubt have 
brought Greece to the verge of destruction, had 
not the wisdom and vigour of Themistocles in- 
terposed, to counteract the effects of his weak 
and vacillating disposition. The battle of Pla- 
175 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



tasa, it is true, was won by a Spartan general, 
audit cannot be denied that the valour and firm- 
ness of the Lacedaemonian troops contributed 
mainly to the success of that memorable day ; 
but yet how mean and contemptible appears the 
procrastination of the Spartan government in 
taking the field, when compared with the heroic 
zeal and devotion of the Athenians ; notwith- 
standing the strength and resources of the former 
were as yet unimpaired, whilst the latter were 
without a country, and destitute of every thing 
but their arms, and courage to employ them 
against the common enemy. After the battle of 
Mycale, which freed the island and colonies 
from the Persian yoke,and the capture of Sestos, 
whereby the Hellespont was opened to the Gre- 
cian fleet, the Lacedaemonians abandoned the 
conduct of the war to the Athenians. The 
rapid advance of the Athenians towards uni- 
versal domination proved too late the error they 
had been guilty of in withdrawing from the com- 
mand of the Persian war before its termination ; 
and the Spartan government gladly made the 
wrongs sustained by the Corinthians in the af- 
fairs of Corcyra and Potidaea a pretext for a rup- 
ture with Athens." With this began the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, which terminated in the ruin 
of Athens, and which was hardly less pernicious 
to Laconia herself and to the rest of Greece. 
War followed war with varying success for 
many years, and terminated only in the loss of 
liberty to all, and the extension of the Macedo- 
nian name and power over the free states of 
Greece. To this succeeded the Roman autho- 
rity, and the passage of empire across the Ionian 
and Adriatic seas from Macedon to Rome. 
" Under the domination of Rome, the inhabit- 
ants of Laconia enjoyed a greater degree of 
freedom than was allowed to the other provinces 
of Greece, being, says Strabo, rather regarded as 
allies than as subjects. A considerable part of 
the nation, consisting of several maritime towns 
around Sparta, was dignified with the title of 
Eleutherolacones, conferred upon it by Augus- 
tus, together with other privileges, for the zeal 
which its inhabitants had early testified in fa- 
vour of the Romans, Laconia, from its rugged 
and mountainous character, was naturally bar- 
ren and difficult of culture ; such, in short, as 
Euripides described in one of his lost plays. The 
epithet of Kriroiijaa, applied by Homer to this 
country, has been supposed by some to refer to 
its great extent compared with the other states 
of Peloponnesus, but by others to the number 
of its valleys. Laconia could boast at one time 
of possessing one hundred cities, but the great- 
er part of these were probably like the demi of 
Attica, not larger than villages. The whole po- 
pulation of the country, including the Helots, 
who constituted by far the most numerous class, 
being in the proportion of 5 to 1, may be esti- 
mated at 270,000 souls." Cram. 

Lade, an island of the iEgean Sea, on the 
coast of Asia Minor, where was a naval battle 
between the Persians and lonians. Herodot. 6, 
c. l.—Paus. 1, c. Sb.—Strab. 17. 

Ladon, 1. a river of Arcadia, falling into the 
Alpheus. The metamorphosis of Daphne into 
a laurel, and of Syrinx into a reed, happened 
near its banks. Strab. 1. — Mela, 2, c. 3. — 

Pans. 8, c. 25.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 659.- II. 

Another in Elis. This little stream, now call- 
176 



ed the Derviche, after flowing near the city of 
Pylos, discharges itself into the Peneus. 

LiESTRYGONEs, the most ancient inhabitants 
of Sicily. Some suppose them to be the same 
as the people of Leontium, and to have been 
neighbours to the Cyclops. They fed on human 
flesh, and when Ulysses came on their coasts, 
they sunk his ships and devoured his compa- 
nions. {Vid. Antiphetes.) They were of a 
gigantic stature, according to Homer, who, how- 
ever, does not mention their country, but only 
speaks of Lamus as their capital. A colony of 
them, as some suppose, passed over into Italy, 
with Lamus at their head, where they built the 
town of Formiee, whence the epithet of Lastry- 
gonia is often used for that of Formiana. Plin. 
3, c. b.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 233, &c. Fast. 4. 
ex Pont. 4, ep. 10. — Tzetz. in lAjcophr. v. 662. 
and Q\Q.— Homer. Od. 10, v. S\.—Sil. 7, v. 276. 

Lagyra, a city of Taurica Chersonesus. 

Lambrani, a people of Italy, near the Lam- 
brus. Sv£t. in Cces. 

Lamber, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, falling 
into the Po. 

Lamia, a town of Thessaly, at the bottom of 
the Sinus Maliacus or Lamiacus, and north of 
the river Sperchius, famous for a siege it sup- 
ported after Alexander's death. Vid. Lamia- 
cum. Died. 16, &c. — Paus. 7, c. 6. 

Lami.e, small islands of the .iEgean, opposite 
Troas. Plin. 5, c. 31, 

Lampsacus, and Lampsacum, now LamsaM, 
a town of Asia Minor, on the borders of the 
Propontis at the north of Abydos. Priapus was 
the chief deity of the place, of which he was 
reckoned by some the founder. His temple 
there was the asylum of lewdness and debauch- 
ery, and exhibited scenes of the most unnatural 
lust ; and hence the epithet Lampsacius is used 
to express immodesty and wantonness. Alex- 
ander resolved to destroy the city on account of 
the vices of its inhabitants, or, more properly, 
for its firm adherence to the interest of Persia. 
It was, however, saved from ruin by the artifice 
of Anaximenes. Vid. Anaximenes. It was 
formerly called Pityusa, and received the name 
of Lampsacus from Lampsace, a daughter of 
Mandron, a king of Phrygia, who gave informa- 
tion to some Phoceans who dwelt there, that the 
rest of the inhabitants had conspired against 
their lives. This timely information saved them 
from destruction. The city afterwards bore the 
name of their preserver. The wine of Lamp- 
sacus was famous, and therefore a tribute of 
wine was granted from the city by Xerxes to 
maintain the table of Themistocles. Mela, 1. 
c. l^.— Strab. I'i.—Paus. 9, c. 'il.— Herodot. 5, 
c. 117. — C. Ne'p. in Themist. c. 10. — Ovid. 1. 
Trist. 9, V. 26. Fast. 8, v. 345.— Liv. 33, c. 38, 
1. 35, c. A2.— Martial. 22, ep. 17, 52. 

Lamus, a river of Cilicia Campestris, flow- 
ing from mount Taurus, the whole width of 
the country, into the Aulon Cilicius. From 
this river, which is still called the Lamuzo, the 
district to which it belonged was called Lamo- 
tis. — D'Anville. 

Lancia. Three towns of ancient Hispania 
were kno"v^Ti by the name of Lancia. One of 
these was a principal city of the Astures in 
Tarraconensis, between the Durius and the 
coast. The other places of this name belonged 
to Lusitania. Of these, the one called Oppi- 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



dana was situate between the western bank of 
the Cuda and the springs of the Mrnida, {Mon- 
dego^) and is supposed to be the modern a- 
Guarda; and that called Transcuda, from its 
position also on the Cuda, may be Ciudad 
Rodrigo. D'A7iville. 

Langobardi, by corruption Lombards, one 
of the most celebrated of the northern barbarian 
hordes by which the Roman empire was over- 
thrown. The original seats of this people it is 
difficult to describe, from the lateness of the pe- 
riod at which they became known, and from 
their various migrations during the eraat which 
they first present themselves to history. Their 
Scandinavian origin has been supported and 
denied, and authorities of the highest character 
reject on the one hand, and adv^ocate on the 
other, their connexion with the Germanic race. 
However the truth may be in relation to their 
earliest settlements, the Langobardi were settled 
■in Germany when their relation to Roman his- 
tory begins, and whatever differences charac- 
terized them, may be considered as distinctions 
of a tribe rather than of a race. In the reign 
of Augustus we find this people between the 
Oder and the Elbe ; and by the year 500 of our 
era, they had approached the Danube and the 
provinces of the empire, or, in other words, the 
confines of civilization. Their particular pro- 
vince appears to have been at this period, and 
for some time afterwards, a part of the modern 
duchy of Brandenburgh. Few in number, 
they made up in courage and ferocity for their 
numer4u|l inferiority ; and in all the wars and 
■changefOT'the barbarians, they maintained their 
fierce independence. Even when migrating be- 
fore the new and potent multitude of those who, 
continually pressing on the confines of Europe, 
impelled the north upon the centre and the cen- 
tre upon the south, they appear rather to have 
left their seats for more auspicious countries, 
and not to have felt the pressure of a foreign 
force. In their wars with the larger tribes they 
were invariably successful, and, though scarcely 
known until the time of Trajan, and then biit 
merely named, by the time of Justinian they 
were sufiiciently known and respected to be in- 
vited within the pale of the empire. At the 
sugg-estion of this emperor they crossed the 
Danube, and prepared for the reduction of the 
provinces of Noricum and Pannonia. With 
the Avars they conquered the Gepidi, and after 
occupying Pannonia for some time, they formal- 
ly determined the conquest of Italy, Other 
barbarians had broken the barriers which the 
vanity of the Romans had placed as the limits 
of their empire, and as a bulwark, with the au- 
thority of their name, against hostile encroach- 
ment; but the desire of booty had been with 
them the governing principle. Alboinus, king 
of the Lombards, aspired to the crown of Italy, 
and passing, on the invitation of Narses, the 
resistance of the Alps, he appeared at the head 
of a vast and heterogeneous collection of barba- 
rous tribes between the mountains and the Po. 
The conquests of this savage hero changed 
again the name of all the north of Italy; and 
as its Gallic invaders had imparted to it their 
name, which during all the ages of the Roman 
rule it bore, so from this successful aUempt of 
the Longobardi, the name of Lombardy, assign- 
ed to the con quests of Alboinus, has remained 

Part I.— Z 



to them through all the changes of twelve hun- 
dred years, and marks the limits of his victories. 
The Lombards from the north spread quickly 
over Italy ; and the tributary, or, as we perhaps 
should say, the feudal dukes, established even in 
Campania the name and pov\-er of the Lombard 
race. In the middle ages three powers arose to 
claim supremacy in Italy ; the pope, as guardian 
of the ecclesiastical interest ; the exarch of Ra- 
venna, to whom were intrusted the interests of 
the eastern emperors ; and the Lombard kings, 
who boldly claimed to be considered kings of 
Italy. The conflict between these powers was 
long and warm ; the Lombards for a time ap- 
peared to prevail, but the entreaties of the church 
obtained an ally in the once redoubted Franks, 
and raised up a new claimant to dominion in 
Italy. The arms of Charlemagne were match- 
ed against those of Desiderius, the last king of 
the Lombards, and the new empire of the west, 
established by the Frank monarch, was founded 
on the subjugation of the Lombards and the 
subversion of the Lombard throne. Thus end- 
ed, 774, the history of this people, who, after 
having lived the wild life of a Nomadic tribe, 
and causing terror even to the savage inhabit- 
ants of thenorthern forests, succeeded in giving 
a new throne and a new name to Italy. From 
this time the name of Lombard implies merely 
that the people bearing.it belong to Upper Ita- 
l}'', and conveys no longer the notion of a bar- 
barous character or a peculiar race; and this 
corrupt appellation becomes less objectionable 
than that original name of Longobardi, which 
denoted the bearded ferocity' of the German 
foresters. Sacchi Origine de' Longobard. 

Lanijvium, a to"UTi of Latium, about 16 miles 
from Rome on the Appian road. Juno had 
there a celebrated temple, which was frequent- 
ed by the inhabitants of Italy, and particularly 
b}'' the Romans, whose consuls, on first entering 
upon office, offered sacrifices to the goddess. 
The statue of the goddess was covered with a 
goat's skin, and armed with a buckler and spear, 
and wore shoes which were turned upwards in 
the form of a cone. Cic. po-o Mur. de Nat. D. 
1, c, 29. pro Milon. 10.— Liv. 8, c. U.—Ital. 13, 
V. 364. 

La5dicea, I. a city of Asia, on the borders of 
Caria, Phrygia, and Lydia, celebrated for its 
commerce, and the fine soft and black wool of 
its sheep. It was originally called Diospolis, 
and afterwards Rhoas. Plin. 5, c. 29. — Strab. 
12. — Mela., 1, c. 15. — Cic. 5, Att. 15. pro Flacc. 
According to the Roman distribution of the 
Asiatic provinces under Constantine, this was 
a town of Phrygia, but attributed by Ptolemy 
to Lydia. It stood on the Lycus, at its confluence 
with the Azopus, and but a short distance from 
the place at which it emptied into the Mcean- 
der, and might with almost equal propriety be 
assigned to Lydia or Phrygia. The due ob- 
servance of the distribution of the provinces into 
Juridical Conventus, &c. in the order of time, 
will avoid a great part of the ambiguity arising 
from the circumstance of one town's being va- 
riously assigned to different provinces. As the 
seat of the imperial court for its district, Laodi- 
cea superseded Hierapolis as the capital. Its 
ancient name is still partly preserved in that of 
Ladik, though the Turks denominate it EsU. 

Hisar, or the Old Castle. II. Another of 

177 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



Lycaonia, surnamed Combusta, now Jurekiam 

Ladik, to the north-west of Iconium. III. 

Another, surnamed Libani, from its situation 
among the mountains of that name. It stood 
between the rivers Orontes and Eleutherus, 

west of Emessa. IV. A city of the same 

name upon the coast lay opposite the eastern 
extremity of the island of Cyprus, and from its 
situation was entitled ad Mare. The name is 
still extant, though slightly changed, in Ladi- 
kieh. There were other towns upon which this 
appellation was bestowed, in honour, generally, 
of the mothers, wives, and daughters of the 
Syrian kings, 

Laodicene, a province of Syria, which re- 
ceives its name from Laodicea, its capital. 

Laphystium, a mountain in Bceotia, where 
Jupiter li^d a temple, whence he was called La- 
fkystius. It was here that Athamas prepared 
to immolate Phryxus and Helle, whom Jupiter 
saved by sending them a golden ram, whence 
the surname and the homage paid to the god. 
Pans. 9, c. 34. 

Larinum, or Larina, now Larino, a town of 
the. Frentani, near the Tifernus before it falls 
into the Adriatic. The inhabitants were called 
Larinates. Ital. 15, v. 565. — Cic. Clu. 63, 4. 
Att. 12, 1. 7, ep. \2.—Liv. 22, c. 18, 1. 27, c. 40. 
—CcBS. C. 1, c. 23. 

Larissa, I. " Larissa, which still retains its 
name and position, was one of the most ancient 
and flourishing towns of Thessaly, though it is 
not mentioned by Homer, unless indeed the 
Argos Pelasgicum of that poet is to be identi- 
fied with it, and this notion would not be en- 
tirely groundless, if, as Strabo informs us, there 
was once a city named Argos close to Larissa. 
The same geographer has enumerated all the 
ancient towms of the latter name ; and we may 
collect from his researches that it was peculiar 
to the Pelasgi, since all the countries in which 
it was found had been at different periods occu- 
pied by that people. Steph. Byz. says that La- 
rissa of Thessaly , situated on the Peneus, owed 
its origin to Acrisius. This town was placed 
in that most fertile part of the province which 
had formerly been occupied by the Perrhoebi, 
who were partly expelled by the Larissasans, 
while the remainder were kept in close subjec- 
tion, and rendered tributary. This state of 
things is said by Strabo to have continued till 
the time of Philip, who seems to have taken the 
government of Thessaly into his own hands. 
According to Aristotle the constitution of this 
city was democratical. Its magistrates were 
elected by the people, and considered themselves 
as dependant on their favour. This fact will 
account for the support which the Athenians 
derived from the republic of Larissa during the 
Peloponnesian war. The Aleuadae, mentioned 
by Herodotas as princes of Thessaly at the 
time of the Persian invasion, were natives of 
this city. Larissa was occupied by the Romans 
soon after the battle of Cynoscephalae, Philip 
having abandoned the place, and destroyed all 
the royal papers which were kept there. La- 
rissa was attacked by Antiochus in the first 
war he waged against the Romans; but the 
siege was raised on the approach of some troops 
despatched by the latter for the relief of the 
place. Diodorus informs us that its citadel was 
a place of great strength. Though the territo- 
^178 



ry of this city was extremely rich and fertile, it 
was subject to great losses, caused by the inun- 
dations of the Peneus. Dr. Clarke slates that 
he could discover no ruins at Larissa ; but that 
the inhabitants give the name of Old Larissa 
to a Palaeo-Castro, which is situated upon some 
very high rocks at four hours distance towards 
the east. Dr. Holland and Mr. Dodwell are 
however of opinion that the modern Larissa 
stands .upon the remains of the ancient city." 
■II. Another, surnamed Cremaste, " so 



called from the steepness of its situation was 
also named Pelasgia, as we are assured by 
Strabo. The latter appellation might indeed 
lead to the supposition that it was the Pelasgic 
Argos of Homer. 

Atque olim Larissa potens : ubi nobile quondam 
Nunc super Argos arant. 

Larissa Cremaste was in the dominion of Achil- 
les ; and it is probable from that circumstance 
that Virgil gives him the title of Larissseus. At 
a much later period we find this town occupied 
by Demetrius Poliorcetes when at war with 
Cassander. It was taken by Apustius, a Ro- 
man commander in the Macedonian war, and 
was again besieged by the Romans in the war 
with Perseus, when it was entered by the con- 
sul Licinius Crassus on being deserted by the 
inhabitants. Its ruins are thus described by 
Mr. Dodwell : ' In three quarters of an hour' 
(from the village of Gradista) ' we arrived at 
the remains of an ancient city, at the foot of a 
steep hill, covered with bushes. The walls are 
built up the side of the hill, to the summit of 
which we arrived in twenty mmutes ; the con- 
struction is of the third style, and finelj'- built 
with large masses. There is reason to suppose 
that these are the remains of Larissa Cremaste, 
the capital of the kingdom of Achilles ; and I 
conceive there is an error in the text of Strabo 
respecting its distance from Echinus ; for twen- 
ty stadia I should propose to substitute one hun- 
dred and twenty ; which, calculating something 
less than thirty stadia an hour, corresponds with 
four hours and a half, which it took us to per- 
form the journey. Its situation is remarkably 
strong; and its lofty and impending aspect me- 
rits the name of Cremaste.' Sir W. Gell says, 
' the form of Larissa was like that of many 
very ancient Grecian cities, a triangle with a 
citadel at its highest point. The acropolis, in 
which are the fragments of a Doric temple, is 
connected with a branch of Othrys by a narrow 
isthmus, over which water was conducted to 
the city. It is accessible on horseback on the 
side nearest Makalla ; and from it is seen the 
magnificent prospect of the Maliac gulf, the 
whole range of (Eta, and over it Parnassus.' 
Beyond is Alope, ascribed by Homer to Achil- 
les, and which according to Steph. Byz. stood 
between Larissa Cremaste and Echinus. It is 
probably the same as the Alitrope noticed by 
Scylax, and retains its name on the shore of the 

Melian gulf below Makalla." Cram. III. 

A town of Syria on the Orontes between Epi- 
phania and Apamea. Its modern name, accord- 
ing to D'Anville, is Shizar. IV. The ruins 

of a city in Assyria, on the Tigris, above the 
mouth of the Zabus, indicated to the ten thou- 
sand the site of an ancient city named Larissa, 
supposed to have been destrdf ed by the Medes. 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



Larissus, a river of Peloponnesus, flowing 
from mount ScoUis, and forming the boundary 
of Achaia and Elis. 

Larius lacus, a celebrated piece of water 
in Cisalpine Gaul, now Lago di Como. On 
the borders of this division of Italia and of Rhae- 
tia the river Addua spread itself into a lake 
which, receiving at the same lime tributary 
streams from the Alps, became one of the most 
beautiful and celebrated sheets of water in an- 
cient Italy, and has lost none of its celebrity in 
modern times and with its modern name. Here 
Pliny had two villas, and the fountain of which 
he speaks yet bears the name of the naturalist. 
The lake and its surrounding country are thus 
described in the Classical Tour . '• The lake 
of Como, or the Larian (for so it is still called, 
not unfrequently even by the common people) 
retains its ancient dimensions unaltered, and is 
fifty miles in length, from three to six in breadth, 
and from forty to six hundred feet in depth. Its 
form is serpentine, and its banks are indented 
with frequent creeks and harbours ; it is subject 
to sudden squalls, and sometimes, even when 
calm, to swells violent and unexpected ; both are 
equally dangerous. The latter are more fre- 
quently experienced in the branch of the lake 
that terminates at Como than in the other parts, 
because it has no emissary or outlet, such as the 
Adda forms at Lecco. The mountains that bor- 
der the lake are by no means either barren or 
naked; their lower regions are generally cover- 
ed with olives, vines, and orchards ; the middle 
is encircled "with groves of chesnut of great 
height and expansion, and the upper regions are 
either downs, or forests of pine and fir, with the 
exception of certain very elevated ridges, which 
are necessarily either naked or covered with 
snow. Their sides are seldom formed of one 
continued steep, bat usually interrupted by fields 
and levels extending in some places into wide 
plains, which supply abundant space for every 
kind of cultivation. These fertile plains are 
generally at one third, and sometimes at two 
thirds, of the total elevation. On or near these 
levels are most of the towns and villages that 
so beautifully diversify the sides of the moun- 
tains. But cultivation is not the only source of 
the riches of the L«ria?i territory : various mines 
of iron, lead, and copper, are now, as they were 
anciently, spread over its surface, and daily 
opened in the bowels of its mountains ; besides 
quarries of marbles, which supply Milan, and 
all the neighbouring cities with the materials 
and the ornaments of their most magnificent 
churches." Eustace. 

Larnos, a sm.all desolate island on the coast 
of Thrace. 

Laterium, the villa of Q,. Cicero at Arpinum, 
near the Liris." Cic. ad Attic. 10, ep. 1. el. 4, 
ep. 7, ad fr. 3, ep. 1. — Plin. 15, c. 15. 
Latini, the inhabitants of Latium. Vid. Latium. 
LATiaM. " The name of Latium was at 
first given to that portion of Italy only which 
extends from the mouth of the Tiber to the Cir- 
caean promontory, a distance of about fifty miles 
along the coast : but subsequently this last boun- 
dary was removed to the river Liris, now Gari- 
gliano, whence arose the distinction of Latium 
Antiquum and Novinn. At a still later period, 
the southern boundary of Latium was extend- 
ed from the Liris to the mouth of the river Vul- 



turnus and the Massic hills. Latium Antiquum 
may be considered as bounded to the north by 
the Anio and the Tiber, the Latins being sepa- 
rated from the Sabines by the former river, and 
from the Tuscans by the latter ; to the east and 
south-east by the river Ufens and the Volscian 
mountains, and to the west by the Tyrrhenian 
§ea. Even in this narrow territory it will be 
observed that many tribes are included which 
were not originally incorporated into the Latin 
confederacy, and consequently did not offier sa- 
crifice in common on the Alban momit, nor 
meet in the general assembly held at the source 
of the Aqua Ferentina. The earliest records 
of Italian history, as we are assured by Diony- 
sius of Halicamassus, represented the plains of 
Latium as first inhabited by the Siculi, a people 
of obscure origin, but who would be entitled to 
our notice from the circumstance above men- 
tioned, even had they not acquired additional 
historical importance from their subsequent mi- 
gration to the celebrated island Irom thence nam- 
ed Sicily. It has been questioned, however, and 
apparently on sufiicient grounds, whether the 
statement of Dionysius, in regard to the first 
possession of Latium by the Siculi, be correct ; 
for on their arrival in Sicily they are said to have 
found that island already occupied by the Sica- 
ni, who, as Thucydides relates, came originally 
from the banks of the river Sicanus in Spain, 
having been driven from their country by the 
Ligurians ; and as it is not probable that this 
people crossed over directly from Spain to Sici- 
ly, Ave must admit, with Freret, that they like- 
wise traversed Italy, and having gradually ad- 
vanced towards the extremity of that country, 
finally passed into the adjacent island. It is 
plain, however, from several passages in ancient 
writers, that the occupation of Italy by the Si- 
can i was something more than a transient pas- 
sage through that country. Respecting the Si- 
culi, it is not easy to ascertain what was their 
origin, or the country which they occupied prior 
to their settlement in Italy. So remote indeed 
was the period of this event, that Dionysius 
appears to have considered them as settled there 
from time immemorial. But this opinion is too 
unsatisfactory to allow the modern antiquary 
to acquiesce in it ; accordingly we find many 
systems advanced by writers of that class re- 
specting the origin of this ancient people. Oli- 
vieri concluded that they came from Greece, 
because Ancona is said by Pliny to have been 
founded by the Siculi, while other writers ex- 
pressly call it a Greek city. But it is much 
more probable that by the Siculi of Pliny we 
are to understand a Syracusan colony, of which 
Strabo makes mention, and to which Juvenal 
alludes when he calls the city in question the 
Doric Ancona. Freret, on the other hand, con- 
tended, that the Siculi were an Illyrian nation, 
who settled in Italy not long after the Liburni, 
a people of the same race, had established them- 
selves in that country. This learned writer has 
not made us acquainted on what authority he 
grounded this assertion, but it is probable that 
he relied chiefly on a passage in Pliny, in which 
the Siculi are mentioned in conjunction with the 
Liburni, as having anciently possessed a consi- 
derable tract of country in the province which 
was afterwards called Picenum : he might also 
be induced to think that his opinion derived 
179 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



some support from Ptolemy, who mentions the 
Siculiotae as a people of Dalmatia. It would 
hardly be advisable, however, to adopt this opi- 
nion of Freret without further evidence, espe- 
cially as it is found to be at variance with the 
express testimony of a writer whose authority, 
on matters connected with the history of Sicily, 
ought not to be hastily rejected, we mean that of 
Philistus of Syracuse, who, as Dionysius re- 
ports, asserted that the Siculi were Ligurians, 
and that having been driven from Italy by the 
Umbri and Pelasgi, they crossed over into Sici- 
ly, This is also the account which Silius Ita- 
licus has followed. There is no point so clear- 
ly established with respect to the Siculi as that 
of their having occupied, at a very early period, 
the Latin plains and part of Etruria. Placed 
therefore on the western coast of Italy, their 
connexion with Liguria may readily be con- 
ceived, while their Illyrian origin becomes pro- 
portionably improbable. On the same supposi- 
tion likewise we can well understand how this 
people may have been driven south along the 
western coast by the combined forces of the Pe- 
lasgi and the Aborigines ; but if we allow with 
Pliny that they had formed settlements on the 
Adriatic also, it will not be easy to conceive how 
a nation so largely disseminated and so firmly 
settled could have been expelled from Italy. It 
is evident also that the Siculi did not extend 
from sea to sea, as the Aborigines, their con- 
stant enemies, were placed between them and 
the Adriatic. Lastly, we may adduce, in confir- 
mation of the Ligurian origin of the Siculi, a 
tradition recorded by Festus, which stated that 
the Sacrani, who are the same people as the 
Aborigines, expelled the Ligurians and the Si- 
culi from the Septimontium, or Rome. Diony- 
sius likewise mentions the Ligurians among the 
heterogeneous population of which the Roman 
nation was first composed. Ancient writers do 
not seem agreed as to the name of the people 
who compelled the Siculi to abandon Latium. 
Dionysius informs us, that Philistus ascribed 
their expulsion to the Umbri and Pelasgi. Thu- 
cydides refers the same event to the Opici ; while 
Antiochus of Syracuse, a still more ancient 
writer, represents the Siculi as flying from the 
CEnotri. Notwithstanding this apparent dis- 
crepance, it is pretty evident, that under these 
different names of Umbri, Opici, and QEnotri, 
the same people are designated whom Diony- 
sius and the Roman historians usually term 
Aborigines. Having already sufficiently treat- 
ed of this ancient race under the head of Um- 
bria, we shall content ourselves with referring 
the reader to the section which relates to that 
province, and pass on to trace rapidly the sequel 
of the history of Latium. The Aborigines, in- 
termixing with several Pelasgic colonies, occu- 
pied Latium, and soon formed themselves into 
the several communities of Latini, Rutuli, Her- 
nici, and Volsci, even prior to the Trojan war 
and the supposed arrival of iEneas, Of that 
event it is scarce necessary for us to speak at 
length, since it has been already discussed by 
others as fully as the subject admits of The 
question indeed seems to resolve itself into this 
narrow compass. Are we to form our notions 
of the Trojan prince by what we read concern- 
ing him in the Iliad *? If so, we are there told 
plainly that -^neas and his descendants remain- 
ISO 



ed in possession of the Troad for many genera- 
tions. (II. Y. 307.) Consequently Homer him- 
self furnishes the best argument against the co- 
lony of ^neas in Latium. If we are not to 
form our judgment from what is related of the 
son of Anchises in the Iliad, then he becomes a 
mere fictitious character, the reality of whose ad- 
ventures cannot afford ground for historical dis- 
cussion. Notwithstanding that Dionysius la- 
bours anxiously to prove the fact of the arrival of 
iEneas in Latium, he is obliged to confess that 
by the accounts of all the older historians, such 
as Hellanicus, Cephalo of Gergithus, and He- 
gesippus, the Trojan prince did not advance be- 
yond Thrace, or the peninsula of Pallene. We 
would not, however, go so far as some modern 
writers, who consider the story of the Trojan 
colony as an invention of the Romans to please 
Augustus: it is evident, from Dionysius's ac- 
count, that there were some traditions to this 
effect among the Greeks long before they knew 
any thing of Rome. There seems no objection, 
therefore, to our admitting the arrival of a chief 
called ^neas on the Latin coast, though he 
might neither be the son of Anchises, nor in 
any respect connected -with Troy. If he came 
from the Thracian jEnea, as most accounts im- 
ply, the name of that city might have occasion- 
ed the error. Various etymologies of the names 
of Latium and the Latins are to be met with in 
ancient writers ; but we see no reason why they 
should not be derived from a chief called Lati- 
nus, of whom the Greeks seem to have heard, 
since he is mentioned by Hesiod in a passage 
already cited, though they were not acquainted 
with the Latins as a distinct ■ people of Italy. 
The name of Prisci Latini was first given to 
certain cities of Latium, supposed to have been 
colonized by Latinus Silvius, one of the kings 
of Alba, but most of which were afterwards 
conquered and destroyed by Ancus Martins and 
Tarquinius Priscus. In the reign of Tarqui- 
nius Superbus, we find the Latin nation unit- 
ed under the form of a confederate republic, and 
acknowledging that ambitious prince as the pro- 
tector of their league. After the expulsion of 
the tyrant from Rome, we are told that the La- 
tins, who favoured his cause, experienced a to- 
tal defeat near the lake Regillus, and were 
obliged to sue for peace. According to this his- 
torian, the Latins received the thanks of the Ro- 
man senate, some years afterwards, for having 
taken no advantage of the disturbances at Rome, 
which finally led to the secession of the people 
to the mons Sacer, and for having, on the con- 
trary, offered every assistance in their power on 
that occasion ; he adds also, that a perpetual 
league was formed at that time between the Ro- 
mans and Latins. However, about 143 years 
afterwards, we find the latter openly rebelling, 
and refusing to supply the usual quota of troops 
which they had agreed to furnish as allies of 
Rome. Their bold demand, which was urged 
through L. Annius Setmus in the Roman se- 
nate, that one of the consuls at least should be 
chosen out of their nation, led to an open rup- 
ture. A war followed, which was rendered re- 
markable from the event of the execution of 
young Manlius by order of his father, and the 
devotion of Decius. After having been defeat- 
ed in several encounters, the Latins were finally 
reduced to subjection, with the exception of a 



LA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LA 



few towns, which experienced greater lenity, 
and Latium thenceforth ceased to be an inde- 
pendent state. At that time the rights of Ro- 
man citizens had been granted to a few only of 
the Latin cities ; but, at a later period, the Grac- 
chi sought to level all such distinctions between 
the Latins and Romans. This measure, how- 
ever, was not carried. The Social war follow- 
ed; and though the confederates were finally 
conquered, after a long and desperate contest, 
the senate thought it advisable to decree that all 
the Latin cities which had not taken part with 
the allies should enjoy the rights of Roman citi- 
zens. Many of these towns were, however, de- 
prived of their privileges by Sylla ; and it was 
not till the close of the republic that the Latins 
were admitted generally to participate in all the 
rights and immunities enjoyed by the Gluirites." 
Cra/m. 

Latmus, a mountain of Caria, near Miletus. 
It is famous for the residence of Endymion, 
whom the Moon regularly visited in the night, 
whence he is often called Latmius Heros. Vid. 
Endymion. Mela, 1, c. 17. — Ovid. Trist. 2, 
V. 299. Art. Am. 3, v. SZ.—Plin. 5, c. 29.— 
Strab. U.—Cic. 1, Tus. 28. 

Latobrigi, a people of Belgic Gaul, of whom 
we know but little. According to Caesar they 
were in the vicinity of the Helvetii, Rauraci, 
and Tulingi. C(bs. B. G.l, 5. 

Latopolis, a city of Egypt, in the Thebaid, 
" so called from a fish that was there adored, 
bears now the name of Asna, which signifies 
illustrious." D'Anville. 
■ Lavinium, or Lavinum, a town of Italy, the 
capital of Latiam during the reign of iEneas, 
" said to have been founded by that prince on 
his marriage with the daughter of Latinus : this 
story, however, would go but little towards pro- 
ving the existence of such a town, if it were not 
actually enumerated among the cities of Latium, 
by Strabo and other authors as well as by the 
Itineraries. Plutarch notices it as the place in 
which Tatius, the colleague of Romulus, was 
assassinated. Strabo mentions that Lavinium 
had a temple consecrated to Venus, which was 
common to all the Latins. The inhabitants are 
terined by Pliny, Laviniates Ilionenses, La- 
vinium and Laurentium were latterly united 
Tinder the name of Lauro-Lavinium. Various 
opinions have been entertained by antiquaries 
relative to the site which ought to be assigned 
to Lavinium. Cluverius placed it near the 
church of 5'. Petronella ; Holstenius on the hill 
called Monte di Levano ; but more recent topo- 
graphers concur in fixing it at a place called 
Pratica, about three miles from the coast." 
Cram.— Virg. ^En. 1, v. ^e^.—Strah. b.—Dio- 
nys. Hal. \. — Liv. 1, c. 2. — Justin. 43, c. 2. 

Laureacum, atown atthe confluence of the Ens 
and the Danube, now Lorch. It was the place of 
rendezvous of a Roman fleet on the Danube. 

Laurentini, a name belonging properly to 
the inhabitants of Laurentum, but applied also 
to the subjects of king Latinus in general. 

Laurentum, " the capital of Latinus, accord- 
ing to the opinion of the best topographers, 
must have stood about sixteen miles from Ostia, 
and near the spot now called Paterno. Of the 
existence of this city, whatever may be thought 
of iEneas and the Trojan colony, there can be 
no doubt ; without going so far back as to Sa- 



turn and Picus, it may be asserted that the ori- 
gin of Laurentum is most ancient, since it is 
mentioned among the maritime cities of Latium 
in the first treaties between Rome and Carthage 
recorded by Polybius. Though Laurentum 
joined the Latin league in behalf of Tarquin, 
and shared in the defeat of the lake Regillus, it 
seems afterwards to have been firmly attached 
to the Roman interests. Of its subsequent his- 
tory we know but little, Lucan represents it as 
having fallen into ruins, and become deserted 
in consequence of the civil wars. At a later 
period, however, Laurentum appears to have 
been restored under the name of Lauro-Lavi- 
nium ; a new city having been formed, as it is 
supposed, by the miion of Laurentum and La- 
vinium. This is proved by a passage in Fron- 
tinus and Symmachus, and numerous inscrip- 
tions collected by Vulpius. The district of Lau- 
rentum must have been of a very woody and 
marshy nature. The Silva Laurentina is no- 
ticed by Julius Obsequens ; and Herodian re- 
ports, that the emperor Commodus was ordered 
to this part of the country by his physicians, on 
account of the laurel groves which grew there ; 
the shade of which was considered as particular- 
ly salutary. It was from this tree that Lauren- 
tum is supposed to derive its name. (^n. 7, 59.) 
The marshes of Laurentum were famous for the 
number and size of the wild boars which they 
bred in their reedy pastures. We are told that 
Scipio and Loelius, when released from the cares 
of business, often resorted to this neighbourhood, 
and amused themselves by gathering shells on 
the shore. Pliny the Younger says Laurentum 
was m-uch frequented by the Roman nobles in 
winter ; and so numerous were their villas, that 
they presented more the appearance of a city 
than detached dwellings. Every lover of an- 
tiquity is acquainted with the elegant and mi- 
nute description he gives of his own retreat. 
The precise spot which should be assigned to 
this villa has been a subject of much dispute 
among topographers. Holstenius places it at 
Paterno, but in this respect he was probably 
mistaken, as the generality of antiquaries con- 
sider the remains, which exist on that site, as 
those of Laurentum ; besides, Paterno is at 
some distance from the sea, whereas Pliny's re- 
treat was close to it. We would rather follow 
the opinion of Fabretti, Lancisi, and Vulpius, 
who fix the site of the villa at la Piastra, a 
hamlet nearly midway betw^een Laurentum and 
Ostia. Hortensius, the celebrated orator, and 
the rival of Cicero, had also a farm in this neigh- 
bourhood." Cram. 

Laurium, " celebrated for its silver mines, 
was a range of hills extending from the Asty- 
palsean promontory to the promontory of Su- 
nium, and from thence to the neighbourhood of 
Port Eafti,\\ie ancient Prasiae, on the eastern 
coast. Herodotus informs us that the produce 
of these mines was shared among the Athenians, 
each of whom received ten drachmas ; but we 
are not informed whether this division took 
place annually. Themistocles, however, during 
a war with ^gina, advised them to apply this 
money to the construction of 200 galleys ; a 
measure which contributed in a great degree to 
the naval ascendency of the Athenians. Thu- 
cydides reports, that the Lacedaemonian army, 
in their second invasion of Attica, advanced in 
181 



LE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LE 



this direction as far as Laurium. The produce 
of the mines had already much diminished in 
the time of Xenophon. We collect from his 
accomit that they were then farmed by private 
persons, who paid a certain sum to the republic 
in proportion to the quantity of ore they extract- 
ed ; but he strongly urged the government to 
take the works into their own hands, conceiving 
that they would bring a great accession of re- 
venue to the state. These private establish- 
ments were called cpyaarrripia iv toIs dpyvpeiotg. 
Nicias is said to have employed at one time 1000 
slaves in the mines. Strabo informs us that the 
metallic veins were nearly exhausted when he 
wrote ; a considerable quantity of silver, how- 
ever, was extracted from the old scorias, as the 
ancient miners were not much skilled in the art 
of smelting the ore. ' Mr. Hawkins, in his sur- 
vey of this part of the Attic coast, discovered 
many veins of the argentiferous lead ore, with 
which the country seems to abound ; he observ- 
ed traces of the silver mines not far beyond Ke- 
ratia. The site of the smelting furnaces may 
be traced to the southward of Thorico for some 
miles, immense quantities of scoriae occurring 
there.' These were probably placed near the 
sea-coast for the convenience of fuel, which it 
became necessary to import. The mines were 
situated much higher along the central range of 
hills." Cram. 

■ Lauron, a town of Spain, whose situation 
is uncertain. According to a learned geogra- 
pher, " it is now Laurigi in Valentia, a small 
\'illage, once a town of great strength, which 
Sertorius besieged, took, and burned ; even then 
when Pompey, whose confederates the Lauro- 
nites were, stood with his whole army nigh 
enough unto the flame to warm his hands, and 
yet durst not succour it." Heyl. Cosm. 

Laus, now Laino, a town on a river of the 
same name, which forms the southern boundary 
of Lucania. Strab. 6. 

Laus Pompeia, a town of Italy, founded by a 
colony sent thither by Pompey. 

LAUTUMiiB, or Latomije, a prison at Syra- 
cuse, cut out of the solid rock by Dionysius, and 
now converted into a subterraneous garden, 
filled with numerous shrubs, flourishing in lux- 
uriant variety, Cic. Vir. 5, c. 27. — Liv. 26, v, 27. 

Lebadea, a town of Bceotia, on the borders 
of Phocis, west of Coronea, more anciently call- 
ed Midea. " This city was celebrated in anti- 
quity for the oracle of Trophonius, situated in 
a cave above the town, into which those who 
consulted the Fates were obliged to descend, 
after performing various ceremonies, which are 
accurately detailed by Pausanias, who also 
gives a minute description of the sacred cavern. 
The oracle was already in considerable repute 
in the time of Croesus, who consulted it, as well 
as Mardonius. The victory of Leuctra was said 
to have been predicted by Trophonius, and a so- 
lemn assembly was in consequence held at Le- 
badea, after the action to return thanks. This 
was known, however, to have been an artifice of 
Epaminondas. Strabo calls the presiding deity 
Jupiter Trophonius. The geographer Dicaear- 
chus, as we are informed by Athenseus, wrote a 
full account of the oracle. He briefly alludes 
to it in his description of Greece. 

II(5Xjs AeBaSia Koi hpov Tpocpovlov 
'Ojtov Td navruov 'Ktyovai ysyovevai. 

183 



Below the cave were the grove and temple of 
Trophonius, the fountains of Lethe and Mne- 
mosyne, and the temples of Proserpine, Ceres, 
Jupiter, and Apollo ; a chapel dedicated to Bona 
Fortuna ; all of which were filled with statues 
by the first artists ; whence Pausanias observes 
that Lebadea was as richly ornamented with 
works of art as any city of Greece. It is how- 
ever said to have been plundered by the troops 
of Mithridates." Cram. 

Lebedus, or Lebedos, a town of Ionia, at the 
north of Colophon, where festivals were yearly 
observed in honour of Bacchus. Lysimachus 
destroyed it, and carried part of the inhabitants 
to Ephesus. It had been founded by an Athe- 
nian colony, under one of the sons of Codrus. 
Strab.l4. — Horat. 1. ep. 11, v. 7. — Herodot. 1, 
c. 142.— Cic. 1, Div. 33. 

Lech^um, now Pelago, a port of Corinth in 
the bay of Corinth. Stat. Theb. 2, v. 381.— 
Liv. 32, c. 23. Sir William Gell observes, 
" Lechseum is thirty-five minutes distant from 
Corinth, and consists of about six houses, ma- 
gazines, and a custom-house. East of it. the 
remains of the port are yet visible at a place 
where the sea runs up a channel into the fields. 
Near it are the remains of a modern Venetian 
fort." 

Lectum, a promontory, now Cape Baba, se- 
parating Troas from ^olia. This constituting 
the northern limit of Phrygia Minor under the 
Roman government, formed consequently the 
farthest northern point of Asia, properly so call- 
ed by the Romans. Liv. 37, c. 37. 

Ledus, now Lez, a river of Gaul near the 
modern Montpelier. Mela, 2,,c. 5. 

Leleges, (a Asyw, to gather,) a wandering 
people, composed of different unconnected na- 
tions inhabiting the Troad at the time of the 
Trojan war, and driven towards Caria on the 
termination of that contest and the destruction 
of Troy. Such is one account of this obscure 
and very ancient race, We are at liberty, how- 
ever, from the very weak authority on which 
this notion rests, and from the vagueness of the 
account, to inquire further into the origin of this 
people, and we shall find them settling, in the 
earliest ages of European population, the Pelo- 
ponnesus, Acarnania, iEtolia, Locris, and Boe- 
otia. Though we do not deny the early mix- 
ture of the Carians and Leleges, it seems pro- 
bable that the early residence of the latter, if 
the temporary occupation of a place by so migra- 
tory a people can be called a residence, was in 
the western continent, and probably in Thrace 
or Macedonia. Their appearance, nevertheless 
in the southern peninsula, must have been be- 
fore the period of authentic history, because 
Lelegia, (the earliest name of Laconia, accord- 
ing to the traditions relied on by Pausanias) 
came from them, or from Lelex their prince, who 
flourished at an era purely mythological. The 
same geographer believed them to have had their 
first seats in this part of the Peloponnesus ; an 
opinion which cannot stand, because it is op- 
posed by reason and analogy, but which mani- 
festly proves the earlv settlement of the Leleges 
in those regions. When from this place and 
from the other parts of Greece, they passed over 
to the islands, in the sea that separated the 
coasts of Europe and Asia, they assumed the 
name of Carians, if Herodotus may be relied on ; 



LE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LE 



but it is certainly more consonant with proba- 
bility, that this occurred upon their emigration 
from the islands to the eastern shore. We may 
still further observe, that it is not always pos- 
sible to distinguish the Leleges from the other 
primitive tribes of Greece, who were frequently 
blended in part, and who were still more fre- 
quently confused by the ignorance of historians 
and the obscurity of the period to which they 
belonged. Strab. 7 and 8. — Homer. II. 21, v. 
S5.—Plin. 4, c. 7, 1. 5, c. 30.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 
725. — Paus. 3, c. 1. 

Lelegeis, a name applied to Miletus, because 
once possessed by the Leleges. Plin. 5, c. 29. 

Lemanis, a place in Britain, where Ceesar is 
supposed to have first landed, and therefore 
placed by some at Limne in Ke7tt. 

Lemannus, a lake in the country of the Al- 
lobroges, through which the Rhone flows by 
Geneva. It is now called the lake of Geneva or 
Lausanne. Lucan. 1, v. 396. — iWfeZa, 2, c. 5. 

Lemnos, an island in the northern part of 
the ./Egean Sea, south-east of the promontory of 
Athos 87 miles, towards the islands of Imbros 
and Tenedos, and the coast of Asia minor. It 
was sacred to Vulcan, called Lemnius pater ^ 
who fell' there when thrown from heaven by Ju- 
piter. ( Vid. Vulcanus.) It was celebrated for 
two horrible massacres, that of the Lemnian 
women murdering their husbands ( Vid. Hip- 
sipyle,) and that of the Lemnians, or Pelasgi, 
in killing all the children they had had by some 
Athenian women, whom they had carried away 
to become their wives. These two acts of cruelty 
have given rise to the proverb of Lemnian ac- 
tions, which is applied to all barbarous and in- 
human deeds. The first inhabitants of Lemnos 
were the Pelasgi, or rather the Thracians, who 
were murdered by their wives. After them 
came the children of the Lemnian widows by 
the Argonauts, whose descendants were at last 
expelled by the Pelasgi about 1 100 years before 
the Christian era. It is famous for a certain 
kind of earth or chalk, called terra Lemnia and 
terra sigillata ; and for a labyrinth, which, ac- 
cording to some traditions, surpassed those of 
Crete and Egjrpt. Some remains of it were 
still visible in the age of Pliny. The island of 
Lemnos, now called Stalimene, was reduced 
under the power of Athens by Miltiades, and 
the Carians, who then inhabited it, obliged to 
emigrate. Virg. ^n. 8. v. 454. — Homer. 11. 
1, V. 593.— C. Nep. in Milt.— Strab. 1, 2 and 
l.—Herodot. 6, c. UO.—Mela, 2, c. l.—Apol- 
lo7i. 1, arg.— Flacc.% v. 78. — Ovid. Art. Am. 
3, V. 612.—Stat. 3, Theb. 274. The principal 
cities were Hephaistia and Myrina. The latter 
stood upon the point or cape that looked towards 
mount Athos, whose shadow, it was said, was 
seen in the market-place of this city at a parti- 
cular season Hephaistia may be supposed 
from its name to have been peculiarly dedicated 
to the worship of Vulcan, the tutelar deity of 
the island ; but its wars with the soldiers of 
Mahomet, and its resistance under the conduct 
of the daughter of its Venetian governor, have 
rendered iis modern fame superior to any that 
it derives from antiquity. It was well provided 
with bays and creeks, which in some measure 
atoned for the want of rivers, and the soil was 
for the most part fruitful and productive. There 
still remains one harbour, sufficient for the di- 



minished trade of the island, which now, in a 
circumference of upwards of 100 miles, contains 
but a population of about 8000 souls. The re- 
mains of an extinct volcano have been discov- 
ered here, and the eruptions, which are sup- 
posed to have overwhelmed a part of the coun- 
try, may account for the fable by which the god 
of fire is represented to have dwelt in this 
island. 

Lemovices, a people of Gallia Celtica, in 
that part which was afterwards attached to 
Aquitania. Their capital was Angusturitum, 
Limoges, though Ptolemy makes it Ratiastum. 
The province of Limousin, or that region which 
forms the department de la Haute Vienne, cor- 
responds to their territory, about the sources of 
the Vienne. The Lemovices are again men- 
tioned by Cgesar in the same passage as that in 
which they are assigned to the position given 
above ; in the second instance they would seem 
to belong to Armorica, but it is possible that the 
text is here corrupt. Cces. Bell. Gal. 7, 75, 

Leocorion. Vid. Athena. 

Leontium, and LeontIni, I. a town of Sici- 
ly, about five miles distant from the sea-shore. 
It was built by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 
and was, according to some accounts, once the 
habitation of the Lsestrigones ; for which reason 
the neighbouring fields are often called Lcestri- 
gonii campi. The country was extremely fruit- 
ful, whence Cicero calls it the grand magazine 
of Sicily. The wine which it produced was the 
best of the island. The people of Leontium im- 
plored the assistance of the Athenians against 
the Syracusans, B. C. 427, and the eloquence 
ofGorgias, the Leontine rhetorician, was chosen 
as the persuasive intercessor with the republi- 
cans of Greece. The result of this embassy, 
and of the war which ensued on the adoption of 
the quarrels of the Leontmes by Athens, are 
well known in the appointment of Alcibiades 
and others to take command of the Athenian 
forces, his recall, the defeat of the other generals, 
the destruction of the Greeks in Sicily, and 
shortly afterwards in the disastrous subversion 
of the Athenian democracy. The modern 
Lentini corresponds to the ancient Leontium. 
II. A town of the same name in Achaia, 



one of the twelve original cities of that division 
of the Peloponneseus. It was near mount 
Scollis, and is mentioned by Polybius. Thuci/d. 
G.—Polyb. l.—Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 467.— /teZ. 14, 
V. 126. — Cic. in Verr. 5. 

Leontos, a river of Coelo Syria, called at its 
mouth, in modern times Casemieh, but through 
the rest of its course Leitoni or Lante. Vid. 
Libamis. 

Lepontii. " The Lepontii inhabited the 
high Alps, whence flow the Rhine, the Rhone, 
and the Tesin; and the name of Leventina, 
which distinguishes among many valleys that 
through which the Tesin runs, is formed of the 
name of this nation, who on the other side ex- 
tended in the Pennine valley, where they pos- 
sessed Oscela, noM'- Domo d' Osula. DWnville. 
Communicating their name to the mountains 
among which they dwelt, and which separated 
Italy from Helvetia, they were surrounded by 
the innumerable Alpine tribes of Rhoetia, Hel- 
vetia, and Gallia Cisalpina. 

Leptis, I. the name of a large city of the 
Tripolitana in Africa. It was situated near the 
183 



LE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LE 



Syrtis Major, a little to the west, and the ruins 
that now bear the name of Lebida indicate the 
site of this ancient place. Leptis Magna was 
the principal of the three cities from which that 
part of the African coast on which it stood has 

been denominated Tripolis.- II. Another, 

now Lemta, west of the Syrtis Minor, in the 
fertile country of Byzacium, and of course be- 
yond the Tripolitana. Though a place of much 
importance, it was called Minor to distinguish 
it from the former. This Leptis stood about 
eighteen Roman miles from Adrumetum. It 
paid every day a talent to the republic of Car- 
thage, by way of tribute. LMcan. 2, v. 251. — 
Plin. 5, c. 19. — Sallust. in Jug. 77. — Mela, 1, c. 
S.—Strab. 3, v. 256.— Cess. C. 2, c. 38.— Ctc. 5. 
Verr. 59. 

Leria, an island in the ^gean Sea, on the 
coast of Caria, about eighteen miles in circum- 
ference, peopled by a Milesian colony. Its in- 
habitants were very dishonest. Strab. 10. — 
Herodot. 5, c. 125. 

Lerina, or Planasia, a small island in the 
Mediterranean, now Leria, on the coast of Gaul, 
at the east of the Rhone. Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 3. 

Lerna, a country of Argolis, celebrated for 
a grove and a lake, where, according to the po- 
ets, the Danaides threw the heads of their mur- 
dered husbands. It was there also that Hercu- 
les killed the famous hydra. The fountain 
Amymone, the Halcyonian pool, the torrent 
Chimarrus, and the river Erasinus, famous in 
themselves, contributed to form this still more 
celebrated pool or marsh. A modern traveller 
relates, that, overgrown with grass and reeds, 
an incurious passenger might not observe this 
famed and ancient lake, which still retains in 
the minds of the surrounding inhabitants its 
former properties and peculiarities. Its small 
channel affording, as it discharges itself by a 
little stream into the Argolic gulf, abundance 
of water for a few mills that are seated on its 
banks, the surrounding people are for the most 
part millers ; they inform the inquirer that the 
pool is bottomless, and no doubt the tradition to 
that effect has come down to them uninterrupt- 
ed since the fabulous exploit of Hercules beside 
its bank. Virg. Mn. 6, v. 803, 1. 12, v. 517.— 
Strab. 8.— Mela, 2, c. 3.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 597. 
— iMcret. 5. — Stat. Theb. 4, v, 638. — Apollod. 

2, c. 15. There was a festival called Ler- 

ncBa, celebrated there in honour of Bacchus, 
Proserpine, and Ceres. The Argives used to 
carry fire to this solemnity from a temple upon 
mount Crathis, dedicated to Diana. Pans. 

Lero, the same as Lerina. 

Lesbos, one of the largest islands in the 
iEgean Sea, and the seventh in the Mediterra- 
nean, distant from the coast of ^Eolia a few 
miles, and itself in circumference about 168. 
The island, to which a mythological origin, 
serving only to show its antiquity, is assigned 
by ancient authorities, seems to have received 
its name in the obscurest ages. Long before 
the Trojan war, according to their account, the 
Pelasgi migrated to this place ; and the story of 
the Ionic settlement of Macareus and his family 
is still sufficiently remote from that first land- 
mark of classical history to become doubtful, 
even without the embellishments which would 
make it so if otherwise entitled to credit. The 
later population seemed, however, descended 
184 



from the iEolians, who, at a later period, and 
probably within the historic ages, or very nearly 
so, passed over to this inviting spot. " The 
happy temperature of the climate of Lesbos con- 
spired with the rich fertility of the soil to pro- 
duce those delicious fruits, and those exquisite 
wines, which are still acknowledged by modern 
travellers to deserve the encomiums so liberally 
bestowed on them by ancient writers. The 
convenience of its harbours furnished another 
source of wealth and advantage to this delight- 
ful island, which, as early as the age of Homer, 
was reckoned populous and powerful, and, like 
the rest of Greece at that time, governed by the 
moderate jurisdiction of hereditary princes. 
The abuse of royal power occasioned the disso- 
lution of monarchy in Lesbos, as well as in the 
neighbouring isles. The rival cities of Mity- 
lene and Methymna contended for republican 
pre-eminence. The former prevailed ; and 
having reduced Methymna, as well as six cities 
of inferior note, began to extend its dominion 
beyond the narrow" bounds of the island, and 
conquered a considerable part.of Troas. The 
Lesbians afterwards underwent those general 
revolutions, to which both the islands and the 
continent of Asia Minor were exposed from the 
Lydian and Persian power. Delivered from 
the yoke of Persia by the successful valour of 
Athens and Sparta, the Lesbians, as well as all 
the Greek settlements around them, spurned the 
tyrannical authority of Sparta and Pausanias, 
and ranged themselves under the honourable 
colours of Athens, which they thenceforth con- 
tinued to respect in peace and to follow in war." 
Gill. Hist. Greece. The name of the island is 
now Mytilin, from that of the principal city, 
which still retains its old appellation in the 
altered form of Mytilini. Among the other 
names by which Lesbos was known to the an- 
cients, the most common were Macaria, Lasia, 
and Pelasgia. 

Lethe, I. one of the rivers of hell, whose 
waters the souls of the dead drank after they 
had been confined for a certain space of time in 
Tartarus. It had the power of making them 
forget whatever they had done, seen, or heard, 

before, as the name implies, M^ri, oblivion, 

II. Lethe is a river of Africa, near the Syrtes, 
which runs under the ground, and some time 
after rises again ; whence the origin of the fable 
of the Lethean streams of oblivion, " Divers 
canals derived from the Nile, separating Mem- 
phis from the ancient sepulchres and pyramids, 
furnished the Greeks with the idea of their in- 
fernal rivers Acheron, Cocytus, and Lethe." 

III. There is also a river of that name in 

Spain. IV. Another in Boeotia, whose wa- 
ters were drunk by those who consulted the ora- 
cle of Trophonius. Dwcan. 9, v. 355. — Ovid. 
Trist. 4, el. 1, v. il.— Virg. G. 4, v. 545. JEn. 
6, V. lU.—Ital. I, V. 235,' 1. 10, v. bbd.—Paus. 
9, c, 39.—Horat. 3, od. 7, v. 27. 

Leuca, a town of Messapia, almost upon the 
point of the Ia.pygian promontory. Some ves- 
tiges of the ancient place and name are extant 
in that of a church, which bears the title of 
Santa Maria di Leuca. The name of this 
whole region, according to Strabo, was derived 
from a gigantic race of men called Leucterni, 
who once inhabited it, having escaped from the 
fight upon the Pheegrean plains. It was after- 



LE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LE 



wards included in the country of the Salentini, 
though the Leuterni may (without recourse to 
fable) be supposed at one time to have dwelt 
thereabout, and to have caused that region to be 
called Leuteria. 

Leucas, or Leucadia, an island of the Io- 
nian Sea, on the coast of Acarnania. It once 
formed " part of the continent, but was after- 
wards separated from the mainland by a narrow 
cut, and became, as it now is, an island, known 
by the name of Santa Maura. In Homer's 
time it was still joined to the mainland, since he 
calls it 'A.KTr,v 'hlTTsipuio, in opposition to Ithaca 
and Cephallenia. Scylax also affirms, 'that it 
had been connected formerly with the continent 
of Acarnania. It was first called Epileucadii, 
and extends towards the Leucadian promonto- 
ry. The Acarnanians being in a state of fac- 
tion, received a thousand colonists from Corinth. 
The Acarnanians were urgent with Demosthe- 
nes to undertake the siege of Leucas, which 
had always been hostile to them, but that offi- 
cer, having other designs in view, did not ac- 
cede to their request. It appears, however, that 
many years after, they became masters of the 
place, though at what precise period is not men- 
tioned, I believe, by any ancient writer. We 
learn from Livy that it was considered as the 
principal town of Acarnania, and that the gene- 
ral assembly of the nation was usually convened 
there at the time of the Macedonian war. It 
was then besieged by the Romans under L. 
duintius Flamininus, and defended by the 
Acarnanians with great intrepidity and perse- 
verance ; but at length through the treachery 
of some Italian exiles, the enemy was admitted 
into the town, and the place taken by storm, an 
event which was followed by the subjugation of 
all Acarnania. After the conquest of Macedo- 
nia, Leucas was by a special decree separated 
from the A carnanian confederacy. The same 
historian describes the town of ' Leucas as situ- 
ated on the narrow strait which divides the isl- 
and from Acarnania, and is not more than 120 
steps wide. It rests on a hill, looking towards 
Acarnania and the east. The lower parts of 
the city are flat, and close to the shore ; hence 
it is easily assailed by land and sea.' Thucy- 
dides. likewise states that the town was situated 
within the Isthmus, as also Strabo, who adds, 
that the Corinthians removed it to its present 
situation from Nericum. Dr. Holland speaks 
of the ruins of an ' ancient city about two miles 
to the south of the modern town. The spot ex- 
hibits the remains of massive walls of the old 
Greek structure, ascending and surrounding the 
summit of a narrow ridge of hill near the sea ; 
and of numerous sepulchres, which appear 
among the vineyards that cover its declivity.' 
As the passage through the Dioryctus was 
somewhat intricate on account of the shallows, 
we learn that these were marked out by stakes 
fixed in the sea at certain intervals. In a small 
island between the Dior^'^ctus and Leucas was 
an ancient temple consecrated to Venus. Some 
other passages relative to Leucas will be found 
in Polybius. Aristotle in his Politics speaks of 
a law in force there by which landed proprietors 
were forbidden to part with their estates, except 
in cases of great necessity; he adds, that ihe 
abolition of this law proved a very popular mea- 
sure. Nericum was probably tlie oldest town 

Part I.— 2 A 



in the Leucadian peninsula, as we learn from 
Homer that it existed before the siege of Troy. 
It was taken by Laertes, father of Ulysses, at 
the head of his Cephallenians. 

OlOS ISfjpiKOV £l\0V, ivKTllJLEVOV TTToXlcdpoV 

^A-kt}]!/ 'iiTreipoio, J^e<paW^vEG(xiv dvaaffiov — 

Od. fl. 376. 

Strabo, as I have already noticed, reports that 
the Corinthians removed their town to the Isth- 
mus ; but Nericum seems still to have subsisted 
after this, as Thucydides relates that the Athe- 
nians landed some forces here in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, which were, however, defeated by 
the inhabitants, and compelled to retire. It was 
probably situated in a bay not far from the Leu- 
cadian promontory, where, according to modern 
maps, there are some vestiges of an ancient 
town. Thucydides mentions also a port called 
Ellomenus, which is considered to be Porto 
Vlico, a few miles south of Santa Maura. The 
Leucadian promontory, so celebrated in anti- 
quity for the lover's leap, is said by Strabo to 
have derived its name from the colour of the 
rock. On its summit was a temple of Apollo ; 
and every year on the festival of the god, it was 
customary to hurl from the cliff" some condemn- 
ed criminal, as an expiatory victim. Feathers, 
and even birds were fastened to each^ side of 
his person, in order to break his fall; a number 
of boatmen were also stationed below ready to 
receive him in their skiffs, and if they succeeded 
in saving him, he was conveyed out of the Leu- 
cadian territory. Sappho is said to have been 
the first to try the remedy of the leap, when 
enamoured of Phaon. Artemisia, queen of 
Caria, so celebrated by Herodotus, perished, ac- 
cording to some accounts, in this fatal trial. 
Virgil represents this cape as dangerous to ma- 
riners." — Cram. 

Leuce, a small island in the Euxine Sea, of a 
triangular form, between the mouths of the Da- 
nube and the Borysthenes. According to the 
poets, the souls of the ancient heroes were plac- 
ed there as in the Elysian fields, where they en- 
joyed perpetual felicity, and reaped the repose 
to which their benevolence to mankind, and 
their exploits during life, seemed to entitle them. 
From that circumstance it has often been called 
the island of the blessed, &c. According to 
some accounts Achilles celebrated there his nup- 
tials with Iphigenia, or rather Helen, and shared 
the pleasures of the place with the manes of 
Ajax, &c. Strab. 2. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — Ammian. 
32.— Q. Calab. 3, v. 773. It was probably a 
portion of theDromos Achilles, which the read- 
er may see under its proper name. 

Leuci, a people of Belgic Gaul. They 
dwelt in that part which lay upon the borders 
of the provinces called afterwards Chavipagne 
and Lorraine, the present departments de la, 
Meuse andde la Meurthe. Upon their north 
were the Mediomatrices, the mountains Vosges 
covered them upon the east, on the south were 
the Lingones, and on the west the Tricasses 
and Catelauni. They were among those Gal- 
lic people, who, with the name of friends of the 
Romans, were permitted to enjoy a moderate 
and precarious liberty at the discretion of their 
too powerful protectors. Among their towns 
were Tullum, Toul, and Nasiura; of the latter 
the site is not known with equal certainty, 
185 



LE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LI 



Mountains on the west of Crete appear at a dis- 
tance like white clouds, whence the name. 

Leucopetra, I. a place on the isthmus of 
Corinth, where the Achaeans were defeated by 

the consul Mummius. 11. A promontory 

six miles east from Rhegium in Italy, where 
the Appenines terminate and sink into the sea. 

Leucophrys, a temple of Diana, with a city 
of the same name, near the Mseander, The 
goddess was represented under the figure of a 
woman with many breasts, and crowned with 

victory. An ancient name of Tenedos. 

Pans. 10, c. U.—Strab. 13 and 14. 

Leucos, a river of Macedonia near Pydna. 

Leucosia, a little island towards the south- 
ern limit of the Paestanus Sinus, north of the 
Posidium promontorium. It was said " to de- 
rive its name from one of the Sirens, as we 
learn from Lycophron and from Strabo. Diony- 
sius calls it Leucasia. It is now known by the 
name of Licosa, and sometimes by that of Isola 
plana. It was once probably inhabited, as seve- 
ral vestiges of buildings were discovered there 
in 1696." Cram. 

Leucosyki, a name applied to the inhabit- 
ants of Cappadocia on the borders of Pontus, 
and to those of Pontus on the borders of Cap- 
padocia. These people were supposed to be of 
Syrian origin, and the superior fairness of their 
complexions caused the epithet of Leuco {white) 
to be prefixed to the name of Syri, by which 
they were designated in common with others of 
that race. The term Leuco Syri was not the 
less applied to the people dwelling in these re- 
gions after the whole country had become thick- 
ly interspersed with colonies and settlements 
from Greece. 

Leucothoe, or Leucothea, an island in the 

Tyrrhene Sea, near Capreae. A fountain of 

Samos. A town of Egjrpt. of Arabia. 

Mela, 2, c. 7. A part of Asia which pro- 
duces frankincense. 

Leuctra, a village of Boeotia, between Pla- 
taea and Thespiae, belonging to the territory of 
the latter. It is famous for the victory which 
Epaminondas, the Theban general, obtained 
over the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of 
Sparta, on the 8th of July, B. C. 371. In this 
famous battle 4000 Spartans were killed, with 
their king Cleombtotus, and no more than 300 
Thebans. Prom that time the Spartans lost the 
empire of Greece. The place retains its an- 
cient name, though the modern Greek pronun- 
ciation in some measure obscures it to the En- 
glish ear and eye when written according to the 
present mode of pronouncing it. Plut. in Pe- 
lop. ^Ages. — C. Nep. in. Epam. — Justin. 6, c. 6. 
— Xenophon. Hist. Grcec. — Diod. 15. — '-Pans. 
Lacon. — Cic. de offic. 1, c. 18. T\isc. 1, c. 46. 
Alt. 6, ep. l.—Strab. 9. 

Leuctrum, a town of Messenia, on the east- 
ern side of the Messenian gulf. The antiquity 
of this town ascended to the ages of fable, and 
the inhabitants boasted that their founder had 
given his name to southern Greece or the Pelo- 
ponnesus. Thucydides call this place Leuc- 
tra. SPrab. 8. 

Leucyanias, a river of Peloponnesus, flow- 
ing into the Alpheus. Pans. 6, c. 21. 

Lexovii, a people of Gaul, at the mouth of 
the Seine, conquered with great slaughter by a 
lieutenant of J. Caesar. Cces. Bell. G. 
186 



LiBANUs, a chain of mountains extending 
parallel with the coast from north to south, be- 
tween Phoenicia and Syria. Towards Tyre 
this range of hills inclines to the coast in double 
ridges ; the more southern of which assumes the 
name of Anti-Libanus. Between these, the 
valley is called Coelo Syria, and the river Leon- 
tos, now Lante, runs in the line of these moun- 
tains through the whole length of the valley till 
it falls into the Mediterranean at Tyre. The 
southern extremity of this chain, or the Anti- 
Libanus, reaches south for some distance, run- 
ning into Palestine. " Next to the country of 
the Ansiareh, mount Libanus raises its summits 
to the clouds, still shaded with some cedars and 
beautified with thousands of rare plants. Here 
the Astragalus tragacanthoides displays its clus- 
ters of purple flowers. The primrose of Liba- 
nus, the mountain amaryllis, the white and the 
orange lily, mingle their brilliant hues with 
the verdure of the birch-leaved cherry. The 
snow ot the mountain is skirted by the Xeran- 
themum frigidum. -The deep ravines of these 
mountains are watered by numerous ^streams, 
which arise on all sides in great abundance. 
The highest of the valleys are covered with per- 
petual snow. Arvieux and Pococke found the 
snow lying here in the month of June ; Rau- 
wolf and Kort in August. But it does not ap- 
pear that any of the exposed peaks are covered 
with snow. The coolness, the humidity, and 
the good quality of the soil, maintain a perpetu- 
al verdure. These bounties of nature are pro- 
tected by the spirit of liberty. It is to an indus- 
try less harassed by predatory encroachments 
than that of the other districts of Syria, that 
the hills of Lebanon owe those fine terraces in 
long succession, which preserve the fertile 
earth; those well planted vineyards; those 
fields of wheat, reared by the industrious hand 
of the husbandman ; those plantations of cot- 
ton, of olives, and of mulberries, which present 
themselves every where in the midst of the 
rocky steeps, and give a pleasing example of 
the effects of human activity. The clusters of 
grapes are enormous, and the grapes themselves 
as large as cherries. Goats, squirrels, partridges, 
and turtle-doves are the most numerous animal 
species. All of them become a frequent prey to 
the pouncings of the eagle and the prowlings 
of the panther. This last is the animal which 
is here called the tiger. These retreats, secured 
from warlike invasion, but unfortunately ac- 
cessible to the intrigues of Turkish pashas, are 
inhabited by two races, different in religion and 
in manners, but similar in their love of inde- 
pendence, the Maronites and the Druses." 
Malte-Brun. 

Libethra, '' a city, the name of which is as- 
sociated with Orpheus, the Muses, and all that 
is poetical in Greece. ' Libethra/ says Pausa- 
nias, * was situated on mount Olympus, on the 
side of Macedonia ; at no great distance from it 
stood the tomb of Orpheus, respecting which an 
oracle had declared, that when the sun ,.beheld 
the bones of the poet the city should be destroy- 
ed by a boar {vrrd o-wds.) The inhabitants of Li- 
bethra ridiculed the prophecy as a thing impos- 
sible ; but the column of Orpheus's monument 
having been accidentally broken, a gasp was 
made by which light broke in upon the tomb, 
when the same night the torrent named Sus 



LI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LI 



being prodigiously swollen, rushed down with 
violence from mount Olympus upon Libethra, 
overflowing the walls and all the public and 
private edifices, and destroying every living 
creature in its furious course. After this cala- 
mity, the remains of Orpheus were removed to 
Dium; and Dr. Clarke observed near Katerina 
a remarkable tumulus, which he conceives to 
have been the tomb of Orpheus. This tumu- 
lus is of immense magnitude, of a perfectly co- 
nical form, and upon its vertex grow trees of 
great size. Pausanias says the tomb of Orphe- 
us was twenty stadia from Dium. Whether 
Libethra recovered from the devastation occa- 
sioned by this inundation is not stated, but its 
name occurs in Livy, as a town in the vicinity 
of Dium before the battle of Pydna. After de- 
scribing the perilous march of the Roman army 
under Q,. Marcius through a pass in the chain 
of Olympus, he says, they reached, on the fourth 
day, the plains between Libethrum and Hera- 
cleum. Strabo also alludes to Libethra when 
speaking of mount Helicon, and remarks, that 
several places around that mountain attested the 
former existence of the Thracians of Pieriain 
the Boeotian districts. From these passages it 
would seem that the name of Libethrus was 
given to the summit of Olympus, which stood 
above the Xovm. Hence the Muses were sur- 
named Libethrides as well as Pierides." Cram. 
— Virg. Eel. 7, V. 21.— Plin. 4, c. 9.— Mela, 2, 
c. S.—Slrai. 9 and 10. 

LiBOPHCENicEs, the inhabitants of the coun- 
try near Carthage. 

LiBURNiA, an Illyrian province of the Roman 
empire, lying between the river Arsia, which 
separated it from Histria, the Albius mons 
which lay towards the side of Illyricum, the 
Titius which flowed between it and Dalmatia, 
and the Adriatic Sea which lay along its coast 
in bays which were formed by the innumerable 
islands called Liburnides and Absyrtides, that 
studded its bosom. Two people, the Japydes 
and Liburni, occupied this tract of country ; the 
former dwelling in the more northern parts in 
the mountains and upon the coast around their 
capitals Senia and Metullum in the modem 
Morlachia : and the latter towards the borders 
of Dalmatia. " The Liburni appear to have 
been a maritime people from the earliest times, 
as they communicated their name to the vessels 
called Libumine by the Romans. And the 
Greeks, who colonized Corcyra, are said, on 
their arrival in that island, to have found it in 
their possession. Scylax seems to distinguish 
the Liburni from the lUyrians, restricting pro- 
bably the latter appellation to that part of the 
nation which was situated more to the south, 
and was better known to the Greeks. The 
same writer alludes to the sovereignty of the 
Liburni, as not excluding females ; a fact which 
appears to have some reference to the history of 
Teuta, and might serve to prove that this geo- 
graphical compilation is not so ancient as many 
have supposed. Strabo states that the Liburni 
extended along the coast for upwards of one 
thousand five hundred stadia. To them be- 
longed ladera, a city of some note, and a Ro- 
man colony, the rums of which are still to be 
seen near the modern town of Zara, on the 
spot called Zara Vecchia. Beyond is the mouth 
of the river Kerka, perhaps the same as the Ca- 



tarbates of Scylax and the Titius of Ptolemy. 
Strabo, who does not mention its name, says it 
it is navigable for small vessels up to Scardona. 
This town appears to have been the capital of 
the Liburni since Pliny says the national coun- 
cil met here. The present town retains its 
name, and is situated on a lake formed by the 
Kerka, a few miles above its entrance into the 
sea. Under the Romans this river served as 
the boundar)'- between Liburnia and Dalmatia." 
Cram. Gr. There were at Rome a number of 
men whom the magistrates employed as public 
heralds, who were called Liburni, probably from 
being originally of Liburnian extraction. 

Liburnides. A great number of islands, 
amounting to upwards of 40 of the larger kind, 
on the coast of Liburnia, were called among 
the Greeks Liburnides. Some of them were 
comparatively large, and have been famous in 
history, as Pharos, Scardona, and Issa. They 
were also called the Dalmatian islands. 

LiBURNUM RURE, the sca which borders on 
the coasts of Liburnia. 

LiBURNUs, a moimtain of Campania. 

Libya, I. In its widest sense the name of 
Libya was used to signify the whole of Africa. 
There was, however, a particular district to 
which this name belonged geographically, whOe 
it was rather poetically used in the maimer 
mentioned above. This proper Libya lay upon 
the coast of the Mare Internum, from Egypt to 
the greater Syrtis, comprising the countries of 
Marmarica and CjTcnaica, and extending in- 
land indefinitely. II. Deserta, or Libya In- 
terior, was that part of Africa which lies be- 
tween the Niger and the inhabited part of the 
coast on the Mediterranean, corresponding in a 
great measure to the desert of Sahara, which 
modern travellers have so frequently partially 
described. From the word Libya are derived 
the epithets of Lihys, Libyssa, Libysis, Libys- 
tis, Libycus, Libysticus, Libysiinus, Lihystaus. 
Virg. jEn. 4, v. 106, 1. 5, v. 31.—lAican. 4.— 
Sallust. &c. 

LiBYcuM MARE, that part of the Mediterrane- 
an which lies on the coast of Cyrene. Strab. 2. 

Libyssa, now Gebisse, a towm of Bithynia, 
in which was the tomb of Hannibal. It was 
situated near the shores of the Propontis, or 
rather the Astacenus Sinus, west of Nicome- 
dia. 

LicHARDEs, small islands near Ceeneum, a 
promontory of Euboea, called fromLichas. 
Vid. Lichas. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 155, 218.— 
Strab. 9. 

LiGER, or LiGERis, uow La Loire, a large ri- 
ver of Gaul falling into the ocean near Nantes. 
Strab. i.—Plin. 4, c. IS.— Cas. G. 7, c. 55 and 
75. Vid. Aquitania and Celtica. 

LiGURES, the inhabitants of Liguria. Vid. 
Liguria. 

LiGURu, a country at the west of Italy, 
bounded on the east by the river Macra, on the 
south by part of the Mediterranean, called the 
Ligustic Sea; on the west by the Varus, and 
on the north by the Po. The commercial to^Ti 
of Genoa was anciently and is now the capital 
of the country. The origin of the inhabitants 
is not known, though in their character they 
are represented as vain, unpolished, and addict- 
ed to falsehood. According to some they were 
descended from the ancient Gauls or Germans, 
187 



u 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LI 



or, as others support, they were of Greek origin, 
perhaps the posterity of the Ligyes mentioned 
by Herodotus. Liguria was subdued by the 
Romans, and its chief harbour now bears the 
name of Leghorn. LAican. 1, v. 442. — Mela^ 
2, c. l.—Strab. 4, &c.— Tacit. Hist. 2, c. 15.— 
Plin. 2, c. 5, &c.—Liv. 5, c. 35, 1. 22, c. 33, 1. 
29, c. 6, &C.—C. Nep. in Ann.—Flor. 2, c. 8. 
The Ligures were a more unmixed population 
than almost any other of the Italians, and may 
be considered as having descended from the first 
northern inhabitants of Italy. 

LiGUSTicE Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 

LiGUSTicuM MARE, the uorth part of the 
Tyrrhene Sea, now the Gulf of Genoa. Plin. 
2, c. 47. 

Ligyes, a people of Asia, who inhabited the 
country between Caucasus and the river Pha- 
sis. Some suppose them to be a colony of the 
Ligyes of Europe, more commonly called Li- 
gures. Herodot. 7, c. 72. — Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 
IQ.—Strab. i.—Diod. 4. 

LiLYB^EUM, I. a promontory of the island of 
Sicily, extending into the sea, and forming the 
nearest point towards Africa Propria from Eu- 
rope. The promontory is now Boeo. II. A 

town of the same name, now Marsalla, stood 
on this projection, and is noted both as a princi- 
pal possession of the Carthaginians, and for its 
resistance to the Romans during the Punic 
wars. It had a port large and capacious, 
which the Romans, in the wars with Carthage, 
endeavoured in vain to stop and fill up with 
stones, on account of its convenience and vici- 
nity to the coast of Africa. Nothing now re- 
mains of this once powerful city but the ruins 
of temples and aqueducts. Virg. JEn. 3, v. 
lOQ.—Mela, 2, c. l.—Strab. 6.—Cic. in Verr. 
b.—Cces. de Bell. Afric.—Diod. 22. 

LiMNJE, I. a fortified place on the borders of 

Laconia and Messenia. Pans. 3, c. 14. II. 

A town of the Thracian Chersonesus. 

LiMN^A, I. a lake in the interior of Acarna- 
nia, about six miles in length, now called lake 

Nizero. II. A district of country, called also 

Limnasa, surrounded this piece of water, which 
likewise gave name to its principal town. This 
small state or region extended to the Ambra- 
cian gulf, on which it had its port, now called, 
as well as the bay on which it stands, LMtraki. 
Xen. Hell. 4, 6. 

LiMNiEUM, a temple of Diana at Limnae, 
from which the goddess was called Limnaea, 
and worshipped under that appellation at Spar- 
ta and in Achaia. The Spartans wished to 
seize the temple in the age of Tiberius, but the 
emperor interfered, and gave it to its lawful 
possessors, the Messenians. Pans. 3, c. 14, 1. 
7, c. 2Q.— Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 43, 

LiMONtJM, a town of Gaul, afterwards Pic- 
tavi, Poictiers. Cas. G. 8, c. 26. 

LiNDUM, a colony of Britain, now Lincoln. 
This city belonged to the Coretani, who were 
extended widely over several counties in that 
part of Britain. 

LiNDus, now Lindo, a city at the south-east 
part of Rhodes, built by Cercaphus, son of Sol 
and Cydippe. The Danaides built there a tem- 
ple to Minerva, and one of its colonies founded 
Gela in Sicily. It gave birth to Cleobulus, one 
of the seven wise men, and to Chares and La- 
ches, who were employed in making and finish- 
•188 



ing the famous Colossus of Rhodes, Strab. 
U.— Homer. 11. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 7, Plin. 34.— 
Herodot. 7, c. 153. 

LiNGONEs, a people of Celtic Gaul, on the 
borders of Belgica, to which they are said at an 
early period to have belonged. Their country, 
when residing in Lugdunensis Prima, in the 
former province, was about the springs of the 
Mosa, the Sequana, and the Matrona, corres- 
ponding to the department de la HoMte Marne^ 
a part of the province of Champagne. Their cap- 
ital, once Andomatunum, assumed their name, 
with which, under the modification of Langres, 
it has reached the present time. The Lingones 
passed into Italy, where they made some settle- 
ment near the Alps, at the head of the Adriatic. 
Tacit. H. 4, c. bb.— Martial. 11, ep. 57, v. 9, 1, 
14, ep. lbd.—Lnj.can. 1, v. 398.— C«5. Bell. G. 
1, c. 26. 

LiPARA, I. the largest of the iEolian islands 
on the coast of Sicily, now called from this one, 
Lipari. It had a city of the same name, which, 
according toDiodorois, it received from Liparus, 
the son of Auson, king of these islands, whose 
daughter Cyane was married by his successor 
iEolus, according to Pliny, The inhabitants of 
this island were powerful by sea, and from the 
great tributes which they paid to Dionysius, the 
tyrant of Syracuse, they may be called very 
opulent. The island was celebrated for the va- 
riety of its fruits, and its raisins are still in ge- 
neral repute. It had some convenient harbours, 
and a fountain whose waters were much fre- 
quented on account of their medicinal powers. 
According to Diodorus, jEoIus reigned at Li- 
para before Liparus. Liv. 5, c. 28. — Plin. 3, 
c. 9.—Ital. 14, V. bl.— Virg. j^n. 1, v. 56, 1. 8, 

V. 417. Mela, 2, c. l.—Strab. 6. II. A town 

of Etruria, 

LiQUENTiA, now Livenza, a river of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, falling into the Adriatic Sea. Plin. 
3, c. 18. 

LiRis, now Garigliano, a river of Campania, 
which it separates from Latium. It rose among 
the Appenines, and flowing through a part of 
Latium, and between that country and Cam- 
pania with a sluggish course, discharged itself 
into the Tyrrhene Sea among the marshes of 
Minturnge. This river was more anciently call- 
ed the Clanis, according to Strabo. 

Lissas, I. a town of Illyria, near the mouth 
of the Drilo, on the borders of Macedonia. It 
was colonized by the Syracusans, from whom it 
was taken by the Illyrians. From these it was 
wrested for a time by Philip of Macedon. Pliny 
styles it Oppidum civium Romanorum. The 
modern Alessio corresponds to the site of Acro- 

lissus, the citadel of Lissus. Polyb. 8, 15. 

II. A river of Thrace, falling into the ^gean 
Sea between Thasos and Samothracia. It was 
dried up by the army of Xerxes when he inva- 
ded Greece. Strobe 7. — Herodot. 7, c. 109. 

LisTA, a town of the Sabines, whose inhabit- 
ants are called Listini. This town was taken 
by the Sabines from the Aborigines, whose ca- 
pital it was supposed to have been. 

LiTANA, a wood in Cisalpine Gaul, extending 
at the foot of the Appenines, from the sources 
of the Parma and the Nicia to those of the Se- 
cia, occupying a part of the modern duchies of 
Parma and Modena. Here the Roman army 
was beaten bv the Gauls. Liv. 23, c. 24. 



LO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LO 



LiTERNUMj a town of Campania. " Its situ- 
ation has been disputed ; but antiquaries seem 
now agreed in fixing the site of the town at a 
place called Torre di Patria. The difficulty- 
arose chiefly from the mention of a river of the 
same name by some of the ancient writers. This 
stream is apt to stagnate near its entrance into 
the sea, and to form marshes anciently known 
as the Palus Literna, now Lago di Patria. 
Liternum became a Roman colony in the same 
year with Vulturnum. It was recolonized un- 
Ser Augustus, and ranked among the praefec- 
turse. That Scipio retired here in disgust at the 
injustice of his countrymen, seems a fact too 
well attested to be called in question ; but whe- 
ther he really closed his existence there, as far 
as we can collect from Livy's account, may be 
deemed uncertain : his tomb and statue were to 
be seen both at Liternum and in the family vault 
of the Scipios, which was discovered some years 
ago outside the Porta Capena. According to 
Valerius Maximus, Scipio himself had caused 
to be engraved on it this inscription : 

INGRATA . PATRIA . NE . OSSA . QUIDEM . MEA 
HABES. 

which would be decisive of the question. It is 
not improbable that the little hamlet of Patria, 
which is supposed to stand on the site of Scipio's 
villa, is indebted for its name to this circum- 
stance. Pliny asserts, that there were to be seen 
in his day, near Liternum, some olive-trees 
and myrtles, said to have been planted by the 
illustrious exile." Cram. 

Lixus, a river of Mauretania, with a city of 
the same name. Antaeus had a palace there, 
and according to some accounts it was in the 
neighbourhood that Hercules conquered him. 
Ital. 3, V. 258.— MeZa, 3, c. lO.—Strab. 2. 

LocRi, I. a town of Magna Grsecia in Italy, 
on the Adriatic, not far from Rhegium. It was 
founded by a Grecian colony about 757 years 
before the Christian era, as some suppose. The 
inhabitants were called Locri or Locrenses. 
Virg. JEn. 3, v. 399. —Strab.—Plin.—Liv. 22, 

c. 6, 1. 23, c. 30. II. A town of Locris in 

Greece. 

Locris. " The Greeks comprehended under 
the name of Locrians three tribes of the same 
people, which, though distinct from each other 
m territory as well as in nominal designation, 
doubtless were derived from a common stock. 
These were the Locri Ozolse, the Epicnemidii, 
and Opuntii. A colony of the latter, who at an 
early period had settled on the shores of Mag- 
na Grsecia, were distinguished by the name of 
Epizephyrii, or "Western Locri. The Epicne- 
midian and Opuntian Locri alone appear to have 
been known to Homer, as he makes no mention 
of the Ozolae ; whence we might conclude that 
they were not so ancient as the rest of the nation. 
The earliest and most authentic accounts concur 
in ascribing the origin of this people to the Lele- 
ges. The Locri Ozolse occupied a narrow tract 
of country, situated on the northern shore of the 
Corinthian gulf, commencing at the ^Etolian 
Rhium, and terminating near Crissa, the first 
town of Phocis, on the bay to which it gave its 
name. To the west and north they adjoined 
the iEtolians, and partly also, in the latter di- 
rection, the Dorians, while to the east they bor- 



dered on the district of Delphi belonging to 
Phocis. They are said to have been a colony 
from the more celebrated Locrians of the east, 
and their name, according to fabulous accounts, 
was derived from some fetid springs near the 
hill of Taphius, or Taphiassus, situated on their 
coast, and beneath which it was reported the 
centaur Nessus had been entombed. Thucy- 
'dides represents them as a wild uncivilized race, 
and addicted from the earliest period to theft and 
rapine. In the Peloponnesian war they appear 
to have sided with the Athenians, as the latter 
held possession of Naupactus, their principal 
town and harbour, and also probably from en- 
mity to the jEtolians, who had espoused the 
cause of the Peioponnesians. The Epicnemi- 
dian Locri occupied a small district immediately 
adjoining Thermopylae, and confined between 
mount Cnemis, a branch of CEta, whence they 
derived their name, and the sea of Euboea. Ho- 
mer classes them with the Opuntii under the 
general name of Locri. The Opuntian Locri 
follow after the Epicnemidii ; they occupied a 
line of coast of about fifteen miles, beginning a 
little south of Cnemides, and extending to the 
town of Halae, on the frontier of Boeotia. In- 
land their territory reached to the Phocian 
towns of Hyampolis and Abae. This people 
derived its name from the city of Opus, their 
metropolis." The Locri who established them- 
selves in Italy were of the Opuntii and Ozolae 
tribes, but the period of their migration it is 
hardly possible to define. The name of Epi- 
zephyrii they obtained from their settlement 
about the Cape Zephyrium, and by this appella- 
tion they were distinguished from the Locrians 
of Greece. The chief city founded by them 
bore their name, and became famous not only as 
one of the most flourishing towns of Graecia 
Magna, but also for the institutions of Zaleucus, 
one of the most admired lawgivers of antiquity. 
For 200 years these institutions continued in 
force, and for all that length of time the city of 
Locri enjoyed the greatest prosperity and the 
highest character for the Mdsdom and virtue of 
its citizens. Locri early took part in the poli- 
tics and resolutionsof Sicily, and suffered great- 
ly from the cruelty of Dionysius the Younger. It 
suffered still further from the anger of Pyrrhus, 
on his second invasion of Italy, and still more 
from the licentiousness of the Roman CI. Plemi- 
nius, who was stationed there with a garrison, 
to keep it in the interest of Rome during the 
Punic war. " The situation of ancient Locri 
has not been hitherto determined with accuracy, 
though the most judicious antiquaries and tra- 
vellers agree in fixing it in the vicinity of Ge- 
race. This modern town stands on a hill, which 
is probably the mons Esopis of Strabo, and 
where the citadel was doubtless placed ; the ele- 
vated position of Locri is also to be inferred from 
a fragment of Pindar. But the name of Pag- 
liapolA, which is attached to some considerable 
ruins beloM^ Gerace. naturally leads to the sup- 
position that this was the site of the Epizephy- 
rian Locri. D' Anville removed it too far to the 
south, when he supposed it to accord with the 
Motta di Bruzzano." Cram. 

LoNDiNDM, the capital of Britain, founded, as 

some suppose, between the age of Julius Caesar 

and Nero. It has been severally called Londi.ni- 

um, Londinum, &c. Am mi anus calls it.vetnir 

189 



LU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LtJ 



turn oppidum. It is represented as a consider- 
able, opulent, and commercial town in the age 
of Nero. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 33. — Ammian. 
The various modes of writing the name of this 
place are given by Cambden, and show a striking 
analogy, in the greater number, to that of Lon- 
dinum. Ammianus calls it Augusta, to which 
the surname Trinobantum is to be added, from 
the people whose capital it is known to have 
been. Its mythological names, however, are en- 
tirely different, and refer to the fabulous origin 
assigned to it by the obscure writers of the dark- 
est ages. Thus Tro}r Novant, or Troia Nova, 
in allusion to its colonization by the grandson of 
.^neas, the renow-ned Brute, and Caer Lud, 
from Lud, another fictitious person, who found- 
ed, or at least exalted it to the high state which 
it early held among the cities of Britain. 

LoNGOBARDi. Vid. Langobardi. 

LoNGULA, a town of Latium, on the borders 
of the Volsci. Liv. 2, c. 33 and 39, 1. 9, c. 39. 

LoTOPHAGi, a people on the coast of Africa, 
near the Syrtes. They received this name from 
their living upon the lotus. Ulysses visited 
their country at his return from the Trojan war. 
Herodot. 4, c. \ll.~Strab. 11.— Mela, 1, c. 7. 
—Plin. 5, c. 7, 1. 13, c. 17. 

LucA, now LMcca, a city of Etruria, on the 
river Arnus. lAv. 21, c. 5, 1, 41, c. 13. — Cic. 
XZ^fam. 13. 

LtJCANi, a people of Italy, descended from the 
Samnites or from the Brutii. 

LucANiA, a country of Italy, between the 
Tyrrhene and Sicilian seas. Without pretend- 
ing to explain the exact limits or extent of coun- 
try over which the Lucani may have spread 
themselves, we may define the boundaries of Lu- 
cania, as it formed a part of the Roman domi- 
nion, with considerable exactness. To the 
south-west, beyond the little river Laos, and to 
the south-east beyond the Crathis, lay the Bru- 
tiorum Ager, or country of the Brutii. On the 
side of Campania the Silarus bounded it from 
the mountains to the sea ; and the Bradanus, in 
the same manner, from the mountains to the 
Tarentine Gulf, divided it from Apulia. A line 
from the sources of these rivers, along the high- 
lands in which they rise, describes its limits on 
the side of Samnium. The country was fa- 
mous for its grapes. Strab. 6. — Plin. 3, c. 5. — 
Mela, 2, c. ^.—Liv, 8. c. 17, 1. 9, c. 20, 1. 10, c. 
II.— Horat. 2, ep. 2, v. 178. 

LucERiA, now Lnicera, a town of Apulia, in 
that part which was distinguished by the name 
of Daunia. This was a place of great antiqui- 
ty ; its origin was referred by the poets to the 
time of Diomed, who was said to have founded 
it. It was one of the first places over which 
the Romans extended their dominion in Apu- 
lia, and continued faithful to them during their 
wars with Carthage. Like the rest of Apulia, 
it was remarkable for the fineness of the wool 
which was there prepared. 

LucRETiLis, now Libretti, a mountain in the 
country of the Sabines, hanging over a plea- 
sant valley, near which the house and farm of 
Horace was situate. Horat. 1, od. 17, v. 1. — 
Cic. 7, Att. 11. 

LucRiNus, a small lake in Campania, oppo- 
site Puteoli. It abounded with excellent oys- 
ters, and was united by Augustus to the Aver- 
nus, and a corammiication formed with the 
190 



sea near the harbour called Julius PorUis. The 
Lucrine lake disappeared on the 30th of Sep- 
tember, 1538, in a violent earthquake, which 
raised on the spot a mountain 4 miles in circum- 
ference, and about 1000 feet high, with a crater 
in the middle. The present slate of this cele- 
brated lake is described as follows by Eustace : 
" Of the Lucrine lake a small part only re- 
mains, now a muddy pool, half covered with 
reeds, and bulrushes. The centre, though re- 
markable for its depth, wels in one short night 
changed into a conical mountain. The moun- 
tain is a vast mass of cinders, black and barren, 
and is called Monte Nuovo. The pool, however, 
diminished in its size and appearance, still re- 
tains the name and honours of the Lucrine 
lake." Classical Tour. — Cic. 4. Att. 10. — Strad. 
5 and 6. — Mela, 2, c. 4. — Propert. 1, el. 11, v. 
10.— Virg. G. 2, V. 1%1.— Horat. 2, od. 15. 

LucuLLi HoRTi. I. Vid. Horti. -11. Vil- 
la, one of those villas which were so numerous 
in the immediate neighbourhood of Misenus. 
That of Lucullus was the chief one, and was 
afterwards occupied by Tiberius. " Pheedrus 
informs us that it was situated on the very pin- 
nacle of the hill, as it not only commanded the 
adjacent coasts, but extended its view to the 
scELS of Sicily. This villa, with its gardens 
and porticoes, must have occupied a considera- 
ble space, and left but little room for the town, 
which of course must have been situated lower 
down, and probably on the sea-shore." Eus- 
tace. 

LuGDUNENsis Gallia, a part of Gaul, which 
received its name from Lugdunum, the capital 
city of the province. It was anciently called 
Celtica. Vid. Gallia. 

Lugdunum, a town of Gallia Celtica, built at 
the confluence of the Rhone and the Arar, or 
Saone. '* It was anciently a Roman colony, 
(testified by many old inscriptions,) and ho- 
noured with a magnificent temple, dedicated 
by the cities of France to Augustus Cassar: 
now the most famous mart of France, and a 
university. These marts, in former times, were 
holden at Geneva, from thence removed hither 
by king Lewis the 11th, for the enriching of 
his own kingdom. When Julio the 2d had ex- 
communicated Lewis the 12th, he commanded, 
by his apostolical authority, that they should 
be returned to Geneva again ; but therein his 
pleasure was never obeyed. As for the uni- 
versity, questionless it is very ancient, being a 
seat of learning in the time of Caius Caligula. 
For in those times, before an altar consecrated 
to Augustus in the temple above-named, this 
Caligula did institute some exercises of the 
Greek and Roman eloquence : the victor to be 
honoured according to his merit; the vanquish- 
ed, either to be ferulated, or with their own 
tongues to blot and expunge their writings; or 
to be drowned in the river adjoining. Hence 
that of Juvenal, 

lit L/ugdunensem Rhetor dictdirus at aram, 

applied to dangerous undertakings. In the 
time of the Romans' first coming into Gaul, it 
was the chief city of the Hedui and Sequani ; 
afterwards the metropolis of Lugdunensis, 
Prima. The archbishop hereof is the metro- 
politan of all France, and was so in the time of 
St. Irenseus, one of the renowned Fathers in the 



LY 



GEOGRAPHY, 



LY 



primitive times, who was bishop here," Heyl. 
Cosm. 

LupiAS, or LupiA, now Lippe, a town of Ger- 
many, with a small river of the same name, 
falling into the Rhine. Tacit. Ann. 1, &c. 

LusiTANiA, a part of Hispania, answering 
nearly to the modern Portugal. In the time of 
Caesar its limits were uncertain : he, however, 
tells us, that to the north were the Callaici; 
to the east, the Vettones ; to the south, Baetu- 
ria, and the sea from the mouth of the Anas ; 
and to the west, the ocean. Ptolemy makes it 
the third part of Spain, and ranks with the 
Lusitani, the Vettones, and part of the Celtici 
and Turdetani. The chief cities of Lusitania 
were Olisipo, Lisbon ; Conimbriga, Coimbra; 
Pax Julia, Beja ; Augusta Emerita, Merida ; 
Norba Caesarea, Alcantara. The Tagus divided 
the country into two parts ; in the north was 
the Durius, on the south the Anas. The Lu- 
sitanians inhabited a remarkably fertile country, 
but neglected to avail themselves of it until 
they had been instructed by their Roman con- 
querors. Vid. Hispania. Cas. B.C. 1, 38 and 
U.—B. Hisp. 35, 40.— 5. Al. 48, &c. Lem. ed. 

LusoNEs, a people of Spain, near the Iberus. 

LuTETiA, a town of Belgic Gaul, at the con- 
fluence of the rivers Sequana and Matrona, 
which received its name, as some suppose, from 
the quantity of clay, lutvMfWhicla. is in its neigh- 
bourhood. J. Caesar fortified and embellished 
it, from which circumstance some authors call 
it Julii Civitas. Julian the apostate resided 
there some time. It is now Paris, and is the 
capital of France. C(^s. de Bell. G. 6 and 7. 
— Strab. 4. — Ammian. 20. 

LvcABETAs, a mountain of Attica, near 
Athens. Stat. 

Lyc^us, a mountain of Arcadia, sacred to 
Jupiter, where a temple was built in honour of 
the god by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus. It 
was also sacred to Pan, whose festivals, called 
I/i/caa, were celebrated there. Pausanias af- 
firms that the whole Peloponnesus might be 
seen from its summit, where are yet visible the 
remains of the altar of Jupiter. Virg. G. 1, v. 
16. jE7i. 8, V. 3i3.— Strab. 8.—Hor. 1, od. 17, 
V.2.— Ovid. Met. I, Y. 698. 

Lycaonia, a province of Asia Minor, bounded 
on the north by Cappadocia, on the east by Ar- 
menia Minor, on the south by Pisidia, and on 
the west by the Greater Phrygia; "so called 
from the Lycaones, a people of Lycia, or from 
.he inhabitants of Lycaonia, a town of Phry- 
gia Major, who, enlargingthemselves into these 
parts, gave this name unto it; either of which 
I should prefer before their conceit who derive 
it from Lycaon, king of ilrcadia, dispossessed 
by Jupiter of that kingdom ; or think that Ly- 
caon was king of this country and not of ihat." 
Its chief towns were Iconiura, the metropolis 
of it when a Roman province, and Lystra. 
" Nor, indeed, were the Lycaonians themselves, 
from whomsoever thev were descended, of any 
great note or observation in former times : sub- 
ject to Cappadocia when it was a kingdom, and 
reckoned a part of it in the time of Ptolemy, 
when first made a province of the empire. 
Torn from the empire by the Turks, it was at 
first a member of the Selzuccian kingdom, as 
afterwards of the Caramanian ; which last, 
founded by Caraman, a great prince of the 



Turks, on the death of Aladine the 2d, the last 
king of the Selzuccian family, was a great eye- 
sore to those of the house of Ottoman, from 
the time of Amurath the 1st, who first warred 
upon it, to the reign of Bajazet the 2d, who in 
fine subverted it, An. 1486." Heyl. Cosm. 

Lycaste, an ancient town of Crete, whose 
inhabitants accompanied Idomeneus to the Tro- 
jan war. Horn. II. 2. 

Lyceium. Vid. AthencB. 

Lychnidus, or Lychnidium, " a city of Illy- 
ria, the chief town of the Dassaretii, situated 
on the great lake of the same name. Its foun- 
dation is ascribed by a writer in the Greek An- 
thology to Cadmus. We hear of its being con- 
stantly in the occupation of the Romans during 
their war with Perseus, king of Macedon, and, 
from its position on the frontier, it must have 
always been deemed a place of importance. 
This was more especially the case after the con- 
struction of the great Egnatian way, which 
passed through it. It appears to have been still 
a large and populous tavm under the Greek em- 
perors. Procopius relates that it was nearly 
destroyed by an earthquake, which overthrew 
Corinth and several other cities during the reign 
of Justinian. In the Synecdemus of Hierocles 
it is probable that we ought to read Avxvi^idg ixrj- 
ToSirnXig for AvXvvidog fi-nTpono'Xig. It is the Opi- 
nion of Palmerius, who has treated most fully 
of the history of Lychnidus in his Description 
of Ancient Greece, that this town was replaced 
by Achrida, once the capital of the Bulgarians ; 
and, according to some writers of the Byzantine 
empire, also the native place of Justinian, and 
erected by him into an archbishopric under the 
name of Justiniana Prima. The opinion of 
this learned critic has been adopted, we believe, 
by the generality of writers on comparative geo- 
graphy. But we are induced by various con- 
siderations to dissent from the commonly re- 
ceived notion on this point. We may observe, 
in the first place, that none of the historians 
quoted by Palmerius assert that Achrida was 
built on the site of Lychnidus. Nicephorus 
Callistus states that Achrida was placed on a 
lofty hill, very near a great lake called Lychni- 
dus, and more anciently Dassarite; but there 
is no reference to the town of that name. Had 
Lychnidus been replaced by the new iovnx of 
Justinian, or the Achrida of the Bulgarians, 
the fact would certainly have been distinctly 
mentioned, since it was a celebrated city, and 
still existing in the reign of Justinian, as Wes- 
seling, we think, has satisfactorily proved. But 
even granting to Palmerius that Justiniana Pri- 
ma and Achrida are the same town, he has not 
at all shown that they are to be identified with 
Lychnidus. The improbability of this suppo- 
sition will, we think, be evident from a compa- 
rison of the Roman Itineraries, which describe 
the Via Egnatia, on which Lychnidus was 
placed, with the best modern maps of the Turk- 
ish dominions in Europe. Now all the Itinera- 
ries agree in fixing Lychnidus at a distance of 
twenty-seven or twenty-eight miles from the 
station in the Candavian mountains, a well- 
known ridge which separated the valley of the 
Germans from the lake of Lychnidus ; while 
Achrida, as it is now called, stands at the north- 
ern extremity of the lake, and not more than 
twelve miles'from the foot of the chain above 
191 



LY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



LY 



mentioned ; so that it ought to be removed at 
least fifteen miles further down the lake to an- 
swer to Lychnidus. In the Table, the first 
station after the Candavian mountains is the 
Pons Servilii, a distance of nine miles. This 
bridge can be no other than that which crosses 
the river Drino on its issuing from the lake of 
Achrida ; and Lyclmidus, in the same Itinera- 
ry, is nineteen miles distant thence, whereas 
Achrida is not removed more than five miles 
from the point in quesiion, where a bridge is 
still foand at the present day. We are assured 
by Pouqueviile that the ruins of Lychnidus are 
still apparent near the monastery of St. Naum, 
on the eastern shore of the lake, and about four- 
teen miles south of Achrida. We have dwelt 
at some length on this point, because the site of 
Lychnidus is important, from its connexion 
with the course of the Egnatian way through 
Macedonia, a country of which we at present 
know so little." Cram. 

Lycia, a province of Asia Minor, invested 
on every side, either by the sea or the moun- 
tains. The chain of mountains which was ce- 
lebrated for the volcanic Chimsera, converted 
into a monster by poetic fiction, commenced at a 
promontory where stood the city of Telmissus, 
on the common boundary of Lycia and Caria. 
This range, holding a north-easterly course, and 
separating Lycia from Caria and Phrygia, joins 
mount Taurus at the north-east corner of the 
first-named province. Mount Taurus, descend- 
ing from this point towards the south, divides 
Lycia and Pamphylia ; its most easterly ex- 
tremity on this common boundary bore in an- 
cient days the name of Climax, or the ladder, 
and is mentioned in the history of Alexander, 
whose army had to wade through the sea in 
order to get round the promontory. The range 
of Taurus continues hence along the shore of 
the gulf which washes the eastern coast of Ly- 
cia, and the Pamphylian coast, until it termi- 
nates in the Sacrum Promontorium. The south- 
western coast of Lycia is deeply indented, form- 
ing the Glancus Sinus. The chief towns of 
Lycia were Patara and Myra; its principal ri- 
vers Xanthus and Giaucus. In ancient times 
the name of Lycia was applied also to the coast 
of Pamphylia ; whence Stephanus makes two 
Lycias, distinguishing one as situated towards 
Pamphylia : this he calls the kingdom of Sar- 
pedon. The name of Lycia is commonly re- 
ferred to Lycus, son of Pandion, who is said to 
have been expelled from Athens by his brother, 
and to have repaired to Lycia to Sarpedon. But 
it may be remarked that Sarpedon, the brother 
of the first Minos, and Rhadamanthus, could 
not have been contemporary with Lycus the 
brother of ^geus, who carried on a war with 
the second Minos. In accounts that relate to 
periods, whose history is, to say the least, inter- 
mixed with fable, we cannot look for consisten- 
cy. The Solymi, an ancient people of Lycia, 
driven to the north by Sarpedon, changed their 
name for that of Milya?, and occupied a terri- 
tory from them called Milyas. This region is 
near the common boundaries of I^ycia, Phrygia, 
and Pisidia. " The Lycians were, in former 
times, a puissant people, extending their power 
upon the seas as far as Italy. Subjected to the 
Persian not without great difficulty, the people 
with great obstinacy defending their liberty: 
192 



that some of them being besieged by Harpagus, 
lieutenant unto Cyrus, the first Persian mo- 
narch, they burnt their wives, children, servants, 
and riches, in a common fire, and then made a 
furious sally upon the enemy, by whom they all 
were put to the sword. To Alexander in his 
march this way towards Persia, they submitted 
witliout any resistance ; after whose death they 
fell with the rest of these parts into the hand of 
Seleucus. On the defeat of Antiochus at the 
battle of Magnesia, it was given to the Rho- 
dians for their assistance in that war ; but go- 
verned as a free estate by a common council of 
fourteen senators, elected out of their principal 
cities, over whom was one chief president, or 
prince of the senate, whom they called by the 
name Lyciarchus. In these remained the whole 
power of imposing taxes, making war and peace, 
appointing justiciaries an-d inferior magistrates, 
and all things appertaining to the public go- 
vernment; a shadow of which power they re- 
tained when brought under the Romans, and a 
shadow only ; the supreme power being no 
longer in the senate of Lycia, but in that of 
Rome. When made a province of the empire, 
it had the same fortune as the others had, till it 
fell into the power of the Turks : after the death 
of the second Aladine made a part of the king- 
dom of CaramaniaP {Beyl. Cosm.). Under 
the still later Turkish division, "the pasha of 
Kidaieh reigns over the Tekieh, on the coasts 
of the ancient Pamphylia and Lycia. Upon 
the picturesque shores of Lycia, the magnificent 
ruins of Myra, now Cacamo, attest the opu- 
lence of the age of Adrian and of Trajan ; the 
Necropolis, or place of interment; has of itself 
the appearance of a city." Malte-Brun.— 
Pomp. Mel. 1, l^.—WAnville. 

Lycopolis, now Siut, a town of Egypt, in 
the Thebaid, situated a little distance from the 
Nile, beyond Cusa. It received this name on 
account of the immense number of wolves, X-u- 
Koi which repelled an army of Ethiopians who 
had invaded Egypt. Diod.l. — Slrab. 17, 

Lycorea. " Lycorea, which, according to 
Strabo, stood above Cyparissus in Phocis, was 
a place of the highest antiquity, since it is sta- 
ted by the Arundelian Marbles to have been 
once the residence of Deucalion. Strabo also 
affirms that it was more ancient than Delphi. 
Dodwell reports, that it still retains the name of 
Lyakoura ; and he was informed that it possess- 
ed considerable traces of antiquity." Cram. 

Lycormas, a river of JEtolia, whose sands 
were of a golden colour. It was afterwards call- 
ed Evenus from king Evenus, who threw him- 
self into it. Ovid. Met. 2, v. 245. 

Lycosura, a city of Arcadia, situated on the 
slope of mons Lycaeus, now, according to Dod- 
well, Agios Giorgios, near Stala. Pausanias 
considered this the most ancient city in the 
world. Paus. Arc. 38. — Cram. 

Lyctus, a town of Crete, the country of Ido- 
meneus, whence he is often called Lyctius. 
Virg. jEn. 3, v. 401. 

Lycus, I. now the Lech, one of the head 
branches of the Danube in Vindelicia. It be- 
longs to Bavaria, through which it runs during 
its whole course, and passing by Augsbnrgh, 
discharges itself into the Danube between Ingol- 

sfadt and Ratishon. II. Another of Asia 

Minor, which, rismg in the mountams that line 



LY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



the borders of Phrj'giaand Pamphylia, and run- 
ning through the former of these provinces, 
unites with the Maeander below Colossas, on the 

borders of Lydia. III. A considerable river 

of Pontus, which rising in the mountains of 
Armenia Minor, passes through the eastern part 
of Pontus in a north-westerly course, and emp- 
ties into the Iris some distance from its mouth. 
The Lycus, indeed, may perhaps be considered 

the principal stream. IV. One of the small 

streams which constitute the head waters of the 
Euphrates. It belongs to Armenia, and is one 
of the two rivers or rivulets, which unite beneath 
the walls of Erzr 00771, to form the smaller branch 
of Euphrates before its junction with the Murad 
or other branch, which, coming from the east, 
was considered by Xenophon to be the proper 
Euphrates. V. The Zabus was called Ly- 
cus by the Greeks, and was a tributary of the 
Tigris. It was an Assyrian river, and rose in 
the region called Corduene, apart of Curdistan. 
Its course is extremely sinuous, flowing first 
north-west, then west, then inclining towards 
the south-west, and lastly almost south, till it 
falls into the Tigris. 

Lydia, The limits of this province and 
kingdom of Asia Minor must be differently giv- 
en in reference to different eras. Lydia proper 
was bounded north by Mysia, east by Phrygia, 
south by Caria, and west by the waters of the 
JEgean. Such were the limits of Lydia after 
the kiiigs of Sardis, its capita], had extended 
their authority over the Mffiones, who occupied 
the region north of that celebrated city. The 
Lydii and Masones are not to be considered dif- 
ferent people united into one nation, but as the 
same, assuming different names from a change 
of circumstances at different eras. The lonians, 
however, were a different race ; who, coming 
from Europe, established themselves in the isl- 
ands and on the coast, to which they imparted 
the name of Ionia. Under the empire of Croe- 
sus, Lydia included Maeonia and lonis, extend- 
ing westward to the Halys, the limit of his em- 
pire. This, however, was a political and not a 
geographical distribution of the peninsula. As 
Sardis was the capital of Lydia proper, so we 
may look upon Ephesus as that of Ionia ; though 
indeed the nature of the Ionic confederacy hard- 
ly allows the application of such a term even to 
its principal city. It was governed by monarchs, 
who after the fabulous ages reigned for 249 
years in the following order : Ardysus began to 
reign 797 B. C. ; Alyattes, 761; Meles, 747; 
Candaules, 735; Gyges, 718; Ardysus 2d, 680 ; 
Sadyattes, 631 ; Alyattes 2d, 619 ; and Croesus, 
562, who was conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 548, 
when the kingdom became a province of the 
Persian empire. There were three different 
races that reigned in Lydia, the Atyadae, Hera- 
clidae, and Merranadae. The history of the first 
is obscure and fabulous ; the Heraclidse began 
to reign about the Trojan war, and the crown 
remained in their family for about 505 years, 
and was always transmitted from father to son. 
Candaules was the last of the Heraclidae ; and 
Gyges the first, and Croesus the last of the 
Mermnadae. All the distinctions of territory 
in the peninsula may be considered as changed 
or abrogated while the empire of the Persian 
kmgs extended over it ; at least they bore no an- 
alogy to those of the earlier times. Under the 
Part I.— 2 B 



Romans again, new changes and new divisions 
were introduced. At one time with Mysia, 
Phrygia, and Lycaonia, Lydia formed the king- 
dom of Pergamus : converted afterwards into a 
praetorian province, it was given, with Mysia, 
Phrygia, and Caria, into the hands of a prefect. 
Under Constantine, who divided his empire into 
diocesses, Lydia fell with Caria, Lycia, the isl- 
ands Pamphylia, Pisidia, &c. into the diocess 
called that of Asia, of which Ephesus was the 
capital. The Lydians were an enterprising 
people ; and it has never yet been disproved that 
Heiruria owed her early population and civili- 
zation to a Lydian colony. Vid. Hetruria. They 
were no less remarkable, however, for their 
luxury and effeminacy after their empire had 
become somewhat extended. Sipylusand Tmo- 
lus were the principal mountains, and the 
Hermus, the Pactolus, the Caystrus, and the 
Maeander, the principal rivers of Lydia. 

Lyncest^. Vid. Lyncus. 

Lyncus, " was situated east of the Dassareiii 
of Illyria, from whose territory it was parted by 
the chain of mount Bernas, or Bora ; while on 
the north it adjoined Pelagonia and Deuriopus, 
districts of Paeonia. It was watered by the Eri- 
gonus and its tributary streams, and was tra- 
versed by the great Egnatian way. The Lyn- 
cestae were at first an independent people, go- 
verned by their own princes, who were said to 
be descended from the illustrious family of the 
Bacchiadae at Corinth. Arrhibaeus. one of these, 
occupied the throne when Brasidas undertook 
his expedition into Thrace. At the solicitation 
of Perdiccas, who was anxious to add the terri- 
tory of Arrhibaeus to his dominions, Brasidas, 
in conjunction with a Macedonian force, in- 
vaded Lyncus. but was soon compelled to retire 
by the arrival of a large body of Illyrians, who 
joined the troops of the Lyncestian prince, and 
had some difficulty in securing his retreat. Stra- 
bo informs us, that Irrha, the daughter of Ar- 
rhabaeus, (as he writes the name,) was mother 
of Eurydice, who married Amyntas, the father 
of Philip. By this marriage it is probable that 
the principality of Lyncus became annexed to 
the crown of Macedon." Cram. 

Lyrnessus, a city of Cilicia, the native coun- 
try of Briseis, called thence L/ijrnesseis. It 
was taken and plundered by Achilles and the 
Greeks, at the time of the Trojan war, and the 
booty divided among the conquerors. Homer. 11. 
2, V. Vdl.—Ovid. Met. 12, v. lOS.—Heroid. 3, 
V. 5. Trist. 4, el. 1, v. 15. 

Lysimachia, now Hexamili, I. a city on the 
Thracian Chersonesus. Paus. 1, c. 9. This 
city was founded bv Lysimachus, who trans- 
ferred to it the population of the then declining 
Cardia, near which it was built. Its modern 
name is in allusion to the width of the isthmus 
on which it stood. Hexamili, however, can 

hardly be considered a town. II. Another 

in ^tolia. 



M. 



Macje, a people of Arabia Felix. Mela, 3. c, 
8. They are placed in Africa, near the larger 
Syrtis, by Herodot. 4, v. 115.— Sil. 3, v. 275, 1. 
5, V. 194. 

Macaris, an ancient name of Crete. 

Macedonia. "Much uncertainty exists as to^ 
193 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



the origin of the name of Macedon, but it seems 
generally agreed among the writers of antiquity 
that its more ancient appellation was Emathia. 
According to Hesiod, Macedo, the founder of 
this nation, was the son of Jupiter, or of Osiris 
according to Diodorus, while many of the mo- 
derns have derived the name from that of Kit- 
tim, by which it has been supposed that the 
kings of Macedon are designated in the Old 
Testament. In support of this opinion it is ob- 
served, that the country is not unfrequently 
called Macetia, and the inhabitants Macetae. 
It appears from Herodotus, that the name serv- 
ed originally to designate the small place or dis- 
trict of Macednon, in the vicinity of mount 
Pindus. And, according to the same ancient 
historian, it would seem that this was the pri- 
mary appellation of the Dorians. The origin 
of the Macedonian dynasty is a subject of some 
intricacy and dispute. There is one point, 
however, on which all the ancient authorities 
agree ; namely, that the royal family of that 
country was of the race of the Temenidae of 
Argos, and descended from Hercules. The 
difference of opinion principally regards the in- 
dividual of that family to whom the honour of 
founding this illustrious monarchy is to be as- 
cribed. Thucydides gives an accurate account 
of the extent of territory possessed by the Ma- 
cedonian monarch. ' Alexander, father of Per- 
diccas, and his ancestors the Temenidae, who 
came from Argos,' says the historian, ' were 
the first occupiers of Macedonia after they had 
vanquished and expelled the Pierians, who re- 
tired to Phagres across the Strymon, and the 
country under mount Pangaeus, and other 
places; from which circumstance, the coast 
situated undei* mount Pangaeus is called the 
Pierian gulf They also dispossessed of their 
territory the Bottiaei, who are now contiguous 
to the Chalcidians. They likewise occupied a 
narrow strip of Poeonia, along the river Axius, 
from Pella to the sea ; and beyond the Axius, 
as far as the Strymon, the district called Myg- 
donia, after driving out the Edones, the original 
inhabitants. They also expelled the Eordi 
from Eordaea, (the greater part of whom were 
destroyed, but a few remain near Physca,) as 
well as the Almopes from Almopia. Besides 
these, there were other districts of which the 
Ma cedonians were masters at the time of Sital- 
ces' invasion; such as Anthemus, Grestonia, 
and Bisaltia. Their authority extended also 
over the Lyncestae and Elimiotae, and other in- 
land tribes, which, though governed by their 
own princes, were considered as dependants and 
allies.' On the conquest of Macedonia by the 
Romans the following decree was issued by the 
Roman senate and people respecting that coun- 
try. It was ordered that the Macedonians 
should be considered as free, living under their 
own laws, and electing their own magistrates ; 
and that they should pay to the Romans bne 
half only of the annual contributions heretofore 
levied by their kings. It was also enacted, that 
from henceforth Macedonia should be divided 
into four distinct regions. The first of these was 
to comprise all the country between the rivers 
Strymon and Nessus, and whatever Perseus 
held on the left bank of the latter, with the ex- 
ception of Enos, Maronea, and Abdera. On 
the right bank of the Strymon the districts of 
194 



Bisaltia and Heraclea Sintica were included in 
this division. The second was formed of the 
country situated between the Strymon and the 
Axius, with the addition of ancient Paeonia. 
The third extended from the latter river to the 
Peneus. The fourth region reached, from 
mount Bermius to the confines of Illyria and 
Epirus. It was decided that Amphipolis should 
be the capital of the first division, Thessalonica 
of the second, Pella of the third, and Pelagonia 
of the fourth." — Cram. These it will be under- 
stood, were the limits of Macedonia, reduced to 
a province ; as the kingdom of Philip, its limits 
may be defined nearly as follows. On the north, 
the ridge of mount Haemus divided it from 
Moesia ; and the Cambunii monies separated it 
from Thessaly on the opposite side. The coun- 
try of the Macedonian Illyrians lay upon its 
west, beyond the Scardus mountains and the 
hills called Bernus ; while on the east the Stry- 
mon distinguished its borders from the farther 
limits of Thrace. Before the conquests of 
Philip extended the empire of his kingdom over 
all of Greece, the inhabitants of the southern 
parts were accustomed to consider the Macedo- 
nians like the Thracians, &c. as barbarians; 
nor were they looked upon as Greeks till that 
prince converted Greece into Macedonia. They 
were, in all probability, of the same origin as 
the Thracians, from whom there is little doubt 
they derived their descent. The kingdom of 
Macedonia, first founded B. C. 814, by Caranus, 
a descendant of Hercules, and a native of Ar- 
gos, continued in existence 646 years, till the 
battle of Pydna. The family of Caranus re- 
mained in possession of the crown until the 
death of Alexander the Great, and began to 
reign in the following order : Caranus, after a 
reign of 28 years, was succeeded by Coenus, who 
ascended the throne 786 B. C. Thurimus 774, 
Perdiccas 729, Argaeus 678, Philip- 640, ^Eropas 
602, Alcetas or Alectas 576, Amyntas 547, Alex- 
ander 497, Perdiccas 454, Archelaus413, Amyn- 
tas 399, Pausanias 398, Amyntas 2d 397, Argaeus 
the tyrant 390, Amyntas restored 390, Alexan- 
der 2d 371, Ptolemy Alorites 370, Perdiccas 3d 
366, Philip son of Amyntas 360, Alexander the 
Great 336, Philip Aridaeus 323, Cassander 316. 
Aniipater and Alexander 298, Demetrius king 
of Asia 294, Pyrrhus 287, Lysimachus 286, 
Ptolemy Ceraunus 280, Meleager tM'^o months, 
Antipater the Etesian 45 days, Antigonus Gon- 
atas 277, Demetrius 243, Antigonus Doson 232, 
Philip 221, Perseus 179, conquered by the Ro- 
mans 168 B. C. at Pydna. 

Macri, a river flowing from the Appenines, 
and dividing Liguria from Etruria. Ducan. 2. 
V. 426.— Z.W. 39, c. S^.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 

Macrobh, a people of Ethiopia, celebrated 
for their justice and the innocence of their man- 
ners. They generally lived to their 120th year, 
some say to a thousand; and, indeed from that 
longevity they have obtained their name(f(aKjOoj 
/Siog, long life) to distinguish them more parti- 
cularly from the other inhabitants of ^Ethiopia. 
After so long a period spent in virtuous actions, 
and freed from the indulgences of vice, and from 
maladies, they dropped into the grave as to 
sleep, without poin and without terror. Orph. 
Argon. 1105.— Herodot. 3, c. 11.— Mela, 3, c 
9.—Plin. 7, c. i8.— Val. Max. 8, c. 3. 

Macrontichos. Vid Dercotu 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



Madaura, a town on the borders of Numidia 
and Gaetulia, of which the inhabitants were 
called Madaurenses. It was the native place of 
Apuleius. Aful. Met. 11, 

MiEANDER, a celebrated river of Asia Minor, 
rising near Celsense, and flowing through Caria 
and Ionia into the jiEgean Sea betw'^een Miletus 
and Priene, after it has been increased by the 
waters of the Marsyas, Lycus, Eudon, Lethae- 
us, &c. It is celebrated among the poets, for its 
windings, which amount to no less than 600, 
and from which all obliquities have received the 
name of Mceanders. It forms in its course, ac- 
cording to the observations of some travellers, 
the Greek letters £ ^|j & w, and from its wind- 
ings Dsedalus had the first idea of his famous 
labyrinth. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 145, &LC.— Virg. 
^n. 5, V. 2M.—lMcan. 5, v. 208, 1. 6, v. 471. 
—Homer. 11. %—Herodot. 2, c. 29,— Czc. Pis. 
22.—Strab. 12, &c.—Mela, 1, c. 17. This ri- 
ver is called by the Turks the Meinder; hut 
because they give the same name to the Cays- 
ter, they prefix to this the epithet Boiuc or 
Great, as to the smaller stream a name indica- 
tive of its inferiority. 

M.EAT^, a people at the south of Scotland. 
r)io. 76, c. 12. 

MiEDi, a people of Madica, a district of 
Thrace near Rhodope. Liv. 26, c. 25, 1. 40, c. 
21. 

MjENALU.s, {plur. Msenala,) I. a mountain of 
Arcadia, sacred to the god Pan, and greatly fre- 
quented by shepherds. It received its name from 
Maenalus, a son of Lycaon. It was. covered 
with pine trees, whose echo and shade have 
been greatly celebrated by all the ancient poets. 
Ovid. Met. 1, v. 216.— Fw-^. G. 1, v. 17. Ed. 
8, V. ^.—Paus. 8, c. 2.—Strai. 8.— Mela, 2, 
c, 3. " The modern name of this mountain is 
Roino. Dodwell says its height is considerable, 
and that it is characterized by the glens and 
valleys which intersect it, and are watered with 
numerous rivulets. It is connected on the east 
with mount Parthenius, and to the north with 
the hills of Orchomenus and Stymphalus." 
Cram. II. A town of Arcadia, 

MffiNUs, a river of Germany, now called the 
Mayne, falling into the Rhine at Mayence, 

M^EONiA. Vid. Lydia. The Etrurians, as 
being descended from a Lydian colony, are often 
called McEonidcB, {Virg. yEw. 11, v. 759.) and 
even the lake Thrasymenus in their country is 
called Maonius lacus. Sil. Ital. 15, v. 35. 

M.aE6T.E, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia. 

M.EOTIS Palus, a large lake, or part of the 
sea between Europe and Asia, at the north of 
the Euxine, to which it communicates by the 
Cimmerian Bosphorus, now called the Sea of 
Azofh or Zahack. It was worshipped as a deiiy 
by the Massagetse. It extends about 390 miles 
from south-west to north-east, and is about 600 
miles in circumference. The Amazons are 
called McBoiides, as living in the neighbourhood. 
Strab. — Mela, 1, c. 1, &c. — Justin. 2, c. 1. — 
Curt. 5, c. 4. — Lucan. 2, &c. — Ovid. Fast. 3, 
el. 12. ep. Sab. 2, v. 9.— Virg. .^n. 6, v. 739. 

M^siA sYLVA, a wood in Etruria, near the 
mouth of the Tiber. Liv. 1, c. 33. 

Magna Gr.ecia. — Vid Grcecia Magna. 

Magnesia, I. a city of Lydia, surnamed from 
the Maeander, upon which it stood. This was 
a Grecian colony. It is now Guzel-Hizar^ or 



the Handsome Castle. II. Another in the 

same country, called Sypilia from its situation 
beneath mount Sypilus, on the Hermus, oppo- 
site the mouth of the Hyllus. In this city died 
Themistocles, an exile from his country, and 
dependant on the magnanimity and bounty of 
the Persian king. It is celebrated for his 
death, and for a battle which was fought there 
187 years before the Christian era, between the 
Romans and Antiochus king of Syria. The 
forces of Antiochus amounted to 70,000 men 
according to Appian, or 70,000 foot and 12,000 
horse according to Livy, which have been ex- 
aggerated by Florus to 300,000 men ; the Ro- 
man army consisted of about 28 or 30,000 men, 
2000 of which were employed in guarding the 
camp. The Syrians lost 50,000 foot and 4000 
horse, and the Romans only 300 killed with 25 
horse. It was founded by a colony from Mag- 
nesia in Thessaly. III. A country on the 

eastern parts of Thessaly, at the south of Ossa. 
It was sometimes called .ZEmonia and Magnes 
Campus. The capital, was also called Magne- 
sia. " The Greeks gave the name of Magne- 
sia to that narrow portion of Thessaly which is 
confined between the mouth of the Peneus and 
the Pagasasan bay to the north and south, and 
between the chain of Ossa and the sea on the 
west and east. The people of this district were 
called Magnetes, and appear to have been in 
possession of it from the most remote period. 
They are also universally allowed to have form- 
ed part of the Amphictyonic body. The Mag- 
nesians submitted to Xerxes, giving earth and 
water in token of subjection. Thucydides leads 
us to suppose they were in his time dependant 
on the Thessalians ; for he says, Mdyvrireg kqI 
olaWoi v-rfjKooi QitraaXCov. They passcd, with the 
rest of that nation, under the dominion of the 
kings of Macedon, who succeeded Alexander, 
and were declared free by the Romans after the 
battle of Cynoscephalae. Their government was 
then republican, affairs being directed by a ge- 
neral council, and a chief magistrate called 
Magnetarch. Mount Homole, the extreme 
point of Magnesia to the north, was probably a 
portion of the chain of Ossa; and celebrated 
by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen- 
taurs and Lapith8e,and a favourite haunt of Pan. 

Ceu, duo nuhigencB qimm vertice montis ah alto 
Descendunt Centauri, Homolen Othrymque niva- 

lem 
Linquentes cursu rapido. jEn. VII. 674. 

From Pausanias we learn that it was extremely 
fertile, and well supplied with springs and foun- 
tains. One of these was apparently the Li- 
bethrian fountain. Strabo says that mount 
Homole was near the mouth of the Peneus, 
and Apollonius describes it as close to the sea." 

Cram. IV; a promontory of Magnesia in 

Thessaly. Liv. 37. — Flor. 3. — Appian. 

Magon, a river of India falling into the Gan- 
ges. Arrian. 

Majorca. Vid. Baleares. 

Malea, I. a promontory of Lesbos. II. 

Another in Peloponnesus, at the south of La- 
conia. The sea is so rough and boisterous 
there, that the dangers which attended a voyage 
round it gave rise to the proverb of Cum ad 
Maleam dejkxeris obliviscere quce sunt domi. It 
is now Cape St. Angela or Malic ; according 
^195 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



to Strabo there were 670 stadia from hence to 
Taenarum, including the sinuosities of the coast. 
Cram. — Strab. 8 and 9. — LMcan. 6, v. 58. — 
Plut. in Arat.— Virg. jEn. 5, v. 1^2.— Mela, 2, 
c. 3. — Liv. 21, c. 44. — Ovid. Am. 2, el. 16, v, 
24, el. 11, V. 20.— Pans. 3, c. 23. 

Maleventum, the ancient name of Beneven- 
tum. Liv. 9, c. 27. 

Malia, a city of Phthiotis, near mount CEta 
and Thermopylse. There were in its neigh- 
bourhood some hot mineral waters which the 
poet Catullus has mentioned. From Malia, a 
gulf or small bay in the neighbourhood, at the 
western extremities of the island of Euboea, has 
received the name of the gulf of Malia, Malia- 
cum Fretum or Maliacus Sinus. Some call it 
the gulf of Lamia from its vicinity to Lamia. 
It is often taken for the Sinus Pelasgicus of the 
ancients. Pans. 1, c. 4. — Herodot. 

Mamertina, a town of Campania, famous 

for its wines. A name of Messana in Sicily. 

Martial. 13, ep. 111.— Strab. 7. 

Mamertini. Vid. Part II. 

Mandela, a village in the country of the Sa- 
bines, near Horace's country-seat. Horat. 1, 
ep. 18, V. 105. 

Mandubii, a people of Celtic Gaul, depend- 
ants of the ^dui. Their chief city was Ale- 
sia, and they occupied a part of the ancient 
dukedom of Burgundy, called V Auxois, now 
Departement de la Cote d'Or. Strabo is incor- 
rect in representing them as adjacent to the Ar- 
verni, since they were separated from that peo- 
ple by a large portion of the ^Eduan territory. 
CcBS. Bell. G. 7, c. 78. 

Manduria, a city of Calabria, near Taren- 
tum, whose inhabitants were famous for eating 
dog's flesh. Plin. 2, c. 103.— iw. 27, c. 15. 

Mantinea, a town of Arcadia, at the foot of 
mount Artemisius, on the borders of Argolis. 
The little river Ophis flowed beneath its walls. 
Mantinea consisted of a few small villages, 
which at an early period uniting, formed this 
city, for a long time the chief town of Arca- 
dia. In history the Mantineans hold a con- 
spicuous place for the wisdom of their institu- 
tions, and for the battles fought in their territory. 
After the Peloponnesian war, in which they 
had taken part with the Lacedaemonians, they 
fell into the displeasure of Sparta; and two 
wars, with an interval of some years between 
them, were the consequence. In the latter, the 
walls of the town were demolished, and the 
city, resolved into its primitive elements, formed 
again, instead of one united town, four smaller 
villages. At the same time it was compelled to 
change its republican institutions for others 
more consistent with the views of the Laco- 
nians. When Thebes began to assume, in the 
time of her generals Pelopidas and Epaminon- 
das, an important attitude in the affairs of 
Greece, the Mantinseans, under the protection 
of that city, reunited their population and re- 
built their walls; another battle between the 
Thebans and the Spartans succeeded, in which 
Epaminondaslost his life, and which, taking its 
name from Mantingea, has given to that city 
an immortal fame. From this time forward the 
policy of the people was indirect and timid in 
the convulsions which were preparing the way 
for the destruction of Greece ; and the barba- 
rous massacre of the Achaeans who were garri- 
196 



soned in their city, exciting the anger of An- 
tigonus and the league, a chastisement was in- 
flicted upon them equal to their perfidy. The 
city was taken, and the inhabitants were sold as 
slaves ; and the name of Antigonea was assign- 
ed to it instead of its ancient title, to obliterate 
all memory of the guilty place. Under the Ro- 
mans the place recovered a part of its splendour, 
enjoying the favour of the emperor Augustus, 
and afterwards of Hadrian, who restored the 
name of Mantinea. " The tomb of Areas, who 
gave his name to all the country, was erected 
close to the temple of Juno, on a site called the 
altar of the Sun. The equestrian statue of 
Gryllus, the son of Xenophon, who eminently 
distinguished himself in the battle of Mantinea, 
was placed not far from the theatre. In the 
same quarter were situated the temples of Vesta 
and Venus Symmachia, the latter having been 
erected by the Mantineans in commemoration 
of the battle of Actium. There was also in 
this city a temple raised to Antinous, the fa- 
vourite of Hadrian, by order of that emperor; 
it being pretended that the Bithynians, among 
whom Antinous was born, were descended from 
the Mantineans. A yearly festival and quin- 
quennial games were also solemnized in honour 
of Hadrian's minion ; and in a building near 
the gymnasium were deposited his statue, and 
several paintings, in which he was represented 
under the form of Bacchus." Cram. 

Mantinorum Oppidum, a town of Corsica, 
now supposed to be Bastia. 

Mantua, a town of Italy beyond the Po, 
founded about 300 years before Rome, by Bla- 
nor or Ocnus, the son of Manto. It was the 
ancient capital of Etruria. When Cremona, 
which had followed the interest of Brutus, was 
given to the soldiers of Octavius, Mantua also, 
which was in the neighbourhood, shared the 
common calamity, though it had favoured the 
party of Augustus, and many of the inhabitants 
were tyrannically deprived of their possessions. 
Virgil, who was among them, applied for re- 
dress to Augustus, and obtained it. Strab. 5. 
— Virg. Ed. 1, &c. G. 3, v. 12. ^n. 10, v. 
180. — Ovid. Amor. 3, el. 15. It is now Man- 
tova., in English Mantua. This place is one of 
the greatest antiquity, not being, like other towns 
in that part of Italy, of Gallic origin. By Vir- 
gil, its founding is ascribed to the Tuscans, and 
though we are not called upon to acknowledge 
its debt to Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, ac- 
cording to the fancy of that poet and of the ear- 
ly Florentine who followed his tradition, we can 
have no hesitation in assigning to Mantua a 
Tuscan origin. It was situated on an island, 
or rather in a marsh occasioned by the waters 
of the Mincius, and was in antiquity by no 
means distinguished, being among the smaller 
towns of Gallia Cisalpina. The birth of Vir- 
gil alone ennobled it, however, in the eyes of 
the Romans of the empire; and in modern 
times, amid all the power and comparative splen- 
dour to which it arose, the name of Virgil ap- 
pears to rank among the first of its glories. He 
was not born, however, within the city, but at 
Andes, a small village in the vicinity. 

Marathon, a village of Attica, 10 miles from 
Athens, celebrated for the victory which the 
10,000 Athenians and 1000 Plataeans, under the 
command of Miltiades, gained over the Persian 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



army, consisting of 100,000 foot and 10,000 
horse, or, according toVal. Maximus, of 300,000, 
or as Justin says, of 600,000, under the com- 
mand of Datis and Artaphernes, on the 28th of 
Sept. 490 B. C. In this battle, according to 
Herodotus, the Athenians lost only 192 men, 
and the Persians 6,300. Justin has raised the 
loss of the Persians in this expedition, and in the 
battle, to 200,000 men. To commemorate this im- 
mortal victory of their countrymen, the Greeks 
raised small columns, with the names inscribed 
on the tombs of the fallen heroes. It was also 
in the plains of Marathon that Theseus over- 
came a celebrated bull, which plundered the 
neighbouring country. Erigone is called Mara- 
ihonia virgo, as being born at Marathon. Stat. 

5, Sylv. 3, V. 74.— C. Nep. in Milt.—Herodot. 

6, &c. — Justin. 2, c. 9. — Val. Max. 5, c. 3. — 
Plut. in Parol. — Pans. 2, c. 1. 

Marcianopolis, the capital of Lower Moesia. 
It received its name in honour of the empress 
Marciana, and is now called by the inhabit- 
ants Prebislaw, or the Illustrious City. D'An- 
ville. 

Marcomanni, a German people, dwelling, 
when first known to the Romans, between the 
Rhine and the Mayne, in a part of that which 
now constitutes the Duchy of Baden. When 
the Roman arms began to threaten the extinc- 
tion, or at least the subjugation, of all the border 
nations, the Marcomanni resolved to quit their 
dangerous seats, and crossing the Maenus and 
the vast Herc5'-nian forests, they drove the Boii 
from their possessions about the sources of the 
Albis {EU?e), and fixed their residence in that 
country. It however retained, and still retains, 
in the name of Bohemia^ the appellation of the 
people thus expelled by the Marcomans. They 
proved powerful enemies to the Roman empe- 
rOrs. Augustus granted them peace, but they 
were afterwards subdued by Antoninus and 
Trajan, &c. Paterc. 2, c. 109. — Tacit. Ann. 2, 
c. 46 and 62, G. 42. 

Mardi, a people of Persia, on the confines of 
Media. They were very poor, and generally 
lived upon the flesh of wild beasts. Their coun- 
try in later times, became the residence of the 
famous assassins destroyed by Hulakou, the 
grandson of Zingis Khan. Herodot. 1 and 3, 
— Plin. 6, c. 16. 

Mardia, a place of Thrace, famous for a bat- 
tle between Constantine and Licinius. A. D, 
315. 

Mardus, a river of Media, falling into the 
Caspian Sea. 

Mare Mortuum, called also, from the bitu- 
men it throws up, the lake Asphaltites, is situate 
in Jud^a, and near 100 miles long and 25 broad. 
Its waters are salter than those of the sea, but 
the vapours exhaled from them are not so pesti- 
lential as have been generally represented. It 
is supposed that the 13 cities, of which Sodom 
and Gomorrah, as mentioned in the Scriptures, 
were the capital, were destroyed by a volcano, 
and on the site a lake formed. Volcanic appear- 
ances now mark the face of the country, and 
earthquakes are frequent. Plin. 5, c. 6. — Jo- 
seph. J. Bell. 4, c. 21.—Strab. 16, p. IGi.— Jus- 
tin. 36, c. 3. " To the east of JudnBa,two rude 
and arid chains of hills encompass, with their 
dark steeps, a long basin, formed in a clay soil, 
mixed with bitumen and rock salt. The water 



contained in this hollow is impregnated with a 
mixture of different saline matters, having lime, 
magnesia, and soda, for their base, partially 
neutralized with muriatic and sulphuric acid. 
The salt which they yield by evaporation is 
about one fourth of their weight. The asphalta, 
or bitumen of Judsea, rises from time to time 
from the bottom, floats on the surface of the 
lake, and is thrown out on the shores, where it 
is gathered for use. Formerly the inhabitants 
were in the practice of going out in boats or rafts 
to collect it in the middle of the lake. None of 
oUr travellers have thought of sailing on this 
lake, which would undoubtedly contribute to 
render their acquaintance with its phenomena 
more complete. We are told by the greater part 
of those who have visited it, that neither fish nor 
shells are to be found in it, that an unwholesome 
vapour is sometimes emitted by it, and that its 
shores, frightfully barren, are never cheered by 
the note of any bird. The inhabitants however, 
are not sensible of any noxious quality in its 
vapours ; and the accounts of birds falling down 
dead in attempting to fly over it are entirely 
fabulous. We are taught to believe that the 
site of the Dead Sea was once a fertile valley, 
partly resting on a mass of subterranean water, 
and partly composed of a stratum of bitumen ; 
that a fire from heaven kindled these combusti- 
ble materials, the fertile soil sunk into the abyss 
beneath, and that Sodom and Gomorrah, and 
other cities of the plain, probably built of bitumi- 
nous stones, were consumed in the tremendous 
conflagration. In this manner the amatfeurs of 
physical geography contrive a scientific explana- 
tion of those awful changes of which, according 
to the Scriptures, this place was once the scene." 
Malte-Brun. 

Mareotis lacus, a bay of the Mediterra- 
nean, through which the Nile, at one of its 
mouths, discharged itself into that great inland 
sea. " To the south of Alexandria is lake Ma- 
reotis. For many ages this lake was dried up ; 
for though the bed is lower than the surface of 
the ocean, there is not sufficient rain to keep up 
any lake in that coimtry in opposition to the 
force of perpetual evaporation. But in 1801, the 
English, in order to circumscribe more effectual- 
ly the communications which the French army 
in the city of Alexandria maintained with the 
surrounding country, cut across the walls of the 
old canal which had formed a dyke, separating 
this low ground from lake Maadie. or the lake 
of Aboukiron the east. In consequence of this 
easy operation, the water had a sudden fall of 
six feet, and the lake of Mareotis, which had so 
long disappeared, and the site of which had been 
occupied partly by salt marshes, partly by cul- 
tivated lands, and even villages, resumed its 
ancient extent. This modern inundation from 
the sea, indeed, is much more extensive than 
the ancient lake Mareotis, occupying, probably, 
four times its extent." Malte-Brun. 

Margiana, a part of the empire of the Per- 
sian kings, belonging to Media, and afterwards 
attached to the kingdom of Parthia. On its bor- 
ders were the countries of Bactriania, Aria, Par- 
thia, and Hyrcania, with Sogdiana beyond its 
northern boundary, which was formed by the 
Oxus. The Margus, which flowed from the 
borders of Bactriana through the whole extent 
of this province, imparted to it the name of Mar 
197 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



giana. All this country forms at present but a 
part of the district of Khorason. It was un- 
commonly fertile, and produced the most excel- 
lent wiues, the grapes being of the finest quality 
and of the largest size. The vines are so un- 
commonly large, that two men can scarcely 
grasp the trunk of one of them. Curt. 7, c. 10. 
—Ptol. 5. 

Margus, I, a river of Mcesia, falling into the 
Danube, with a town of the same name, now 

Kastolatz. 11. Another in Asia, now the 

Marg-ab. Rising in the mountains of Bactria- 
na, this river flows through the greater part of 
Margiana towards the Ochus, but before it 
reaches that river, after having passed the capi- 
tal, it is said to be absorbed in the sands that 
overspread those parts of Asia. 

Marians Foss^e, a town of Gaul Narbo- 
nensis, which received its name from the dyke 
(Jossa) which Marius opened thence to the sea. 
Plin. 3, c. 4. — Strab. 4. 

Mariandynum, a place in Bithynia, where 
the poets feigned that Hercules dragged Cerbe- 
rus out of hell. Dionys. — Ftol. 5, c. 1. — Mela, 
I, c. 2 and 19, 1. 2, c. 7. 

Marianus mons, now Sierra Morena, a ridge 
of mountains in Spain, dividing Bsetica from 
Lusitania and Tarraconensis. It joins the Oros- 
peda mons at the springs of the Anas ; Caput- 
Anse and the Batis also rise in that part in which 
those mountain ranges join one another. The 
Marianus now separates Castile from Andalu- 
sia. 

Marisus, a river of Dacia, emptying into the 
Tibiscus. In modern geography it belongs, for 
the former part of its course, to Transylvania, 
and for the latter forms the boundary line be- 
tween the Bannot on the south and Hungary 
on the north. It is now the Maros. 

Marmarica. Vid. Marmarida. 

MARMARiDiE, the inhabitants of that part of 
Libya called Marmarica, between Cyrene and 
Egypt. They were swift in running, and pre- 
tended to possess some drugs or secret power to 
destroy the poisonous effects of the bite of ser- 
pents. Sil. It. 3, V. 300, 1. 11, V. 182.— lAican. 
4, V. 680, 1.9, V. 894. 

Marmarion, a town of Euboea, whence 
Apollo is called Marmarinus. Strab. 10. 

Maronea, a city of the Cicones, in Thrace, 
near the Hebrus, of which Bacchus was the 
chief deity. The wine was always reckoned 
excellent, and with it, it was supposed, Ulysses 
intoxicated the Cyclops Polyphemus. Plin. 14, 
c. L—Herodot.—Mela, 2, c. A.— Tibull. 4, el. 1, 
V.57. 

Marpesus, a mountain of Paros, abounding 
in white marble. The quarries are still seen 
by modern travellers. Virg. jEn. 6, v. 471. — 
Plin. 4, c. 12, 1. 36, c. 5. 

Marrucini. " The Marrucini occupied a 
narrow slip of territory on the right bank of the 
river Aternus, between the Vestini to the north, 
and the Frentani to the south, and between the 
Peligni and the sea towards the west and east. 
Cato derived their origin from the Marsi. Like 
that people, they were accounted a hardy and 
warlike race, and with them they made common 
cause against the tyranny of Rome. An idea 
maybe formed of the population and force of the 
several petty nations which may be classed to- 
gether in this part of Italy, from a statement of 
198 



Polybius, where that historian, when enumerat- 
ing the different contingents which the allies of 
the Romans were able to furnish about the time 
of the second Punic war, estimates that of the 
Marsi, Marrucini, Vestini. and Frentani, at 
20,000 foot and 4000 horse."' Cram. 

Marruvium, the chief town of the Marsi, in 
the country of the Sabines. It stood upon the 
shore of the celebrated Fucine lake. 

Marsi, a nation of Germany, who afterwards 
came to settle near the lake Fucinus in Italy, in 
a country checkered with forests abounding with 
wild boars and other ferocious animals. They 
at first proved very inimical to the Romans, but, 
in process of time, they became their firmest 
supporters. They are particularly celebrated 
for the civil war in which they were engaged, 
and which from them has received the name of 
the Marsic war. The large contributions they 
made to support the interest of Rome, and the 
number of men which they continually supplied 
to the republic, rendered them bold and aspir- 
ing; and they claimed, with the rest of the 
Italian states, a share of the honour and pri- 
vileges which were enjoyed by the citizens of 
Rome, B. C. 91. The petition, though sup- 
ported by the interest, the eloquence, and the in- 
tegrity of the tribune Drusus, was received with 
contempt by the Roman senate ; and the Marsi, 
with their allies, showed their dissatisfaction by 
taking up arms. Their resentment was in- 
creased, when Drusus, their friend at Rome, 
was murdered by the means of the nobles ; and 
they erected themselves into a republic, and 
Corfinium was made the capital of their new 
empire. A regular war was now begun, and the 
Romans led into the field an army of 100,000 
men, and were opposed by a superior force. 
Some battles were fought, in which the Roman 
generals were defeated, and the allies reaped no 
inconsiderable advantages f^om their victories. 
A battle, however, near Asculum. proved fatal 
to their cause, 4000 of them were left dead on 
the spot, their general, Francus, a man of un- 
common experience and abilities, was slain, and 
such as escaped from the field perished by hun- 
ger in the Appenines, where they had sought a 
shelter. After many defeats and the loss of 
Asculum, one of their principal cities, the allies, 
grown dejected, and tired of hostilities which 
had already continued for three years, sued for 
peace one by one, and tranquillity was at last 
re-established in fhe republic, and all the states 
of Italy were made citizens of Rome. The ar- 
mies of the allies consisted of the Marsi, the 
Peligni, the Vestini, the Hermini, Pompeiani, 
Marcini, Picentese, Venusini, Frentani, Apuli, 
Lucani, and Samnites. The Marsi were great- 
ly addicted to magic. The German Marsi, from 
whom these people were descended according to 
common report, after emigrating from the mar- 
gin of the Lupia, inhabited the banks of the 
Weser in the vicinity of the Cherusci, and were 
altogether undistinguished in history. Horat. 
ep. 5, V. 76, ep. 27, v. 29. — Appian.-^Val. Max. 
8. — Paterc. 2. — Pint, in Sert. Mario, &c. — 
Cic. pro Balb. — Strah. — Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 50 
and 55. G. 2. 

Marsigni, a barbarous people, between the 
sources of the Oder and the JElbe, in that part 
of Germany which is now Silesia, north of the 
Q,uadi and the Marcomanni. 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MA 



Marsyas, I. a river of Phrygia emptying 
into the Mgeander. The confluence of these 
rivers v/as a little below the town of Celaence. 
Liv. 38, c. 13.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 265.—Luca7i. 

3, V. 208. II. Another in Syria, rising in the 

east of the mountains which form the chain of 
Libanus, and falling into the Orontes opposite 
to Apamea. 

Martia aqua, water at Rome, celebrated for 
its clearness and salubrity. It was conveyed to 
Rome, at the distance of above 30 miles, from 
the lake Fucinus, by Ancus Martins, whence it 
received its name. Tihull. 3, el. 7, v, 26. — 
Plin. 31, c. 3, 1. 36, c. 15. 

Marus, {the Morava,) a river of Germany, 
which separates modern Hungary and Mora- 
via. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 63. 

Mas^sylh, a people of Numidia, on the side 
of Mauretania. It was this part of Numidia 
that Syphax ruled over, and which was united 
on his death to the other portion over which 
Massinissa had authority. The promontory 
Tretum, now Sebdaruz, or the Seven Capes, 
divided these two districts,which afterwards con- 
stituted the kingdom of Numidia. Vid. Massyla. 

Masca, a river of Mesopotamia, emptying 
into the Euphrates between the mouth of the 
Chaboras and the borders of Arabia, near the 
town of Corsote. It might be possible to dis- 
play a great deal of learning in fixing the pre- 
cise situation of the mouth of this river ; but as 
it is of very little importance in the history of 
ancient times, and as the difference of a mile or 
two in the description of its course affects in 
no degree the accuracy of our conclusions in 
regard to any fact in ancient history, we shall 
not enter into an examination of its various 
bendings, nor attempt to prove with Mannert, 
that its confluence with the Euphrates was 
within a mile less to the west of Anatho than 
D'Anville has placed it, (See Lemp. Class. 
Diet. 6th Am. ed. in which all these points are 
learnedly discussed.) The name of Masca is 
applied to this river by Xenophon, but Ptolemy 
calls it the Saocoras. It is now designated as 
the Wadal Geboa. 

Massagetje. " We find no name more 
considerable in Scythia than that of Massage- 
tee, which may be interpreted the Great Getes, 
by the signification of the initial syllables. The 
primitive and principal dwelling of the Massa- 
getes was beyond the laxartes, or Araxes, ac- 
cording to Herodotus ; and in ihe vicinity of 
the moor which the same river forms, accord- 
ing to Strabo. And if we find this name in 
other countries, as in those of the Alans, and 
the Huns, of a different race, the diffusion of it 
was owing to the celebrity that it acquired in 
Scythia." D^Anville. The name of Massage- 
tse disappears in the first centuries of Christian- 
ity. They hard no temples, but worshipped the 
sun, to whom they offered horses, on account of 
their swiftness. When their parents had come 
to a certain age., they generally put them to 
death, and eat their flesh mixed with that of 
cattle. Horat. 1, od. 35, v. 40. — Dionys. Per. 
138.—Herodot. 1, c. ^L—Strab. I.— Mela, 1, c. 
2. — Lucan. 2, v. 50. — Justin. 1, c. 8. 

Massicus, a mountain of Campania, near 
Minturnae, famous for its wine, which even 
now preserves its ancient character. Plin. 14, 
c &.— Horat. 1, od. 1, v. Id.— Virg. G. 2, v. 143. 



Massilia, a maritime town of Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, now called Marseilles. It is celebrated 
for its laws, its fidelity to the Romans, and for 
its being long the seat of literature. It acquired 
great consequence by its commercial pursuits 
during its infancy, and even Waged war against 
Carthage. By becoming the ally of Rome, its 
power was established ; but in warmly espous- 
ing the cause of Pompey against Cassar, its 
views were frustrated, and it was so much re- 
duced by the insolence and resentment of the 
conqueror, that it never after recovered its in- 
dependence and warlike spirit. Herodot. 1, c. 
164.— PZiw. 3, c. 4:.— Justin. 37, &c.—Strab. 1.— 
Liv. 5, c. 3. — Horat. ep. 16. — Flor. 4, c. 2. — Cic. 
Flac. 26. Off. 2, 8.— Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 44. Agr. 
4. This city, almost equally celebrated in an- 
tiquity and by the moderns, owed its origin to 
the Asiatic Greeks of Phoc^a, who, fleeing 
from the threatening power and oppression of 
the Persians, brought among the savage Gauls 
the civilization and enterprise of Greece. Five 
hundred years before the Christian era, and 
about the period of the Gallic invasion of Italy, 
while Rome yet acknowledged the rule of the 
Tarquins, these bold and adventurous colonists 
fixed themselves among the Salyes, the fiercest 
people of the Gauls, as yet unattempted in the 
strength and independence of their native land. 
The natural harbour of Massilia was not calcu- 
ted to afford convenient moorings to all the 
vessels which the great trade of the place in- 
vited to its port. The Massilians were^early 
celebrated for their arts and letters, and not less 
so for the excellence of their laws and the just- 
ness with which they were executed. As their 
soil was not fertile, they very soon directed their 
attention therefore rather to commerce than to 
agricultural pursuits ; and a nuniber of colo- 
nies in Hispania and elsewhere, which owed 
their origin to the Phocseans of Marseilles, at^ 
tested the spirit and prosperous enterprise of 
the Massilians. 

Massyli, a people of Numidia, on the east 
of the Masaesyli, and west of Africa properly so 
called. When Massinissa, their king, upon the 
death of Syphax possessed himself of the coun- 
try of the Masssesyli lying on the west, the 
united region constituted one kingdom under the 
name of Numidia. Thus joined they formed 
the territory of Jugurtha, so celebrated for the 
war which he waged with the Romans. Vid. 
Mascesylii. When the Massyli went on horse- 
back, they never used saddles or bridles, but 
only sticks. Their character was warlike, their 
manners simple, and their love of liberty un- 
conquerable. Liv. 24, c. 48, 1. 28, c. 17, 1. 29, c, 
32.— SzZ. 3, V. 282, 1. 16, v. 111.— Ducan. 4, v, 
682.— Hr^. ^En. 4, v. 132. 

Mastramela, a. lake near Marseilles, mer d* 
Martegues. Plin. 3, c. 4. 

Matisco, a town of the ^dui in Gaul, now 
called Macon. 

Matrona, a river of Gaul, now called the 
Marnc, falling into the Seine. This river, 
which, in modem geography, belongs for the 
most part to Champaigne, the departments of 
Marne and Seine et Margie, in the time of the 
Gauls divided many tribes, and rising on the 
confines of the territory that belonged to the 
Linsfones, separated the Belg'ic population from 
the Celtic through the whole of its course, tiL 
199 



MA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



its confluence with the Seine near Lutetia Pa- 
risioriira, the city of Paris. 

Mattiaci, a German people on the borders 
of the Rhine, belonging to the Catti, but early 
in alliance with Rome. Their southern limit 
may be generally described by the course of the 
Mayne towards its mouth, and the Mattiaci 
Fontes, above the confluence of the two rivers 
along which their possessions extended, may be 
considered as one of their principal places. This 
town is now called Wisbaden in Hesse, as were 
the greater part of the lands of the Mattiaci. 
Mattium, supposed to be the same as Marpurg, 
appears to have been their capital, and is some- 
times called the capital of all the Cattian peo- 
ple. Tacit, de Germ. 29. An. I, c. 56. 

Mauretania, an extensive region of Africa, 
upon the sea coast of the north. The Mediter- 
ranean bounded it upon this side; upon the east 
was Numidia; the vast Getulian deserts lay 
upon its borders on the south; and the open 
ocean washed it on the west. These bounda- 
ries enclose the modern kingdoms of Morocco 
and Fez. To this was added a part of Numi- 
dia, when all the coast of Africa was reduced 
into the form of a province or provinces of the 
empire. In the reign of Claudius, Mauretania 
was divided into two parts ; the western, ex- 
tending from the ocean to the river Molochath, 
and formed of what might be considered the 
proper and original Mauretania, was denomi- 
nated Tingitana, from Tingis, its capital ; and 
the eastern portion, reaching from the same 
river to the Ampsagas on the borders of the di- 
minished Numidia, received the surname of Cse- 
sariensis, from the city of Caesaria, which, until 
it received this name from Juba in honour of 
Augustus, had been called lol. At a still later 
period, the interior of Mauretania Csesariensis 
was erected into a separate province under the 
title of Sitifensis, from the capital city of Sitifi. 
On the division of the empire into east and west 
Mauretania, Tingitana constituted a part of 
one of the Spanish provinces. *' The expul- 
sion of thg^ Vandals from Spain put the Goths 
also in possession of the province of Tingitana ; 
the commandant of which, under the last king 
of the Visigoths, in vengeance of a private in- 
jury, introduced the Maures into that kingdom 
about the beginning of the eighth century. The 
western situation of this extremity of Africa, 
procured it from the Arabs the name of Garb, 
from an appellative in their language ; the pro- 
vince of Tingitana corresponding nearly with 
the kingdom of JF^ez." D'Anville'. In the time 
of the Romans, the whole of this coast was 
thickly lined with populous cities, the inhabit- 
ants of which, though partly civilized, lived not 
according to the usages of Roman society. It 
is now inhabited by the African Moors, who 
retain no vestiges of even the partial civiliza- 
tion of the former occupants of their country, 
Mauretania was also called Maurusia. 

Mauri, the inhabitants of Mauretania. Eve- 
ry thing among them grew in greater abundance 
and greater perfection than in other countries. 
Strab. VI.— Martial. 5, ep. 29, 1. 12, ep. 67.— 
Sil. Ital. 4, V. 569, 1. 10, v. 402.— MeZa, 1, c. 5, 
1. 3, c. 10. — Justin. 19, c. 2. — Sallust. Jug. — 
Virg. Mn. 4, v. 206. 

Maurusii, the people of Maurusia, a country 
near the columns of Hercules. It is also called 
200 



Mauretania. Vid. Mauretania. Virg. JEn. 4, 
V. 206. 

Mazaca. Vid. CcBsarea. 

Mazaxes, (sing. Mazaz,) a people of Africa, 
famous for shooting arrows. Lntcan. 4, v. 681. 

Mazeras, a river of Hyrcania, falling into 
the Caspian Sea. Plut. 

Mazices, and Mazyges, a people of Libya, 
inhabiting the country in the vicinity of the 
Oases. 

Media, a country of Asia. Media, properly 
so called, was separated from Armenia by the 
Araxes on the north, the province of Asia ex- 
tended from its eastern boundary, Assyria lay 
upon its west, and Persis and Susiana bordered 
on it towards the south. On the north, the 
mountain regions of this country west of Ar- 
menia, were washed by the waters of the Cas- 
pian Sea. The modern Irak, distinguished, 
according to D'Anville, by the surname of Aja- 
mi or the Persian Irak, corresponds to the 
country contained within these limits. " The 
vast province of Irak- Adjemi, which nearly cor- 
responds to the Great Media of the ancients, 
takes its name from the first founder of the Per- 
sian monarchy ; the Djemshid of the Oriental- 
ists, and the Achsemenes of the Greeks. \i shid 
and menes are considered terminations, these 
two words may be reduced to one root, Adjem 
or Acheni. With the Arabians Irak signifies 
Babylonia, and Adjemi is their name for the 
Persians. The name of the province, therefore, 
means Persian Babylonia. This province oc- 
cupies the greater part of the central plateau of 
Persia," (Malte-Brun,) and its description is 
comprehended in its name of the great salt 
desert. But Media, in the widest extent of its 
empire, was not so circumscribed, and extend- 
ing on the west almost to the Halys, and on 
the south over Persia, it formed one of the dis- 
tinguished monarchies of the early ages of an- 
tiquity. It should be observed that the history 
of Media, with which we are acquainted, refers 
but to the later period of her people, who, at a 
much earlier period, and probably in regions 
farther to the east, had exercised a controlling 
power over the afiairsof Asia. In effect, the 
two series of Median kings, preserved by He- 
rodotus and Xenophon on one hand, and by 
Ctesias on the other, offer little in common, and 
seem to refer to different dynasties or different 
empires. For a long time, however, the Medes 
were subject to the Assyrians, and their coun- 
try formed a small portion of the wide empire 
of the Assyrian kings. The principal division 
of Media was into Atropatena contiguous to Ar- 
menia and Media proper, consisting of the mi- 
nor districts of Choromethrene, Artacene, &c. 
on the more southern boundaries. " Atropate- 
na," says Heylin, " is that part of Media which 
lieth between mount Taurus and the Caspian 
Sea." This represents the mountainous and 
barren parts of Media, and its capital Gasa or 
Gazaca still bears among the Armenians the - 
name of Gauzak. This region, in the language M 
of the old English antiquarian so often cited, ^ 
was a "barren, cold inhospitable country; and 
for that reason allotted for the dwelling of so 
many of the captive Israelites, brought hither by 
Salmanassar when he conquered that country," 
South of the mountains commences the fertile 
tract ; and here, in the capital city of Ecbatana, 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



the kings of Persia, when in their turn they be- 
came lords of Media, were accustomed to take 
up their summer residence. The name of Me- 
dia is of great antiquity, and modern writers, 
who please themselves in finding the origin of 
nations among the immediate posterity of Noah, 
refer it to Madai, the son of Japhet and grand- 
son of the first great patriarch. In comparative- 
ly recent times, that is to say, wiihin a a century 
or two of our era, the countries of Hyrcania and 
Parthia were cut off from the north-eastern 
parts of Media, and formed, long after she had 
ceased to exist as a nation, a powerful and inde- 
pendent state. The principal mountains of this 
country were the Orontes, theCoronus, theZa- 
gros which bounded it towards Assyria, and 
the Bagoas which lay on the borders of Aria. 
These were all but ramifications of the great 
Taurus range, which are here disjointed, and 
point in every direction, intersecting the country 
with great irregularity. From these mountains 
flow the chief rivers which water the whole face 
of Media ; the Mardus or Amardus, which falls 
into the Caspian Sea ; the Euteus or Choas- 
pes, which belongs to Persia and falls into the 
Tigris near Apamea, with many smaller streams 
that irrigate the parts of Media not covered by 
the salt deserts which lay waste so many tracts 
of Asia. The province of Media was first 
raised into a kingdom by its revolt from the Assy- 
rian monarchy, B. C. 820; and, after it had for 
some time enjoyed a kind of republican govern- 
ment, Deioces, by his artifice, procured himself 
to be called king, 700 B. C. After a reign of 
53 years he was succeeded by Phraortes, B. C. 
6-47; who was succeeded by Cyaxares, B. C. 
625. His successor was Astyages, B. C. 585, 
in whose reign Cyrus became master of Media, 
.B. C. 551 ; and ever after the empire was trans- 
ferred to the Persians. The Medes were war- 
like in the primitive ages of their power, they 
encouraged polygamy, and were remarkable for 
the homage which they paid to their sovereigns, 
who were styled king"^of kings. This title M^as 
afterwards adopted by their conquerors, the Per- 
sians, and was still in use in the age of the Ro- 
man emperors. Justin. 1, c. 5. — Herodot. 1, 
Sic.—Polyb. 5 and 10.— Curt. 5, &c.—Diod. 
Sic. 13. — Ctesias. 

Mediolancm, I. now Milan, a city of the In- 
subres in Gallia Cisalpina. It was situated on 
the Lambrus, near its source, in the valley of 
the Ticinus and the Addua, in a country abun- 
dantly fertile and conveniently situated on the 
Po, the medium of communication and com- 
merce for the north of Italy with all the people 
of the southern coast. But, though supposed to 
have been early a capital city of those Gauls by 
whom it had been built, and though thus advan- 
tageously situated, Mediolanum is scarcely men- 
tioned in history during the early ages of Rome. 
" This city is named for the first time in history 
by Polybius, in his account of the Gallic wars. 
The capture of it by Cn. Scipio and Marcellus 
was followed by the submission of the Insubres. 
In Strabo's time it was considered as a most 
flourishing city. But its splendour seems to 
have been the greatest in the time of Ausonius, 
who assigns to it the rank of the sixth town in 
the Roman empire. Procopius, who wrote a 
century and a half later, speaks of Mediolanum 
as one of the first cities of the west, and as in- 
Part I.— 2 C 



ferior only to Rome in population and extent." 
Cram. With the fall, however, of the empire, 
commence the fortunes of Milan. For a long 
time, when the name of Italy became to signify 
more particularly the northern parts, as it was in 
a great measure confined to the territories of the 
LoTiilard king, the bishop of Milaib was digni- 
fied by the title of Metropolitan of the diocess 
of Ital)' ; and as the first city of the Lombard 
kingdom, in proportion to the diminution of the 
imperial poAver and of the Exarch's authority, 
this city became to hold the place and honours 

of the first town in Italy. II. Aulercorum, 

a town of Gaul, now Evereux in Normandy. 
III. Santonum, another, now Saintes, in 



Guienne. 

Mediomatrici, a powerful and widely ex- 
tended people of Gallia Belgica. Their country 
corresponded nearly to the province of. Lorraine, 
in that part which constitutes the department 
de la Moselle. They were surrounded on the 
north by the Treviri, on the east by the Ne- 
metes and Triboci, and on the south by the 
Leuci, reaching to the division of Belgica 2d on 
the west. The chief town of this people was 
Divodurum, Metz. 

Mediterraneum mare, the great inland sea 
that lies between Europe and Africa, having 
the former on the north and the latter on the 
south, and washing the western shores of Asia 
on the east. It receives its names from its situ- 
ation medio terrce, situate in the middle of the 
land. The word Mediterranean does not occur 
in the classics ; but it is sometimes called inter- 
num, nostrum, or medius liquor, and is frequent- 
ly denominated in Scripture the Ch-eat Sea. 
The first naval power that ever obtained the 
command of it, as recorded in the fabulous 
epochs of the writer Castor, is "Crete under Mi- 
nos. Afterwards it passed into the hands of the 
Lydians, B. C. 1179; of the Pelasgi, 1058; of 
the Thracians, 1000; of the Rhodians, 916 ; of 
the Phrygians, 893 ; of the Cyprians 868 ; of 
the Phoenicians, 826 ; of the Egyptians, 787 ; of 
the Milesians, 753 ; of the Carians, 734 ; and 
of the Lesbians, 676, which they retained for 69 
years. Horat. 3, od. 3, v. 46. — Plin. 2, c. 68. — 
Sallust. Jug. n.—Ctes. B. G. 5, c. l.—Liv. 26, 
c. 42. " The Strait of Gibraltar leads into the 
Mediterranean, that series of inland seas equally 
interesting from their situation, their physical 
character, and historical celebrity. The first 
basin of the Mediterranean terminates at Cape 
Buono and the Strait of Messina. It is divided 
into two unequal parts by Corsica and Sardinia ; 
but the gulfs of Genoa and Lyons are the only 
places that are at present generally designated. 
The depth of the basin is about a thousand or 
fifteen hundred fathoms near the shores where 
the sea washes the base of the Pyrenees, the 
Alps, and the Appenines. The eastern part 
may be denominated the Italian Sea : numerous 
volcanic islands, such as the Lipari, Pontia, and 
many others are scattered over it ; and all of them 
are connected with the same subterraneous fires 
that rise from Etna and Vesuvius. The second 
basin is nearly twice as large, but very few isl- 
ands or rocks have been rbserved on it. It ex- 
tends from the coasts of Sicily and Tunis to the 
shores of Syria and Egypt, and forms in the 
north two separate basins renoMTied in history 
and well adapted to excite the attention of the 
201 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



physical geographer. The first is the Adriatic ; 
its bed, if carefully examined, appears to be com- 
posed of marble and lime mixed with shells. 
The second is the Archipelago or White Sea of 
the Turks, its numerous and picturesque islands 
are all of volcanic origin. The gulf the Great 
Syrtes on the south penetrates into Africa j its 
sandy coasts are lower than most others in the 
Mediterranean ; its vast marshes in the midst of 
moving sands are of variable extent, and seem to 
confound the limits of the land and sea. But the 
most remarkable basin in the Mediterranean is 
without doubt that of the Black Sea. Its en- 
trance is formed by the strait of the Dardanelles^ 
the Propontis or the sea of Marmora, and the 
Bosphorus or the narrow channel of Constanti- 
nople. It is fed by the greatest rivers in central 
Europe, and receives, by the strait of Caffa or the 
Cimmerian Bosphorus, the turbid waters of the 
Palus-Maeotis, which the moderns have so inac- 
curately denominated the Sea of Azoph. Such 
are at present the limits of those inland seas 
which separate Europe from Asia and Africa, 
and facilitate the communication between the 
ancient continents. It is not perhaps improba- 
ble that a former strait, gradually obstructed in 
the course of ages by the gravel and alluvial de- 
posits from the torrents of Caucasus, connected, 
long after the last physical revolutions that hap- 
pened in our globe, the Sea of Azof, and conse- 
quently the Black Sea, with the Caspian. The 
deep waters in the Mediterranean arrive chiefly 
from the Nile, the Danube, the Dnieper, and 
other rivers that enter the Black Sea; and also 
from the Po, the Rhone, and the Ebro. Thus it 
receives the torrents formed by the melting of the 
snow in Abyssinia, Switzerland, Caucasus, and 
mount Atlas. But although its feeders are so 
abundant, it has been generally believed that the 
quantity of water which enters the Mediterra- 
nean from the Atlantic is greater than that dis- 
charged from it into the same ocean. It has been 
alleged, in support of this supposition, that a 
constant and large current flows into the middle, 
of the strait at Gibraltar, whilst only two feeble 
and lateral currents issue from it. But that ap- 
parent influx of the ocean is to be attributed to 
the pressure of a greater fluid mass on a smaller 
body of water ; a pressure, which, from the force 
of its impulsion, must necessarily displace the 
upper strata in the lesser mass. If an anchor 
be cast in the strait, a lower current may be 
discovered, which carries to the ocean the su- 
perfluous water of the interior sea. The prin- 
cipal motion of the Mediterranean is from east 
to west, but the reaction of its water against the 
coast occasions several lateral and adverse cur- 
rents. The straits too, from their position, give 
rise to many very variable currents. Those near 
Cape Pharo in Messina or the Charybdis of the 
ancients and the Euripus between the continent 
and the island of Negropont, are the most re- 
markable. The tides are in most places hardly 
perceptible, but they may be observed in the 
Adriatic and in the gulf of the Syrtes." Malte- 
Brun. 

" Medma, or Mesma, a town in the country 
of the Brulii on the coast, situated by the right 
bank of the river Mesima. It was a city of some 
importance and of Greek origin ; having been 
colonized by the Locrians, together with Hippo- 
nium. According to Strabo, it derived its name 
202 



from a great fountain in its vicinity. In Pliny 
it is written corruptly Medua. Antiquaries re- 
port that the ruins of this city are to be seen be- 
tween Nicotera and the river Medama, but 
nearer to the latter." Cram. 

Medoacus. Vid. Meduacus. 

Meduacus, two rivers of Venetia, {Major, 
now Brenta, and Minor, nov/ Bachiglione,)isi[l- 
ing near Venice into the Adriatic Sea. Plin. 
3, c. 16.—Liv. 10, c. 2. 

Meduana, a river of Gaul, flowing into the 
Ligeris, now the Mayne. Lmcan. 1, v. 438. 

Megalia, a small island of Campania, near 
Neapolis. Stat. 2, Sylv. v. 80. 

Megalopolis. " Megalopolis, the most re- 
cent of all the Arcadian cities, and also the 
most extensive, was situated in a wide and fer- 
tile plain watered by the Helisson, which flow- 
ed from the central parts of Arcadia, and nearly 
divided the town into two equal parts. Pausa- 
nias informs us that the Arcadians, having, by 
the advice of Epaminondas, resolved on laying 
the foundations of a city which was to be the 
capital of the nation, they deputed ten commis- 
sioners, selected from the principal states, to 
make the necessary arrangements for conduct- 
ing the new colony. .This event took place in 
the 102d Olympiad, or 370-1 B. C. The ter- 
ritory assigned to Megalopolis was extensive, 
since it reached as far as the little states of Or- 
chomenus and Caphyee on the north-east, while 
to the south and south-west it adjoined Laconia 
and Messenia. Diodorus affirms that the city 
contained about 15,000 men capable of bearing 
arms, according to which calculation we may 
compute the whole population at 65,000. The 
Megalopolitans experienced no molestation 
from the Lacedaemonians as long as Thebes 
was powerful enough to protect them ; but on 
the decline of that city, and when also it became 
engaged in the Sacred war against the Pho- ' 
cians, they were assailed by the Spartans, who 
endeavoured to obtain possession of their town ; 
these attacks were however easily repulsed by 
the aid of the Argives and Messenians. To the 
Athenians the Megalopolitans were likewise 
indebted for their protection against the at- 
tempts of Sparta, as well as their assistance in 
settling some dissensions in their republic, 
which had led to the secession of several town- 
ships that originally contributed to the founda- 
tion of the city. In order to strengthen them- 
selves still further against the Lacedasmonians, 
they formed an alliance with Philip, son of 
Amyntas, who conciliated the favour of the 
Arcadians not only towards himself, but to- 
wards all his successors. On the death of Alex- 
ander, Megalopolis had to defend itself against 
the army of Polysperchon, who was engaged in 
war with Cassander. This general vigorously 
assaulted the city ; but, owing to the bravery of 
the inhabitants headed by Damis, who had 
served under Alexander, his attacks were con- 
stantly repulsed. Subsequently we find Megal- 
opolis governed by tyrants, the first of whom was 
Aristodemus of Phigalea, whose excellent cha- 
racter obtained for him the surname of Xjorjo-ro?, 
Under his reign the Spartans again invaded 
Megalopolis, but were defeated after an obsti- 
nate conflict, Acrotatus, the son of Cleomenes, 
who commanded their army, being among the 
slain. Sometime after the death of Aristodemus, 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



the sovereignty was again usurped by Lydiades, 
a man of ignoble birth, but of worthy character, 
since he vohmtarily abdicated his authority for 
the benefit of his countrymen, in order that he 
might unite them with the Achaean confederacy. 
At this time Megalopolis was assailed for the 
third time by the Spartans ; who, having defeat- 
ed the inhabitants, laid siege to the town, of 
which they would have made themselves mas- 
ters but for a violent wind which overthrew and 
demolished their engines. Not long, however, 
after this failure, Cleomenes the son of Leoni- 
das, in violation of the existing treaty, surprised 
the Megalopolitans by night, and putting to the 
sword all who offered any resistance, destroyed 
the city. Philipcemen, with a considerable part 
of the population, escaped into Messenia. Me- 
galopolis was restored by the Achaeans after the 
battle of Sellasia ; but it never again rose to its 
former flourishing condition. The virtues and 
talents of its great general Philopoemen added 
materially to its celebrity and influence in the 
Achsean councils, and after his death its fame 
was upheld by the abilities of Lycortas and Po- 
lybius, who trod in the steps of their gifted 
countryman, and were worthy of sharing in the 
lustre which he had reflected on his native city. 
In the time of Polybius, Megalopolis was fifty 
stadia in circumference, but its population was 
only equal to half that of Sparta, and when 
Strabo wrote it was so reduced, that a comic 
poet was justified in saying, 

'EjOy/iia y^tsyaX)) Idrlv h MfyaXdTroXtfi 

Pausanias informs us, that it was divided into 
two parts by the river Helisson. The village 
of Sinano has been built on the site and amidst 
the ruins of Megalopolis. Mr. Dodwell informs 
us, ' that part of the theatre still remains, but 
the seats are covered with earth, and overgrown 
with bushes.' " Cram. 

Megara, I. the capital of Megaris. •' Tradi- 
tion, as Pausanias affirms, represented Megara 
as already existing under that name in the time 
of Car the son of Phoroneus, while others have 
derived it from Megarus. a Boeotian chief, and 
son of Apollo or Neptune. Car was succeeded 
by Lelex, who, as it was reported, came from 
jEgypt, and transmitted his name to the ancient 
race of the Leleges, whom we thus trace from 
the Achelous to the shores of the Saronic gulf. 
Lelex was followed by Cleson and Pylas, who 
abdicated his crown in favour of Pandion, the 
son of Cecrops king of Athens, by which event 
Megaris became annexed to the latter state. Ni- 
sus, the son of Pandion, received Megaris? as his 
share of his father's dominions. The history of 
this prince and his daughter Scylla, as also the 
capture of Megara by Minos, are found in all 
the mythological writers of Greece ; but Pausa- 
nias observes that these accounts were disowned 
by the Megareans. Nisus is said to have found- 
ed Nisaea, the port of Megara; whence the in- 
habitants of that city were surnamed Nisaei, to 
distinguish them from the Megareans of Sicily, 
their colonists. Hyperion, the son of Agamem- 
non, according to Pausanias, was the last sove- 
reign of Megara; after his death, the govern- 
ment, by the advice of an oracle, became demo- 
cratical. As a republic, however, it remained 
still subject to Athens; Strabo indeed affirms 
that, till the reign of Codrus, Megaris had al- 



ways been included within the limits of Attica; 
and he thus accounts for Homer's making no 
special mention of its inhabitants from his com- 
prehending them with the Athenians under the 
general denomination of lonians. In the reign 
of Codrus, Megara was wrested from the Athe- 
nians by a Peloponnesian force ; and a colony 
having been established there by the Corinthians 
and Messenians, it ceased to be considered as of 
Ionian origin, but thenceforth became a Dorian 
city, both in its language and political institu- 
tions. The pillar also which marked the boun- 
daries of Ionia and Peloponnesus was on that 
occasion destroyed. The Scholiast of Pindar 
informs us that the Corinthians at this early 
period, considering Megara as their colony, ex- 
ercised a sort of jurisdiction over the city. Not 
long after, however, Theagenes, one of its citi- 
zens, usurped the sovereign power by the same 
method apparently which v/as afterwards adopt- 
ed by Pisistratus at Athens. Plutarch informs 
us that he was finally expelled by his country- 
men ; after which event a moderate republican 
form of government was established, though af- 
terwards it degenerated into a violent democracy. 
This should probably be considered as the period 
of Megara's greatest prosperity, since it then 
founded the cities of Selymbria, Mesembria, and 
Byzantium on the shores of the Euxine, and 
Megara Hyblaea in Sicily. It was at this time 
also that its inhabitants were engaged in war 
with the Athenians on the subject of Salamis, 
which, after an obstinate contest, finally r^emain- 
ed in the hands of the latter. The Megareans 
fought at Artemisium with twenty ships, and 
at Salamis with the same number. They also 
gained some advantage over the Persians, under 
Mardonius, in an inroad which he made into 
their territory, and lastly, they sent 3000 soldiers 
to Plataea,who deserved well of their country 
in the memorable battle fought in its plains. 
After the Persian war, we find Megara engaged 
in hostilities with Corinth, and renouncing the 
Peloponnesian confederacy, to ally itself with 
Athens. This state of things was not, however, 
of long duration, for the Corinthians, after effect- 
ing a reconciliation with the oligarchical party 
in Megara, persuaded the inhabitants to declare 
against the Athenians, who garrisoned their 
city. These were presently attacked and put 
to the sword, with the exception of a small num- 
ber who escaped to Nisaea. The Athenians, 
justly incensed at this treacherous conduct, re- 
nounced all intercourse with the Megareans, 
and issued a decree excluding them from their 
ports and markets ; a measure which appears 
to have been severely felt by the latter, and was 
made a pretence for war on the part of their 
Peloponnesian allies. Megara was, during the 
Peloponnesian war, exposed, with the other ci- 
ties of Greece, to the tumults and factions en- 
gendered by violent party spirit. The partisans 
of the democracy favoured, it is true, the Pelo- 
ponnesian cause, but, dreading the efforts of the 
adverse faction, which might naturally look for 
support from the Lacedaemonians in restoring 
the government to the form of an oligarchy, they 
formed a plan for giving up the city to the Athe- 
nians in the seventh year of the war. An Athe- 
nian force was accordingly despatched, which 
appeared suddenly before Nissea, the port ot 
Megara, and having cut off the Peloponnesian 
203 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



troops which garrisoned the place, compelled 
them to surrender. Megara itself would also 
have fallen into their hands, if Brasidas had not 
at this juncture arrived with a Spartan army 
before the w^alLs of that city, where he was pre- 
sently joined by the BcEotians and other allies. 
On his arrival, the Athenians, not feeling suf- 
ficiently strong to hazard an action, withdrew to 
Nisasa, and, after leaving a garrison in that port, 
returned to Athens. The leaders of the demo- 
cratical party in Megara now fearing that a re- 
action would ensue, voluntarily quitted the city, 
which then returned to an oligarchical form of 
government. From this period we hear but little 
of Megara in the Grecian history ; but we are 
told that its citizens remamed undisturbed by 
the contest in which their more powerful neigh- 
bours were engaged, and in the tranquil enjoy- 
ment of iheir independence. Philosophy also 
flourished in this city ; Euclid, a disciple of So- 
crates, having founded there a school of some 
celebrity, known by the name of the Megaric 
sect. Plutarch reports that the Megareans of- 
fered to make Alexander the Great a citizen of 
their town, an honour which that prince was in- 
clined to ridicule, though they asserted it had 
never been granted to any foreigner except Her- 
cales. After the death of that monarch, Megara 
fell successively into the hands of Demetrius Po- 
liorcetes, Ptolemy Soter, and Demetrius, son of 
Antigonus Gonatas, by whom, according to Plu- 
tarch, the city was destroyed ; but as Pausanias 
mentions a war waged by the Megareans against 
Thebes, in which they were assisted by the 
Achasans, we may infer that it was subsequent- 
ly restored, and we know that it was taken by 
the Romans under Metellus and F. Calenus. 
Strabo also affirms that Megara still existed in 
his time, though much reduced, as we are assur- 
ed by Sulpicius in a well-known passage of his 
letter to Cicero. Pausanias affirms that Mega- 
ra was the only city of Greece which was not 
restored by Hadrian, in consequence of its in- 
habitants having murdered Anthemocritus the 
Athenian herald. Alaric completed the destruc- 
tion of this once flourishing town. Megara was 
situated at the foot of two hills, on each of which 
a citadel had been built ; these were named Ca- 
ria and Alcathous. It was connected with the 
port of Nissea by two walls, the length of which 
was about eight stadia, or eighteen according to 
Strabo. They were erected by the Athenians 
at the time that the Megareans placed themselves 
under their protection. The distance from 
Athens was 210 stadia, as we learn from Proco- 
pius. Dio Chrysostom call it a day's journey. 
Modern travellers reckon eight hours." Cram. 

II. A town of Sicily, founded by a colonj'' 

from Megara in Attica, about 728 years before 
the Christian era. It was destroyed by Gelon, 
king of Syracuse ; and before the arrival of the 
Megarean colonv it was called Hybla. Strai. 
26, ^c.— Virg. jEn. 3, v. 689. 

M EGARis, the name given to the territory of 
Megara. It " was confined on the west by the 
Corinthian gulf, on the south by the chain of 
mountains which separated it from the Corin- 
thian district, and also by the waters of the Sa- 
ronic gulf. On the east and north-east it bor- 
dered on Attica, and to the north on Boeotia, 
the chain of Cithseron being the common boun- 
dary of the two states in that direction. With 
•204 



the exception of the plain, in which Megara it- 
self was situated, the country was rugged and 
mountainous, and, from the poverty of its soil, 
inadequate to the wants of the inhabitants, who 
must have derived their supplies from Attica 
and Corinth. The extent of the Megarean 
coast, along the Saronic gulf, from the ridge of 
Kerata, on the Attic frontier, to the vicinity of 
Crommyon, on that of Corinth, was 140 stadia 
according to Scylax. The same geographer 
reckons 100 stadia from Pagae, the first Mega- 
rean port on the Crisscean gulf towards Boeotia, 
to the Corinthian frontier. The extreme breadth 
of the territory of Megara from Nisasa to Pagas 
is estimated by Strabo at 120 stadia. Accord- 
ing to Plutarch, Megaris was once divided into 
five districts or townships, named Heraea, Pi- 
rasa, Megara, Cynosuria, Tripodiscus." Cram. 

Megista, an island of Lycia, with a har- 
bour of the same name. Liv. 37, c, 22. 

MELANCHL.ENI, a people near the Cimmerian 
Bosphorus. 

Melas sinus, I. " a deep gulf formed by 
the Thracian coast on the north-west, and the 
shore of the Chersonese on the south-east; its 
appellation in modern geography is the Gulf of 
Saros. A river named Melas, now Cavatcha, 
empties itself into this bay at its north-eastern 

extremity." Cram. II. A river of Thessa- 

ly, about 20 stadia from the river Dyras, and 5 

from the city of Trachis. III. A river of 

Boeotia, " near Orchomenus, which empties it- 
self in the Copaic or Cephissian lake. Plu- 
tarch says it rose close to the city, and very soon 
became navigable, but that part of it was lost in 
the marshes, the remainder joined the Cephis- 
sus. Pliny remarks of its waters that they had 
the property of dying the fleece of sheep black. 
In the marshes formed near the junction of this 
river v/ith the Cephissus grew the reeds so much 
esteemed by the ancient Greeks for the purpose 
of making flutes and other wind instruments." 

Cram. IV. A river of Cappadocia, which 

issued from mount Argaeus, now Argeh-dag. 
The Melas, now Koremoz, is " also called by 
the Turks Karasou^ ' the Black water,' in 
conformity to its Greek denomination of Melas." 
D^Anvilk. V. A river of Pamphylia. 

Meld.e, or Meldonnn nrbs, a city of Gaul, 
now Meaux in Champagne. 

Meles (etis,) a river of Asia Minor, in Io- 
nia near Smyrna. Some of the ancients sup- 
posed that Homer was born on the banks of 
that river, from which circumstance they call 
him Melesigenes, and his compositions Meletcca 
charta. It is even supported that he composed 
his poems in a cave near the source of that ri- 
ver. Strab. 12.-Stat. 2. Sijlv. 7, v. 3A.— Tib^dl. 
4, el. 1, V. 201. — Paus. 7, c. 5. j| 

Meubcea, I. a town of Thessaly,"ascribed ^ 
by Homer to Philoctetes. This town accord- 
ing to Livy, stood at the base of mount Ossa, in 
that part which stretches towards the plains of 
Thessaly above Demetrias. It was attacked in 
the Macedonian war by M. Popilius, a Roman 
commander, at the head of five thousand men; 
but the garrison being reinforced by a detach- 
ment from the army of Perseus, the enterprise 
was abandoned. We know from ApoUonius 

that it was a maritime town." Cram. II. 

Also an island at the mouth of the Orontes in 
Syria, whence Melibcea purpura. Mel. 2, c. 3. 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



MeliguniSj one of the ^olian islands near 
Sicily. 

Melita, I. an island in the Libyan Sea, be- 
tween Sicily and Africa, now called Malta. 
The soil was fertile, and the country famous for 
its wool. It was first peopled by the Phoeni- 
cians. St. Paul was shipwrecked there, and 
cursed all venomous creatures, which now are 
not to be found in the whole island. Some, 
however, suppose that the island on which the 
Apostle was shipwrecked, was another island 
of the same name in the Adriatic, on the coast 
of lUyricum, now called Melede. Malta is now 
remarkable as being the residence of the knights 
of Malta, formerly of St. John of Jerusalem, 
settled there A. D. 1530, by the concession of 
Charles V. after their expulsion from Rhodes 
by the Turks. Strab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Cic. 

in Verr. 4, c. 46. II. Another on the coast 

of Illyricum in the Adriatic, now Melede. Plin. 
3, c. 26. 

Melitene, a part of Armenia Minor, one 
of the greatest prefectures of the country. " The 
principal Rom.an camp in Melitene took the 
form of a city under Trajan, with the same 
name ; and in the division of the less Armenia 
into two provinces, Melitene became the metro- 
polis of the second. Situated between the ri- 
vers Euphrates and Melas, which last may have 
thus denominated the country, it subsists in the 
name of- Malaria ; and, in its jurisdiction, a city 
called Area is known under the same name." 
D'Anville. 

Mella, or Mela, a small river of Cisalpine 
Gaul, falling into the Allius, and with it into 
the Po. Catull. 68, v. 33.— Virg. G. 4, v. 278. 

Melos, now Milo, an island between Crete 
and Peloponnesus, about 24 miles from Schyl- 
leeum, about 60 miles in circumference. It en- 
joyed its independence for above 700 years be- 
fore the time of the Peloponnesian war. This 
island was originally peopled by a Lacedaemo- 
nian colony, 1116 years before the Christian 
era. From this reason the inhabitants refused 
to join the rest of the islands and the Athenians 
against the Peloponnesians. This refusal was 
severely punished. The Athenians took Me- 
los, and put to the sword all such as were able 
to bear arms. The women and children were 
made slaves and the island left desolate. An 
Athenian colony re-peopled it, till Lysander re- 
conquered it, and re-established the original in- 
habitants in their possessions. The island pro- 
duced a kind of earth successfully employed in 
painting and medicine. Strab. 1-Mela, 2, c. 
l.—Plin. 4, c. 12, 1. 35, c. 9.— Tkucyd. 2, &c. 

Melpes, now Melpa, a river of Lucania, 
falling into the Tyrrhene Sea. Plin. 3, c. 5. 

Memphis, " which owed its foundation to a 
king in the first ages of Mgyipt named Ucho- 
reus, was a city predominant over all in ^g\'pt 
before Alexandria was elevated to this advan- 
tage, and was situated on the western shore of 
the Nile, three schenes, or fifteen mftes, above 
the Delta. These indications are the only 
means afforded us of ascertaining its position. 
A considerable lapse of time had so impaired 
this great city when Strabo wrote, that he saw 
its palaces in ruins. It existed nevertheless 
about six hundred years after ; for, on the inva- 
sion of iEgypt by the Arabs, it appears under 
the name of the country itself, or Mesr. But 



vestiges of it, which, according to Abulfeda, 
were apparent in the fifteenth century, are no 
longer in being. Divers canals derived from 
the Nile, separating Memphis from the ancient 
sepulchres and pyramids, furnished the Greeks 
with the idea of their infernal rivers Acheron, 
Cocytus, and Lethe. On the bank of the Nile, 
opposite to Memphis, a place which it is pre- 
tended was named Troja by the Trojans who 
followed Menelaus into Egypt, is now indicat- 
ed by the analogous name of Tora." {D'An- 
ville.) We extract the following from Russell's 
History of Eg}T3t, " We should willingly de- 
tain the reader at Memphis, did any relics of its 
magnificence occupy the ground on which it 
once stood, to gratify the rational curiosity its 
name caimot fail to excite. But we shall only 
quote from an old writer a description of that 
capital as it appeared in the twelfth century. 
' Among the monuments of the power and ge- 
nius of the ancients,' says Edrisi, ' are the re- 
mains still extant in old Misr or Memphis. 
That city, a little above Fostat, in the province 
of Djizeh, was inhabited by the Pharoahs, and 
is the ancient capital of the kingdom of Egypt. 
Such it continued to be till ruined by Bokht- 
nasr (Nebuchadnezzar) ; but many years after- 
ward, when Alexander had built Iskanderiyeh 
(Alexandria), this latter place was made the 
metropolis of Egypt, and retained that pre-emi- 
nence till the Moslems conquered the country 
under Amru ebn el Aasi, who transferred the 
seat of government to Fostat. At last El Moezz 
came from the west and built El ''Cahirah 
( Cairo), which has ever since been the royal 
place of residence. But let us return to the 
description of Memf, also called old Misr. Not 
withstanding the vast extent of this cit)'-, the re- 
mote period at which it was built, the change of 
the dynasties to which it has been subjected, the 
attempts made by various nations to destroy 
even the vestiges, and to obliterate every trace 
of it by removing the stones and materials of 
which it was formed, — ruining its houses, and 
defacing its sculptures ; notwithstanding all this, 
combined with what more than four thousand 
years must have done towards its destruction, 
there are yet found in it works so wonderful 
that they confound even a reflecting mind, and 
are such as the most eloquent would not be able 
to describe. The more you consider them, the 
more does your astonishment increase ; and the 
more you look at them the more pleasure you 
experience. Every idea which they suggest 
immediately gives birth to some other still more 
novel and unexpected ; and as soon as you ima- 
gine that you have traced out their full scope, 
you discover that there is something still greater 
behind.' Among the works here alluded to, he 
specifies a monolithic temple, similar to the one 
mentioned by Herodotus, adorned with curious 
sculptures. He next expatiates upon the idols 
found among the ruins, not less remarkable for 
the beaut}'- of their forms, the exactness of their 
proportions, and perfect resemblance to nature, 
than for their truly astonishing dimensions. 
We measured one of them, he sa5^s, which, 
without including the pedestal, was forty-five 
feet in height, fifteen feet from side to side, and 
from back to front in the same proportion. It 
was of one block of red granite, covered with a 
coating of red varnish, the antiquity of which 
205 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



seemed only to increase its lustre. The ruins 
of Memphis, in his time, extended to the dis- 
tance of half a day's journey in every direction. 
But so rapidly has the work of destruction pro- 
ceeded since the twelfth century, that few points 
have been more debated by modern travellers 
than the site of this celebrated metropolis. Dr. 
Pocoke and Mr. Bruce, with every show of rea- 
son, fixed npon Metrahenny, an opinion which 
was opposed by Dr. Shaw, who argued in favour 
of Djizeh. But the investigations of the French 
appear lo have decided the question. At Me- 
trhaine, one league from Sakhara, we found, 
says General Dugna, so many blocks of granite 
covered v/ith hieroglyphics and sculptures 
around and within an esplanade three leagues 
in circumference, enclosed by heaps of rubbish, 
that we were convinced that these must be the 
ruins of Memphis. The sight of some frag- 
ments of one of those colossuses, which Hero- 
dotus says were erected by Sesostris at the en- 
trance of the temple of Vulcan, would, indeed, 
have been sufficient to dispel our doubts had 
any remained. The wrist of this colossus, 
which Citizen Conielle caused to be removed, 
shows that it must h ave been forty-five feet high." 

Menapii, a people of Belgic Gaul, partly 
Belgic, partly German, In regard to their ter- 
ritory, some difficulty has arisen in consequence 
of the apparently conflicting statements of an- 
cient writers. Caesar tells us " that the Usi- 
petes and Tenctheri came to the Rhine, where 
he Menapii dwelt, and where they possessed 
ands, houses, and villages, on either side of the 
river." Strabo agrees with Caesar, saying that 
he Menapii inhabited woods and marshes on 
either side of the mouths of the Rhine ; and 
that upon the borders of the sea they were ad- 
joining the Morini. But Tacitus removes the 
Menapii from the Rhine, and places them this 
side the Mosa. Ptolemy too fixes the Menapii 
at the mouth of the Mosa ; and Pliny classes 
them, not with the nations that bordered upon 
the Rhine, but with the Belgae, and places them 
between the Mosa and the Scaldis. Perhaps 
Caesar, in giving to the Menapii such an exten- 
sive territory, included under the same name 
several tribes of common origin and of the same 
habits of life. The Menapii, accordingly, were 
bounded on the north by the Mosa and the 
Rhine ; on the east by the Rhine and various 
German nations ; on the south by the Eburones 
and Ambivareti ; and on the west by the sea 
and the marshes between the moutlis of the 
Scaldis and ihe Mosa. They were very rude, 
and were Germans rather than Gauls. The 
city, or rather strong hold of the Menapii, is 
now Kessel, on the Mosa. If we follow Caesar 
and Strabo, the Menapii occupied that part of 
Belgica which is now la Gueldre, le duche de 
Cleves et le Brabant Hollandais. Cces. Lem. ed. 

Mendes, a city of Egypt, near Lycopolis, on 
one of the mouths of the Nile called the Men- 
desian mouth. Pan, under the form of a goat, 
was worshipped there. 

Menelai Portus, a harbour on the coast 
of Africa, between Cyrene and Egypt. C. Nep. 

in Ages. 8. — Strab. 1. Mons, a hill near 

Sparta, with a fortication, called Menelaium. 
Liv. 34, c. 28. 

Menesthei portus, a town of Hispania 
Bsetica. 

206 



Meninx, Lotophagitis insula, afterwards 
Girba, now Zerbi, an island on the coast of 
Africa, near the Syrtis Minor. It was peo- 
pled by the people of Neritos, and thence called 
Neritia. The tree, called Lotus, gave this isl- 
and one of its names. Plirt. 5, c. 7. — Strab. 17. 
—Sil. It. 3, V. 318. 

Mennis, a town of Assyria, abounding in 
bitumen. Curt. 5, c. 1. 

Mercurh promontorium, a cape of Africa, 
near Clypea. Liv. 26, c. 44, 1. 29, c. 21.— Plin. 
5, c. 4. 

Meroe, a country of ^Ethiopia, which the 
ancients believed to be an island. " Two rivers, 
which the Nile received successively on the 
eastern side, Astapus and Astaboras, would in- 
deed insulate Meroe, if these rivers had commu- 
nication above. The latter is named in Abys- 
sinia, Tacazze. At its confluence with the 
Nile, a city indicated by the Arabian geogra- 
phers in the name of lalac, should represent 
Meroe, according to the position which Ptole- 
my assigns to it. But we iind a distance given 
from lalac to ascend by the Nile to this city ; 
whose name, in the Arabian geography of Ed- 
risi, is Nuabia, and common also to the country, 
as Meroe was in antiquity." D'Anville. We 
subjoin the opinion of Malte-B run in reference 
to this ancient empire, " Ascending to the con- 
fluence of the great Nile with the Nile of Abys- 
sinia, we enter the territories of the kingdom of 
Sennaar, which occupy the space assigned by 
the ancients to the famous empire of Meroe, the 
origin of which is lost amidst the darkness of 
antiquity. Many writers, both ancient and mo- 
dern, have considered it as the cradle of all the 
religious and political institutions of Egypt, and 
it must at least be admitted to have been a very 
civilized and a very powerful state, Bruce 
thought that he saw the ruins of its capital un- . 
der the village of Shandy, opposite to the isle of 
Kurgos. The distances given by Herodotus and 
Eratosthenes coincide very well with that posi- 
tion ; and the island which, according to Pliny, 
formed the port of Meroe, is found to corre- 
spond with equal probability." Malte-Brun. 

Meros, a mountain of India sacred to Jupiter. 
It is called by Pliny, 6, c. 21, Nysa. Bacchus 
was educated upon it ; whence arose the fable 
that Bacchus was confined in the thigh (/i/joos) 
of his father. This mountain, now called Me- 
rou, is said to correspond with the ancient Me- 
ros. If the position of the latter was as uncer- 
tain as that of the former is, D'Anville has rest- 
ed his decision in regard to the position of Nysa 
on a very unsafe foundation. The Baga vedarn, 
one of the canonical books of the Indians, tells 
us, that in the middle of the earth is a great isle, 
named Jam-bam or Jambou, in the midst of 
which is mount Merou. Again, he says that 
Merou is for six months perpetually illumined 
by the sun, and again for the same period in- 
volved in darkness. The Ezour-Vedam, an 
ancient commentary on the Vedam, written in 
Sanscrit, and translated by a Brahmin of Be- 
nares, places mount Merou at the mouth of the 
Ganges, and makes the latter flow from the for- 
mer. The mountain is said to be in the centre 
of the earth, and to be of a prodigious height. 
Bayer observes, that in the Indian geography en- 
titled Puwana-Saccarain, mount Merou is de- 
scribed in a fabulous manner 5 on the whole, 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



there is little doubt that it exists only in the 
imaginations of the Indians. Chaussard. — 
Mela, 2, c. l.—Plin. 8, c. Vi—Curt. 8, c. 10.— 
Diod. 

Messapius. " Above Anthedon, towards the 
interior of BcEOiia, rises mount Ktypia, the an- 
cient Messapus, so called, as it was reported, 
from Messapius, who afterwards headed a colo- 
ny which established itself in lapygia. Ste- 
phanus improperly assigns it to Euboea." Cram. 

Mesembru, now Meseuria, a maritime city 
of Thrace. Hence Mesembriacus. Ovid. 1, 
Trist. 6, V. 37. 

Mesopotamia. " The name of Mesopota- 
mia is known to denote a country between ri- 
vers ; and in the books of the Pentateuch this 
is called Aram-Naharaim, or Syria of the Ri- 
vers. It is also known that these rivers are the 
Euphrates and the Tigris, which embrace this 
country' in its whole length, and contract it by 
their approximation ia the lower or southern 
part, which is contiguous to Babylon. From 
this situation it has acquired the name of al- 
Gezira among the Arabs, who have no specific 
term to distinguish a peninsula from an island. 
We cannot forbear remarking here, ihat it is 
through ignorance that this country is called 
Diarbek in the maps. For not only should this 
name be written Diar-Bekr, but it should also 
De restrained to the northern extremity, which 
Annenia claims in antiquity. This part cor- 
responds with what the oriental geographers call 
Diar Modzar on the side of the Euphrates, and 
Diar-Rabiah on the banks of the Tigris. On 
the north there reigns a mountainous chain, 
which from the passage of the Euphrates through 
mount Taurus extends to the borders of the Ti- 
gris. This is the mount Masius of antiquity, 
and now known among the Turks by the plu- 
ral appellation of Karadgia Daglar, or the Black 
Mountains. A river, called Chaboras, which 
preserves the name of al Kabour, and augment- 
ed by another river, to which the Macedonians 
of Syria have given the name of Mygdonius, 
proceeds to join the Euphrates at Circesium, a 
frontier fortress of the Roman empire. The low- 
er part of the country, distant from the rivers, 
being less cultivated and more sterile than the 
upper, could be only occupied by Arabs called 
Scenites, or inhabiting tents. The district of 
Mesopotamia, which is only separated from 
Syria by the course of the Euphrates, bore the 
name of Osroene, which it owed to Osroes, or, 
according to the chronicles of the country, Or- 
rhoes ; who, profiting by the feebleness of the 
Seleucides, caused by their divisions, acquired a 
principality, about a hundred and twenty years 
before the "Christian era." (D^Anville.) It is 
worthy of notice, that Mesopotamia, though 
again and again the scene of hostile action be- 
tween contending nations, has never been dis- 
tinguished by a display of independence on the 
part of its inhabitants, who are of no import- 
ance in history. They were successively sub- 
jected to the Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes, 
and Persians. Afterwards they were conquer- 
ed by the Romans under Pompey, but the coun- 
try was not reduced to the form of a province 
till the reign of Trajan. From the hands of 
the Romans, it passed again into the possession 
of the Persians; and, havingbeen subsequently 
conquered by the Saracens, is now under the 



dominion of the Turks. ( Vid. Heyl. Cosm.) 
"Armenia,Mesopotamia,and Babylonia, though 
greatly neglected by modern geographers, have 
a good claim to our careful attention. It was 
in this country that the first towns known in 
history were built, and the first kingdoms form- 
ed. It was here that Alexander gave the mor- 
tal blow to the colossal monarchy of Persia. At 
a later period, the banks of the Tigris and Eu- 
phrates became the bloody theatre where Tra- 
jan, Julian, and Heraclius conducted the Ro- 
man legions against the squadrons of invincible 
Parthia. In modern times, the Osmanlis and 
the Sophis, the sect of Omar and that of Ali, 
are still two great powers who dispute the mas- 
tery of these countries. Nature has here pre- 
sented us with a sufficient number of objects 
both of interest and study, independently of the 
transactions of men and their transient power. 
There are few countries of the globe where, in 
so small a space, so many striking contrasts are 
found united. Within an extent of ten degrees 
of latitude, we have at Bagdad a heat equal to 
that of Senegambia, and on the summit of Ara- 
rat, eternal snows. The forests of firs and oaks 
in Mesopotamia join those of palms and orange 
trees. The roaring of the lions of Arabia echoes 
to the howling of the bears of mount Taurus. 
We might indeed say, that Africa and Siberia 
had here given each other a meeting. This near 
approach of climates so opposite, principally 
arises from the great differences which are found 
in elevation. Armenia, which is a very ele- 
vated plain, is encompassed on all sides by lofty 
mountains." Malte-Brun. 

Messana, an ancient and celebrated town of 
Sicily, on the straits which separate Italy from 
Sicily. It was anciently called Zancle^ and was 
founded 1600 years before the Christian era. 
The inhabitants, being continually exposed to 
the depredations of the people of Cuma, im- 
plored the assistance of the Messenians of Pe- 
loponnesus, and with them repelled the enemy. 
After this victorious campaign, the Messenians 
entered Zancle, and lived in such intimacy with 
the inhabitants, that they changed their name, 
and assumed that of the Messenians, and called 
their city Messana. Another account says, that 
Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium ,made war against 
the Zancleans with the assistance of the Mes- 
senians of Peloponnessus ; and that after he had 
obtained a decisive victory, he called the con- 
quered city Messana in compliment to his allies, 
about 494 years before the Christian era. After 
this revolution at Zancle, the Mamertini took 
possession of it, and made it the capital of the 
neighbouring countrv'- Vid. Mamertini. It 
afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, 
and was for some time the chief of their pos- 
sessions in Sicily. The inhabitants were called 
Messenii, Messanienses, and Mamertini. The 
straits of Messana have always been looked upon 
as very dangerous, especially by the ancients, 
on account of the rapidity of the currents and 
the irregular and violent flowing and ebbing of 
the sea. Strab. 6. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — Pavs. 4, c. 
2^.— Diod, A.— Thucyd. 1, &c.—Herodot. 6, c. 
23, 1. 7, c. 28. 

Messapia, a country of Italy forming part 
of lapygia. Vid. lapygia. 

Messene or Messena, a city of Messenia, 
in " the Stenyclerian plain, at the foot of mount 
207 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



Ithome, now Vourkano, the ruins of Messene, 
founded by Epaminondas. Pausanias informs 
us that the walls of this city were the strongest 
he had ever seen, being entirely of stone, and 
well supplied with towers and buttresses. He 
commences his description of the interior with 
the agora, which was adorned with a statue of 
Jupiter Servator and a fountain: a statue of 
Cybele in Parian marble by Damophon, a Mes- 
senian sculptor of some celebrity, and the tem- 
ples of Neptune and Venus : beyond were those 
of Ilithya and Ceres, the hall of the Curetes, 
and the statues of Castor and Pollux bearing 
away the daughters of Leucippus. But none 
of the sacred edifices were so richly adorned 
with works of sculpture as the temple of ^s- 
culapius, which contained statues of the Muses 
and Apollo, Hercules, the city of Thebes, Epa- 
minondas, Fortune, and Diana Lucifera. The 
temple of Messene, daughter of Triopas, was 
embellished with the portraits of the ancient 
Messenian kings and heroes by Omphalion, a 
pupil of Nicias. The Hierothysion contained 
images of all the gods worshipped by the Greeks, 
and a brazen statue of Epaminondas. Those 
of Mercury, Hercules, and Theseus, which 
adorned the gymnasium, were by Egyptian ar- 
tists. Within this building was to be seen the 
tomb of Aristomenes, whose remains were, by 
the advice of the Pythian oracle, conveyed 
thither from Rhodes, where he died. The sta- 
tue of this Messenian hero was erected in the 
stadium. Near the theatre was a temple of Se- 
rapis and Isis. The citadel was situated on 
mount Ithome, celebrated in history for the long 
and obstinate defence which the Messenians 
there made against the Spartans in their last re- 
volt. Another summit, called Evan, separated 
Messene towards the east from the valley of the 
Pamisus. Its modern name is not mentioned 
by sir W. Gell, who makes use of the ancient 
appellation of Evan. The ruins of Messene 
are visible as we learn from the same antiqua- 
ry, at Maurommati, a small village, with a beau- 
tiful source under Ithome in the centre of the 
ancient city. There are considerable vestiges 
of the walls and gates. The architrave of one 
of these is nineteen feet long. It was placed 
between two towers, thirty-three feet distant 
from each other. These remains, as well as 
the walls, are composed of magnificent blocks. 
The latter are in fine preservation, running up 
mount Ithome, and enclosing a vast extent of 
ground. The inner gates were divided so as to 
afford a separate passage for persons on foot, 
and a road for carriages." Cram. 

Messenia, a larsfe country of the Pelopon- 
nesus ; "the river Neda formed its boundary to- 
wards Elis and Arcadia. From the latter coun- 
try it was further divided by an irregular line 
of mountains, extending in a south-easterly di- 
rection to the chain of Taygetus on the Laco- 
nian border. This celebrated range marked 
the limits of the province to the east, as far as 
the source of the little river Pamisus, which 
completed the line of separation from the Spar- 
tan territory to the south. We learn from Pau- 
sanias that Messenia derived its appellation 
from Messene, wife of Polycaon, one of" the ear- 
liest sovereigns of the country. He also ob- 
serves, that whenever this name occurs in Ho- 
mer it denotes the province rather than the city 
208 



of Messene, which he conceives did not exist 
till the time of Epaminondas. At the period 
of the Trojan war, it appears from the poet that 
Messenia was partly under the domination of 
Menelaus, and partly under that of Nestor, 
In the division of Peloponnesus, made after the 
return of the Heraclidae, Messenia fell to the 
share of Cresphontes, son of Aristodemus, with 
whom commenced the Dorian line, which con- 
tinued without interruption for several genera- 
tions. In the reign of Phinlias an event oc- 
curred which interrupted the harmony that till 
then had subsisted between the Messenians and 
Spartans. During the festival of Diana, which 
was celebrated at Limngea, on the confines of 
the two countries, the Messenians are said to 
have offered violence to some Spartan maids, 
and to have also slain Teleclus king of Lace- 
daemon, who attempted to punish the authors of 
this flagrant outrage. On the other hand, the 
Messenians denied the charge preferred against 
them, and accused the Spartans of having dis- 
guised armed youths in female attire with the 
intention of attacking their territory whilst un- 
prepared to resist such an aggression. These 
differences in the following reign led to an open 
rupture, and war was commenced on the part 
of the Lacedaemonians by the surprise and cap- 
ture of Amphea, a border town of Messenia in 
the second year of the ninth Olympiad." Cram. 
The result of this war, in which the Messenians 
were greatly worsted,and of another which broke 
out some years afterwards, reduced Messenia to 
the condition of a dependancy, and Sparta ex- 
tended her law over the conquered territory. 
" The Messenians, who inhabited the western 
coast, embarked on board their ships, and with- 
drew to Cyllene ; whence they afterwards cross- 
ed over to Sicily, at the instigation of Anaxilas, 
tyrant of Rhegium, and occupied Zancle,thence- 
forth called Messene. Aristomenes retired to 
Rhodes, where he continued during the rest of 
his life. The Messenians who remained in 
their country were treated with the greatest se- 
verity by the Spartans, and reduced to the con- 
dition of Helots or slaves. This cruel oppres- 
sion induced them once more to take up arms, 
in the seventy-ninth Olympiad, and fortify 
mount Ithome, where they defended themselves 
for ten years. The Lacedaemonians being at 
this time so greatly reduced in numbers by an 
earthquake, which destroyed several of their 
towns, that they were compelled to have re- 
course to their allies for assistance. At length 
the Messenians, worn out by this protracted 
siege, agreed to surrender the place on condi- 
tion that they should be allowed to retire from 
the Peloponnesus. The Athenians were at this 
time on no friendly terms with the Spartans, 
and gladly received the refugees of Ithome, al- 
lowing them to settle at Naupactus, which they 
had lately taken from the Locri Ozolae, Grate- 
ful for the protection thus afforded to them, the 
Messenians displayed great zeal in the cause of 
Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Thu- 
cydides has recorded several instances in which 
they rendered important services to that power, 
not only at Naupactus, but in iEtolia and Am- 
philochia, at Pylos, and in the island of Sphac- 
teria, as well as in the Sicilian expedition. 
When, however, the disaster of ^gospotamoi 
I placed Athens at the mercy of her rival, the 



ME 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



Spartans obtained posssession of Naupactus, and 
compelled the Messenians to quit a town which 
had so long afforded them refuge. Many of 
these on this occasion crossed over into Sicily to 
join their countrymen, who were established 
there, and others sailed to Africa, where they 
procured settlements among the Evesperitas, a 
Libyan people. After the battle of Leuctra, 
however, which humbled the pride of Sparta, 
and paved the way for the ascendency of 
Thebes, Epaminondas, who directed the coun- 
sels of the latter republic, wdth masterly policy 
determined to restore the Messenian nation, by 
collecting the scattered remnants of this brave 
and warlike people. He accordingly despatch- 
ed emissaries to Sicily, Italy, and Africa, whi- 
ther the Messenians had migrated, to recall 
fhem to their ancient homes, there to enjoy the 
blessings of peace and liberty, under the pow- 
erful protection of Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia. 
Gladly did they obey the summons of the The- 
ban general, and hastened to return to that 
country, the recollection of which they had ever 
fondly cherished. Epaminondas meanwhile 
had made every preparation for the erection of 
a city under mount Ithome, which w^as to be the 
metropolis of Messenia ; and such was the zeal 
and activity displayed by the Thebans and their 
allies in this great undertaking, that the town, 
which they named Messene, was completed and 
fortified in eighty-five days. The entrance of 
the Messenians, which took place in the fourth 
year of the 102d Olympiad, was attended with 
great pomp, and ihe celebration of solemn sacri- 
fices, and devout invocations to their gods and 
heroes : the lapse of 287 years from the capture 
of Ira, and the termination of the second war, 
having, as Pausanias affirms, made no change 
in their religion, their national customs, or their 
language, which, says that historian, they speak 
even now more correctly than the rest of the 
Peloponnesians. During the wars and revolu- 
tions which agitated Greece, upon the death of 
Alexander they still preserved their independ- 
ence, and having, not long after that event, join- 
ed the Achaean confederacy, they were present 
at the battle of Sellasia, and the capture of 
Sparta by Antigonus Doson. Nabis, tyrant of 
Lacedsemon, made another attack on the city 
by night some years afterwards, and had alrea- 
dy penetrated within the walls, when succours 
arriving from Megalopolis under the command 
of Phiiopoemen, he was forced to evacuate the 
place. Subsequently to this event, dissensions 
appear to have arisen, which ultimately led to a 
rupture between the Achaeans and Messenians. 
Pausanias was not able to ascertain the imme- 
diate provocation, which induced the Achaeans 
to declare war against the Messenians. But 
Polybiusdoes not scruple to blame his country- 
men, and more especially Phiiopoemen, for their 
conduct to a people with whom they were unit- 
ed by federal ties. Hostilities commenced unfa- 
vourably for the Achaeans, as their advanced 
guard fell into an ambuscade of the enemy, and 
was defeated with great loss ; Phiiopoemen him- 
self remaining in the hands of the victors. So 
exasperated were the Messenians at the con- 
duct of this celebrated general, that he was 
thrown into a dungeon, and soon after put to 
death by poison. His destro5''ers, however, did 
not escape the vengeance of the Achaeans ; for 
Part I.— 2 D 



Lycortas, who succeeded to the coiimiand, ha- 
ving defeated the Messenian forces, captured 
their city, and caused all those who had been 
concerned in the death of Phiiopoemen to be 
immediately executed. Peace was then restor- 
ed, and Messenia once more joined the Achaean 
confederacy, and remained attached to that re- 
public till the period of its dissolution. Messe- 
nia, though in some parts a mountainous coun- 
try, abounded in rich and well-watered plains, 
which furnished pasturage for numerous herds 
and flocks." Cram. 

Mesula, a town of Italy, in the countiy of 
the Sabines. 

Metapontum, a town of Lucania, to the 
south of the river Bradanus, " one of the most 
distinguished and celebrated of the Grecian co- 
lonies. The original name of this city appears 
to have been Metabum, w^hich it is said was 
derived from Metabus, a hero to whom divine 
honours were paid. Some reports ascribed its 
foundation to a party of Pylians, on their re- 
turn from Troy ; and as a proof of this fact it 
was remarked, that the Metaponlini formerly 
made an annual sacrifice to the Neleidae. The 
prosperity of this ancient colony, the result of 
its attention to agriculture, was evinced by the 
offering of a harvest of gold to the oracle of 
Delphi. It may be remarked also, that the 
Scholiasts of Homer identify Metapontum with 
the city which that poet calls Alyba in the 
Odyssey. 

Et//i yap l| 'AXi)/?oi'TOf, oQi kXvto. icHixaTa vaLW. 

Other traditions are recorded relative to the 
foundation of Metapontum by Strabo, which 
confirm at least its great antiquity. But his ac- 
count of the destruction of the first town by the 
Samnites is obscure, and not to be clearly un- 
derstood. It appears, however, that Metabum, 
if such was its name, was in a deserted state 
when a number of Achaeans, invited for that 
purpose by the Sybarites, landed on the coast, 
and took possession of the town, which thence- 
forth was called Metapontum. The Achaeans, 
soon after their arrival, seem to have been en- 
gaged in a war with the Tarentini, and this led 
to a treaiy by which the Bradanus was recog- 
nised as forming the separation of thetw^o terri- 
tories. Pythagoras was held in particular esti- 
mation by the Metapontini, in whose city he is 
reported to have resided for many years. After 
his death, the house which he had inhabited 
was converted into a temple of Ceres. In the 
Peloponnesian war, we find an alliance formed 
between Metapontum and Athens to which 
power it furnished some light troops and two 
galleys for the Sicilian expedition. This city 
still retained its independence when Alexander 
of Epirus passed over into Italy. Livy, who 
notices that fact, states, that the remains of this 
unfortunate prince were conveyed here previous 
to their being carried over into Greece. It fell, 
however, ultimately, into the hands of the Ro- 
mans, together with the other colonies of Mag- 
na Graecia, on the retreat of Pyrrhus, and with 
them revolted in favour of Hannibal, after his 
victory at Cannae. In the time of Pausanias 
this city was a heap of ruins ; as he states that 
nothing remained standing bu t the walls and 
theatre." Cram. 
Metaurds, I. now Metauro, a river of Um- 
209 



MB 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ME 



t)ria, which rises in the Appenines and empties 
into the Hadriatic Dear Fanum Fortunse, Fano. 
It is rendered memorable by the defeat of As- 

drubal, A. U. C. 545. II. Another in the 

Brutian territory, now called Mano, and some- 
times Fetrace, with a port of the same name. 
It was famed for the thunny fish taken at its 
mouth. Cram. 

Methone, I. a city of Macedonia, " about 
forty stadia north of Pydna, according to the 
Epitomist of Strabo, celebrated in history from 
the circumstance of Philip's having lost an eye 
in besieging the place. That it was a Greek 
colony, we learn from Scylax, Peripl. and also 
Plutarch, who reports, that a party of Eretrians 
settled there, naming the place Methone, from 
Methon, an ancestor of Orpheus : he adds, that 
these Greek colonists were termed Aposphen- 
doneli by the natives. It appears from Athe- 
nseus, that Aristotle wrote an account of the 
Methonaean commonweahh. This town was 
occupied by the Athenians, towards the latter 
end of the Peloponnesian war, with a view of 
annoying Perdiccas by ravaging his territory, 
and affording a refuge to his discontented sub- 
jects. When Philip, the son of Amyntas, suc- 
ceeded to the crown, the Athenians, who still 
held Methone, landed there three thousand men, 
in order to establish Argaeus on the throne of 
Macedon : they were however defeated by the 
young prince, and driven back to Methone. 
Several years after, Philip, laid siege to this 
place, which at the end of twelve months ca- 
pitulated. The inhabitants having evacuated 
the town, the walls were razed to the ground. 
The«re was another Methone in Thessaly, no- 
ticed by Homer, and which must not be con- 
founded with the Macedonian city, an error into 
which Stephanus Byz. seems to have fallen. 
Dr. Clarke and Dr. Holland concur in suppos- 
ing that the site of Methone answers to that of 
Leuterochori, the distance from that place to 
Kitros, or Pydna, agreeing with the forty stadia 

reckoned by Strabo." Cram. II. A city of 

Messenia, on the coast to the south of Cory- 
phasium and Pylos. It was otherwise styled Mo- 
thone, according to Pausanias. Tradition re- 
ported that it was so called from Mothone the 
daughter of ^Eneas, but it more probably derived 
its name from the rock Mothon, which formed 
the break-water of its harbour. Strabo infomtis 
us, that in the opinion of many writers Methone 
should be identified with Pedasus, ranked by Ho- 
mer among the seven towns which Agamemnon 
offered to Achilles. Pausanias makes the same 
observation. In the Peloponnesian war, Me- 
thone was attacked by some Athenian troops, 
who were conveyed thither in a fleet sent to ra- 
vage the coast of Peloponnesus ; but Brasidas, 
who was quartered in the neighbourhood, hav- 
ing forced his way through the enemy's line, 
threw himself into the town with 100 men : 
which timely succour obliged the Athenians to 
re-embark their troops. Methone subsequently 
received a colony of TSTauplians : these, being ex- 
pelled their native city by the Argives, were es- 
tablished here by the Lacedaemonians. Many 
years after, it sustained great loss from the sud- 
den attack of some Illyrian pirates, who carried 
off a number of the inhabitants, both men and 
women. Methone was afterwards besieged and 
taken by Agrippa, who had the command of a 
210 



Roman fleet : that general having found there 
Bogus, king of Mauretania, caused him to be 
put to death as a partisan of Marc Antony. 
We learn from Pausanias that Trajan especial- 
ly favoured this town, and bestowed several pri- 
vileges on its inhabitants. The same writer 
notices here a temple of Minerva Anemotis, and 
another sacred to Diana, containing a well, 
whose water, mingled with pitch, resembled in 
scent and colour the ointment of Cyzicus. Sir 
W. Gell states that at about 2700 paces to the 
east of Modon, is a place called Palaio Mothone, 
where are the vestiges of a city, with a citadel, 
and a few marbles. Modon is a Greek town of 
some size, with a fortress built by the Veni- 

tians." Cram. III. " Methone, or Methana, 

which retains its ancient name, was a penin- 
sula in Argolis, within the Troezenian district, 
formed by the harbour or bay of Pogon on one 
side, and the curvature of the Epidaurian gulf 
on the other. It was connected with the main- 
land by a narrow isthmus, which the Athenians 
occupied and fortified in the seventh year of 
the Peloponnesian war. Diodorus Siculus says 
it was taken by the same people under Tol- 
mides in the interval between the Persian and 
Peloponnesian wars': and this is perhaps the 
meaning of Thucydides when he says, that on 
peace being made, or rather a truce for thirty 
years, Troezen, among other, towns, was re- 
stored to the Peloponnesians. Within the pen- 
insula was a small town, also called Methone, 
which possessed a temple of Isis ; the forum was 
decorated with statues of Mercury and Hercules, 
About thirty stadia from the town were to be 
seen some hot springs, produced by the erup- 
tion of a volcano in the reign of Antigonus Go- 
patas. Strabo writes, that on this occasion ' a 
mountain was raised by the action of this sub- 
terraneous fire to the height of seven stadia; in 
the day-time the spot cannot be approached from 
the heat and sulphureous stench ; but at night 
there is no unpleasant smell, the light is then 
reflected very far, and the heat thrown out is so 
great, that the sea boils at the distance of five 
stadia from the land, and its waters are troubled 
for twenty stadia ; great fragments of rock have 
also been raised from its bed to a height equal- 
ling that of towers.' Ovid, who alludes to the 
same phenomenon in his Metamorphoses, seems 
to attribute it to the force of subterraneous 
winds ; Dodwell says, ' that the mountainous 
promontory of Methana consists chiefly of a 
volcanic rock of a dark colour. The outline is 
grand and picturesque, and the principal moun- 
tain, which was thrown up by the volcano, is of 
a conical form. Its apparent height is about equal 
to that of Vesuvius. The ancient city of Meth- 
one,' according to the same learned antiquary, 
' was situated in the plain at the foot of its acro- 
polis, near which are a few remains of two edi- 
fices, one of the Doric, the other of the Ionic 
order, composed of white marble, and of small 
proportions. The walls of the acropolis are regu- 
larly constructed and well preserved, extending 
round the edge of the rock, which in some pla- 
ces rises about thirty feet above the plain.' " 
Cram. 

Methymna, (now Porto Peiera), a town of 
the island of Lesbos, which receives its name 
from a daughter of Macareus. It is the second 
. city of the island in greatness, population, and 



Ml 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MI 



opulence, and its territory is fruitful, and the 
wines it produces, excellent. It was the native 
place of Arion. When the whole island of Les- 
bos revolted from the power of the Athenians, 
Methymna alone remained firm to its ancient 
allies. Diod. b.— Thuc7jd.3.—IIorat.2,SaL8, 
c. bO.— Virg. G. 3, v. 90. 

Metdldm, a town of Liburnia, in besieging 
of which Augustus was wounded. Diog. 49. 

Mevania, a town of Umbria. " Strabo men- 
tions Mavania as one of the most considerable 
places of that district. Here Vitellius took post, 
as if determined to make a last stand for the 
empire against Vespasian, but soon after with- 
drew his forces. If its walls, as Pliny says, were 
of brick, it could not be capable of much resist- 
ance. This city is farther memorable as the 
birth-place of Propertius, a fact of which he 
himself informs us. It is now an obscure vil- 
lage, which still however retains some traces 
of the original name in that of Bevagna I''' Cram. 
MiDEA, I. a to\\Ti of Argolis. Paits. 6, c. 
20. II. Of Bceotia, drowned by the inunda- 
tion of the lake Copais. Strab. 8. 

MiLEsii, tlie inhabitants of Miletus. Vid 
Miletus. 

MiLESioRUM MuRUS, a place of Egypt, at the 
entrance of one of the mouths of the Nile. 
MiLETiDM, I. a town of Calabria, built by 

tbe people of Miletus of Asia. II. A town 

of Crete. ■ Homer. II. 2, v. 154. 

MiLETDs, a celebrated town of Asia Minor, 
ihe capital of all Ionia, situate about ten stadia 
. south of the mouth of the river Meeander, near 
the sea-coast on the confines of Ionia and Caria. 
" Doubts are entertained as to the situation 
of ancient Miletus. Spon, the traveller, having 
found at Palatsha certain inscriptions bearing 
the name of the Milesians, imagined that he 
had discovered the ruins of the ancient city. 
Chandler, setting out upon such data, sought in 
vain for the Latmian Gulf, with the cities of 
. Myus, Heraclea, and others situated upon its 
shores. He supposed that this gulf was repre- 
sented by the lake Ufa-Bassi, and that the low 
grounds which separate ihat lake from the sea 
owed their formation to the accumulated depo- 
sites of the Meander. This hypothesis, which 
is not very intelligibly stated by its author, has 
found a formidable opponent in an ingenious 
German, who considers the ruins of Palatsha 
as those of Myus, a small toum incorporated 
with Miletus, the inhabitants of which, on that 
account were called Milesians. This learned 
man thinks that Ufa-Bassi is the lake which, 
according to Pausanias, was formed by the sink- 
ing do\^Ti of the soil near Myus. The ruins of 
Miletus and the Latmian gulf should be sought 
for more to the south and the west. But the 
modifications which askilful French geographer 
has recently introduced into the plans of Chan- 
dler, and the very accurate maps of M. de Choi- 
seul-Gouffier, seem to establish the fact that 
alluvial additions have been made to the land 
posterior to those mentioned by Strabo and Pau- 
sanias. The lake of Ufa-Bassi appears, from 
decided marks, to be the ancient Latmian Gull ; 
the ruins of Miletus, however, must lie farther 
to the west than Palatsha. This interesting 
question does not seem to us to have yet received 
an exact and perfect solution. Malte-Brun. 
It was founded by a Cretan colony under Mile- 



tus, or, according to others, by Neleus, the son of 
Codrus, or by Sarpedon, Jupiter's son. It has 
successively been called Lelegeis, Pithyusa, 
and Anactoria. The inhabitants, called Milesii, 
were very powerful, and long maintained an 
obstinate war against the kings of Lydia. They 
early applied themselves to navigation, and 
planted no less than 80 colonies, or, according 
to Seneca, 380, in different parts of the world, 
Miletus gave birth to Thales, Anaximenes, 
Anaximander, Hecatseus, Timotheus the musi- 
cian, Pittacus, one of the seven wise men, &c. 
Miletus was also famous for a temple and an 
oracle of Apollo Didymaeus, and for its excel- 
lent wool,M''ith which were made stuffs and gar- 
ments, held in the highest reputation, both for 
softness, elegance, and beauty. The words 
MilesicB fahulcB, or Milesiaca, were used to ex- 
press wanton and ludicrous plays. Ovid. Trist. 
2. V. 413.—Ca'pitolin. in Alb. ll.~ Ftr^-. G. 3, 
V. 306.—Strab. lb.— Pans. 7, c. 2.— Mela, 1, c. 
17. — Plin. 5, c. 29. — Herodot. 1, &c. — Senec. 
de. Consol. ad Alb, 

MiLvius. " About two miles from Rome, 
we find on the Tiber a bridge, called Pons Mil- 
vius, or Mulvius, a name which has been cor- 
rupted into that of Ponte Molle. Its construc- 
tion is ascribed to M. ^milius Scaurus, who 
was censor A. U. C. 644. We learn from Ci- 
cero, that the" Pons Milvius existed at the time 
of Catiline's conspiracy, since the deputies of 
the Allobroges were here seized by his orders. 
In later times it witnessed the defeat of Maxen- 
tius by Constantine. About a mile from the 
bridge, at the point where the Flaminian and 
Clodian Ways branched off, were the gardens 
of Ovid." Cram. 
MiLYAS. Vid. Lajcia. 

M1N.EI, a people of Arabia Felix, contiguous 
to the Sabaei. " They were sufficiently conspi- 
cuous to give to their country the name of Mi- 
ncBa, and had for their capital Carana, whose 
name is preserved in that of Almakarama, 
which is a strong fortress." D'Anville. 

MiNcius, now Mincio, a river of Venetia, 
flowing from the lake Benacus, and falling into 
the Po. Virgil was born on its banks. Virg. 
Ed. 7, V. 13, G. 3, V. 15. Mn. 10, v. 206. 

Minerva: promontorium, the south-v/estem 
point of land surrounding the basin of the bay 
of Naples. It was sometimes called, from the 
town of that name, Surrentum, and is now 
Punta della Canvpanella. 

Minio, now Mignone, a river of Etruria, fall- 
ing into the Tyrrhene Sea. Virg. Mn. 10, v. 183. 
MiNTURN.aE, a town of Latium, on the banks 
of the Liris, three or four miles from its mouth, 
the situation of which is sufficiently indicated 
by the extensive ruins that remain. It was ori- 
ginally a town of the Ausones, and fell, about 
the year of the city 456, into the hards of the 
Romans, who sent thither a colony. It was in 
the marshes near this place that Marius con- 
cealed himself in the mud to avoid the parti- 
sans of Sylla. The people condemned him to 
death, but when his voice alone had terrified the 
executioner, they showed themselves compas- 
sionate and favoured his escape. Marica was* 
worshipped there ; \\er\ce viaricce regna applied 
to the place. Strab. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 4.—Liv. 8 
c. 10, 1. 10, c. 21, 1. 27, c. 38.—Paterc. 2, c. 14, 
— Lucan. 2, v. 424. 

211 



MCE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MCE 



MiNYJE, a name given to the inhabitants of 
Orchomenos in Boeotia, from Minyas, king of 
the country. Orchomenos, the son of Minyas, 
gave his name to the capital of the country, and 
the inhabitants still retained their original ap- 
pellation in contradistinction to the Orchome- 
nians of Arcadia. A colony of Orchomenians 
passed into Thessaly, and settled in lolchos ; 
from which circumstance the people of the place, 
and particularly the Argonauts, were called 
Minyae. This name they received, according 
to the opinion of some, not because a number of 
Orchomenians had settled among them, but be- 
cause the chief and noblest of them were de- 
scended from the daughters of Minyas. Part 
of the Orchomenians accompanied the sons of 
Codrus when they migrated to Ionia. The de- 
scendants of the Argonauts, as well as ihe 
Argonauts themselves, received the name of 
Minyae. They first inhabited Lemnos, where 
they had been born from the Lemnian women 
who had murdered their husbands. They were 
driven from Lemnos by the Pelasgi about 1160 
years before the Christian era, and came to set- 
tle in Laconia, from whence they passed into 
Calliste with a colony of Lacedaemonians. Hij- 
gin. fab. 14. — Paus. 9, c. 6. — Apollon. 1, arg. 
— Herodot. 4, c. 145. 

MiTYLENE, and Mitylen.e, the capital city 
of the island of Lesbos, which receives its 
name from Mitylene, the daughter of Maca- 
reus, a king of the country. It was greatly 
commended by the ancients for the stateliness 
of its buildings and the fruitfulness of its soil, 
but more particularly for the great men it pro- 
duced. Pittacus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Terpander, 
Theophanes, Hellenicus, &c. were all natives 
of Mitylene. It was long a seat of learning, 
and, with Rhodes and Athens, it had the honour 
of having educated many of the great men of 
Rome and Greece. In the Peloponnesian war 
the Mityleneans suffered greatly for their revolt 
from th power of Athens ; and in the Mithri- 
datic wars, they had the boldness to resist the 
Romans, and disdain the treaties which had 
been made between Mithridates and Sylla. 
Cic. de leg. ag. — Strah. 13. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — 
Diod. 3 and 12. — Pater c. 1, c. 4. — Horat. 1, od. 
7, &c. — Thucyd. 3, &c. — Plut. in Pomp. &c. 
McBciA, one of the tribes at Rome. Liv. 8,c. 17. 
McEDi, a people of Thrace, conquered by 
Philip of Macedonia. 

McENUs, now May7ie, a river of Gennany, 
which falls into the Rhine by Mentz. Tacit, 
de Germ. 28. 

McERis, a celebrated lake in Egypt, on the 
Libyan side of the Nile, south-west of Memphis 
and the region of the pyramids. " Herodotus 
informs us that the circumference of this vast 
sheet of water was three thousand six hundred 
stadia, or four hundred and fifty miles ; that it 
stretched from north to south ; and that its great- 
est depth was about three hundred feet. He 
adds that it was entirely the product of human 
industry ; as a proof of which, he states that in 
its centre were seen two pyramids, each of which 
was two hundred cubits above, and as many be- 
neath, the water ; and that upon the summit of 
both was a colossal statue, placed in a sitting 
attitude. The precise height of these pyramids, 
he concludes, is therefore four hundred cubits, 
or six hundred Egyptian feet. The waters of 
212 



the lake, he continues, are not supplied by 
springs ; on the contrary, the ground which it 
occupies is of itself remarkably dry ; but it com- 
municates by an artificial channel with the Nile, 
receiving during six months the excess of the 
inundation, and during the other half of the 
year emptying itself back into the river. Every 
day during the latter period the fishery yields 
to the royal treasury a talent of silver ; whereas, 
as soon as the ebb has ceased, the produce falls 
to a mere trifle. ' The inhabitants affirm of 
this lake, that it has a subterraneous passage 
westward into the Libyan Desert, in the line 
of the mountain which rises above Memphis.' 
Last century, according to Dr. Pococke, lake 
Moeris was about fifty miles long and ten broad. 
The older French writers estimated its circum- 
ference at a hundred and fifty leagues ; a re- 
sult not materially different from that of the 
English traveller. Mr. Browne, who was more 
lately in Egypt, thought that the length did not 
exceed thirty or forty miles, and that the great- 
est breadth was not more than six. It ii hence 
manifest that the limits of this inland sea have 
been much contracted ; and, moreover, that the 
process of diminution is still going on at a rate 
which is distinctly perceptible. In its present 
contracted dimensions, the lake of- Moeris is 
called by the Arabs the Birket-el-Karoun, and is 
recognised at once as a basin formed by nature, 
and not by art. The details collected by He- 
rodotus, and the other waiters of Greece and 
Rome, must therefore have applied to the works 
which were necessary not only to connect the 
Nile with the lake, but also to regulate the ebb 
and flow of the inundation. The canal, called 
Joseph's River, is about a hundred and twenty 
miles in length ; which, when it enters the 
valley of Fayoum, is further divided into a num- 
ber of subordinate branches, and supplied with 
a variety of locks and dams. There were two 
other canals communicating between the lake 
and the stream, with sluices at their mouths, 
which were alternately shut and opened as the 
Nile rose or fell. These, we may presume, 
were the achievements of Moeris ; which, when 
they are regarded as the work of an individual, 
having for their object the advantage and com- 
fort of a numerous people, may justly be esteem- 
ed a far more glorious undertaking than either 
the Pyramids or the Labyrinth." Russel's 
Egypt. " We shall thus," says Malte-Brun, 
" reconcile the different positions assigned to 
lake Moeris by Herodotus, Diodorus, and Strabo, 
and give a reason why the ancients say that 
the lake was of artificial formation, while the 
Birket-el-Karoun gives no evidence of any such 
operation." 

McEsiA, an extensive tract of country in Eu- 
rope, reaching east and west from the Euxine 
along the south bank of the Danube to the con- 
fluence of that river and the Savus, which, with 
its branches separates it from Pannonia and Tl- 
lyricum. On the south, the Haemus mountains 
form its common boundary whh Thrace and 
Macedon. All the greater rivers of this coun- 
try pour their waters into the Danube, which 
goes, swollen with their tribute, to the sea ; of 
these the principal are the Margus, the OSscus, 
the Utus, and the latrus. " It must be remarked, 
that the name of the country and of the nation 
is also writen Mysia, and Mysi, as the name 



MO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MO 



of the province south of the Propontis in Asia 
and of its people, who are thought to have 
issued from the country now under consider- 
ation. This country corresponds in general 
with those which we call Servia and Bulgaria. 
Moesia was in great part more anciently occu- 
pied hy\he Scordisci^ a Celtic nation ; and when 
we read that Alexander, in the first expedition 
towards the Ister, encountered the Celts, or 
Gauls, these are the people alluded to. And 
although the Scordiscians were almost annihi- 
lated at the time when the Roman power ex- 
tended in this country, it is remarked that many 
names of places on the Ister are purely Celtic. 
Darius, son of Hystaspes, marching against the 
Scythians, e;aLCOimtered the Getes, who were 
reputed Thracians, on his passage, before arriv- 
ing at the Ister ; and we shall see that this ex- 
tremity of the country on the Euxine bore the 
name of Scythia. Moesia appears to have been 
subjected to the empire under Augustus and 
Tiberius. Its extent along the river, which 
separated it from Dacia on the north, was di- 
vided into Superior and Inferior ; and a little 
river named Ciabrus or Cebrus, now Zibriz, 
between the Timacus and the (Escus, makes, 
according to Ptolemy, the separation of these 
two Moesias. But Moesia suffered encroach- 
ment upon its centre in the admission of a new 
province, under the name of Dacia. Aurelian, 
fearing that he could not maintain the conquest 
. of Trajan beyond the Ister, called Dacia, aban- 
doned it, and retired with the troops and people, 
. which he placed on the hither side of the river, 
affecting to call his new province the Dacia of 
Aurelian. That which Mcesia preserved of the 
superior division, was called the First Moesia ;^ 
and there is reason to believe that the name of 
Masua, which remains to a canton south of the 
Save, near its confluence with the Ister, comes 
from this Moesia. The Inferior was the Second 
Moesia. There was afterwards distinguished 
. in Dacia the part bordering on the river under 
the name of Ripensis ; and that which was se- 
questered in the interior country under the name 
of Mediterranea, occupied probably a country 
contiguous to Macedonia, and known more an- 
ciently by the name of Dardania. ( Vid. Dar- 
dania.) To finish what concerns Moesia, there 
remains a division of it adjacent to the Euxine ; 
in which the part nearest to the mouths of the 
Ister was formed, under Constantine, into a 
particular province named Scythia. The city 
of Tomi, which the banishment of Ovid has 
illustrated, assumed in this province the rank 
of metropolis : and is still known in the name 
of Tomeswar, although otherwise called Baba." 
D'Anville. 
MoLOEis, a river of Boeotia, near Platasa. 
MoLOssi, a people of Epirus, who inhabited 
that part of the country which was called Mo- 
lossia or Molossis from king Molossus. " It 
must, therefore, have comprehended the terri- 
tory of Jannind, the present capital of Albania, 
together with its lake and mountains, including 
the country of the Tymphoei, which bordered 
on that part of Thessaly near the source of the 
Peneus. Its limits to the west cannot precisely 
be determined, as we are equally ignorant of 
those of Thesprotia." Cram. This country 
had the bay of Ambracia on the south, and the 
country of the Perrhsebeans on the east. The 



dogs of the place were famous, and received the 
name of Molossi among the Romans. Dodona 
was the capital of the country according to 
some writers. Others, however, reckon it as 
the chief city of Thesprotia. Ducret. 5, v, 10, 
62. — LMcan. 4, v. 440. — Strab. 7. — Liv. — Justin. 
7^ c. &.—C. Nep. 2, c. S.— Virg. G. 3, v. 495.— 
Horat.% Sat.6,v. 114. 
MoLOSsiA, or Molossis. Vid. Molossi. 
MoLYCRiON, a town of ^olia, between the 
Evenus and Naupactum. Paus. 5, c. 3. 

'MoNA, I. sometimes called Monabia, now 
the Isle of Man. This is the Mona described 
by Csesar. and is to be distinguished from the 
Mona of Tacitus. Cambd. Brit. II. Ano- 
ther island, now Anglesey, off the coast of Caer- 
narvonshire in Wales. This is the Mona de- 
scribed by Tacitus, the seat of the Druids, and 
the scene of their massacre. It was reduced 
by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus and 
Agricola. The narrow strait which separated 
this island from Wales was called Menai. From 
the early British name of Mon, the Latins 
formed that of Mona ; nor was it till the early- 
English took possession of this island that it 
exchanged its ancient designation for that of 
Anglesey, or Island of the English. 

MoNDA, a river between the Durius and Ta- 
gus in Portugal. Plin. 4, c. 22. It rose near 
the source of the Cuda, and flowing west, emp- 
tied into the Atlantic below the city of Conim- 
briga, now Coimbra. Its modern name is the 
Mondego. 

MoNfficus, now Monaco, a town and port oi 
Liguria, where Hercules had a temple, whence 
he is called Monoecius, and the harbour Hercu- 
lis Partus. Strab. i.— Virg. JSw. 6, v. 830. 

MoNs Sager, a mountain about three miles, 
from Rome, accompanying the line of the course 
of the Anio. It presents itself in alow range 
of sandstone hills, on the right bank, and is 
celebrated from the earliest days of the repub- 
lic for the secession of the populace, who there 
made that stand agamst the nobles which re- 
sulted in their admission to power, by the crea- 
tion of the new oflice of popular Tribunes or 
Tribunes of the people. 

MopsiaM, a hill and town of Thessaly, be- 
tween Tempe and Larissa. Liv. 42. 

MopsopiA, an ancient name of Athens, from 
Mopsus one' of its kings, and from thence the 
epithet of Mopsapius is often applied to an 
Athenian. 

MopsuHESTiA, or Mopsos, now Messis, a 
town of Cilicia Campestris, near the mouth of 
the Pyramus. Cic. Fam. 3, c. 8. 

MoRGANTiuM, (or ia), a town of Sicily, near 
the mouth of the Simethus. Cic. in Ver. 3, c. 
18. 

MoRiNi, a people of Belgic Gaul, on the 
shores of the British ocean. The shortest pas- 
sage in Britain was from their territories ; and 
from the Itius Portus, one of their ports, it was 
that Csesar embarked for that till then unex- 
plored and almost undiscovered country. They 
were called extremi hominum by the Romans, 
because situate on the extremities of Gaul. 
Their city, called Morinorum castellum, is now 
Mount Cassel, in Artois ; and Morinorum civi- 
tas is Terouenne, on the Lis. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 
726.— Cr^s. 4, Bell. G. 21. Their territory is 
comprehended for the most part in the depart- 



MU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MY 



ments Pas-de-Calais and Le Nord ; and, like 
the Armoricans, they derived their name from 
their proximity to the sea. 

MoRTUUM MARE. Vid. Mare Mortuum. 

MosA,a river of Belgic Gaul, falling into the 
German ocean, and now called the Maese or 
Meuse. The place at which it was crossed by 
a bridge, the ancient Trajectus ad Mosam, is 
now supposed to be Maestricht. It rose in the 
country of the Lingones, and flowing irregular- 
ly north-north-west, it fell into the ocean at no 
great distance from the mouths of the Rhine. 
Tacit. H. 4, c. m. 

MoscHA, now Muscat, a port of Arabia on 
the Red Sea. 

MoscHi, a people of Asia, at the west of the 
Caspian Sea. Mela, 1, c. 2, 1. 3, c. 5. — Ducan. 
3, V. 270. 

MosELLA, a river of Belgic Gaul, falling into 
the Rhine at Coblentz, and now called the Mo- 
selle. Flor. 3, c. 10.-T<zc^^. Ann. 13, c. 53. 

MosYCHLUs, a mountain of Lemnos, " from 
which fire was seen to blaze forth, according to 
a fragment of the poet Antimachus, preserved 
by the Scholiast of Nicander. 

.... 'tl^atOTOV (p'Xoyl e'ikeXov, rjv pa riTvaKEi 
AaijjLWv aKporaraii vpeog Kopviprjai Moo-w^^Xod. 

This volcanic appearance will account for all 
the mythological fictions which allude to this 
island as the smithy of the god of fire, and also 
for the ancient name of iEthalea, which it is 
said to have borne in distant ages. ' The whole 
island,' says Dr. Hunt 'bears the strongest 
marks of the appearance of volcanic fire ; the 
rocks in many parts are like burnt and vitrified 
scoria of furnaces.' " Cram. —Nicand. 

MosYNffici, a nation on the Euxine Sea, in 
whose territories the 10,000 Greeks staid on 
their return from Cunaxa. Xenoph. " The 
name of Mosynascia is derived from the wooden 
habitations in which the people in this part of 
Pontus towards the eastern corner, were accus- 
tomed to reside." D'Anville. 

MoTHoNE, a town of Magnesia, where Philip 
lost one of his eyes. Justin. 7, c. 6. The word 
is often spelt Methone. 

MuLiJCHA, a river of Africa, dividing Numi- 
dia from Mauretania. Plin. 5, c. 2. 

MuLVius Pons. Vid. Milvnis Pons. 

MuNDA, a small toAvn of Hispania Beetica. 
The village of Munda, near the modern town 
of Ronda in Granada, corresponds nearly to 
the site of the ancient town. It was celebrated 
for a battle fought there on the 17th of March, 
B. C. 45, between Caesar and the republican 
forces of Rome, under Labienus and the sons 
of Pompey. Caesar obtained the victo)y after 
an obstinate and bloody battle, and by this blow 
put an end to the Roman republic. Pompey 
lost 30,000 men, and Caesar only 1000, and 500 
wounded. Sil. Ital. 3, c. iOO.—Hirt. Bell. 
Hisp. 27. — lAican. 1. 

MuNYCHiA, (and je,) a port of Attica, be- 
tween the Piraeus and the promontory of Suni- 
um, called after king Munychus, who built there 
a temple to Diana, and in whose honour he in- 
stituted festivals called Mnnychia. The temple 
was held so sacred, that whatever criminals fled 
there for refuge were pardoned. Durmg the 
festivals they offered small cakes, which they 
called amphi phonies, '^to rov afKbicpartv, from 
214 



shining all around, because there were lighted 
torches hung round when they were carried to 
the temple, or because they were otfered at the 
full moon, at which time the solemnity was ob- 
served. It was particularly in honour of Diana, 
who is the same as the moon, because it was full 
moon when Themistocles conquered the Per- 
sian fleet at Salamis. The port of Munychia 
was well fortified, and of great consequence ; 
therefore the Lacedaemonians, when sovereigns 
of Greece, always kept a regular garrison there. 
Plut.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. lOd.—Strab. 'Z.—Paus. 
I, c. 1. 

MuRGANTiA, a town of Samnium. Liv. 25, 
c.27. 

MuRSA, now Essek, a town of Hungary, 
where the Drave falls into the Danube. 

MusEiUM. Vid. AthencB. 

MuTiCA, or MuTYCE, a town of Sicily, west 
of the cape Pachynus. Cic. in Ver. 3, c. 43. 

MuTiNA, a Roman colony of Cisalpine Gaul, 
where M. Anthony besieged D. Brutus, whom 
the consuls Pansa and Hirtius delivered. Two 
battles on the 15th of April. B. C. 43, were 
fought, in which Antony was defeated and at 
last obliged to retire. Mutina is now called Mo- 
dena. L/iican. 1, v 41, 1. 7, v. 872 — Sil. 8, v. 
592.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 822.— Cic. Fam. 10, 
ep. 14. Brut. ep. 5. 

MuziRis, a town of India, now Vizindruk. 
Plin. 6, c. 23. 

Mycale, a city and promontory of Asia Mi- 
nor, opposite Samos. This celebrated promon- 
tory was long sacred to the meetings of the lo- 
nians, who there assembled in the temple of 
Neptune, and in the council, Panionium, in 
which all the Ionic cities were represented, in- 
vestigated, and provided for the concerns of the 
confederation. In the Persian war this spot be- 
came still more noted as the scene of the total 
destruction of the fleet of the Persian king, on 
the morning of the same day that his land forces, 
under Mardonius, were roated by Pausanias 
and his Spartans before Plataea. The Per- 
sians were about 100,000 men, that had just 
returned from the unsuccessful expedition of 
Xerxes in Greece. They had drawn their ships 
to the shore and fortified themselves, as if de- 
termined to support a siege. They suffered the 
Greeks to disembark from their fleet without the 
least molestation, and were soon obliged to give 
way before the cool and resolute intrepidity of 
an inferior number of men. The Greeks obtain- 
ed a complete victory, slaughtered some thou- 
sands of the enemy, burned their camp, and 
sailed back to Samos with an immense booty, in 
which were seventy chests of money among 
other very valuable things. Herodot. — Justin. 
2, c. U.—Diod. 

Mycalessus, an inland town of Boeotia, 
where Ceres had a temple. Paiis. 9, c. 19. 

Mycen^, a town of Argolis, in Peloponne- 
sus, built by Perseus, son of Danae. It was 
situate on a small river at the east of the Ina- 
chus, and 50 stadia from Argos. " Mycenae is 
said to have been founded by Perseus after the 
death of his grandfather Ac'risius. 

.... iToXicrna ITfjJcrsw?, 

KtiKXwrrttwi/ novov ycpcov. 

EuRip. Iph. Aul. 1500. 
The name was supposed by some to be derived 



MY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MY 



from Mycene, daughter of Inachus ; but others 
assigned a different origin to the word, as may- 
be seen from Pausanias. Perseus was succeed- 
ed by Sthenelus, married to a daughter of Pe- 
lops named i\.stydameia : after wliom followed 
EurysLheus, Atreus, and Agamemnon; under 
the latter monarch, the empire of Mycenae 
reached its highest degree of opulence and pow- 
er, since his authority was acknowledged by the 
whole of Greece. Mycense, which had been 
superior even to Argos during the Trojan wa:r, 
declined after the return of the Heraclidee : and 
in the 78th Olympiad, or 468 B. C. the Argives, 
having attacked and captured the city, levelled 
it to the ground, and enslaved its inhabitants. 
Sirabo states that so complete was the destruc- 
tion of this celebrated capital, that not a vestige 
remained of its existence. This assertion, how- 
ever, is not correct, since Pausanias informs us 
that several parts of the walls were yet stand- 
ing, as also one of the gates, surmounted by 
lions, when he visited the ruins. Modern tra- 
vellers have given us a full and interesting ac- 
count of these vestiges ; among which the most 
remarkable is a subterraneous chamber, called 
by Pausanias the treasury of Atreus, and usually 
mentioned under that name by antiquaries of 
the present day. It served also as the burial 
vault of Atreus and his descendants- The gate 
of ihe lions still remains in the same state as it 
was when seen by Pausanias, who ascribes it, 
as well as the treasury, to the Cyclopes, who 
also raised the fortifications of Tiryns. ' This 
gate forms the principal entrance to the acropo- 
lis, and a magnificent wall, composed of irregu- 
larpolygpns,closely united and carefully smooth- 
ed, supports the terrace on which it is situated. 
The acropolis is a long irregular triangle stand- 
ing nearly east and west. The walls follow the 
sinuosities of the rock, and are mostly compos- 
ed of the second style of well-joined polygons, 
although the rough construction is occasionally 
seen. The traces within are few and imper- 
fect.' Pausanias also mentions the monuments 
of Agamemnon and Electra. Clytemnestra and 
^gistheus were interred without the walls. 
The fountain of Perseus, which he likewise 
notices, ' rises,' as Dodwell informs us, ' a few 
hundred yards to the north-east of the acropolis, 
and immediately after issuing from the rock 
forms a small clear stream of excellent water, 
with which Mycenae was anciently supplied.' 
The extent of the town itself has not been as- 
certained. Thucydides, however, leads us to 
suppose it was but small, notwithstanding the 
epithets of evpvdyvta and evKri^evov applied to it 
by Homer. Mr. Dodwell is of opinion * that 
the walls of the city extended considerably be- 
yond the subterraneous chambers to the plain ;' 
and he adds, ' that the foundations of some edi- 
fices, as well as the remains of houses, may be 
traced in many places.' The ruins are close to 
the village of Krabata. The temple of Juno, 
which, according to Strabo, was common to the 
Argives and Mycenseans, stood on the slope of 
mount Euboea, at a distance of fifteen stadia 
from the city of the latter. That part of the 
mountain which rose above the edifice was 
named Acraa, and the lowerportion Prosymna. 
A rivulet, called Asterion, had its source near 
the temple, but presently after disappeared 
among the rocks. Eupolemus was said to be 



the architect of this celebrated building, which 
was enriched with numerous bass-reliels repre- 
senting the birth of Jove, the battle of the gods 
and giants, as well as various events which oc- 
curred during the siege, and after the capture 
of Troy. In the vestibule were ranged the 
statues of the priestesses of Juno, and different 
heroes ; that which bore the name of Augus- 
tus, as Pausanias was informed, was originally 
intended for Orestes, The image of the god- 
dess was of a colossal size, and represented seat- 
ed on a throne. A crown, adorned with figures 
of the Hours and Graces, encircled the head ; 
in one hand she held a sceptre, in the other a 
pomegranate. This admirable statue was 
wrought in gold and ivory by Polycletus. The 
figure of Hebe, which once stood near the Juno, 
was the work of Naucydes. Among the vari- 
ous offerings with which the temple was en- 
riched, the most remarkable were an altar of 
silver, on which was represented the marriage 
of Hercules and Hebe, a peacock of gold stud- 
ded with jewels, presented by the emperor 
Hadrian, and a golden crown and robe of pur- 
ple by Nero. The first temple was accidental- 
ly burnt, the curtains having caught fire through 
the negligence of the priestess Chryseis, who 
had fallen asleep ; she in consequence fled to 
Tegea, and took refuge in the sanctuary of 
Minerva Alea. The Argives nevertheles did 
not remove her statue from the temple, where 
it still remained in the time of Pausanias. This 
fire happened in the ninth year of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. The site of this ancient edifice has 
not yet be^n ascertained. Sir W. Gell suppo- 
ses it might have stood at Phiti, or Phytai, to 
the west of Krabata, where there are some ves- 
tiges. Mount Euboea, below which, according 
to Pausanias, the temple was situated, answers 
apparently to the ridge now called Tricorpko, 
or three heads." Cram. — Pans. 2, c. 16. — Strab. 
S.— Virg. vEn. 6, v. 839.— Mela, 2, c. 3. The 
word MycencEus is used for Agamemnon, as he 
was one of the kings of Mycenae. 

Myconos, {or E,) one of the Cyclades, be- 
tween Delosandlcaria, which received its name 
from Myconus, an unknown person. It is about 
three miles at the east ofDelos, and is thirty-six 
miles in circumference. It remained long unin- 
habited on account of the frequent earthquakes 
to which it was subject. Some suppose that the 
giants whom Hercules killed were buried under 
that island whence arose the proverb of every 
thing is under Mycone, applied to those who 
treat of different subjects under one and the same 
title, as if none of the defeated giants had been 
buried under no other island or mountain about 
Mycone. Strabo observes, and his testimony is 
supported by that of modern travellers, that the 
inhabitants of Mycone became bald very early, 
even at the age of 20 or 25 ; from which circum- 
stance they were called, by way of contempt, the 
bald heads of Mycone. Pliny says that the 
children of the place were always born without 
hair. The island was poor, and the inhabitants 
very avaricious; whence Archilochus reproach- 
ed a certain Pericles, that he came to a feast like 
a Myconian, that is, without previous invita- 
tion. Virg. .En. 3, v. 16.— Strab. \0.—Plin. 
11, c. 37, 1. 12, c. 7, 1. 14, c. l.—Athen. l.— Thn- 
cyd. 3, c. 29.— Mela, 2, c. l.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 
463. 

215 



MY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



MY 



Myecphoris, a town in Egypt, in a small 
island near Bubastis. 

Myenus, a mountain of ^tolia. Plut. de 
Flum. 

Mygdonia, a small province of Macedonia, 
near Thrace, between the rivers Axius and 
Strymon. The inhabitants, called Mygdories, 
migrated into Asia, and settled near Troas, 
where the country received the name of their an- 
cient habitation. Cybele was called Mygdonia, 
from the worship she received in Mygdonia in 
Phrygia. fforat. 2, od. 12, v. 22, 1. 3, od. 16, v. 

41. — Ovid. Met. 6, v. 45. A small province 

of Mesopotamia bears also the name of Mygdo- 
nia, and was probably peopled by a Macedo- 
nian colony. Flacc. 3, &c. — Plin. 4, c. 10. — 
Ovid. Heroid. 20.—Horat. 2, od. 12. 

Mygdonus, or Mygdon, a small river run- 
ning through Mesopotamia. 

Mylassa {orum), Si town of Caria, on a small 
stream emptying west of the Doridis Sinus. It 
still remains, though with an altered name ; the 
quantity ot marble in its vicinity causing it, eis 
D'Anville concludes, to be called Marmora. 
Liv. 38, c. 39. 

Mylje, nov/ Melazzo, a to"\:^Ti upon a narrow 
cape, that, stretching from the northern coast of 
Sicily west of Pelorum, assists to foim a bay 
upon this part of the shore. Near this place the 
fleet of the younger Pompey was destroyed by 
that of Octavius Csesar, then triumvir, under 
the conduct of his favourite leader Agrippa. 

Myndus, a maritime town of Caria, near Ha- 
licarnassus. Cic. Fam. 3, ep. 8. — Mela, 1, c. 
16.— Plin. 5, c. 29. 

Myonnesus, a town and promontory of Ionia, 
now Jalanghi-Liman. Liv. 37, c. 13 and 27. 

Myos-hormos, a commercial town of Egypt, 
on the Sinus Arabicus, below the Heropolites 
Sinus. This place was frequently called also 
Aphrodites, and its harbour was crowded by a 
number of little islands bearing the same name. 
Their modern name among the surrounding 
people is Sufangeul-barhi, or the Sponge of the 
Sea. From this place all the inland country, 
and all the cities on the upper portion of the 
Nile, were supplied with the commodities of the 
east; and till the founding of Berenice, and the 
formation of a road from Coptus to that city 
through the desert that lay between, Myos-hor- 
mos flourished almost as much as any city of 
Egypt. The better fortune, however, of Bere- 
nice, in engrossing all the intercourse of Coptus 
and the Indies, soon reduced Myos-hormos to 
a very subordinate rank. 

Myra, {orum or ce), a town of Lycia, on a 
high hill two miles from the sea. Plin. 5, c. 
21.—Strab. 14. 

Myrcinus, a town of the Edones in Thrace, 
on the left bank of the Strymon. " Myrcinus 
is often mentioned by Herodotus as the place 
chosen by Histiseus of Miletus for his settle- 
ment, which was granted to him by Darius, in 
consideration of the important services he had 
rendered that sovereign in the Scythian expedi- 
tion. The advantages which this situation pre- 
sented to the enterprising Ionian, consisted in 
an abundant supply of timber for ship-building, 
Ihe number of mariners and soldiers which the 
country could readily furnish, the richness of 
the mines it contained, and its proximity to the 
Greek colonies. His designs, however, did not 
216 



escape the vigilant observation of Megabyzus, 
who commanded the Persian army in Thrace : 
and on his representation to Darius, Histiaeus 
WELS recalled in the manner related by Herodo- 
tus. Aristagoras also subsequently retired to 
Myrcinus on the failure of his enterprise in 
Ionia, and was slain before some Thraciantown 
which he was besieging. At the time of the 
Peloponnesian war, Myrcinus had fallen again 
into the hands of the Edoni ; but on the death 
of Pittacus, sovereign of that people, it opened 
its gates to BreisidEis, who was then in the pos- 
session of Amphipolis. Cleon, the Athenian 
commander was killed in the battle which took 
place before that city by a targeteer of Myrci- 
nus. The situation of Myrcinus probably cor- 
responds with that of Orphano." Cram. 

Myriandros, a town of Seleucia in Syria, 
on the bay of Issus, which is sometimes called 
Sinus Myriandricus. Liv. 2, c. 108. 

Myrina, I. a maritime town of iEolia, called 
also Sebastopolis, and now Sanderlic. Tacit. 

Ann. 2, c. il.—Liv. 33, c. SO.-Strab. 13. 

II. A town of Lemnos, now Palio Castro, built 
on the point of a promontory looking towards 

Athos. Vid. Lemnos. Plin. 4, c. 12. III. 

A town of Asia, destroyed by an earthquake in 
Trajan's reign. 

Maricb, a town of Arcadia, called also Me- 
galopolis. 

Myrl5:.e, same as Apamea of Bithynia. 
Plin. 5, c. 32. 

Myrmidones, a people on the southern bor- 
ders of Thessaly, who accompanied Achilles to 
the Trojan war. They received their name 
from Myrmidon, a son of Jupiter and Eury me- 
dusa, who married one of the daughters of ^Eo- 
lus, son of Helen. His son Actor married 
JEgina, the daughter, of the Asopus. He gave 
his name to his subjects who dwelt near the 
river Peneus in Thessaly. According to some 
the Myrmidons received their name from their 
having been originally ants, ftvpur/Kei. Vid. 
Macus. According to Strabo, they received 
it from their industry, because they imitated 
the diligence of the ants, and like them, were 
indefatigable, and were continually employed 
in cultivating the earth. Ovid, Met. 7, v. 654. 
— Strab. — Hygin. fab. 52. 

Myrtoum mare, a part of the JEgean Sea 
which lies between Euboea, Attica, and Pelo- 
ponnesus, as far as cape Malea. It receives 
this name from Myrto, a woman, or from Myr- 
tos, a small island opposite to Carystos in Eu- 
boea ; or from Myrtilus, the son of Mercury, 
who was drowned there, &c. Paus. 8, c. 14. 
— Hygin. fab. 84. — Plin. 4, c. 11. 

Myrtuntium, a name given to that part of 
the sea which lies on the coast of Epirus be- 
tween the bay of Ambracia and Leucas. 

Myst, a barbarous people according to He- 
rodotus, who, crossing with the Teucri into 
Thrace from the eastern shores of the Euxine 
and the Propontis, effected important changes 
in the settlements of that country, extending 
themselves as far as the Adriatic on the west 
and the Peneus on the south. The revolutions 
occasioned by this migration occurred at an era 
more remote than that to which the Trojan 
war can be referred. 

Mysia, a country of Asia, bounded in its 
greatest extent by the Propontis on the north, 



MY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NA 



the iEgaean and the Hellespont upon the west, 
by Lydia on the south, and by Bithynia on the 
east. Besides the country lying within these 
boundaries, the ancients usually assigned to 
Mysia the island of Lesbos, and the smaller isl- 
ands that clustered round the shore. In some 
respects this is the most remarkable of all the 
Asiatic provinces ; here, before the historic ages, 
were performed those exploits, which, them- 
selves, beyond its pale, have served for a land- 
mark in all history ; and half the poetry of the 
ancient world, or more than half perhaps, is in 
some way connected with the name of Troy. 
The first division which we may mark in My- 
sia is that which distinguishes two provinces, 
the Greater and the Less. In the former we 
may include all the region lying along the coast 
as far as the commencement of the Hellespont, 
and inland to the borders of Bithynia, a part of 
which, as far as mount Olympus, may have once 
belonged to it ; the Lesser Mysia was contained 
therefore within the line of the coast along the 
Hellespont and Propontis eastward as far as the 
river Rhindacus; but all the early fame of My- 
sia is connected with this part. Here, upon the 
straits, or, as it was anciently called, the river, 
was the plain of Troy, with the consecrated Ida 
in its rear; and here the streams of Xanthus 
and of Simois are seen to bear their feeble but 
still classic waters to the ^^ broad Hellespont." 
If poetry has not done as much for the more 
southern part, history has done much more; 
and about 80 years after the events which give 
such lasting interest to the section just described, 
a body of JEolic Greeks passed over to rebuild 
and repopulate the country that their ancestors 
had spent ten years in laying waste. The 
name of .^olis belongs to this part of Mysia 
from the period of the return of the Heraclidae 
to the Peloponnesus. {Vid. ^olis.') Many dif- 
ferent aspects present themselves, under which 
we must consider the geographical and political 
divisions of this part of peninsular Asia. Thus, 
after the establishment of the jEolians, we maj'- 
consider almost every town as an independent 
state, or at least as striving for independence. 
After some time the Lydian empire of Croesus 
affected a change in its political but without in- 
terfering with its geographical situation, and 
without affecting the relative position of the 
towns. In the same manner it passed into and 
probably remained in the hands of the Persians. 
On the erection of the kingdom of Pergamus, 
Mysia entered into the distribution of Asia, 
which constituted that state, and was afterwards 
a part of" Asia," a praetorian province. With- 
out regard to these differences, however, we 
may observe that the subdivisions of Mysia were 
generally understood to be as follows among 
the Greeks. 1st. Great Mysia, of which the 
capital was Pergamus, upon the Caicus ; 2d. 
the coast of the Pelasgi, Leleges, &c. and the 
island of Lesbos ; 3d. Troas and Little Mysia, 
forming what was sometimes designated little 
Phrygia. Of these the ancient Tmy, once mis- 
tress of the east, was the capital of the former ; 
while Cyzicus and Lampsacus were the prin- 
cipal towns of the latter district in the 3d sub- 
division. Under Constantine, when Asia was 
divided into diocesses, Mysia, in the diocess of 
Asia, assumed the name i"f Hellespontus, the 
principal town being still Pergamus. The whole 
Part I.-2 E 



of this country is now comprised, with the great- 
er part of Bithynia, in the Turkish divisions of 
Khudavenkiar, Karassi, and Bigah. The Mysi 
are supposed to be the descendants of the Moesi, 
a Thracian people, who early crossed over from 
Europe ; but though we may safely grant the 
analogy, which is presumed or ascertained, be- 
tween the Thracian and the Phrygian dialects 
and though we cannot for a moment dispute 
the antiquity of both, it requires a very deep re- 
search to enable us to say that one, and still 
more to declare which one, is the parent tongue. 
The Mysians were once very warlike, but they 
greatly degenerated ; and the words Mysorum 
ultimus were emphatically used to signify a 
person of no merit. The ancients generally 
hired them to attend their funerals as mourners, 
because they were naturally melancholy and 
inclined to shed tears. 

Myus, (Myuntis,) a town of Ionia on the 
confines of Caria, founded by a Grecian colony. 
It is one of the 12 capital cities of Ionia, situ- 
ate at the distance of about 30 stadia from the 
mouth of the Maeander. Artaxerxes, king of 
Persia, gave it to Tbemistocles to maintain him 
in meat. Magnesia was to support him in 
bread, and Lampsacus in wine. The sea hav- 
ing retired and left much of the shore bare, 
Myus was so infested by insects in consequence, 
that the inhabitants removed to Miletus; and 
in the time of Pausanias the city e:?:isted only 
in name. Heyl. Cosm. — C. Nep. in Themis. 
Strab. U.—Herodot. l,c. U2.—Diod. 11. 

N. 

NABATH.EA, a couutry of" Arabia, of which 
the capital was called Petra. The word is 
often applied to any of the eastern countries of 
the world by the poets, and seems to be derived 
from Nabath the son of Ishmael. Ovid. Met. 
1, V. 61, 1. 5, V, 163. — Strab. 16. — Lnican. 4, v. 
63. — Juv. 11. V. 126. — Seneca, in Her. (Et. 
160, &c. 

Naharvali, a people of Germany. Tacit. 
Germ. 43. 

Naissus, or NiEssus, now Nissa, a tovni of 
Moesia, the birth-place of Constantine, ascribed 
by some to lUyricum or Thrace. 

Namnetes, an Armoric people of Celtic 
Gaul, whom Strabo calls Namnitae, and Ptole- 
my Namnetffi. On the north they were bound- 
ed by the Rhedones ; on the east by the Andes; 
on the south by the Ligeris ; and on the west 
by the Veneti. Their towns, according to Pto- 
lemy, was Condevicnum, which seems to be 
formed from the Celtic Condate, meaning " a 
confluence ;" for the town was situated at the 
confluence of the Ardra and the Ligeris. It 
afterwards took the name of the people, whence 
the modern name Nantes {dep. de la Loire-Infe- 
rieure.) Cess. B. G. 3, 9. Lem. ed. 

Nantuates, a people of Gallia Celtica, 
whose territory is not easily defined. For Cae- 
sar speaks of the Nantuates, Veragri, and Se- 
duni in conjunction, and does not mark out their 
separate limits. On the whole it is most likely 
that their territory is now the part of the Alps 
called Le Chablais, and le bas de la Vallee. 
Cces.B. G.3,l,l; 4, 10. 

NAPmLUs, a river of Peloponnesus falling 
into the Alpheus. Paus. 1. 
217 



NA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NA 



Nar, now Nera, a river of Umbria, whose 
waters, famous for their sulphureous properties, 
pass through the lake Velinus, and issuing from 
thence with great rapidity, fall into the Tiber. 
It rises at the foot of mount Fiscellus, on that 
part of the chain of the Appenines which se- 
parates the Sabines from Picenum, and falls 
into the Tiber near Ocriculum. Oram. — Ovid. 
Met. 14, V. 330.— Virg. jEn. 7, v. 517.— Cic. ad 
Attic. 4, ep. 15. — Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 79, 1. 3, c. 9. 

Narbo Martius, now Narbonne, dep de V 
Ande, the first Roman colony established in 
Gaul. It was a very ancient city of the Volcae 
Tectosages ; having been colonized by Porcius 
and Marcius the consuls, A. U. C. 635, it be- 
came the chief city of the province, which 
hence derived the name of Narbonensis. Its 
epithet of Martius it received, not from the 
consul Marcius, but from Mars, because, as 
Cicero says in the oration for Fonteius, it was 
specula populi Romani ac propugnaculum, istis 
nationihus ( Gallorurri) oppositum et objectum. C. 
J. Caesar sent a second colony to this city, con- 
sisting of the veterans of the 10th legion. It 
was led by Tib. Claudius Nero, the father of 
the emperor. Its inhabitants were called Ati- 
cini from the river Atacinus, and Decumani, 
from the 10th legion {a decima legione.) Cces. 
B. G. 3, 20 ; 7, 7 ; 8, 46. Lem. ed. 

Narbonensis Gallia, one of the four great 
divisions of ancient Gaul, was bounded by the 
Alps, the Pyrenean mountains; Aquitania, 
Belgica, and the Mediterranean, and contained 
the modern provinces of Languedoc^ Provence^ 
DaupMne, and Savoy. Vid. Gallia. 

Narisci, a nation of Germany, in the Upper 
Palatinate. Tacit, de Germ. 42. 

Narnia, or Narna, anciently Nequinum, 
now Narni, a town of Umbria, washed by the 
river Nar, from which it received its name. In 
its neighbourhood are still visible the remains 
of an aqueduct and of a bridge erected by Au- 
gustus. Liv. 10, c. 9. 

Naro, a river of Dalmatia, " now Narenta, 
a considerable stream, which rises in the moun- 
tains of Bosnia, and falls into the sea opposite 
to the island of Lesina. Scylax speaks of a 
great lake in the interior of the country, from 
which this river flows, containing an island of 
about one hundred and twenty stadia in extent. 
Modern maps only lay down some extensive 
marshes in this direction. The Emporium, to 
which the same ancient geographer alludes, as 
being situated eighty stadia above the mouth of 
the Naro, may apply to the Narona of Pliny 
and Mela, a Roman colony of some note. Its 
ruins should be sought for in the vicinity of 
Castel Norin." Cram. 

Narycia, or DM, or Naryx, a town of Mag- 
na Grsecia, built by a colony of Locrians after 
the fall of Troy. The place in Greece from 
which they came, bore the same name, and was 
the country of Ajax Oileus. The word Nary- 
cian is more universally understood, as apply- 
ing to the Italian colony, near which pines and 
other trees grew in abundance. Virg. G. 2, v. 
438. Mn. 3, v. 3^^.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 705. 

Nasamones, a savage people of Libya, near 
the Syrtes, who generally lived upon plunder. 
Curt. 4, c. 7. — Ducan. 9, v. 439. — Herodot. 2, c. 
\Qb.~Sil. It. 2, V. 116, 1. 11, V. 180. 

NassuSj or Nasus, a town of Acarnania, near 
218 



the mouth of the Achelous. Liv. 26, c. 24. 
Also a part of the town of Syracuse. 



Natiso, now Natiso7ie, a river rising in the 
Alps, and fallmg into the Adriatic east of Aqui- 
leia. Pli7i. 3, c. 18. 

Nava, now Nake, a river of Germany fall- 
ing into the Rhine at Bingen, below Mentz. 
Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 70. 

Naucratis, a city of Egypt, on the left side 
of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. It was cele- 
brated for its commerce, and no ship was 
permitted to land at any other place, but was 
obliged to sail directly to the city, there to de- 
posite its cargo. It gave birth to Athenaeus. 
The inhabitants were called Naucratitos, or 
Naucratiotce. Herodot. 2, c. 97 and 179. — 
Plin. 5, c. 9. 

Naulochus, I. a maritime town of Sicily 

near Pelorum. II. A town of Thrace, on 

the Euxine Sea. Plin. 4, c. 11. III. A pro- 
montory of the island of Imbros. IV. A town 

of the Locri. Plin. 4, c. 3. 

Naupactus, or Naupactum, " situated at the 
western extremity of the Locrian territory, and 
close to Rhium of iEtolia, wels said to have 
derived its name from the circumstance of the 
Heraclidge having there constructed the fleet in 
which they crossed over into Peloponnesus. 
After the Persian war this city was occupied by 
the Athenians, who there established the Mes- 
senian Helots, after they had evacuated Ithome, 
The acquisition of Naupactus was of great im- 
portance to the Athenians during the Pelopon- 
nesian war, as it was an excellent station for 
their fleet in the Corinthian gulf, and not only 
afforded them the means of keeping up a com- 
munication with Corcyra and Acarnania, but 
enabled them also to watch the motions of the 
enemy on the opposite coast,, and to guard 
against any designs they might form against 
their allies. Some important naval operations, 
which took place off" this city in the third year 
of the war, will be found detailed in Thucy- 
dides. After the failure of the expedition un- 
dertaken by Demosthenes the Athenian general 
against the ^tolians, the latter, supported by a 
Peloponnesian force, endeavoured to seize Nau- 
pactus by a coup de main ; but such were the 
able arrangements made by Demosthenes, Avho 
threw himself into the place with a reinforce- 
ment of Acarnanian auxiliaries, that the enemy 
did not think proper to prosecute the attempt. 
On the termination of the Peloponnesian war, 
however, Naupactus surrendered to the Spar- 
tans, who expelled the Messenians from the 
place. Demosthenes acquaints us that it had 
afterwards been occupied by the Achaeans, but 
was ceded by Philip of Macedon to the ^to- 
lians, in whose possession it remained till they 
were engaged in a war with the Romans. The 
latter, after having defeated Antiochus at Ther- 
mopylae, suddenly crossed over from the Maliac 
gulf to that of Corinth, and invested Naupac- 
tus, which would probably have been taken, 
notwithstanding the obstinate defence made by 
the ^tolians, had they not obtained a truce by 
the intervention of T. Plaminius. Pausanias 
speaks of a temple of Neptune in this city, and 
also of one dedicated to Diana. Naupactus was 
still a city of some importance in the time of 
Hierocles, but it was nearly destroyed by an 
earthquake under the reign of Justinian. The 



NA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NE 



modern town is called EnebacIUi by the Turks, 
Nepacto by the Greeks and Lepanto by the 
Franks. ' Kepacto^ says Sir W. Gell, ' is a 
miserable pashalic and a ruinous town ; but it 
is worth visiLing, because it gives a very exact 
idea of the ancient Greek ciiy, with its citadel 
on mount RhegoMi, whence two walls, coming 
down to the coast and the plain, form a trian- 
gle. The port absolutely runs into the city, 
and is shut within the walls, which are erected 
on the ancient foundations,'" Cram. 

Nauplia, " the port of Argos, derived its 
name and origin from Nauplius, the son of 
Neptune and Am)rmone. Nauplia was deserted 
and in ruins when visited by Pausanias. The 
inhabitants had been ezpelled several centuries 
before by the Argives, upon suspicion of their 
favouring the Spartans. The latter people in 
consequence received them into their territory, 
and established them at Methone of Messenik. 
He noticed the vestiges of its wall and harbour, 
the temple of Neptune, and a fountain named 
Canathus. It has been succeeded by the modern 
town of No.poli di Romania^ as it is called by 
the Greeks, which possesses a fortress of some 
strength. Dodwell observed there some remains 
of the walls, which were constructed in the po- 
lygonal style. ' The site of the temple of Nep- 
tune is not known; but the fountain Canathos 
still exhibits a copious flow of water.' Sir W. 
Gell remains, that ' Nauplia is the best built 
city of the Morea. It is situated on a rocky 
point, on which are many remains of the ancient 
wall. The port is excellent and very defensi- 
ble.' Nauplia, according to Pausanias, was 
fifty stadia from Temenium." Cram. 

Nauportus, a town of Pannonia, on a river 
of the same name, now called Ober or Upper 
Laybach. Veil. Pat. 2, c, \\Q.—Plin. 3, c. 18. 
— Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 20. 

Naura, I. a country of Scythia in Asia. 
Curt. 8, — II, Of India withm the Ganges. 
Arrian. 

Naustathmus, I. a port of Phocaea in Ionia. 

Liv. 37, c. 31. II. Also a port of Cyrenaica, 

now Bondaria. Strah. 17. 

Naxos, I. now Naxia., a celebrated island in 
the jEgean Sea, the largest and most fertile of 
all the Cyclades. It was formerly called Stron- 
gyle, Dia, Dionysias. and Callipolis ; and re- 
ceived the name of Naxos from Naxus, who 
was at the head of a Carian colony which set- 
tled in the island. Naxos abounds with all sorts 
of fruits, and its wines are still in the same re- 
pute as formerly. The Naxians were anciently 
governed by kings, but they afterwards ex- 
changed this form of government for a republic, 
and enjoyed their liberty, till the age of Pisis- 
tratus, who appointed a tyrant over them. They 
were reduced by the Persians ; but in the ex- 
pedition of Darius and Xerxes against Greece, 
they revolted and fought on the side of the 
Greeks. During the Peloponnesian war they 
supported the interest of Athens. Bacchus 
was the chief deity of the island. The capital 
was also called Naxos ; and near it, on the 20th 
Sept. B. C. 377, the Lacedaemonians were de- 
feated by Chabrias. Thucyd. 1, &c. — Hero- 
dot.— Diod. 5, Sac— Ovid. 'Met. 3, v. 636.— 
Virg. Mn. 3, v. V2h.—Paus. 6, c. 16.— Pindar. 

II, An ancient town on the eastern side 

of Sicily, founded 759 years before the Chris- 



tian era. There was also another town at the 
distance of five miles from Naxos, which bore 
the same name, and was often called by con- 
tradistinction Taurominium. Plin. 3. — Diod. 

13. III. A town of Crete, noted for hones. 

Plin. 36, c, 7. IV. A Carian, who gave his 

name to the greatest of the Cyclades. 

Nazianzus, a town of Cappadocia where St. 
Gregory was born, and hence he is caUed Nazi- 
a7izenus. 

Nea, or Nova insula, b. small island between 
Lemnos and the Hellespont, which rose out of 
the sea during an earthquake. Pli7i. 2, c. 87. 

Ne^ethts, now Neio, a river of Magna Gree- 
cia near Crotona. Ovid. Met. 15, v 51, 

Neandros, (or ia,) a town of Troas, Plin. 
5, c. 30. 

Neapolis, " in Italian Napoli, and with us 
Naples. Innumerable accounts exist relative 
to the foundation of this celebrated city; but 
the fiction most prevalent seems to be that which 
attributed it to the siren Parthenope, who was 
cast upon its shores, and from whom it derived 
the name by which it is usually designated in 
the poets of antiquity. According to Strabo, 
the tomb of this pretended foundress was showTi 
there in his time. Hercules is also mentioned 
as founder of Neapolis by Oppian and Diodorus 
Siculus, We find also considerable variations 
in what may be regarded as the historical ac- 
count of the origin of Neapolis. S^cymnus of 
Chios mentions both the Phocaeans and Cu- 
meeans as its founders, while Stephanus of By- 
zantium names the Rhodians. But by far the 
most numerous and most respectable authorities 
attribute its foundation to the Cumasans ; a cir- 
cumstance which their proximity renders highly 
probable. Hence the connexion of this city 
with Euboea, so frequently alluded to by the 
poets, and especially by Statius, who was bom 
here. — A Greek inscription mentions a hero of 
the name of Eumelus as having had divine ho- 
nours paid to him, probably as founder of the 
city. The date of the foundation of this colony 
is not recorded. Velleius Paterculus observes 
only that it was much posterior to that of the 
parent city. Strabo seems to recognise another 
colony subsequent to that of the Cumaeans, com- 
posed of Chalcidians, Pithacusans, and Athe- 
nians. The latter were probably the same who 
are mentioned in a fragment of Timseus, quoted 
by Tzetzes, as having migrated to Italy under 
the command of Diotimus, who also instituted 
the XajxTraSv^'opia, still observed at Neapolis in the 
lime of Statius. The passage of Strabo above 
cited will account also for the important change 
in the condition of the city now under conside- 
ration, which, is marked by the terms Palaepolis 
and Neapolis, both of which are applied to it by 
ancient writers. It is to be noticed that Palae- 
polis is the name under which Livy mentions it 
when describing the first transactions which 
connect its history with that of Rome A. U. C. 
429 ; while Polybius, speaking of events which 
occurred in the beginning of the first Punic war, 
that is about sixty years afterwards, employs 
only that of Neapolis. Livy, however, clearly 
alludes to the two cities as existing at the same 
time : but we hear no more of Palaepolis after it 
had undergone a siege, and surrendered to the 
Roman arms. According to the same historian, 
this town stood at no great distance from the 
219 



tiE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NE 



site of Neapolis, certainly nearer to Vesuvius, 
and in the plain. It was betrayed by two of its 
chief citizens to the Roman consul A. U. C. 
429. Respecting the position of Neapolis, it 
may be seen from Pliny, that it was placed be- 
tween the river Sebelhus, now il Fiume Mad- 
dalona^ and the small island Megaris, or Me- 
galia, as Statius calls it, on which the Casteldel 
Ovo now stands. It is probable that Neapolis 
sought the alliance of the Romans not long after 
the fall of the neighbouring city • for we find 
that they were supplied with ships by that town 
in the first Punic war, for the purpose of cross- 
ing over into Sicily. At that time we may sup- 
pose the inhabitants of Neapolis, like those of 
Cumae, to have lost much of their Greek cha- 
racter from being compelled to admit the Cam- 
panians into their commonwealth; a circum- 
stance which has been noticed by Strabo. In 
that geographer's time, however, there still re- 
mained abundant traces of their first origin. 
Their gymnasia, clubs, and societies were 
formed after the Greek manner. Public games 
were celebrated every five years, which might 
rival in celebrity the most famous institutions 
of that nature established in Greece ; while the 
indolence and luxury of Grecian manners were 
also very prevalent, and allured to Neapolis 
many a Roman whose age and temperament in- 
clined them to a life of ease. Claudius and Nero 
seem to have shown a like predilection for Nea- 
polis as a residence. The epithet of docta, ap- 
plied to this city by Martial, proves that litera- 
ture continued to flourish here in his time. 
Among other superstitions, we learn from Ma- 
crobius, that the Neapolitans w^orshipped the 
sun under the appearance of a bull with a hu- 
man face, which they called Hebon. This fact 
is confirmed by numerous corns, and by a re- 
markable Greek inscription." Cram. 

Nebo, a high mountain near Palestine, be- 
yond Jordan, from the top of which Moses was 
permitted to view the promised land. 

Nebrissa, a town of Spain, now Lebrixa. 

Nebrodes, a mountain of Sicily, where the 
Himera rises, Sil. 14, v. 237. 

Nem^a, I. a town of Argolis, between Cleona 
and Phlius, with a wood, where Hercules, in 
the 16th year of his age, killed the celebrated 
Nemaean lion. This animal, born of the hun- 
dred-headed Typhcn infested the neighbour- 
hood of Nemaea, and kept the inhabitants under 
continual alarms. It was the first labour of 
Hercules to destroy it ; and the hero, when he 
found that his arrows and his club were useless 
against an animal whose skin was hard and im- 
penetrable, seized him in his arms and squeezed 
nim to death. The conqueror clothed himself 
in the skin, and games were instituted to com- 
memorate so great an event. The Nemsean 
games were originally instituted by the Argives 
in honour of Archemorus, who died by the bite 
of a serpent, ( Vid. Archemorus,^ and Hercules 
some time after renewed them. They were one 
of the four great and solemn games which were 
observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, 
and the inhabitants of Cleonse, generally pre- 
sided by turns at the celebration, in which were 
exhibited foot and horse races, chariot races, 
boxing, and wrestling, and contests of every 
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The con- 
queror was rewarded with a crown of olive, af- 
230 



terwards of green parsley, in memory of the 
adventure of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid 
down on a sprig of that plant. They were cele- 
brated every third, or according to others, every 
fifth year, or more properly on the 1st and 3d 
year of every Olympiad, on the 12th day of the 
Corinthian month Panemos, which corresponds 
to our August. They served as an era to the 
Argives, and to the inhabitants of the neigh- 
bouring country. It was always usual for an 
orator to pronounce a funeral oration in memory 
of the death of Archemorus, and those who dis- 
tributed the prizes were always dressed in 
mourning. Liv. 27, c. 30 and 31, 1. 34, c. 41. — 
Ovid. Met. 9, v. 97, ep. 9, v. 61. — Paus. in Co- 
rinth. — Clem. Alexand.—^-Athen. — PolycBn.— 
Strab. 8. — Hygin. fab. 30 and 273. — ApoUod. 3, 

c. 6. II. A river of Peloponnesus, falling into 

the bay of Corinth. Liv. 33, c. 15. 

Nemausus, a town of Gaul in Languedoc^ 
near the mouth of the Rhone, now Nismes. 

Nemetacum, a town of Gaul, now Arras. 

Nemetes, a German people, whom Ceesar 
places on the other side of the Rhine, and at 
the commencement of the Hercynia Silva. 
They, in fact, dwelt upon both sides of the 
Rhine, where are now the duche de Bade, and 
Spire. Cces. B. G. 1, 31. Lem. Ed. 

Nemossus, (or um,) the capital of the Arverni 
in Gaul, now Clermont. Lucan. 1, v, 419. — 
Strab. 4. 

Neo-Cerarea, a town of Pontus, which 
Pliny places on the Lycus. It is now Niksar. 
D'Anville. 

Neon, a town of Phocis. There was also 

another of the same name in the same country, 
on the top of Parnassus. It was afterwards 
called Tithorea. Pint, in Syll. — Paus.—Phoc. 
—Herodot. 8, c. 32. 

Neontichos, a town of jEolia, near the Her- 
mus. Herodot. — Plin. 

Nephelis, a cape of Cilicia. Liv. 33, c. 20. 

Neptuni Fanum, I. a place near Cenchreae, 

Mela, 1, c. 19. II. Another in the island of 

Calauria. III. Another near Mantinea. 

Neptunia, a town and colony of Magna 
Grsecia. 

Neptunium, a promontory of Arabia, at the 
entrance of the gulf 

Neriphus, a desert island near the Thracian 
Chersonesus. 

Neritos, a mountain in the island of Ithaca, 
as also a small island in the Ionian Sea, accord- 
ing to Mela. The word Neritos is often appli- 
ed to the whole island of Ithaca ; and Ulysses, 
the king of it, is called Neritius dux, and his 
ship Neritia navis. The people of Saguntum, as 
descended from a Neritian colony, are called 
Neritia proles. Sil. It. 2, v. 311. — Virg. Mn. 
3, V. 211.— Plin. A.— Mela, 2, c. l.— Ovid. Met. 
13, V. 712. Rem. A. 263. 

Neritum, a town of Calabria, now called 
Nardo. 

Nerium, or Artabrum, a promontory of 
Spain, now Cape Finisterre. Strab. 3. 

Neronian^ ThermjE, baths at Rome, made 
by the emperor Nero. 

Nerulum, an inland town of Lucania, now 
Lagonegro. Liv. 9, c. 20. 

Nervu, a people of Gaul, in the second Belgi- 
ca, among the boldest and most warlike of that 
nation. Dwelling in the northern regions that 



NI 



GEOGRAPHY, 



NI 



bordered upon Germany, they claimed to be of 
German origin, and refused to acknowledge, as 
the other GalLc people had done, the supremacy 
of Rome. They were surrounded, particularly 
on the north, by other warlike tribes ; and it was 
among the great achievements of Csesar to break 
the spirit of ihis fierce, unyielding tribe. They 
were among those who dwelt in the most north- 
ern parts of Gaul comprised in France, and had 
beyond the people of Germania Secunda, the 
Merapiiand Batavi of the Netherlands. A por- 
tion of the department du Nord now represents 
their settlements, and Baxai is their capital cal- 
led Bagaxum. 

Nesactum, a town of Istria, at the mouth of 
the Arsia, now CasteL Nuovo. 

Nesis, {is or idis,^ now Nisita, an island on 
the coast of Campania, famous for asparagus. 
Lucan and Statins speak of its air as unwhole- 
some and dangerous. Pli7i. 19, c. 8. — Ducan. 
6, V. 90.— Czc. adAtt. 16, ep. 1 and ^.—Stat. 3, 
Sylv. 1, V. 148. 

Nessds, a river. Vid. Nestus. 

Nestus, or Nessus, now Nesto, a small river 
of Thrace, rising in mount Rhodope, and falling 
into the jEgean Sea above the island of Thasos. 
It was for some time the boundary of Macedonia 
on the east, in the more extensive power of that 
kingdom, 

NfiTUM, a town of Sicily, now called Noto, on 
the eastern coast. Sil. 14, v. 269. — Cic. in Ver. 
4, c. 26, 1. 5, c. 51. 

Neuri, a people of Sarmatia. Mela, 2, c. 1. 

NiCEA, I. a to'v^m of Achaia, near Thermo- 
pylae, on the bay of Malia. II. A town of II- 

lyricum.i III- Another in Corsica. IV. 

Another in Thrace. V. In Bceotia. VI. 

now Nice, a city of.Liguria in the countr}'' of 
the Intemelia, near the mouth of the Var. It 
w^as founded by the Massilians, and was long 
considered to belong rather to Gallia Provincia 
than to Italy. It is now in English called Nice. 

VII. A town of Bithynia, now Is-nik and 

Nice, west of the Sangarius, on the lake Asca- 
nius. Its earlier name was Antigonia, but Ly- 
simachus, in honour of his wife, changed it to 
INicsea. The general council of bishops, called 
by Constantine A. D. 325, was held in this 
place ; and here the doctrines of Arius were for- 
mally examined and discussed. No council is 
considered of greater authority than this, at 
which the creed, known as the Nicene, was part- 
ly drawn up and adopted. The empress Irene, 
to give the council greater authority, which she 
wished should declare in favour of the worship 
of images, ordered that also to convene at Nicaea; 
and here that superstition was formally reinstat- 
ed which h ad been partially abolished by the vig= 
orous efforts of the Isaurian Leo, the Iconoclast. 

VIll. A place of some repute in India. 

This town was built by Alexander on the east 
bank of the Hydaspes, opposite Bucephalia. 
The building of this city was in commemoration 
of the victory of the IVEacedonians over Porus 
and the Indians. Chaussard. 

NicEPHORiuM, a town of Mesopotamia, on 
the Billicha, immediately above its confluence 
with the Euphrates, above the Fossa Semirami- 
dis. It was built by Alexander during his east- 
ern expedition, and on the accession of Seleucus 
Callinicusto the throne of Syria, it was repaired 
and fortified ; and the name of Callinicum was 



assigned to it instead of that which it had borne 
before. It is probable, however, that the new 
town was built upon the opposite or south side 
of the Billicha. Under the emperor Leo, the 
fifth who bore that name, Callinicum, was des- 
tined to another change of title, and Leontopo- 
lis succeeded to the former appellation. I'he 
eastern writers designate it by the name of 
Racca, and here the Caliph Haroun Alrashid 
established his favourite residence, 

NicEPHORius, now KAabour. Vid. Centntis. 

Nicer, now the Neckar, a river of Germany. 
It rises in the Abnoba mons. Black Mountain, 
and flowing for the greater part of its course to- 
wards the north-west in Wirtemberg, on the 
northern boundary of Baden, the country of the 
Marcomanni before they crossed the Mayne, it 
turns towards the west, and falls into the Rhine 
near Manheim. Auson. Mos. 423. 

NiciA, I. a city. Vid. Nicaa. II. A river 

falling into the Po at Brixellum. It is now call- 
ed Lenza, and separates the duchy of Modena, 
from Parma. 

NicoMEDiA, now Is-nikmid, a town of Bi- 
thynia founded by Nicomedes 1st. at the head 
of the Astacenus Sinus on the north, and oppo- 
site the town of Astacus. It was the capital of 
the country, and it has been compared, for its 
beauty and greatness, to Rome, Antioch, or 
Alexandria. It became celebrated for being, for 
some time, the residence of the emperor Con- 
stantine and most of his imperial ^successors. 
Some suppose that it was originally called Asta- 
cus, and Olbia, though it was generally believed 
that they were all different cities. Ammian. 17. 
—Pans. 5, c. V2.—Plin. 5, &c.—Sirab. 12, &c, 

NicopoLis, I. a cit}^ of Lower Egypt. 11. 

A town of Armenia Minor, built by Pompey the 
Great in memory of a victory which he had 
there obtained over the forces of Mithridates. 
According to D'Anville it is now called Divri- 

ki. Strah. 12. III. Another in Thrace, built 

on the banks of the Nestus by Trajan, in me- 
mory of a victor}^ which he obtained there over 

the Barbarians. IV. Another, of Epirus, on 

the Ambracian gulf, west of the river Chara- 
drus, and nearly opposite to Actium. It was 
founded by Augustus, in honour of his victory 
obtained over Antony before the last-named 
place, and " may be said to have risen out of the 
ruins of all the surrounding cities in Epirus and 
Acarnania, and even as far as vEtolia, which 
were compelled to contribute to its prosperity. 
So anxious was Augustus to raise his new co- 
lony to the highest rank among the cities of 
Greece, that he caused it to be admitted among 
those states which sent deputies to the Am- 
phictyonic assembly. He also ordered games to 
be celebrated with great pomp every five years. 
Suetonius states that he enlarged a temple of 
Apollo ; and consecrated to Mars and Neptune 
the site on which his army had encamped before 
the battle of Actium, adorning it with naval 
trophies. Having afterwards fallen into decay, 
it was restored by the em-peror Julian. Hierocles 
terms it the metropolis of Old Epirus. Mo- 
dern travellers describe the remains of Nicopo- 
lis as very extensive ; the site which they occupy 
is now Irnown by the name of Preresa Vecchia. 
Mr, Hughes observes, that ' the first view of 
the isthmus on which it stood, covered with 
immense ruins of ancient edifices, is parti cular- 
221 



NI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NI 



ly curious and striking. The most prominent 
object is the ruin of a large theatre, cresting the 
top of a rising eminence.' The same traveller 
noticed also ' an aqueduct, which brought wa- 
ter from the distance of thirty miles ; a large en- 
closure, supposed to have been that of the Acro- 
polis mentioned by Dio Cassius ; within the 
city itself a beautiful little theatre, and a temple 
of Ceres. Near the city are to be seen the ruins 
of the suburb, mentioned by Strabo, where the 

Actian games were celebrated.' " Cram. 

V. Two towns in Moesia : that which has pre- 
served the ancient name in Nicopoli, was erected 
by Trajan, in memory of his victories on the 
Danube, opposite the mouth of the Aluta, or 
Olt. The victory of Bajazet obtained against the 
flower of the chivalry of France in the year 1393, 
renewed its fame, and seemed again to justify 
its distinguished title. The other Mcesian city 
of the same name was situated in the southern 
part of the province, towards the Heemus moun- 
tains and the borders of Thrace. It is now 
Nicop on the lantia^ the latrusof antiquity, and 
its situation on this stream caused it to be sur- 
named ad latrum. VI. Another, near Je- 
rusalem, founded by the emperor Vespasian. 

VII. Another, in Dacia, built by Trajan 

to perpetuate the memory of a celebrated battle. 

VIII. Another near the bay of Issus, built 

by Alexander, in Cilicia. 

Niger, or Nigris, {itis,) a river of Africa, 
which rises in Ethiopia, and falls by three 
mouths into the Atlantic, little known to the 
ancients, and not yei satisfactorily explored by 
the moderns. Plin^ 5, c. 1 and 8. — Mela, 1, c. 
4, 1. 3, c. \Q.—Ptol. 4, c. 6. " Ptolemy, the 
best informed of the ancient geographers, and 
commented on by the most learned of the mo- 
derns, M. D'Anville,makes mention of two great 
rivers, the Ghir, which runs from south-east to 
north-west, nearly like the Misselad, or Bahr- 
el-Gazel in our modern maps; the other, the 
Niger, runs nearly in the direction of the Jolila, 
from east to west. But in following the literal 
meaning of Ptolemy, we are not certain that this 
author thought all that his commentator makes 
him say. He seems to give the Niger two 
courses; one westerly to the lake Nigrites, the 
other easterly to the Libyan lake, besides differ- 
ent canals of derivation, by one of the most am- 
biguous words in the Greek language (cki^ov,) 
a word which may signify the mouth of a river, 
or a place where two roads separate, or a canal, 
or a simple bending. Taking advantage of these 
uncertainties, and applying to the interior the 
system of M. Gosselin, which contracts Ptole- 
my's map to two thirds, some have attempted 
to prove that the GMr and the Niger of Ptolemy 
do not belong at all to Nigritia, but were only 
small rivers on the southern declivity of mount 
Atlas. The great characteristic mark, given by 
Pliny, to wit, the position of the Niger between 
the Libyans and the Ethiopians, i. e. between 
the Negroes and the Moors, appears to us con- 
clusive against these recent hypotheses. Apply- 
ing the name of the Nile of the Negroes to the 
Misselad, and supposing that both this river and 
the Niger lose themselves in lakes or in the 
sands, D'Anville, and long after him, Rennel, 
have constructed maps, half traditional and half 
hypothetical, which are usually followed with 
more or less modification. But a very able geo- 
222 



grapher has proposed an important alteration, 
which amounts to more than a mere modifica- 
tion. Allowing the Niger and the other rivers 
the general direction assigned to them by D'- 
Anville and Rennel, he adds an outlet connect- 
ed with the Gulf of Guhiea. ' To the west of 
Wangara,' says this author, ' the Nile has a 
southerly course; and the Misselad, after hav- 
ing crossed the lake of Fittree, then that of Se- 
megonda, leaves this last in two leading branch- 
es, which encircle Wangara and fall into the 
Niger, then this last river continues in a south- 
westerly course, till it terminates in the Gtdf of 
Guinea, where it forms a delta between its west- 
ern branch, the Rio-Formosa, and the eastern 
one, RiO'del-Rey .^ At the very time when this 
hypothesis appeared to be established, an opinion 
diametrically opposed to it, and the least proba- 
ble of all that had been advanced, has been again 
brought forward. It is nearly that which was 
given by Pliny the naturalist, who considered 
the Niger as the principal branch of the Nile, 
allowing, however, that it frequently disappear- 
ed under ground. Some of the contradictor}' 
testimonies of the ancients and of the Arabians 
may be ingeniously combined in favour of this 
opinion, but the only powerful argunient is de- 
rived from a recent account of a journey per- 
formed by water from Tombuctoo to Cairo. 
The journal has come to us in an indirect chan- 
nel. Mr. Jackson, British consul at Mogadore, 
collected from the oral declaration oidu Moroc- 
can, who had visited Tombuctoo, various par- 
ticulars, by means of which he wishes to de- 
monstrate the identity of the Niger Avith the 
Nile. ' The Nil-el-Abeed, or Nile of the Ne- 
groes,' says this writer, ' is also called JSil-el- 
Kebir, or the Great Nile ; that of Egypt is call- 
ed Nil-el-Masr, or Nil-el-Scham, from the Ara- 
bic terms for Egypt and Syria. The inhabitants 
of Tombuctoo and the whole of central Africa 
maintain that these two rivers communicate to- 
gether, and even that they are the same river. 
The Africans are surprised when they hear that 
the Europeans make them two distinct rivers, 
experience having taught them otherwise.'" 
Malte-Brun. Vid. Nilus. 

NiLUs, anciently called Egyptus, one of the 
most celebrated rivers in the world. Its sources 
were unknown to the ancients, and the mo- 
derns are equally ignorant of their situation ; 
whence an impossibility is generally meant by 
the proverb of Nili caput quarere. " The 
Nile, the largest river of the old world, still con- 
ceals its true sources from the research of sci- 
ence. At least, scarcely any thing more of them 
is known to us now than was known in the time 
of Eratosthenes. That learned librarian of Al- 
exandria distinguished three principal branches 
of the Nile. The most easterly was the Tacaze 
of the moderns, which flowed' down the north 
side of the table land of Abyssinia. The second 
knowTi branch, or the Bkie River, first makes a 
circuit on the table land of Abyssinia, and then 
flows dowTi through the plains of Senna.ar, or of 
Fungi. The sources of this Blue River were 
found and described by the Jesuits, Paez and 
Tellez, two centuries before the pretended dis- 
covery of Bruce. These two rivers are tributa- 
ries to the JVhite River, the Bahr-el-Abiad, 
which is the true Nile, and the sources of which 
must lie in the countries to the south of Darfocr. 



NI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NI 



These countries are, according to the report of a 
Negro, named Dar-el-Abiad. The mountains 
from which it issues are called Dyre and Tegla ; 
and probably form part of the Ai-Quamar moxm- 
tains, or the mountains of the Moon. As it 
seems proved that travellers have passed by wa- 
ter from ToTiihudoo to Cairo, the Niger must 
fall into the Nile, and be really the Nile itself; 
or there must be intermediate rivers, forming be- 
tween the Nile and Niger a communication re- 
sembling that which was found by HumbolSt 
between the Orinoco and the Aviazons. The 
first hypothesis might seem to be supported by a 
vague romantic passage of Pliny the naturalist. 
The other hypothesis is the only one which can 
reconcile the accounts of persons who have 
travelled by the way of Tombuctoo, with the 
positive testimony of Mr. Browne, according to 
which the rivers Misselad and Bar-Koolla, run 
from south to north. This fact, which is gene- 
rally admitted, does not allow us to suppose 
any other communication between the Nile and 
the Niger, than one which may be formed by 
canals, which, like those of Casiquiari in Guiana, 
might wind along a table land where the sources 
of the Misselad and Bar-Koolla are at a short 
distance from each other, and from those of the 
Nile. The true Nile, whatever maybe its ori- 
gin, receives two large rivers from Abyssinia, 
and then forms an extensive circuit in the coun- 
try of Dongola by turning to the south-west. At 
three different places a barrier of mountains 
threatens to interrupt its course, and at each 
place the barrier is surmounted. The second 
cataract in Turkish Nubia is the most violent 
and most unnavigable. The third is at Sijene 
or Assooan, and introduces the Nile into Upper 
Egypt. The height of this cataract, singularly 
exaggerated by some travellers, varies according 
to the season, and is generally about four or five 
feet. At the place called Batu-el-Bahara, the 
river divides into two branches ; the one of which 
flowing to Rosetta, and the other to Damietta, 
contain between them the present Delta; but 
this triangular piece of insulated land was in for- 
mer times larger, being bounded on the east by 
the Pelusian branch, which is now choked up 
with sand or converted into marshy pools. On 
the west it was bounded by the C an opic branch, 
which is now partly confounded with the canal 
of Alexandria, and partly lost in lake Etko. 
But the correspondence of the level of the sur- 
face with that of the present Delta, and its de- 
pression as compared with that of the adjoining 
desert, together with its great verdure and fer- 
tility, still mark the limits of the ancient Delta, 
although irregular encroachments are made by 
shifting banks of drifting sand, which are at 
present on the increase. The different bogaz, 
or mouths of this great river, have often changed 
their position, and are still changing it; a cir- 
cumstance which has occasioned long discus- 
sions among geographers. The following are 
the most established results. The seven mouths 
of the Nile, known to the ancients, were, 1. The 
Canopic mouth, corresponding to the present 
mouth of lake Etko ; or, according to others, that 
of the lake of Aboukir, or Maadee ; but it is 
probable, that at one time it had communications 
with the sea at both of these places. In that 
case it is probable that these lakes existed near- 
ly in their present state, except that the Nile 



flowed through them, and gave them a large 
proportion of fresh water, instead of the sea wa- 
ter with which they are now filled. We can- 
not believe that the bottoms of these lakes were 
formerly higher, as we know of no natural pro- 
cess by which surfaces of such breadth could 
have been subsequently excavated. 2. The 
Bolbiiine mouth at Rosetta. 3. The &ebenitic 
mouth, probably the opening into the present 
lake Bitrlos. 4. The Phatnitic, or Bucolic at 
Damietta. 5. The Mendesia7i, which is lost 
in the lake Menzaleli, the mouth of which is 
represented by that of Dibeh. G. The Tanitic, 
or Saitic, Vviiich seems to leave some traces of 
its termination to the east of lake Menzaleh, un- 
der the modern appellation of Omm-Faredje. 
The branch of the Nile which conveyed its wa- 
ters to the sea corresponds to the canal of Moez, 
which now loses itself in the lake, 7. The Pe- 
lusiac mouth seems to be represented by what is 
now the most easterly mouth of lake Menzaleh, 
where the ruins of Pelusium are still visible. 
The depth and rapidity of the Nile differ in dif- 
ferent places, and at different seasons of the 
year. In its ordinary state, this river carries no 
vessels exceeding sixty tons burden, from its 
mouth to the cataracts. The bogaz of Damietta 
is seven or eight feet deep when the waters are 
low. That of Pcosetta does not exceed four or 
five. When the waters are high, each of them 
has forty-one feet more, and caravels of twenty- 
four guns can sail up to Cairo. The navigation 
is facilitated in a singular degree during the 
floods : for while the stream carries the vessels 
from the cataract to the bogaz with great rapidi- 
ty, the strong northerly winds allow them to as- 
cend the river, by means of set sails, with equal 
rapidity. The celebrated plains of Egypt would 
not be the abode of perpetual fertility were it 
not for the swellings of the river, which both 
impart to them the requisite moisture, and cover 
them with fertilizing mud. We now know for 
certain what the ancients obscurely concluded, 
and what was asserted by Agatharcides, Diodo- 
rus, Abdolatif, and the Abyssinian envoy, Had- 
gi Michael, that the heavy annual rains between 
the tropics are the sole cause of these floods, 
common to all the rivers of the torrid zone, and 
which, in low situations such as Egypt, occasion 
inundations. The rise of the Nile commences 
with the summer solstice. The river attains its 
greatest height at the autumnal equinox, con- 
tinues stationary for some days, then diminishes 
at a less rapid rate than it rose. At the winter 
solstice it is very low, but some water still re- 
mains in the large canals. At this period the 
lands are put under culture. The soil is cover- 
ed with a fresh layer of slime of greater or less 
thickness. The fertility and general prosperity 
of Egypt depend much on a certain medium in 
the height to which the Nile rises in its inunda- 
tions ; too little rise or too much is nearly equally 
hurtful. In September, 1818, M. Belzoni wit- 
nessed a deplorable scene, from the Nile having 
risen three feet and a half above the highest 
mark left by the former inundation. It was 
productive of one of the greatest calamities that 
had occurred in the memory of any one living. 
Rising with uncommon rapidity, it carried off 
several villages, and some hundreds of their in- 
habitants. During the increase of the Nile, it 
first acquires a green colour, sometimes pretty 
223 



NI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NO 



deep. After thirty or forty days, this is succeed- 
ed by a brownish red. These changes are pro- 
bably owing to the augmentations which it re- 
ceives from different temporary lakes in succes- 
sion, or from liie waters formed by a succession 
of rains on the different table lands of the inte- 
rior of Africa." Malte-Brun. 

NiNUS, a celebrated city, now Nino, the capi- 
tal of Assyria, built on the banks of the Tigris 
by Ninus, and called Klneoeh in Scripture. It 
was, according to the relation of Diodorus Sicu- 
lus, fifteen miles long, nine broad, and forty- 
eight in circumference. It was surrounded by 
large walls 100 feet high, on the top of which 
three chariots could pass together abreast, and 
was defended by 1500 towers each 200 feet high. 
Ninus was taken by the united armies of Cyax- 
ares and Nabopolassar king of Babylon, B. C. 
606. Strab. l.—Diod. ^.—Herodot. 1, c. 185, 
&c. — Pans. 8, c. 33. — iMician. " The village 
of Nunia on the banks of the Tigris, opposite to 
Mosul, is ascertained to be the site of the an- 
cient Nineveh. Here are found a rampart and 
fosse, four miles in circumference ; but Mr. 
Kinnear believes these to belong to a city found- 
ed subsequently to the time of Adrian, so that 
Nineveh has left no trace now in existence." 
Malte-Brun. 

NiPHATEs, I. a mountain of Asia, which di- 
vides Armenia from Assyria, and from which 
the Tigris takes its rise. It is not the part 
which was called Niphates that formed this na- 
tural boundary, but rather a prolongation of the 
chain which, running somewhat south and 
stretching east, unite the Niphates of Armenia 
to the Zagrus on the boundaries of Media. 
" The chains of Taurus," says Malte-Brun, 
" enter Armenia near the cataracts of the Eu- 
phrates; they rise considerably in advancing to 
the east: the Niphates of the ancients, to the 
south-east of the lake Van, derive their name 
from the snows which cover their summits all 
the year." Virg. G. 3, v. "^O.— Strab. U.—Mela, 
1, c. 15. — II. A river of Armenia, falling into the 
Tigris. H'o>at.2, od. 9, v. 20. — lAican, 3, v. 245, 
NiSA, a celebrated plain of Media, near the 
Caspian Sea, famous for its horses. Herodot. 
3, c. 106. Vid. Nysa, 

Nis^A, a naval station on the coasts of Me- 
garis. Strab. 8. 

NisiBis, a strong and famous military post 
of Mesopotamia, towards the banks of the Ti- 
gris, between that river and the Masius mons. 
The country to which it belonged was called 
Mygdonia, and Nisibis was sometimes known 
as Antiochia Mygdoniae. " This place is seen 
afterwards serving as a barrier to the Roman 
empire against the enterprises of the Parthians. 
But it was at length ceded to Sapor, king of 
Persia, by one of the conditions of the treaty 
which succeeded the disgrace of the Roman ar- 
my in the expedition of Julian. Nisibis is now 
a place entirelv open, and reduced to a hamlet." 
P'Anville. " The north-west part of the pasha- 
lic of Or/a, or the ancient Mygdonia, presents 
us with luxuriant pastures and flowery hills. 
Hence the Greeks called it Anthemusia, from 
avSo?, ' a flower.' Here the famous fortress of 
Nisibis stood so long out against the arms of the 
Parthians. It has only left some feeble traces in 
the town of Nisiiin, a place which is remarked 
for white roses." Malte-Brun. 
224 



NisYROs, an island in the JEgean Sea, at the 
west of Rhodes, with a town of the same name. 
It was originally joined to the island of Cos, ac- 
cording to Pliny, and it bore the name of Por- 
pfiyris. Neptune, who was supposed to have 
separated them with a blow of his trident, and 
to have then overwhelmed the giant Polybotes, 
was worshipped there, and called Misyreus. 
Apollod. 1, c 6. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — Strab. 10. 

NiTioBRiGEs, a people of Gaul. Their coun- 
try corresponds to the present department de 
Lot et Garonne, and their ancient capital of 
Agennum retains the ancient name in the 
French Agen, instead of assuming, as do the 
greater number of the Gallic towns, the name 
of the population to which it belonged. 

NiTRiA, a city, and, as D'Anville observes, 
a country, of Egypt, west of the Nile. This re- 
gion, which was but a desert, is called Scithiaca 
in Ptolemy, and produced as an article of trade 
an abundance of nitre. " The mountain of 
Natron skirts the whole length of the valley of 
that name. That mountain contains none of 
the rocks which are found scattered about in the 
valley, such as quartz, jasper, and petrosilex. 
There is a series of six lakes in the direction of 
the valley. Their banks and their waters are 
covered with crystallizations, both of muriate of 
soda or sea-salt, and of natron or carbonate of 
soda. When a volume of water contains both 
of these salts, the muriate of soda is the first to 
crystallize ; and the carbonate of soda is then 
deposited in a separate layer. Sometimes the 
two crystallizations seem to choose separate lo- 
calities in insulated parts of the same lake. 
This curious valley is only inhabited by Greek 
monks. Their four convents are at once their 
fortresses and their prisons. They subsist on a 
small quantity of leguminous seeds. The ve- 
getation in these valleys has a wild and dreary 
aspect. The palms are mere bushes, and bear 
no fruit. Caravans come to this place in quest 
of natron." Malte-Brun. 

NiVARiA, an island at the west of Africa, 
supposed to be Teneriffe, one of the Canaries, 
Plin. 6, c. 32. Vid. Insula Fortunata. 

NoLA, an ancient town of Campania, which 
became a Roman colony before the first Punic 
war. It was founded by a Tuscan, or, accord- 
ing to others, by an Euboean colony. It is said 
that Virgil had introduced the name of Nola 
in his Georgics, but that when he was refused 
a glass of water by the inhabitants as he passed 
through the city, he totally blotted it out of his 
poem, and substituted the word ora, in the 
225th line of the 2d book of his Georgics. Nola 
was besieged by Annibal, and bravely defended 
by Marcellus. Augustus died there on his re- 
turn from Neapolis to Rome. Bells were first 
invented there, in the beginning of the fifth cen- 
tury, from which reason they have been called 
Nolo, or Campance, in Latin. The inventor 
was St. Paulinus, the bishop of the place, who 
died A. D. 431, though many imagine that bells 
were knoMm long before, and only introduced 
into churches by that prelate. Before his time, 
congregations were called to the church by the 
noise of wooden rattles {sacra ligna.) Paterc. 
1, c. l.—SmL in Aug.—Sil. 8, v. 517, 1. 12, v. 
161.—^. Gellius, 7, c. 20.— L^v. 23, c, 14 and 
39, 1. 24, c. 13. 
NoMADEs. Vid. Part II. 



NO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NU 



NoMENTCTM, a town of the Sabines in Italy, 
famous for wine, and now called Lamento.na. 
The dictator, Q,. Servilius Priscus, gave the 
Veientes and Fidenates battle there, A. U. C. 
312, and totally defeated them. Ovid. Fast. 4. 
V. d05.—Liv. 1, c. 38, 1. 4, c. 22.— Hr^. jE7i. 
6, V. 773. 

NoNACRis, a town of Arcadia, which received 
its name from a wife of Lycaon. There was a 
mountain of the same name in the neighbour- 
hood, Evander is sometimes called Nonacrius 
?ieroSy as being an A rcadian by birth, and Ata- 
lanta Nonacria, as being a native of the place. 
Curt. 10, c. 10.— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 97. Met. 8, 
fab. 10. — Pans. 8, c. 17, &c. 

NoRBA, I. a town of Latium near the centre, 
m the territory of the Volsci. " It is mentioned 
among the early Latin cities by Pliny ; and 
Dion. Hal. speaks of it as no obscure city of 
that nation. It was early colonized by the Ro- 
mans as an advantageous station to check the 
inroads of the Volsci. This, however, rendered 
Norba particularly subject to their devastations, 
especially on the part of the Privernates. who 
lay in the immediate neighbourhood ; but neither 
these repeated attacks, nor even the distresses 
of the second Punic war, had power to shake its 
fidelity to Rome. The disastrous end of this 
city .gave further proof of its devotion to the 
cause which it had espoused ; for the zeal which 
it displayed on the behalf of Marius and his 
party drew upon it the vengeance of the adverse 
faction. Besieged by Lepidus, one of Sylla's 
generals, it was opened to him by treachery ; 
but the undaunted inhabitants chose rather to 
perish by their own hands than become the vic- 
tims of a bloody conqueror. The name of C. 
Norbanus, who was descended from a distin- 
guished family of this city, occurs frequently in 
the history of those disastrous times, as a con- 
spicuous leader on the side of Marius." Cram. 

II. There was another town of the same 

name in Apulia. The inhabitants of Norba 
Latina were called Norbani, while those of 
Norba Apula were designated as the Norba- 

nenses. III. Caesarea, a town of Spain on 

the Tagus now Alcantara. 

NoREiA, " a town belonging to the Norici. 
Cluverius places it on the left bank of the Ta- 
gliamento, near Venzone. Strabo speaks of its 
gold mines, and further mentions that On. Car- 
bo had an unsuccessful action with the Cimbri 
in its vicinity. Pliny informs us that Noreia 
no longer existed in his time." Cram. To 
this it may be added from D'Anville, that " it 
is said to have been occupied by a body of 
Boiens, who are to be distinguished from those 
established in Bohemia, and from a time ante- 
rior to the invasion of the Marcomans, who 
diove this nation into Noricum." 

NoRicuM, a province of the Roman empire 
among the Alps. The Danube on the north, 
a portion of the CEnus (Inn) upon the west, 
the Carnic Alps and sources of the Savus on 
the south, and the Cetius mons upon the east, 
describe the boundaries of Noricum. These 
limits correspond generally with those of Ca- 
rinthia, Stiria, the country contiguous to Salts- 
burgk and Lintz, and Austria Proper. " This 
country," says D'Anville, " which is first spok- 
en of as having a king, followed the fate of Pan- 
nonia ; for, when it was reduced, Noricum also 

Part L— 'i F 



became a province under the reign of Augustus- 
Afterwards, and by the multiplication of pro- 
vinces, there is distinguished a Noricum Ri- 
pense, adjacent to the Danube, from a Noricum 
Mediterraneum, distant from that river in the 
bosom of the Alps." The Nerici, from whom 
the country seems to have been named, possess- 
ed, at the time at which it became a province, a 
small portion only of the soil in the north-west ; 
the Sevaces, the Alauni, and the Ambidiani oc- 
cupying the other portions near to Vindelicia 
and Cisalpine Gaul. The iron that was drawn 
from Noricum was esteemed excellent, and 
thence JVoricus ensis was used to express the 
goodness of a sword. Dio7iVS. Perieg. — Strab. 
A.—Plin. 34, c. \L— Tacit.' Hist. 3, c. ^.—Ho- 
rat. 1, od. 16, v. 9.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 712. 

NoTiuM, a town of iEolia, near the Cayster. 
It was peopled by the inhabitants of Colophon, 
who left their ancient habitations because Noti- 
um was more conveniently situated, it being on 
the sea-shore. Liv. 37, c. 26, 38, 39. 

Nov^E, {tai)ernce), the new shops built in the 
forum at Rome, and adorned with the shields of 

the Cimbri. Cic. Orat. 2, c. m. The Ve- 

teres taherna were adorned with those of the 
Samnites, Liv. 9, c. 40. 

NovARLA, a town of Cisalpine Gaul, now 
Novara in Milan. Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 70. 

NovEsiuM, a town of the Ubii, on the west 
of the Rhine, now called Nuys, near Cologne, 
Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 26, &c. 

NovioDtJNUM, a town of the ./Eduii or Hedui 
in Gaul, taken by J. Csesar. It is pleasantly si- 
tuated on the Ligeris, and now called Noyon, or, 
as others suppose, Nevers. Cces. Bell. G. 2, c. 12. 

NovioiyIagus, or Neomagus, I. a town of 
Gaul, now Nizeux in Normandy. II. Ano- 
ther, called also Nemetes, now Spire.— — III. 
Another in Batavia, now Nimeguen, on the 
south side of the Waal. 

NoviuM, a town of Spain, now Noya. 

Novum Comum, a town of Insubria, on the 
lake Larius, of which the inhabitants were 
called Novocomenses. Cic. ad Div. 13, c. 35. 

NucERiA Alfaterna, I. a town of Campa- 
nia on the Samus, " of the highest antiquity, 
but remarkable only for its unshaken attach- 
ment to the Romans at all times, and for the 
sad disasters to which it has been exposed in 
consequence of that attachment. Its fidelity to 
the republic during the second Punic war drew 
down upon it the vengeance of Hannibal, who, 
after some vain attempts to seduce its inhabit- 
ants into his party, plundered and destroyed 
their city. Its adherence to the cause of a Ro- 
man pontifi" during the great schism, roused the 
fury of a still more irritable enemy, Riiggiero, 
king of Naples, who again razed its walls and 
dispersed its citizens. They, instead of rebuild- 
ing the town when the storm was over, as their 
ancestors had done before, continued to occupy 
the neighbouring villages. Hence the appear- 
ance of the modern Nocera, which, instead of 
being enclosed within ramparts, spreads in a 
long line over a considerable extent of ground, 
and displays some handsome edifices intermin- 
gled with rural scenery. It is still a bishopric, 
and derives the additional appellation dei Pa- 
gani, from the circumstance of its having been 
for some time in possession of the Saracens." 

Eustace. II, Another, in Umbria, on the 

,225 



NU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



NY 



Flaminiaii Way, surnamed Camallaria, now 
Nocera. III. A third, now Jjazzara in Gal- 
lia Cisalpina, south of the P<?, between the 
mouths of the Nicia and the Secia. 

NuMANTiA, a town of Spain, near the sources 
of the river Durius, celebrated for the war of 
fourteen years, which, though unprotected by 
walls or towers, it bravely maintained against 
the Romans. The inhabitants obtained some 
advantages over the Roman forces, till Scipio 
Africanus was empowered to finish the war, 
and to see the destruction of Numantia. He 
began the siege with an army of sixty thousand 
men, and was bravely opposed by the besieged, 
who were no more than 4000 men able to bear 
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon 
valour, and the courage of the Numantines was 
soon changed into despair and fury. Their pro- 
visions began to fail, and they fed upon the flesh 
of their horses, and afterwards of that of their 
dead companions, and at last were necessitated 
to draw lots to kill and devour one another. 
The melancholy situation of their affairs obliged 
some to surrender to the Roman general. Scipio 
demanded them to deliver themselves up on 
the morrow ; they refused, and when a longer 
time had been granted to their petitions, they 
retired and set fire to their houses, and all de- 
stroyed themselves, B. C. 133, so that not even 
one remained to adorn the triumph of the con- 
queror. Some historians, hoM'-ever, deny that, 
and support that a number of Numantines de- 
livered themselves into Scipio's hands, and 
that fifty of them were drawn in triumph at 
Rome, and the rest sold as slaves. The con- 
queror obtained the surname of J^umantinus. 
Flor. 2, c. 18. — Appian. Iber. — Paterc. 2, e. 3. — 
—Cic. 1, off.—Strab. 3.—Mela,2, c. 6.—Plut.— 
Horat. 2, od. 12, v. 1. 

NuMENTANA VIA, a road at Rome, which led 
to mount Sacer, through the gate Viminalis. 
Liv. 3, c. 52. 

NuMiciA VIA, one of the great Roman roads 
which led from the capital to the town of Brun- 
dusium. 

NuMicius, a small river of Latium, near La- 
vinium, where the dead body of ^neas was 
found, and where Anna, Dido's sister, drowned 
herself. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 150, &c.~Sil. 1, v. 
359.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 358, &c. Fast. 3, v. 
643. 

NiJMiDiA, an inland country of Africa, which 
now forms the kingdom of Algiers and Bildul- 
gerid. It was bounded on the north by the 
Mediterranean Sea, south by GsBtulia, west by 
Mauretania, and east by a part of Libya which 
was called Africa Propria. The inhabitants 
were called Nomades^ and afterwards Kumida. 
It was the kingdom of Massinissa, who was the 
occasion of the third Punic war, on account of 
the offence he had received from the Cartha- 
ginians. Jugurtha reigned there, as also Juba 
the father and son. It was conquered, and be- 
came a Roman province, of which Sallust was 
the first governor. The Numidians were ex- 
cellent warriors, and in their expeditions they 
always endeavoured to engage with the enemy 
in the night time. They rode without saddles 
or bridles, whence they have been called in- 
frani. They had their wives in common as 
the rest of the barbarian nations of antiquity. 
Sallust. m Jug. — Flor. 2, c. 15. — Strab. 2 and 
226 



11.— Mela, 1, 0. 4, &c.—Ovid. Met. 15, v. 754. 
For the divisions of Numidia, Vid. Massyli, 
Massasyli, and Mauretania. 

NuRsiA, now JVorza, a town of Picenum, 
whose inhabitants are called Nursina. Its situa- 
tion was exposed, and the air considered as un- 
wholesome. Sil. It. 8, V. 416. — Virg. JErc. 7, 
V. Il6.—31artial. 13, ep. )2J0.—Liv. 28, c. 45. 

NymphjEum, I. a place near the walls of Apol- 
lonia, sacred to the nymphs, where Apollo had 
also an oracle. The place was also celebrated 
for the continual flames of fire which seemed to 
rise at a distance from the plains. " Strabo 
supposes it to have arisen from a mine of bitu- 
men liquified, there being a hill in the vicinity 
whence this substance was dug out, the earth 
which was removed being in process of time 
converted into pitch, as it had been stated by 
Posidonius. Pliny says this spot was consi- 
dered as oracular, which is confirmed by Dio 
Cassius, who describes at length the mode of 
consulting the oracle. The phenomenon no- 
ticed by the writers here mentioned has been 
verified by modern travellers as existing near 
the village of Selenitza, on the left bank of the 
Aous, and near the junction of that river with 
the SutcMtza." Cram. It was there that a 
sleeping satyr was once caught and brought to 
Sylla as he returned from the Mithndatic war. 
This monster had the same features as the 
poets ascribe to the satyr. He was interrogated 
by Sylla, and by his interpreters, but his articu- 
lations were unintelligible, and the Roman 
spurned from him a creature which seemed to 
partake of the nature of a beast more than that 
of a man. Plut. in Sylla. — Dio. 41. — Plin. 5, 

c. 29.— Strab. l.—Liv. 42, c. 36 and 49. II. 

A city of Taurica Chersonesus. The build- 
ing at Rome where the nymphs were worship- 
ped, bore also this name, being adorned Avith 
their statues, and with fountains and waterfalls, 
which afforded an 
coolness. 

Nysa, or Nyssa, I. a town of Ethiopia, at 
the south of Egypt, or, according to others, of 
Arabia. This city, with another of the same 
name in India, was sacred to the god Bacchus, 
who was educated there by the nymphs of the 
place, and who received the name of Dionysius, 
which seems to be compounded of Ato? and Nvo-a. 
the name of his father and that of the place of 
his education. The god made this place the 
seat of his empire and the capital of the con- 
quered nations of the east, Diodorus, in his 
third and fourth books, has given a prolix ac- 
count of the birth of the god at Nysa, and of his 
education and heroic actions. It is this Indian 
Nysa that is properly called JVagar. This 
term, which signifies among the natives any 
town, was bestowed particularly, and we may 
suppose as a mark of pre-eminence, upon this. 
It was also called Dionvsopolis. Chaussard. — 
Mela, 3, c. l.—Ovid. Met. 4, v. 13, &c.—ItaL 
7, V. 198.— Curt. 8, c. 10.— Fir^. .^n. 6, v. 

805. According to so'ne geographers there 

were no less than ten places of the name of 
Nysa. One of these was on the coast of Eubcea, 
famous for its vines, which grew in such an un- 
common manner, that if a twig was planted in 
the ground in the morning, it immediately pro- 
duced grapes, which were full ripe in the even- 
ing. II. A city of Thrace. — --III. Another, 



agreeable and refreshing 



OA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



OA 



seated on the top of mount Parnassus, and sa- 
cred to Bacchus. Juv. 7, v. 63. 

O. 

Oasis, " certain fertile spots in the Libyan 
desert, which, from the peculiarity of their situa- 
tion, amid an ocean of sand, have been denomi- 
nated islands. The term Oasis, in the ancient 
language of the country, signifies an inhabited 
place, a distinction sufficiently intelligible when 
contrasted with the vast wilderness around, in 
which even the most savage tribes have not ven- 
tured to take up their abode. Like Eg}'pt itself, 
these isolated dependancies have been described 
in very opposite colours by different writers. 
The Greeks called them the islands of the bless- 
ed ; and without doubt they appear delightful in 
the eyes of the traveller, who has during many 
painfulweeks suffered the privations and fatigue 
of the desert. But it is well knoiAH that they 
were generally regarded in a less favourable as- 
pect by the Greeks and Romans, who not un- 
frequently assigned them as places of banish- 
ment. The state malefactor and the ministers 
of the Christian church, who were sometimes 
comprehended in the same class, were, in the 
second and third centuries, condemned to waste 
their days as exiles in the remote solitude of the 
Libyan Oasis. They were usually reckoned 
three in number ; the Great Oasis, of which the 
principal town is El Kargeh; the little Oasjs, 
or that of El Kassar ; and the Northern Oasis, 
more frequently called Siwah. To these is now 
added the Western Oasis, which does not ap- 
pear to have been mentioned by any ancient ge- 
ographer" except Olympiodorus, and which was 
never seen by any European until Sir Archibald 
Edmonstone visited it about ten years ago. The 
Great Oasis, the most southern of the whole, 
consists of a number of insulated spots, which 
extend in a line parallel to the course of the 
Nile, separated from one another by considera- 
ble intervals of sandy waste, and stretching not 
less than a hundred miles in latitude. M. Pon- 
cet, who examined it in 1698, says that it con- 
tains many gardens watered with rivulets, and 
that its palm groves exhibit a perpetual verdure. 
It is the first stage of the Darfur caravan, which 
assembles at Siovi, being about four days jour- 
ney from that toT^oi, and nearly the same dis- 
tance from Far shout. Sir F. Henniker speaks 
rather contemptuously of the ecclesiastical ar- 
chitecture which happened to fall imder his 
notice in this Oasis. There is a temple which 
he describes as a small building composed of 
petty blocks of stone, the pillars of which are 
only two feet six inches in diameter, and ' even 
these, instead of being formed of one solid block, 
are constructed of mill-stones.' He adds, that 
the surface of the earth in the vicinity of the 
temple is very remarkable ; it is covered with a 
lamina of saltand sand mixed, and has the same 
appearance as if a ploughed field had been 
flooded over, then frozen, and the water drawn 
off from under the ice. This remark suggests 
a question relative to the orisfin of these grassy 
islands in the desert. Major Rennel thinks that 
they may be attributed to the vegetation which 
"Would necessarily be occasioned by springs of 
water; the decay of the plants producing soil 
until it gradually increased to the extent of seve- 



ral leagues. They are universally surrounded 
by higher ground, — a circumstance which ac- 
counts for the abundance of moisture. The 
climate, however, is extremely variable, espe- 
cially in winter. Sometimes the rains in the 
Western Oasis are very abundant, and fall in 
torrents, as appears from the furrows in the 
rocks ; but the season Sir A. Edmonstone made 
his visit there was none at all, and the total want 
of dew in the hot months sufficiently proves the 
general dryness of the atmosphere. The springs 
are all strongly impregnated with iron and sul- 
phur, and hot at their sources; but, as they 
continue the same throughout the whole year, 
they supply to the inhabitants one of the pfinci- 
cipal means of life. The water, notwithstand- 
ing, cannot be used until it has been cooled in 
an earthen jar. The Western Oasis is called 
Bellata. El Cazar, however, appears to be the 
principal town. The situation of the place, we 
are told, is perfectly lovely, being on an eminence 
at the foot of a line of rock which rises abruptly 
behind it, and encircled by extensive gardens 
filled with palm, acacia, citron, and various other 
kind of trees, some of which are rarely seen 
even in those regions. The principal edifice is 
an old temple or convent called Daer el Hadjur, 
about fifty feet long by twenty-five wide, but 
presenting nothing either very magnificent or 
curious. The first chamber is 24 feet by 20, 
supported by four pillars five feet in diameter at 
the shaft, the walls, as far as they a^re visible, 
being traced with figures and hieroglyphics. 
The winged globe, encompassed by the serpent, 
the emblem of eternity, is carved over one of the 
doors. This Oasis is composed of twelve vil- 
lages, of which ten are within five or six miles 
of each other ; the remaining two being much 
farther off at the entrance of the plain, and 
scarcely looked upon as belonging to this divi- 
sion. The sheiks express their belief that there 
is inhabited land to the westward, — adding that 
some Arabs, who had lately attempted to ex- 
plore the country in that direction, met at the 
end of three days such a terrible whirlwind as 
compelled them to return. The Little Oasis, 
or that of El Kassar, has been less visited than 
either of the two others which have been longest 
known to European travellers. We owe the 
latest and most distinct account to Belzoni, 
who, proceeding in search of it westward from 
the valley of Fayoum, arrived, at the close of 
the fourth day, on the brink of what he calls the 
Elloah, — that is, the El Woh, or El Oicah, 
from which th e Greeks formed the more common 
term oasis. He describes it as a valley sur- 
rounded with high rocks, forming a spacious 
plain of twelve or fourteen miles in length, and 
about six in breadth. There is only a small 
portion cultivated at present, but there are many 
proofs remaining that it must at one time have 
been all under crop, and that with proper ma- 
nagement it might again be rendered fertile. 
We have still to mention the Oasis of Siwah, in 
some respects the most interesting of the whole, 
and more especially as connected with the tra- 
dition of Jupiter Ammon, whose temple it is 
generallv understood to contain. It is situated 
m lat. 29° 12' N., and in long. 26° 6' E. ; be- 
ing about six miles loner, and between four and 
five in wndth, the nearest distance from the river 
of Egypt not exceeding one hundred and twenty 
227 



(EB 



GEOGRAPHY. 



<EN 



miles. A large proportion of the land is occu- 
pied by date-trees ; but the palm, the pomegra- 
nate, tne fig, the olive, the vme, the apricot, the 
plum, and even the apple, are said to fiourish in 
the gardens. No soil can be more fertile. Tepid 
springs, too, holding salts in solution, are nume- 
rous tnrougtiout the district ; and it is imagined 
that the frequency of earthquakes is connected 
with the geological structure of the surrounding 
country." RwsseVs Egypt. " Towards the 
isthmus of Suez there is an Oasis called Korayn 
by the inhabitants of the country. It contains 
eight or ten hamlets with their gardens, and 
about 4000 inhabitants. In the same direction 
is Saleheyd^ another Oasis, shaded by a wood 
six miles long. It contains ten villages and 
about 6000 inhabitants." Malte-Brun. 

Oaxes, a river of Crete, which received its 
name from Oaxus the son of Apollo. Virg. 
Ed. 1, v. m. 

Obringa, now Ahr, a river of Germany, fall- 
ing into the Rhine above Rimmagen. 

OcELLUM, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, in the 
Cottian Alps. It stood near the source of the 
Cluso, one of the principal springs of the Po, 
and is now Uxeau in Piedmont. 

OcHA, a mountain of EubcEa, and the name 
of Euboea itself 

OcHus, a river of Asia, belonging in antiqui- 
ty to the kingdom of Parthia, rising on the bor- 
ders of that country and of the province of 
Margiana. In the latter part of its course it 
separated the Dahse from the Derbicse, bound- 
ing on the north Hyrcania, in which the first- 
named people dwelt. " The largest river," says 
Malte-Brun, " of Khorazan, the Tedzen of the 
moderns, and the Ockus of the ancients, loses 
itself in a marshy lake, according to Wahl, but 
it is more probable that it passes through the 
marshes which it forms to communicate with 
the gulf of Balkan." Malte-Brun. 

Oriculum, now Otricoli, a town of Umbria 
near Rome. Cic. pro Mil. — Liv. 19, c. 41. 

OcTODURus, a principal town of the Veragri, 
between Gallia and Rhaetia, in the Vallis Pen- 
nina, now Le Valais. It was situated within 
the confluence of the Drance and the Rhone. 
The modern town is called Martigny. 

OcTOGESA, a town in the province of Hispa- 
nia Citerior, situated on the Iberus, in the coun- 
ty of the Ilercaones, near the mouth of the Sico- 
ris. It is now Mequinenza in Arragon. Cces. 
B. G.l, c. 61. 

Odressus, a sea-port town at the west of the 
Euxine Sea, in Lower Moesia, below the mouths 
of the Danube, supposed to be Varna. Ovid. 
1, Trist. 9, V. 37. 

Odeium, a musical theatre at Athens, erect- 
ed by Pericles. Vid. Athena. 

OdrysjE, an ancient people of Thrace, be- 
tween Abdera and the river Ister, The epithet 
of Odn/sius is often applied to a Thracian. 
Ovid. Met. 6, v. 490, 1, 13, v. 55i.—Stat. Ach. 
1, V. 184.— Lw. 39, c. 53. 

Odysseum, a promontory of Sicily, at the west 
of Pachynus. 

CEa, a city of Africa. Vid. Tripoli. 

QEbalia, the ancient name of Laconia, which 
it received from king CEbalus, and thence (Eba- 
lidcs puer is applied to Hyacinthus as a native 
of the country, and (Ebalius sanguis is used 
to denominate his blood. Paus. 3, c. 1. — I 
228 



Apollod. 3, c. 10. The same name is given 

to Tarentum, because built by a Lacedaemonian 
colony, whose ancestors were governed by (JBba- 
lus. Virg. G. 4, v. 125.— SiL 12, v. 451. 

CEcHALiA, 1. acountry of Peloponnesus in La- 
conia, with a small town of lue same name. 
This town was destroyed by Hercules, while 
Eurytus was king over it, from which circum- 
stance it is often called Eurytopolis. II. A 

small town of Euboea, where, according to some, 
Eurytas reigned, and not m Peloponnesus. 
Strad. 8, 9, and 10.— Virg. ^n. 8, v. 291.— 
Ooid. Herald. 9, Met. 9, v. 136. — Sophoc. in 
Thrac. 74, and iSckol. 

CEne, a small town of Argolis. The people 
are called (Eneadce. 

QENIAD.E, a town of Acarnania, " on the 
Achelous, a little above the sea, and surrounded 
by marshes, caused by the overflowings of the 
river, which rendered it a place of great strength, 
and deterred the Athenians from undertaking 
its siege ; when, unlike the other cities of Acar- 
nania, it embraced the cause of the Peloponne- 
sians, and became hostile to Athens. At a later 
period of the war, it was however compelled by 
the Acarnanian confederacy to enter into an al- 
liance with that power. The same writer gives 
us to understand that CEniadse was first found- 
ed by Alcmaeon, according to an oracle which 
he consulted after the murder of his mother, 
and that the province was named after his son 
Acarnan. The ^Etolians, having in process of 
time conquered that part of Acarnania which 
lay on the left bank of the Achelous, became 
also possessed of CEniadse, when they expelled 
the inhabitants under circumstances apparently 
of great hardship and cruelty, for which it is 
said they were threatened with the vengeance 
of Alexander the Great. By the advice of Cas- 
sander the CEniadse settled in Sauria, (probably 
Thyria,) another Acarnanian town. Many years 
afterwards the ^tolians were compelled to eva- 
cuate CEniadse by Philip the son of Demetrius, 
king of Macedon, in an expedition related by 
Polybius. This monarch, aware of the advan- 
tage to be derived from the occupation of a place 
so favourably situated with respect to the Pelo- 
ponnesus, fortified the citadel, and enclosed 
within a wall both the port and arsenal. In the 
second Punic war this town was again taken 
by the Romans, under Val. Lasvinus, and given 
up to the jEtolians, their allies. But, on a rup- 
ture taking place with that people, it was final- 
ly restored to the Acarnanians. We must 
search for the remains of CEniadse to the east of 
the present mouth of the Achelous. The ruins 
which Sir W. Gell describes as situated above 
Missilonghi and the lake of Anatolico, on the 
spot named Kuria Irene^ seem to possess many 
of the characteristic features appertaining to 
CEniadse. It may however be doubted whether 
that town was so far from the Achelous, unless 
indeed the river once fell into the lake of Anato- 
lico, which is possible: and a tradition to that 
effect is alluded toby Sir W. Gell, who strong- 
ly argues for the identity of the two places. It 
should, however, be observed, that the remains 
visible at Kuria Irene are hardly considerable 
enough for so important a city as OEniads. Mr. 
Dodwell, who describes them very minutely, 
says, that the walls seem not to be above two 
miles in circuit : and the ruins of the theatre on 



(EN 



GEOGRAPHY. 



CET 



the south side of the city show it to have been 
the smallest building of the kind ia Greece ; he 
is therefore of opinion that Kuria Irene cpinot 
be CEniadee, wnich he places at Trigardon. 
This question, however, cannot be decided un- 
til the whole of the Paraciieloitis has been well 
examined. Sir W. Gell states that there are 
several appearances of rained cities in the vicin- 
ity of Kuria Irene ; one in particular at Garda- 
Ico, which might be CEniadae." Cram. 

CEnoe, I. a city of Argolis, where CEneus- 
fled when driven from Calydon. Pans. 2, c. 

25. 11. A town of Elis in the Peloponnesus. 

Strab. — Appllod. 1, c. 8. — Pans. 1, &c. 

CEnon, a part of Locris on the bay of Corinth. 

CEnona, I. an ancient name of the island 
JEgma.. It is also called (Enopia. Herodot. 8. 

c. 46. II. A town of Troas, the birth-place 

of the nymph CEnone. Strab. 13. 

CEnopia, one of the ancient names of the 
island ^gina. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 473. 

QiInotri, the inhabitants of CEnotria. " It 
appears, from the earliest period of which we 
have any records, that the southern portion of 
Italy, which was afterwards so much frequented 
by the Greeks as to derive from them the name 
of Magna Grsecia, was occupied by the CEnotri, 
a people concerning whose origin it would be 
scarce worth our while to inquire, had not the 
opmion of some ancient writers attached greater 
importance to the subject than it would other- 
wise have appeared to deserve. We allude to 
the well-known hypothesis of Dionysius of Ha- 
licarnassus, who regarded this primitive race as 
descended from a most ancient Arcadian colony, 
and further identified them with the Aborigines 
of the Latin writers. Antiochus of Syracuse, 
who is the earliest ancient author who is said to 
have studied the antiquities of Italy, evidently 
seems to have regarded the (Enotri, Itali, Cho- 
nes, andMorgetes, as indigenous tribes, who had 

E copied the southern part of that country long 
efore the Greeks formed any settlements there ; 
a statement which could hardly be reconciled 
with the Arcadian descent of the CEnotri. The 
best informed writers among the moderns cer- 
tainly look upon the population of Italy as hav- 
ing been disseminated from north to south ; and 
this opinion seems so much more agreeable to 
reason and to history, that a contrary notion 
will scarcely gain credit at the present day. On 
this great principle, we should not be led to con- 
sider the CEnotri as a very early branch of the 
primitive Italian stock, but rather as the last 
scion propagated in a southerly direction. They 
were not so ancient apparently as the Ausones, 
whom tradition represented as being in posses- 
sion of the country before the arrival of CEno- 
trus. It may be more worth our while to re- 
mark, that it was from Italus, a prince of the 
CEnotri, that the name of Italia was stated to 
have been derived ; to him also is ascribed the 
merit of having first introduced agriculture, le- 
gislation, and other institutions tending to civi- 
lize his rude and barbarous subjects." Cram. 

CEnotria, a part of Italy, which was after- 
wards called iMcania. It received this name 
from CEnotrus the son of Lycaon, who settled 
there with a colony of Arcadians. The CEqo- 
trians afterwards spread themselves into Um- 
bria, and as far as Latium and the country of 
the Sabines, according to some writers. The 



name of CEnotria is sometimes applied to Italy. 

That part of Italy where CEnotrus settled, was 
before inhabited by the Ausones. Dionys. Hal. 
1, c. \\.—Paus. 1, c. Z.— Virg. JEn. 1, v. 536, 
1. 7, V. 8b.—Ital. 8, V. 220. " The name of 
QEnotria, deri/ed from the ancient race of the 
CEnotri, seems also to have been early m use 
among the Greeks, but it was applied by them 
to that southern portion of Italy only with which 
they were then acquainted." Cram. 

(Enotrides, two small islands on the coast of 
Lucania, where some of the Romans were ban- 
ished by the emperors. They were called Iscia 
and Pontia. 

GEnxjs^, small islands near Chios. Plin. 5, 

c. 31. — lyiucyd. 8. Others on the coast of the 

Peloponnesus, near Messenia. Mela, 2, c. 17. 
—Plin. 4, c. 12. 

CEoNUs, a small river of Laconia. Liv. 34, 
c. 28. 

GEroe, an island of Bceotia, formed by the 
Asopus. Herodot. 9, c. 50. 

CEta, I. now Banina, a celebrated mountain 
between Thessaly and Macedonia, upon which 
Hercules burnt himself. Its height has given 
occasion to the poets to feign that the sun, moon, 
and stars rose behind it. Mount CEta, properly 
speaking, is a long chain of mountains which 
runs from the straits of Thermopylae and the 
gulf of Malia, in a western direction, to mount 
Pindus, and from thence to the bay of Ambra- 
cia. The straits or passes of mount CEta are 
called the straits of Thermopylse from the hot 
baths and mineral waters which are in the 
neighbourhood. These passes are not more than 
25 feet in breadth. Mela, 2, c. Z.—Caiull. &Q, v. 
54.—Apollod.2. C.I.— Pans. .10, c. 20, &c.— 
Ovid. Heroid. 9, Met. 2, v. 216, 1. 9, v. 204, 
&c. — Virg. Ed. 8. — Plin. 25, c. 5. — Seneca in 
Met. — Lucan. 3, &c. " Mount CEta extends 
its ramifications westward into the country of 
the Dorians, and still further, into ^tolia, while 
to the south it is connected with the mountains 
of Locris and those of Boeotia. Its modern 
name is Kataiwthra. Sophocles represents Jove 
as thundering on the lofty crags of CEta. The 
highest summit, according to Livy, was named 
Callidromus : it was occupied by Cato with a 
body of troops in the battle fought at the pass of 
Thermopylae, between the Romans under Aci- 
lius Glabrio, and the army of Antiochus : and 
owing to this manoeuvre, the latter was entirely 
routed. Herodotus describes the path by which 
the Persian army turned the position of the 
Greeks, as beginning at the Asopus. Its name, 
as well as that of the mountain, is Anopaea. It 
leads along this ridge as far as Alponus, the first 
Locrian town. On the summit of mount CEta 
were two castles, named Tichius and Rhodun- 
lia, which were successfully defended by the 
iEtolians against the Romans. The inhabit- 
ants of the chain of CEta, thence named CEtsei, 
constituted a tribe sufficiently numerous and 
warlike toprove a serious annoyance to the La- 
cedaemonian colony of Heraclea. On account 
of these depredations, their country was on one 
occasion ravaged and laid under contribution by 

Agis king of Sparta." Cram. II. A small 

town at the foot of mount CEta, near Thermo- 
pylae. 

CEtjei, the mountaineers of CEta. Vid. (Eta. 

CEtylus, or CEtylum, a town of Laconia, 
229 



OL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



OL 



which received its name from QEtylus, one of 
the heroes of Argos. Serapis had a temple 
there. Paus. 3, c. 25. 

Oglosa, an island in the Tyrrhene Sea, east 
of Corsica, famous for wine, and now called 
Monte Christo. Plin. 3, c. 6. 

Ogygia, a name of one o^ the gates of Thebes 

in Bceotia. Lucan. 1, v. 675. An ancient 

name of Boeotia, from Ogyges, who reigned 
there. — The island of Calypso, opposite the 
promontory of Lacinium in Magna Gra^cia, 
where Ulysses was shipwrecked. The situation, 
and even the existence of Calypso's island, is 
disputed by some writers. Plin. 3, c. 10. — 
Ho-nier. Od. 1, v. 52 and 85, 1. 5, v. 254. 

Olbia, I. a town of Sarmatia, at the conflu- 
ence of the Hypanis and the Borysthenes, about 
15 miles from the sea according to Pliny. It 
was afterwards called Borystheiies and Mileto- 
polis, because peopled by a Milesian colony, and 
is now supposed to be Oczakow. Stroh. 7. — 

Plin. 4, c. 12. II. A town of Bithynia. 

Mela, 1, c. 19. III. A town of Gallia Nar- 

bonensis. Mela., 2, c. 5. IV. The capital 

of Sardinia. Claudian. 

Olchinium, or Olcinium, now Dulcigno, a 
town of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, Liv. 45, 
C.26. 

Oliaros, or Oliros, one of the Cyclades, 
about 16 miles in circumference, separated from 
Paros by a strait of seven miles. Virg. Mn. 3, 
V. l2Q.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 469.— PZm. 4, c. 12. 
The situation of this island in regard to Paros, 
caused it to be designated by the name of An- 
tiparos, which still remains to it in the slightly 
altered form of Antiparo. It is not included by 
Strabo among the Cyclades. 

Olenus, or Olenum, I. a iGwn of Pelopon- 
nesus, between Patrse and Cyllene. The goat 
Amalthaea, which was made a constellation by 
Jupiter, is called Olenia, from its residence 
there. Paus. 7, c. 22.— Ovid. Met. 3.—Strab. 
8. — Apollod. 1, c. 8. 11. Another in jEtolia. 

Olisipo, now Lisbon, a town of ancient 
Spain on the Tagus, surnamed Felicitas Julia, 
{Plin. 4, c. 22.) called by some Ulyssippo, and 
said to be founded by Ulysses. Mela, 3, c. 1. — 
Solinus, 23. The fable of the founding of 
Olisipo was not by any means ancient, as the 
town itself was probably not older than the time 
of the Roman dominion in Lusitania. 

Olitingi, a town of Lusitania. Mela, 3, c. 1. 

Ollius, a river rising in the Alps and fall- 
ing into the Po, now called the Oglio. Plin. 
2, c. 103. 

Olmius, a river of Boeotia, near Helicon, sa- 
cred to the Muses. Vid. Helicon. Stat. Theb. 
7, V. 284. 

Olp.e, " a fortress situated, as appears from 
Thucydides, on a height close to the shore of 
the Arabracian gulf, and not more than twenty- 
five stadia from Argos. The historian adds, 
that the Acarnanians held here a court of jus- 
tice. A decisive victory was gained hereby the 
Acarnanians and Amphilochians, under the 
command of Demosthenes, over the Ambraciots 
and Peloponnesians. Had it not been for this 
event, Olpae would have remained unknown, as 
no other writer has ever mentioned it, with the 
exception of Stephanus Byz., who quotes from 
Thucydides. Modern mapspoint out some ruins 
on the site probably occupied by Olpse." Cram." 
230 



Olympia, a town of Eiis, on the left or 
southern bank of the Alpheus, opposite Pisa. 
The Eleans and Pisatae long disputed the pos- 
session of this town, and of the temple, from 
which, together with the games there celebrated, 
it derived its sacred character. "The final 
struggle took place in the forty-eighth Olympiad, 
when the people of Pisa, as Pausanias affirms, 
supported by the Triphylians, and other neigh- 
bouring towns, which had revolted from Elis, 
made war upon that state. The Eleans, how- 
ever, aided by Sparta, proved victorious, and 
put an end for ever to this contest by the des- 
truction of Pisa and the other confederate 
towns. According to the Scholiast of Pindar, 
the city of Pisa was distant only six stadia from 
Olympia, in which case we might fix its site 
near that of Miracca, a little to the east of the 
celebrated spot called now Antila.la ; but Pau- 
sanias evidently leads us to suppose it stood on 
the opposite bank of the river. The Olympic 
games, as poets sung, were first instituted and 
solemnized by Hercules, who also planted the 
sacred grove called Altis, which he dedicated 
to Jupiter. The site was already celebrated as 
the seat of an oracle ; but it was not until the 
Eleans had conquered the Pisatse, and destroy- 
ed their city, that a temple was erected to the 
god with the spoils of the vanquished. This 
edifice was of Doric architecture, with a peri- 
style. It was sixty-eight feet in height from the 
ground to the pediment, ninety-five in width, 
and two hundred and thirty in length. Its roof, 
at each extremity of which was placed a gilt 
urn, was covered with slabs of Pentelic marble. 
The architect was a native of the country, 
named Libo. In the centre of one of the pedi- 
ments, stood a figure of Victory with a golden 
shield, on which was sculptured a Medusa's 
head. Twenty-one gilt bucklers, the offering 
of the Roman general Mummius on the termi- 
nation of the Achaean war, were also affixed to 
the outside frieze. The sculptures of the front 
pediments represented the race of Pelops and 
(Enomaus, with Myrtilus and Hippodaraia ; 
also Jupiter and the rivers Alpheus and Cla- 
deus : these were all by Paonius, an artist of 
Mende in Chalcide Thrace. In the posterior 
pediment Alcamenes had sculptured the battle 
of the Centaurs and Lapithse. The other parts 
of the building were enriched with subjects 
taken from the labours of Hercules. On en- 
tering the gates, which were of brass, the spec- 
tator passed the statue of Iphitus crowned by 
Ecechiria on the right; and advancing through 
a double row of columns supporting porticoes, 
reached the statue of Jupiter, the chef d'oettvre 
of Phidias. The god v/as represented as seat- 
ed on his throne, composed of gold, ebony, and 
ivory, studded with precious stones, and further 
embellished with paintings and the finest carved 
work. The Olympian deity was pourtrayed 
by the great Athenian artist in the sublime atti- 
tude and action conceived by Homer. The 
figure was of ivory and gold, and of such vast 
proportions, that, though seated, it almost reach- 
ed the ceiling, which suggested the idea that in 
rising it would bear away the roof The head 
was crowned with olive. In the right hand it 
grasped an image of Victory, and in the left a 
sceptre, curiously wrought of different metals, 
on which was perched an eagle. Both the san- 



OL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



OL 



dais and vesture were of gold ; the latter was 
also enriched with paintings of beasts and flow- 
ers by Panaenus, the brother, or as some say, the 
nephew of Phidias. An enclosure surrounded 
the whole, by which spectators were prevented 
from approaching too near ; this was also de- 
corated with paintings by the same artist, which 
are minutely described, together with the other 
ornamental appendages to the throne and its 
supporters, by Pausanias. Within the Altis, 
or sacred grove, was the temenus of Pelops, ' 
whom the Eleans venerated among heroes, as 
much as Jupiter among other gods. This con- 
secrated precinct, situated to the right of the 
northern approach to the temple, was adorned 
with plantations and statues. The hero him- 
self, as we learn from Pindar, reposed on the 
banks of the Alpheus, and near the altar of 
Jupiter. Olympia now presents scarcely any 
vestiges of the numerous buildings, statues, and 
monuments, so elaborately detailed by Pausa- 
nias. Chandler could only trace ' the walls of 
the cell of a very large temple, standing many 
feet high, and well built, the stones all injured, 
and manifesting the labour of persons who have 
endeavoured by boring to get at the metal with 
which they Avere cemented. From a massive 
capital remaining, it was collected that the edi- 
fice had been of the Doric order.' Mr. Revett 
adds, ^that this temple appears to be rather 
smaller than that of Theseus at Athens, and in 
no manner agrees with the temple of the Olym- 
pian Jove.'" The ruins of this latter edifice, as 
Sir W. Gell reports, ' are to be seen toward the 
Alpheus, and fifty-five geographic paces distant 
trom the hiH of Saturn. There are several 
bushes which mark the spot, and the Turks of 
hallo, are often employed in excavating the 
stones. Between the temple and the river, in 
the descent of the bank, are vestiges of the hip- 
podrome, or buildings serving for the celebra- 
tion of the Olympic games. These accompany 
the road to Miracca on the right to some dis- 
tance. The whole valley is very beautiful.' " 
Cram. 

Olympus, a fountain of Arcadia, near the 
ruins of Trapezus, on the left bank of the river 
Alpheus. Speaking of a place called Bathos, 
Pausanias remarks, "there is a fountain here 
which is denominated Olympias, the water of 
which flows only every other year : and fire 
ascends near the fountain. The Arcadians re- 
port, that the battle between the giants and the 
gods was fought here, and not at Pellene in 
Thrace : in consequence of which they sacri- 
fice here to lightning, storms, and thunder." 
Paus. 

Olympus, now Lacha^ a mountain of Greece, 
on the borders of Thessaly and Macedonia. 
The ancients supposed that it touched tlie hea- 
vens with its top ; and, from that circumstance, 
they have placed the residence of the s:ods there, 
and have made it the court of Jupiter. It is 
about one mile and a half in perpendicular 
height, and is covered with pleasant woods, 
caves, and grottoes. On the top of the mountain, 
according to the notions of the poets, there was 
neither wind nor rain, nor clouds, but an eter- 
nal spring. Homer. II. 1, &c. — Vir^. JEn. 2, 
6, &c.—Ovid. Met.—lAican. b.—Mela, 2, c. 3. 
—Strab. 8, " Dr. Holland, who beheld it from 
lAtochori at its foot, observes, • We had not be- 



fore been aware of the extreme vicinity of the 
town to the base of Olympus, from the thick 
fogs which hung over us for three successive 
days, while traversing the country ; but on leav- 
ing it, and accidentally looking back, we saw 
through an opening in the fog a faint outline of 
vast precipices, seeming almost to overhang the 
place, and so aerial in their aspect, that for a 
few minutes we doubted whether it might not 
be a delusion to the eye. The fog, however, 
dispersed yet more on this side, and partial 
openings were made, through which, as through 
arches, we saw the sun-beams resting on the 
snovy summits of Olympus, which rose into a 
dark blue sky far above the belt of clouds and 
mist that hung upon the sides of the mountain. 
The transient view we had of the mountain 
from this point showed us a line of precipices of 
vast height, forming its eastern front toward the 
sea, and broken at intervals by deep hollows or 
ravines, which were richly clothed with forest 
trees. The oak, chesnut, beech, plane-tree, 
&c. are seen in great abundance along the base 
and skirts of the mountain ;. and towards the 
summit of the first ridge large forests of pine 
spread themselves along the acclivities, giving 
that character to the face of the mountain, 
which is so often alluded to by the ancient 
poets.' " Cram. 

Olynthus, a celebrated town of Macedo- 
nia. It stood " at the head of the gulf which 
separates the peninsula of Pallene from that of 
Sithonia, and was founded probably by the 
Chalcidians and Eretrians of Euboea. Hero- 
dotus relates, that it was afterwards held by the 
Bottiffii, who had been expelled from the Ther- 
maean gulf by ihe Macedonians; but on the re- 
volt of Potidcea, and other towns on this coast, 
from the Persians, it Avas besieged and taken by 
Artabazus, a commander of Xerxes, who put 
all the inhabitants to the sword, and delivered 
the town to Critobulus of Torone and the Chal- 
cidians. Perdiccas, some years after, persuaded 
the Bottiaei and Chalcidians to abandon their 
other towns, and make 01)'nthus their principal 
city, previous to their engaging in hostilities 
with the Athenians. In this war the Olynthi- 
ans obtained some decisive advantages over thai 
republic ; and the expedition of Brasidas ena- 
bled them effectually to preserve their freedom 
and independence, which was distinctly recog- 
nised by treaty. From this time the republic 
of Olynthus gradually acquired so much power 
and importance among the northern states of 
Greece, that it roused the jealousy and excited 
the alarm of the more powerful of the southern 
republics, Athens and Lacedaemon. The Olyn- 
thians, apparently proceeding on the federal sys- 
tem, afterwards so successfully adopted by the 
Achaeans, incorporated into their alliance all the 
smaller towns in their immediate vicinity ; and 
by degrees succeeded in detaching several im- 
portant places from the dominions of Amyntas 
king of Macedon, who had not the power of 
protecting himself from these encroachments. 
At length, however, a deputation from the Chal- 
cidic cities of Apollonia and Acanthus, whose 
independence was at that time immediately 
threatened by Olynthus, having directed the at- 
tention of Sparta, then at the height of its po- 
litical importance, to this rising- power, it was 
determined in a general assembly of the Pelo- 
23] 



OP 



GEOGRAPHY. 



OR 



ponnesian states to despatch an army of ten 
thousand men into Thrace. The Olynthians 
found themselves unable to cope with their 
powerful and persevering antagonists, and were 
at length forced to sue for peace ; which was 
granted on condition that they should acknow- 
ledge their dependance on Sparta, and take part 
in all its wars. We afterwards find Philip and 
the Olynthians in league against Athens, with 
the view of expelling that power from Thrace. 
Of the circumstances which induced this repub- 
lic to abandon the interest of Macedon in fa- 
vour of Athens, we are not well informed ; hut 
the machinations of the party hostile to Philip 
led to a declaration of war against that monarch ; 
and the Athenians were easily prevailed upon 
by the eloquence of Demosthenes to send forces 
to the support of Olynthus. under the command 
of Chares. On obtaining possession of this im- 
portant city, Philip gave it up to plunder, re- 
duced the inhabitants to slavery, and razed the 
walls to the ground. Olynthus was sixty sta- 
dia from Potidoea, and within sight of that 
town, as we learn from Thucydides. Xeno- 
phon mentions a river that flowed near it, but 
of which he does not give us the name. The 
ruins of Olynthus are now called Agios Ma- 
mas.^' Cram. 

Olyras, a river near Thermopylce, which, as 
the mythologists report, attempted to extinguish 
the funeral pile on which Hercules was con- 
sumed. Strab. 9. 

Omole. Vid. Homole. 

Omphalos, a place of Crete, sacred to Jupi- 
ter, on the border of the river Triton. 

Onchestus, a town of Boeotia. In the time 
of Pausanias this place was in ruins. It is thus 
described by that author. " The ruins of the 
city Onchestus are about fifteen stadia distant 
from this mountain ; and they say that Onches- 
tus the son of Neptune once dwelt in this city. 
At present, indeed, a temple and statue of On- 
chestian Neptnne remain : and there is likewise 
a grove here which is celebrated by Homer. On 
turning from the temple of the Cabiri to the 
left hand, and proceeding to the distance of 
about fifty stadia, you will arrive at the city 
Thespise." Pans. 9, c. 26. 

Oneium. " Oneium was a fortress situat- 
ed in the chain of the Oneian mountains, and 
commanding the pass which led through them. 
This place must be sought for in the mountains 
above Mertese, and near the village of Hexami- 
li AfanoP Cram. 

Onugnathos, a promontory of Laconia, now 
separated from the main land, and forming the 
hola de Send, in the Sinus Laconicus, towards 
the island of Cythera. " This promontory, 
which is distant from Asopus about two hun- 
dred stadia, extends itself into the sea, and is 
called the jav>bone of an ass. It contains a 
temple of Minerva, which is without a statue 
and a roof, and is said to have been made by 
Agamemnon. There is also a monument here of 
Cinadus, who was the pilot of Menelaus." Pans. 

Ophiades, an island on the coast of Arabia, 
so called from the great number of serpents 
found there. It belonged to the Egyptian kings, 
and was considered valuable for the topaz it 
produced. Diod.3. 

Ophis, a small river of Arcadia, which falls 
into the Alpheus. 

232 



Ophiesa, the ancient name of Rhodes. 

A small island near Crete. A town of Bar 

matia. An island near the Baleares so call- 
ed from the number of serpents which it pro- 
duced {oj)Ls serpens.) It is now called Por- 
mentera. 

Opici, a people of the south of Italy. " The 
Opici, or Osci, who seem to have occupied the 
central region of Italy, extended themselves 
largely both west and east. In the first direc- 
tion they formed the several communities dis- 
tinguished by the name of Latins, Rutuli, Vol- 
sci, Campani, and Sidicmi. In the central dis- 
tricts they constituted the Sabine nation, from 
whom were descended the Picentes, as well as 
the iEqui, Marsi, Hernici, Peligni, Vestini, 
and Marrucini. From the Opici again, in con- 
junction with the Liburni, an Illyrian nation 
who had very early formed settlements on the 
eastern coast of Italy, we must derive the Apuli 
and Daunii, Peucetii and Poediculi, Calabri, 
lapyges, and Messapii." Cram. 

Opis, a town on the Tigris, afterwards called 
Antiochia. Xenoph. Anab. 2. 

Opitergini, a people near Aquileia, on the 
Adriatic. Their chief city is called Opitergum, 
now Oderzo. Lnican. 4, v. 416. 

Opus, {opuntis,) " one of the most ancient 
cities of Greece, celebrated by Pindar as the do- 
main of Deucalion and Pyrrha. Strabo says 
that Opus was fifteen stadia from the sea, and 
that the distance between it and Cynus, its em- 
porium, was sixty stadia. Li vy places Opus one 
mile only from the sea. The position of this 
tov/n has not been precisely determined by the 
researches of modern travellers ; but its ruins 
are laid down in Lapie's map a little to the 
south-west of AlacM, and east of Talanta. The 
bay, which the sea forms on this part of the 
coast, Vv^as known by the name of Opuntius Si- 
nus. The form of government adopted by the 
Opuntians was peculiar, since as we learn from 
Aristotle, they intrusted the sole administra- 
tion to one magistrate. Plutarch commends 
their piety and observance of religious rites. 
Herodotus informs us that they furnished seven 
ships to the Greek fleet at Artemisium. They 
were subsequently conquered by Myronides the 
Athenian general." Cram,. 

Orates, a river of European Scythia, Ovid, 
ex Pont. 4, el. 10, v. 47. As this river is not 
now known, Vossius reads Crates, a river which 
is found in Scythia. Val. Flacc. 4, v. 719. — 
Thucyd. 4. 

Orbelus, a mountain of Thrace or Macedo- 
nia, which formed part of the great chain se- 
parating Pffionia from Dardania and Moesia. It 
will be seen, however, that this appellation was 
sometimes applied also to the ridge more usually 
called Haemus and Rhodope. Diodorus states 
that Cassander established , in the district around 
mount Orbelus, now Egrisou Dagh, a body of 
Illyrian Autariatse, who had wandered from 
their country and infested Paeon i a." Cram,. 

Orcades, islands on the northern coasts of 
Britain, now called the Orkneys. They were 
unknown till Britain was discovered to be an 
island by Agricola, who presided there as go- 
vernor. Tacit, in As^ric. — Juv. 2, v. 161. 

Orchomenus, or Orchomenum, I. a town of 
Boeotia, at the west of the lake Copais. It was 
anciently called Minyeia, and from that circum- 



OR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



OR 



stance the inhabitants were often called Miny- 
ans of Orchomenus. There was at Orchome- 
nus a celebrated temple, built by Eteocles, son 
of Cephisus, sacred to the Graces, who were 
from thence called the Orchomenian goddesses. 
The inhabitants founded Teos in conjunction 
with the lonians, under the sons of Codrus, 
Plin. 4, c. 8. — Herodot. 1, c. 146. — Paus. 9, c. 

37. — Strab. 9. II. A town of Arcadia, at 

the north of Mantinea. Homer. II. 2. III. 

A town of Thessaly, with a river of the same 
name. Strab. 

Ordovices, the people of North Wales in 
Britain, mentioned by Tacit. A^m. 12, c. 53. 

ORESTiE, a people of Epirus. Vid. Orestis. 

Oresteas. Vid. HadrianopoUs. 

Oresteum, a town of Arcadia, about 18 miles 
from Sparta. It was founded by Orestheus, a 
son of Lycaon, and originally called Oresthe- 
sium, and afterwards Oresteum, from Orestes, 
the son of Agamemnon, who resided there for 
some time after the murder of Clytemnestra. 
Paus. 8, c. 8. — Euripid. 

Orestis, or Orestida, a part of Macedonia. 
" The Orestse were situated apparently to the 
south-east of the Lyncestas, and, like them, ori- 
ginally independent of the Macedonian kings, 
though afterwards annexed to their dominions. 
From their vicinity to Epirus, we find them fre- 
quently connected with that portion of northern 
Greece ; indeed, Steph. Byz. terms them a Mo- 
lossian tribe. At a later period the Orestge be- 
came subject to the last Philip of Macedon ; but, 
having revolted under the protection of a Ro- 
man force, they were declared free on the con- 
clusion of peace between Plilip and the Ro- 
mans. The country of the Orestee was appa- 
rently of small extent, and contained but few 
towns. Among these Oreslia is named by Ste- 
phanus, who states it to have been the birth- 
place of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. Its founda- 
tion was ascribed by tradition to Orestes. This 
is probably the same city called by Strabo Ar- 
gos Oresticum, built, as he affirms, by Orestes. 
The country of the Orestse corresponds in many 
points with the territory of Castoria, a town of 
some extent, situated near the lake of Celetrum, 
to which it now gives its name. Celetrum is 
perhaps the Yit\avi6iov of Hierocles." Cram. 

Orbtani, a people of Spain ; their country 
was in Tarraconensis, on the borders of Bsetica, 
north of the Marianus mons. This region an- 
swers in a great measure to those parts of Es- 
tramadura and Castile which lie upon the Guu- 
diana, between the Sierra Morena and the 
mountains of Toledo, the ancient capital Ore- 
tum being now denominated Oreto. Liv. 21, 
c. 11, 1. 35, c. 7. 

Oreus. Vid. Histicea. 

Orga, or Orgas, a river of Phrygia, falling 
into the Masander. Strab. — Plin. 

Oricum, or Oricus, a town of Epirus, on the 
Ionian Sea, founded by a colony from Colchis, 
according to Pliny. It was called Dardknia, 
because Helenus and Andromache, natives of 
Troy or Dardania, reigned over the country 
after the Trojan war. It had a celebrated har- 
bour, and was greatly esteemed by the Romans 
on account of its situation, but it was not well 
defended. The tree which produces the tur- 
pentine grew there in abundance. Virg. Mn. 
10, V. 136.— Lw. 24, c. 40— PZm. 2, c. 89.— 

Part I. -2 G 



C(B$. Bell. Civ. 3, c. 1, &c. — Lmcan. 3, v. 187. 

Oriens, in ancient geography, is taken for 
all the most eastern parts of the world, such as 
Parthia, India, Assyria, &c. 

ORiT.E, a people of India, who submitted to 
Alexander, &c. Strai>. 15. 

Oriundus, a river of Illyricum. Liv. 44. c. 31. 

Ornea, a town of Argolis, famous for a bat- 
tle fought there between the Lacedaemonians 
and Argives. Diod. 

Ornithon, a town of Phoenicia, between 
Tyre and Sidon, 

Orobh, a people o\ Cisalpine Gaul, north of 
the Insubres. " We are surprised at first to 
find a people with a Greek name in this part of 
Italy, but it is accounted for by the fact of a 
Greek colony having been settled in this district 
by Pompeius Strabo and Cornelius Scipio, and 
subsequently by J. Csesar. The chief seat of 
this colony was Comum, as we learn from Stra- 
bo. It had been hitherto an inconsiderable 
place, but from that time it rose to a great de- 
gree of prosperity under the name of Novum 
Comum." Cram. 

Oromedon, a lofty mountain in the island of 
Cos. Theocrit. 7. 

Orontes, a river of Syria, rising on the 
boundaries of Coelosyria, and running along the 
base of mount Libanus upon the eastern side. 
At Antioch, the defiles of the mountains give it 
a passage to the sea, into which, turrwng almost 
directly south after a course of a few miles, it 
discharges itself Its banks were formerly lined 
with flourishing towns, among which were 
Emessa, Epiph ania, Apamea, Antioch, and the 
far-famed and beautiful Daphne. " The Oron- 
tes is undoubtedly the first of the Syrian rivers ; 
yet were it not for the numerous bars which 
dam up its waters, it would be completely dry 
in summer. The water thus retained requires 
the aid of machinery to raise it for the supply of 
the adjoining plains. Hence it has received the 
modern name of Aasi, or the Obstinate." Malte- 
Brun. D'Anville supposes that its modern 
name alludes to its course, which, flowing north, 
is unlike that of almost all the eastern rivers of 
those parts, which, like the Euphrates, Tigris, 
&c. incline to the south. In Greek authors this 
river is sometimes called the Typhon, as in 
Pausanias and Strabo ; and this name, connect- 
ed with the mythology of the east, is said to have 
given place to that of Orontes the architect, by 
whom the first bridge was erected over its tu- 
multuous and rapid stream. Pomp. Mel. Ed. 
Gron. According to Strabo, who mentions 
some fabulous accounts concerning it, the Oron- 
tes disappeared under ground for the space of 
five miles. The word Oronteus is often used 
as Syrius. Dionys. Perieg. — Ovid. Met. 2, v. 
^S.— Strab. \Q.—Paus. 8, c. 20. 

Oropus, I. a town of Bceotia, on the borders 
of Attica, near the Euripus, which received its 
name from Oropus, a son of Macedon. It was 
the frequent cause of quarrels between the 
Boeotians and the Athenians, whence some have 
called it one of the cities of Attica, a,nd was at 
last confirmed in the possession of the Athe- 
nians, by Philip, king of Macedon, Amphiaraus 
had a temple there. Paus. 1, c. 34. — Strab. 9. 
II. A small town of Euboea. III. An- 
other in Macedonia. 

Orospeda mons, a range of mountains in 
233 



OS 



GEOGRAPHY. 



OX 



Hispania, accompanying the line of the coast 
from Calpe to the Portus Magnus, at which the 
shore diverges towards the north. Here, turn- 
ing in the same direction, the mountains envi- 
ron the springs of the Baetis. In antiquity, this 
ridge of hills divided the Bastuli Pseni from the 
Turduli and Turdetani, formmg, in modern 
geography, the line of separation between Gra- 
nada and Andalusia. 

Ortygia, a small island of Sicily, within the 
bay of Syracuse, which formed once one of the 
four quarters of that great city. It was in this 
island that the celebrated fountain Arethusa 
arose. Ortygia is now the only part remaining 
of the once famed Syracuse, about two miles in 
circumference, and inhabited by 18,000 souls. 
It has suffered, like the towns on the eastern 
coast, by the eruptions of Mtna. Virg. ^En. 3, 

V. 69i.—Hom. Od. 15, v. 403. An ancient 

name of the island of Delos. Some suppose 
that it received this name from Latona, who fled 
thither when changed into a quail (opruQ by 
Jupiter, to avoid the pursuits of Juno. Diana 
was called OHygia, as being born there ; as 
also Apollo. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 651. Fast. 5, v. 
692.— Virg. uEn. 3, v. 124. 

OscA, a town of Spain, now Huesca in Ar- 
rdgon. Liv. 34, c. 10. 

Osci, a people between Campania and the 
country of the Volsci, who assisted Turnus 
against ./Eneas. Some suppose that they are the 
same as the Opici, the word Osci being a dimi- 
nutive or abbreviation of the other. The lan- 
guage, the plays, are ludicrous expressions of 
this nation, are often mentioned by the ancients, 
and from their indecent tendency some suppose 
the word obsccenum {quasi oscenum) is deriv- 
ed. Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 14. — Cic. Fam. 7, ep. 1. 
—Lin). 10, c. 20.—Stra.b. b.—Plin. 3, c. 5.— 
Virg. JEn. 7, v. 730. " It is universally agreed 
that the iirst settlers in Campania with whom 
history makes us acquainted are the Oscans. 
Of this most ancient Italian tribe we have alrea- 
dy spoken in the account of Italy, and in other 
articles referring to that country. It will be seen 
from thence how widely diffused was the Os- 
can name, so much so, that the term Opici was 
at one time synonymous with that of Itali in the 
minds of the Greeks. It has also been observ- 
ed, that the dissemination of this vast Italian 
family was commensurate with that of its lan- 
guage, of which we yet possess some few re- 
mains, and which is known to have been a dia- 
lect still in use in the best days of Roman lite- 
rature : even when the Oscan name had disap- 
peared from the rest of Italy, this language was 
retained by the inhabitants of Campania, though 
mingled with the dialects of the various tribes 
which successively obtained possession of that 
much prized country." Cram. 

OsisMii, a people of Gaul, in the western 
extremity of the country. They occupied the 
region north of the Corisopoti, the northern por- 
tion of Bretagne in the modern department of 
JfHnisterre. 

OsRHOENE, a country of Mesopotamia, which 
received this name from one of its kings called 
Osrhoes. It was included principally between 
the Euphrates and the Chaboras. 

OssA, I. a lofty mountain of Thessaly, once 
the residence of the Centaurs. It was formerly 
joined to mount Olympus, but Hercules, as some 
234 



report, separated them, and made between them 
the celebrated valley of Tempe. This separa- 
tion of the two mountains was more probably 
effected by an earthquake, which happened, £is 
fabulous accounts represent, about 1885 years 
before the Christian era. Ossa was one of those 
mountains which the giants, in their wars against 
the gods, heaped up one on the other to scale 
the heavens with more facility. Mela, 2, c. 3 
— Ovid. Met. 1, V. 155, 1. 2, v. 225, 1. 7, v. 244. 
Fast. 1, V. 307, 1. 3, v. Ul.—Strab. 9.—Im- 

can. 1 and 6.- Virg. G. 1, v. 281. II. A 

town of Macedonia. 

OsTiA, a town built at the mouth of the river 
Tiber by Ancus Martins, king of Rome, about 
16 miles distant from Rome, ll had a celebrat- 
ed harbour, and was so pleasantly situated ihat 
the Romans generally spent a part of the year 
there as in a country-seat. There was a small 
tower in the port, like the Pharos of Alexandria, 
built upon the wreck of a large ship which had 
been sunk there, and which contained the obe- 
lisks of Egypt with which the Roman emperors 
intended to adorn the capital of Italy. In the 
age of Strabo the sand and mud deposited by 
the Tiber had choked the harbour, and added 
much to the size of the small islands, which 
sheltered the ships at the entrance of the river. 
Ostia, and her harbour called Partus, became 
gradually separated, and are now at a consider- 
able distance from the sea. Flor. 1, c. 4, 1. 3, c. 21. 
— Liv. 1, c. 33. — Mela, 2, c. 4. — Sueton. — Plin. 

Othrys, a mountain, or rather a chain of 
mountains, in Thessaly, the residence of the 
Centaurs. Strab. 9. — Herodot. 7, c. 129.- 
Virg. Mn. 7, v. 675. This mountain, " which, 
branching out of Tymphrestus, one of the high- 
est points in the Pindian chain, closed the great 
basin of Thessaly to the south, and served at 
the same time to divide the waters which flow- 
ed northwards into the Peneus from those re- 
ceived by the Sperchius. This mountain is 
often celebrated by the poets of antiquity. At 
present it is known by the different names ot 
Hellovo, Varibovo and Goura." Cram. 

OxejE, the most western of the Echinades. 
By some this little group is supposed to be the 
same as those denominated Thoee by Homer ; 
and Dulichium is supposed by others to be the 
principal one in size and importance. They 
are now called Curzolari, the chief or largest 
among ihem retaining still the name of Oxia. 

Oxus, a river of Asia towards the most 
northern parts which the ancients pretended to 
know, and which indeed they Iniewbut inaccu- 
rately. In antiquity it rose in the mountains 
called Imaus, and, flowing almost west to the 
confines of Parthia, formed the boundary be- 
tween Bactriana and Margiana on the south, 
and Sogdiana on the north. So far the notions 
of the ancients appear to have been generally 
accurate and uniform. Dionysius Periegetes, 
however, places it in Sogidiana, and Polybius 
seems to infer that its current was farther south 
than the borders of that country, and belonged to 
Bactriana, Arrived at the north-eastern limit of 
Margiana, the Oxus turns, with an inclination 
to the north, through the country of the Choras- 
mii, the modern Kharasm. Here the notions of 
the most authentic of the Greek and Roman 
geographers become confused in relation to the 
course and mouth of this river. The greater 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



P^ 



number describing its line as east and west, de- 
clare that it falls into the Caspian Sea ; but Mela, 
and even Dionysius Periegetes, appear to have 
been aware ol" its northern bend, though they do 
not express a different opinion from the others 
in regard to the sea which receives the tribute of 
its waters. Many moderns have been disposed, 
from these varying accounts, to suppose that the 
Ox us, Avhich, with the name of Gihon, now 
flows into the sea of Aral, must have altered its 
course among the changes of ages ; but the cal- 
culations of Malte-Brun evince the identity of 
the course of this river from the accounts of the 
ancients themselves, at the present time and in 
the times to which those authorities relate. He- 
rodotus, according to D'Anville, seems to have 
referred to this river under the name of Araxes. 
In the geography of modern Asia the Gihonhe- 
longs, for the former part of its course, to Bok- 
kara, and for the latter to Kharasm, both in Tar- 
tary. In treating Kharasm, Malte-Brun has the 
following remarks on this river: " The large 
river Gihon, or Amoo, which crosses this coun- 
try, is, according to the historians of Alexander, 
six or seven stadia broad. It is too deep to be 
forded. A similar description of it is given by 
the Arabian geographers ; the latter speak of 
inundations occasioned by it. When it arrives 
at the base of the Weisluka mountains, in K^io- 
waresm, the Gihon is separated into several 
canals of irrigation, preserving two principal 
branches. The small arm of the Gihon is the 
only one which contains water. The other, 
when the water is high, spreads over a marshy 
flat, through which it passes; and, like all ri- 
vers which have indifferent banks, it is some- 
times left dry at several parts of its course." 

OxYDRACE, a nation of India. They occu- 
pied the country now Outche, a part of Mool- 
tan, between the Acesines and the Indus, and 
furnished large contributions, both in men and 
chariots, to Alexander in his eastern expedition. 
Curt. 9, c. 4. 

OxYRYNCHUs, a towu of Egypt, now Behnese, 
some distance west of the Nile on the canal of 
Joseph. Its name was derived from the pecu- 
liar worship which the inhabitants were accus- 
tomed to pay to a certain species of fish with a 
pointed nose. D'Anville. 

OzoLiE. Vid. Locri. 

P. 

Pachinus, or Pachynus, now Passaro, a pro- 
montory of Sicily, projecting about two miles 
into the sea, in the form of a peninsula, at the 
south-east corner of the island, with a small 
harbour of the same name. Strab. 6. — Mela, 
2, c. 7. -Virg. JEn. 3, v. 699.— Pans. 5, c. 25. 

Pactolus, a celebrated river of Lydia, rising 
in mount Tmolus, and falling into the Hermus, 
after it has watered the city of Sardes. It was 
in this river that Midas washed himself when 
he turned into gold whatever he touched; and 
from that circumstance it ever after rolled golden 
sands, and received the name of Chrysorrhoas. 
It is called Tmolus by Pliny. Strabo observes, 
that it had no golden sands in his age. Virg. 
uEn. 10, V. U^.—Strab. 18.— Ovid. Met. 11, v. 
S6.—Herodot. 5, c. 110.— Plin. 33, c. 8. 

Padinum, now Bondeno, a town on the Po, 
where it begins to branch into different chan- 
nels. Plin. 3, c. 15. 



Padus, (now called the Po,) a river in Italy. 

Vid. Eridanus. 

Padusa, the most southern mouth of the Po. 
Vid. Eridanus. 

PiEMANi, a people of Belgic Gaul, supposed 
to dwell in the present country at the west of 
lAixemburg. Ccis. G. 2, c. 4. 

Pjeones. " The Paeonians were a numerous 
and ancient nation, that once occupied the great- 
est part of Macedonia, and even a considerable 
portion of what is more properly called Thrace, 
extending along the coast of the iEgean as far 
as the Euxine. This we collect from Herodo- 
tus's account of the wars of that people with the 
Perinthians, a Greek colony settled on the shores 
of the Propontis, at no great distance from By- 
zantium. Homer, who was apparently well ac- 
quainted with the Paeonians, represents them as 
following their leader Asteropseus to the siege 
of Troy in behalf of Priam, and places them in 
Macedonia, on the banks of the Axius. We 
know also from Livy that Emathia once bore 
the name of Paeon ia, though at what period we 
cannot well ascertain. From another passage in 
the same historian, it would seem that the Dar- 
dani of Illyria had once exercised dominion over 
the whole of Macedonian Paeonia. This pas- 
sage seems to agree with what Herodotus states, 
that the Paeonians were a colony of the Teucri, 
who came from Troy, that is, if we suppose the 
Dardani to be the same as the Teucri, or at 
least a branch of them. But these transactions 
are too remote and obscure for examination, 
Herodotus, who dwells principally on the histo- 
ry of the Paeonians around the Strymon, informs 
us, that they were divided into numerous small 
tribes, most of which were transplanted into 
Asia by Megabyzus, a Persian general, who 
had made the conquest of their country by order 
of Darius. The circumstances of this event, 
which are given in detail by Herodotus, will be 
found in his fourth book, c. 12. It appears, how- 
ever, from that historian, that these Paeonians 
afterwards effected their escape from the Per- 
sian dominions, and returned to their country. 
Those who were found on the line of march pur- 
sued by Xerxes were compelled to follow that 
monarch in his expedition. Herodotus seems to 
place the main body of the Paeonian nation near 
the Strymon, but Thucydides with Homer ex- 
tends their territory to the river Axius. But if 
we follow Strabo and Livy, we shall be disposed 
to remove the western limits of the nation as 
far as the great chain of mount Scardus and the 
borders of Illyria. In general terms then we 
may affirm, that the whole of northern Mace- 
donia, from the source of the river Erigonus, 
which has been stated to rise in the chain above 
mentioned, to the Strymon was once named 
Paeonia. This large tract of country was divid- 
ed into two parts by the Romans, and formed 
the second and third regions of Macedonia. 
The Paaonians, though constituting but one na- 
tion, were divided into several tribes, each pro- 
bably governed by a separate chief" Cram. 

P^ONiA. Vid. P (Zones. 

P.s:sos, a town of the Hellespont, called also 
Apcesos, situated at the north of Lampsacus. 
When it was destroyed, the inhabitants migrat- 
ed to Lampsacus, where they settled. They 
were of Milesian origin. Strab. 13. — Homen 
E.2. 

235 



PJi 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



Pjestdm, a town of Lucania, called also Nep- 
tunia and Posidonia by the Greeks, where the 
soil produced roses which blossomed twice a 
year. " Pastum stands in a fertile plain, 
boiinded on the west by the Tyrrhene Sea, and 
about a mile distant on the south by fine hills, 
in the midst of which Acropolis sits embosomed ; 
on the north, by the bay of Salenio and its 
rugged border ; while to the east the country 
swells into two mountains, which still retain 
their ancient names Calli'tnari and CantcTia ; 
and behind them towers Mont Alburnus itself 
with its pointed summits. A stream called the 
Solo fone {which may probably be its ancient ap- 
pellation) flows under the walls, and by spread- 
ing iis waters over its lower borders, and thus 
producing pools that corrupt in hot weather, 
continues, as in ancient times, to infect the air, 
and render Ptjestum a dangerous residence in 
summer. Obscurity hangs over, not the origin 
only but the general history of the city, though 
it has left such magnificent monuments of its 
existence. The mere outlines have been sketch- 
ed perhaps with accuracy ; the details are pro- 
bably obliterated for ever. According to the 
learned Mazzochi, Pcestum was founded by a 
colony of Dorenses or Dorians, from Dora, a 
city of Phenicia, the parent of that race and 
name, whether established in Greece or in Italy. 
It was first called Posetan or Postan, which in 
Phenician signifies Neptune, to whom it was 
dedicated. It was afterwards invaded, and its 
primitive inhabitants expelled by the Sybarites. 
This event is supposed to have taken place 
about five hundred years before the Christian 
era. Under its new masters Pastum assumed 
the Greek appellation Posidonia, of the same 
import as its Phenician name, because a place 
of great opulence and magnitude, and is sup- 
posed to have extended from the present ruin 
southward to the hill, on which stands the little 
town still called from its ancient destination 
Acropoli. The Lucanians afterwards expelled 
the Sybarites, and checked the prosperity of 
Posidonia, which was in turn deserted, and left 
to moulder away imperceptibly ; vestiges of it 
are still visible all over the plain of Spinazzo 
or Saracino. The original city then recovered 
its first name, and not long after was taken, and 
at length colonized by the Romans. From this 
period Pcestum is mentioned almost solely by 
the poets, who, from Virgil to Claudian, seem 
all to expatiate with delight amid its gardens, 
and grace their composition with the bloom, the 
sweetness, and the fertility of its roses. But 
unfortunately the flowery retreats, 

Victura rosaria Pasti, 

seem to have had few charms in the eyes of the 
Saracens, and if possible, still fewer in those of 
the Normans, who, each in their turn, plunder- 
ed Pastum, and at length compelled its remain- 
ing inhabitants to abandon their ancient seat, 
and to take shelter in the mountains. To them 
Capaccio Vecchio and Novo are supposed to 
owe their origin; both these towns are situate 
on the hills : the latter is the residence of the 
bishop and chapter of Pasiurn. It will natural- 
ly be asked to which of the nations that were 
successively in possession of Pastum the edi- 
fices which still subsist are to be ascribed ; not 
to the Romans, who never seem to have adopted 
236 



the genuine Doric style : the Sybarites are said 
to have occupied the neighbouring plain ; the 
Dorians therefore appear to have the fairest 
claim to these majestic and everlasting monu- 
ments. But at what period were they erected 1 
to judge from their form we must conclude that 
they are the oldest specimens of Grecian archi- 
tecture now in existence. In beholding them 
and contemplating their solidity bordering upon 
heaviness, we are tempted to consider ihem as 
an intermediate link between the Egyptian and 
Grecian manner, and the first attempt to pass 
from the immense masses of the former to the 
graceful proportions of the latter. In fact the 
temples of Pcestum, Agrigentum, and Athens, 
seem instances of the commencement, the im- 
provement, and the perfection of the Doric or- 
der." Eustace. 

Pagas.e, or Pagasa, a town of Magnesia in 
Thessaly, on the Pagasseus Sinus, with an 
harbour and promontory of the same name. 
The ship Argo was built there, as some suppose, 
and, according to Propertius, the Argonauts set 
sail from that harbour. From that circumstance, 
not only the ship Argo, but also the Argonauts 
themselves, were ever after distinguished by the 
epithet of Pagasceus. Pliny confounds Pagasas 
with Demetrias, but they are diflerent, and the 
latter was peopled by the inhabitants of the for- 
mer, who preferred the situation of Demeirias 
for its conveniences. Ovid. Met. 7, v, 1, 1, 8, 
V. 34:9.— lAtcan. 2, v. 715, 1. 6, v. 400.— Mela, 
2, c. 3 and l.—Strab. 9.—Propert. 1, el. 20, v. 
ll.—Plin. 4, c. %.—Apollon. Rhod: 1, v. 238, &c. 
Pagaseticus, and Pagasites sinus, sometimes 
called likewise Pagasoeus Sinus, the bay upon 
which the town of Pagasoe was situated. It is 
now the Gidf of Volo. 

Palje, a town at the south of Corsica, now 
St. Bonifacio. 

Paljeapolis, a ^nall island on the coast ot 
Spain. Strab. 

PALJEPAPHOs,the ancient town of Paphos, in 
Cyprus, adjoining to the new. Strab. 14. 

PAL.EPHARSALUS, the aucient name of Phar- 
salus in Thessaly. Cccs. B. A. 48. 

PALiEPOLis, a town of Campania, built by a 
Greek colony, where Naples afterwards was 
erected. Liv. 8, c. 22. 

Pal^ste, a village of Epirus, near Oricus 
where Caesar first landed with his fleet. L/ucan 
5, V. 460. 

Pal^estina, a country of Asia, south of 
CcElosyria, and having on the west that part of 
the Mediterranean called in the sacred writings 
the Great Sea, which extended between Asia 
Minor and the coast of Africa. On the south 
was Arabia Petrasa, on the east the spacious 
barrens of Arabia Deserta. " It is agreed that 
the name of Palcestinais derived from the Phi- 
listines. For notwithstanding that the Hebrew 
people established themselves in Canaan, the 
Philistines maintained possession of a maritime 
country, which extended to the limits of Egypt. 
And there is reason to believe that it was the 
Syrians who, by a greater attachment to this 
people than to a nation originally foreign m the 
country, have given occasion to the extension of 
the name of Palaestine, which is found in his- 
tory at the time of Herodotus, and which the 
Jewisl writers have since adopted in the same 
extent In the first years of the fifth century, 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



this name was communicated to three provin- 
ces ; first, second, and third. And the last oc- 
cupied Arabia Petrea." D'Anville. The first 
occupations to be noticed, in the consideration 
of this country, are those called the Jewish and 
Canaanitish, neither of which belong in strict- 
ness to classical geography. According to the 
former, a number of people, for the greater part 
of unknown origin and race, possessed in vari- 
ous apportionments the whole of Palestine; and 
according to the other, the 12 tribes, so distia-' 
guished in Scripture, distributed among them- 
selves the same extent of territory'. On the 
west, however, the Philistines disputed with 
them the possession of the coast from Joppa to 
the borders of Arabia, Over all the tribes the 
power and dominion were vested in the first 
anointed king, and from him transferred to the 
unambitious father of the Jewish race of mo- 
narchs, the lowly and virtuous David. " The 
despotism exercised by Solomon created a strong 
re-action, which was immediately felt on the ac- 
cession of his son Rehoboam. This prince, re- 
jecting the advice of his aged counsellors, and 
following that of the younger and more violent, 
soon had the misfortune to see the greater part 
of his kingdom wrested from him. In reply to 
the address of his people, who entreated an 
alleviation of their burdens, he declared, that 
instead of requiring less at their hands he should 
demand more. ' My father made yoar yoke 
hea'vy, I will add to your yoke ; my father chas- 
tised you with whips, but I will chastise you with 
scorpions.' Such a resolution, expressed in 
language at once so contemptuous and severe, 
alienated from his government ten tribes, who 
sought a more indulgent master in Jeroboam, a 
declared enemy of the house of David. Hence 
the origin of the kingdom of Israel, as distin- 
guished from that of Judah; and hence, too, 
the disgraceful contentions between these kin- 
dred states, which acknowledged one religion, 
and professed to be guided by the same law. 
Arms and negotiation proved equally unavail- 
ing, in repeated attempts which were made to re- 
unite the Hebrews under one sceptre: till at 
length, about two hundred and seventy years 
after the death of Solomon, the younger people 
were subdued by Shalmaneser, the powerful 
monarch of Assyria, who carried them away 
captive into the remoterprovincesof his vast em- 
pire. Jeroboam had erected in his kingdom the 
emblems of a lesspure faith, to which he confined 
the attention of his subjects ; while the frequent 
wars that ensued, and the treaties formed on 
either side with the Gentile nations on their re- 
spective borders, soon completed the estrange- 
ment which ambition had begun. Little attached 
to the native line of princes, the Israelites placed 
on the throne of Samaria a number of adventu- 
rers, who had no qualities to recommend them 
besides military courage and an irreconcilable 
hatred towards the more legitimate claimants of 
the house of David. The kingdom of Judah, less 
distracted by the pretensions of usurpers, and 
being confirmed in the principles of patriotism 
by a more rigid adherence to the laws of Moses, 
continued, during one hundred and thirty years. 
to resist the encroachments of the two rival 
powers, Egypt and Assyria, which now began 
to contend in earnest for the possession of Pa- 
lestine, Several endeavours were made even 



after the destruction of Samaria, to unite the 
energies of the Twelve Tribes, and thereby to 
secure the independence of the sacred territory 
a little longer. But a pitiful jealousy had suc- 
ceeded to the aversion generated by a long 
course of hostile aggression ; while the over- 
whelming hosts, which incessantly issued from 
the Euphrates and the Nile to select a field of 
battle within the borders of Canaan, soon left 
to the feeble councils of Jerusalem no other 
choice than that of an Egyptian or an Assyrian 
master. A siege, which appears to have con- 
tinued fifteen or sixteen months, terminated in 
the final reduction of the holy city, and in the 
captivity of Zedekiah, who was treated with 
the utmost severity. His two sons were execu- 
ted in his presence, after which his eyes were 
put out; when, being loaded with fetters, he 
was carried to Babylon and thrown into prison. 
The event now alluded to took place exactly six 
centuries before the Christian era ; and hence 
the return of the Jews to the Holy Land must 
have occurred about the year 530 prior to the 
same great epoch. Under the Persian satraps, 
who directed the civil and military government 
of Syria, the Jews were permitted to acknow- 
ledge the authority of their own high-priest, to 
whom, in all things pertaining to the law of 
Moses, they rendered the obedience which was 
due to the head of their nation. Their pros- 
perity, it is true, was occasionally diminished or 
increased by the personal character of the sove- 
reigns who successively occupied the throne of 
Cyrus ; but no material change in their circum- 
stances took place until the victories of Alex- 
ander the Great had laid the foundation of the 
Syro-Macedonian kingdom in' Western Asia, 
and given a new dynasty to the crown of 
Eg}'pt. The struggles which ensued between 
these powerful states frequently involved the 
interests of the Jews, and made new demands 
upon their allegiance ; although it is admitted, 
that as each was desirous to conciliate a people 
Avho claimed Palestine for their unalienable 
heritage, the Hebrews at large were, during two 
centuries, treated with much liberality and fa- 
vour. But this generosity or forbearance was 
interrupted in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
who, alarmed by the report of insurrections, and 
harassed by the events of an unsuccessful war 
in Eg)'pt, directed his angry passions against 
the Jews. The severities of Antiochus, which 
had inflamed the resentment of the whole Jew- 
ish people, called forth in a hostile attitude the 
brave family of the Maccabees, whose valour 
and perseverance enabled them to dispute with 
the powerful monarch of Syria the sovereignty 
of Palestine. , But the victorious Maccabees, 
who had delivered their country from the op- 
pression of foreigners, encountered a more for- 
midable enemy in the factious spirit of their own 
people. Alcimus, a tool of the Syrians, assum- 
ed the title of high-priest, and in virtue of his 
office claimed the obedience of all who acknow- 
ledged the institutions of Moses. In this emer- 
gency Judas courted the alliance of the Romans, 
who willirglv extended their protection to con- 
federates so likely to aid their ambitious views 
in the east ; but before the republic could inter- 
pose her arms in his behalf, the Hebrew general 
had fallen in the field of battle." Russell's Pa- 
lestine 

' 237 



After a long series of wars and domes- 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



tic disasters, Palestine received from the Ro- 
mans a monarch, in the person of Herod the 
Great, who, acknowledging allegiance to Rome, 
was permitted to exercise the functions of royal- 
ty in this land, now fast falling from its faith. 
In the reign of Augustus, with the deposition 
of Archelaus, the son of Herod, ended the Is- 
raelitish rule in Jerusalem, which then became 
in form, as it had long been in fact, a province 
of the empire, and Pontius Pilate succeeded as 
second governor of this dependancy. But thus 
shorn of even the show of independence, Pales- 
tine was not suffered to enjoy domestic peace in 
slavery ; and the commotions and tumults which 
mark her history as a province, till the destruc- 
tion of the city by Titus, are in no degree an 
illustration of the superiority of dependant to 
republican government in securing order and 
tranquillity. Under the Romans the distribu- 
tion of Palestine was into Galilsea Superior and 
Galilaea Inferior, Samaria, Judaea, subdivided 
into Judsea Propria and Pentapolisand Idumsea, 
and Peraea beyond the Hermon mons, belong- 
ing to Arabia, and comprising the districts of 
Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, Batanaea, Auranitis, 
Ituraea, Decapolis, Peraea Propria, Ammonitis 
and Moabitis. Under Constanline, as all his 
empire had been subjected to a novel division ; 
so also was a new distribution effected m the 
counties of Palestine, viewed perhaps with some 
favour by that emperor ; though many authors, 
and among them Malte-Brun, refer these divi- 
sions to a much earlier period. Palestine was 
then divided into Palaestina Prima, including 
Samaria, Judaea Propria, and the country of the 
Philistines ; Secunda, comprising Galilaea, Gau- 
lonitis, and Decapolis ; and Tertia, comprehend- 
ing the countries of Idumeea and Arabia Petrsea. 
The most remarkable geographical features of 
Palestine are treated of under the particular di- 
visions to which they belong ; the mountains of 
Libanus upon the northern frontier, the Hermon 
upon the east, with the Dead Sea and its tribu- 
tary the sacred Jordan, as they belong to differ- 
ent parts, and indeed, in some measure, to the 
whole, may be separately particularized. The 
interest that attaches to the name of the Pro- 
mised Land, by which we recognise this coun- 
try in the inspired writings as the country of 
the chosen people, of their glory, their suffer- 
ings, and their destruction, after having ceased 
in a great measure during the period of its bon- 
dage, revives when we contemplate it as the 
country of the Crusades, of the enlightened and 
generous empire of Saladin, of the daring ex- 
ploits of Richard of England, and as the bril- 
liant field of glory for the chivalr}'- of France ; 
but the empire of the Turks has again deprived 
it of all consideration, and the civilized world 
has ceased to regard the population of that 
country in connexion with its former inhabit- 
ants and its earlier fortunes. 

Paljetyrus, the ancient town of Tyre, on 
the continent. Strab. 16. 

PalatTnus mons, a celebrated hill, the larg- 
est of the seven hills on which Rome was built. 
It was upon it that Romulus laid the first foun- 
dation of the capital of Italy, in a quadrangular 
form, and there also he kept his court, as well 
as Tullus Hostilius, and Augustus, and all the 
succeeding emperors; from which circumstance 
the word Palatium, has ever since been applied 
238 



to the residence of a monarch or prince. The 
Palatine h ill received its name from the goddess 
Pales, or from the word Palatini, who original- 
ly inhabited the place, or from balare or palare^ 
the bleatings of sheep, which were frequent 
there, or perhaps from the palantes, wanderings 
because Evander, when he came to settle in 
Italy, gathered all the inhabitants, and made 
them all one society. There were some games 
celebrated in honour of Augustus, and called 
Palatine, because kept on the hill. Dio. Cass. 
53.—Ital. 12, V. 109.— Liv. 1, c. 7 and 33.— 
Ovid, Met. 14, v. 822.— Juv. 9, v. 23.— Mar- 
tial, i, ep. 71. — Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 3. — Cic. 
in Catil. 1. 

Palantium, a town of Arcadia. 

Palibothra, a city of India, supposed now to 
be Patna, or according to others. Allahabad. 
Strab. 15. 

Paliscorum, or Palicorum Stagnum, a sul- 
phureous pool in Sicily. 

PALroRus, now Nahil, a river of Africa, with a 
town of the same name at its mouth, at the west 
of Egypt, on the Mediterranean. Strah. 17. 

Pallanteum, a town of Italy, or perhaps 
more properly a citadel, built by Evander, on 
mount Palatine, from whence its name origi- 
nates. Virgil says it was called after Pallas, the 
grandfather of Evander ; butDionysius derives 
its nam^ from Palantium, a town of Arcadia. 
Dionys. 1, c. 31. — Virg. jEn. 8, v. 54 and 341. 

Pallantu, a town of Spain, now Palencia, 
on the river Cea. Mela, 2, c. 6. 

Pallene, a peninsula of Macedonia, between 
the Toronaic and the Thermaic gulfs. "It is said 
to have anciently borne the name of Phlegra, 
and to have witnessed the conflict between the 
gods and the earth-born Titans. This peninsula 
is connected with the main land by a narrow 
isthmus of little more than two miles in breadth, 
on which formerly stood the rich and flourish- 
ing city of Potidgea, founded by the Corinthians, 
though at what period is not apparent ; it must, 
however, have existed some time before the 
Persian war, as we know from Herodotus that 
it sent troops to Plataea, having already surren- 
dered to the Persians on their march into 
Greece." Cram. 

Palmaria, a small island opposite Tarracina, 
in Latium. Plin. 3, c. 6. 

Palmyra, the capital of a district of country, 
called from this place the Palmyrene, in Syria, 
between Arabia Deserta, the Euphrates, and 
mount Libanus. " From Hamath, or rather from 
Farnieh, an ancient Roman road leads to Pal- 
myra, the Tadmor of Solomon, and the resi- 
dence of the immortal Zenobia and the elegant 
Longinus. This ancient city is 180 miles to the 
south-east of Aleppo, and an equal distance 
from Damascus, in a small district surrounded 
with deserts. The eye of the traveller is all at 
once arrested by a vast assemblage of ruins; 
arches, vaults, temples, and porticos, appear on 
every hand : one colonnade, 4000 feet long, is 
terminated by a beautiful mausoleum. Time 
has partially preserved the peristyles, the in- 
tercolumnations, and tablatures; the elegance 
of the design equals throughout the richness of 
the materials. These magnificent ruins present 
a sad contrast with the hovels of wild Arabs, 
now the only inhabitants of a city which in for- 
mer times emulated Rome. Ever>' spot of ground. 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



intervening between the walls and columns is 
laid out in plantations of corn and olives, enclos- 
ed by mud walls. There are two rivers, the 
waters of which, when judiciously distributed, 
must have conduced greatly to the subsistence 
and comfort of the ancient inhabitants, but are 
now allowed to lose themselves in the sand." 
Malte-Brun. 

Pamisos, I. a river of Thessaly, falling into 
the Peneus. Herodot. 7, c. 129.—Plin. 4, c. 8. 

II. Another of Messenia in Peloponnesus'. 

Pamphylia, a province of Asia Minor, an- 
ciently called Mopsopia. It was bounded by 
Phrygia on the north, by a part of the same 
country and by Lycia on the west, by the sea 
upon the south, and by Cilicia on the east. The 
principal river of this district was the Catarac- 
tes, and in the northern parts the Taurus moun- 
tains separated from Pamphylia proper that part 
of Pisidia which was called Isauria. The parts 
on the sea-coast were bounded on the north by a 
district called Pisidia, which is sometimes con- 
sidered a separate country. It abounded with 
pastures, vines, and olives, and was peopled by a 
Grecian colony. Strab. 14. — Mela, 1. — Paus. 
7, c. 2.—Plin. 5, c. 26.—Liv. 37, c. 23 and 40. 
Panch^a, Panchea, I. or Pa,nchaia, an isl- 
and of Arabia Felix, where Jupiter Triphylius 

had a magnificent temple. II. A part of 

Arabia Felix, celebrated for the myrrh, frank- 
incense, and perfumes which it produced. Virg. 
G. 2, V. 139, 1. 4, V. S19.—Culex. SI.— Ovid. 
Met. 1, V. 309.—Diod. b.—lAtcret. 2, v. 417. 

Pandataria, an island on the coast of Lu- 
cania, now called Santa Maria. 

Pandosia, I. a town of Laconia, on the right 
bank of the Aciris, near the ruins of Heraclea. 
" Plutarch, in his life of Pyrrhus, states that the 
first battle in which that monarch defeated the 
Romans was fought between Heraclea and 
Pandosia, and other writers afiirm that the ac- 
tion took place near the former town. The 
bronze tables of Heraclea also distinctly men- 
tion Pandosia as being in its neighbourhood ; a 
great question, however, has arisen among to- 
pographers relative to this place, which remains 
still undecided. Are we to identify this city 
with the well-known Pandosia, which Strabo 
and Livy allude to in speaking of Alexander, 
king of Epirus, who met his death in its vicinity 1 
We apprehend we ought to decide in the nega- 
tive. And this is likewise the opinion of Maz- 
zocchi, Holstenius, and other modern antiqua- 
ries. Romanelli, however, endeavours to adapt 
all the citations of ancient writers to one and 
the same city, which he places at Anglona." 

Cram. II. Another, in the country of the 

Brutii, near Cosentia, well known " in history 
as having witnessed the defeat and death of 
Alexander, king of Epirus. Cluverius disco- 
vered, with his usual penetration, that this 
Pandosia must have belonged to the Brutii; 
but he was not aware of the existence of the 
Lucanian town of the same name, as the Hera- 
claean Tables, which principally attest that fact, 
had not yet been discovered. The precise po- 
sition, however, which ought to be assigned to 
the Brutian Pandosia, remains yet uncertain. 
The early Calabrian antiquaries placed it at 
Castel Franco, about five miles from Cosenza. 
D'Anville lays it down, in his map of ancient 
Italy, near Lao and Cirella, on the confines of 



Lucania. Cluverius supposes that it may have 
stood between Consentia and Thurii ; but more 
modern critics have, with greater probability, 
sought its ruins in a more westerly direction, 
near the village of Mendocino, between Con- 
sentia and the sea, a hill with three summits 
having been remarked there, which answers to 
the fatal height pointed out by the oracle, 

together with the rivulet Mwresanto, or Ar- 
conti." Cram. 

Pang^eus, a mountain of Thrace, anciently 
called Mons Caraminus, and joined to mount 
Rhodope near the sources of the river Nestus. 
It was inhabited by four different nations. It 
was on this mountain that Lycurgus,the Thra- 
cian king, was torn to pieces, and that Orpheus 
called the attention of the wild beasts, and of 
the mountains and woods, to listen to his song. 
It abounded in gold and silver mines. Herodot. 
5, c. 16, &c. 1. 7, c. 113.— Fir^. G. 4, v. 462. 
— Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 739. — Thucyd. 2. — Lucan. 
1, V. 679, 1. 7, V. 482. 

PANiONnjM, a place at the foot of mount My- 
cale, near the toAvn of Ephesus in Asia Minor, 
sacred to Neptune of Helice. It was in this 
place that all the states of Ionia assembled, 
either to consult for their own safety and pros- 
perity, or to celebrate festivals, or to ofier a sa- 
crifice for the good of all the nation ; whence the 
name ^:avl(^3Vlov, all Ionia. The deputies of the 
twelve Ionian cities which assembled there were 
those of Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Le- 
bedos, Colophon, Clazomenae, Phorcsea, Teos, 
Chios, Samos, and Erythras. If the bull offered 
in sacrifice bellowed, it was accounted an omen 
of the highest favour, as the sound was particu- 
larly acceptable to the god of the sea, as in some 
manner it resembled the roaring of the waves of 
the ocean. Herodot. 1, c. 148, &c. — Strab. 14. 
— Mela, 1, c. 17. 

Panics, or Paneus, a mountain belonging to 



the ridge called Anti-Libanus. 



It gave rise to 



the head-springs of the Jordan ( Firf. Jordanes)^ 
and on it between these fountains, stood the city 
of Paneas. " On the partition of the states of 
Herod among his children, Philip, who had the 
Trachonitis, gave to the city of Paneas the name 
of Ccesarea, to which was annexed by distinc- 
tion the surname of Philippi. It did not, how- 
ever, prevent the resumption of its primitive de- 
nomination, pronounced Banias, more purely 
than Belines, as it is written by the historians 
of thecrnsades." D^Anville. 

Pannonia, a large country of Europe, bound- 
ed on the east by the country of the .Tazyiges 
Metanastae, on the north by the Upper Danube, 
on the west by Noricum, and by Illyricum on 
the south, corresponding in modern geography 
to Hungary west of the Danube, Slavonia, and 
Croatia. " In the war which Augustus, then 
called Octavius, waged with the lapydes and 
the Dalmatians of Illyricum, the Roman arms 
had penetrated to the Pannonians. But it was 
reserved for Tiberius, who commanded in these 
countries, to reduce Pannonia into a province. 
It was divided in the time ofthe Ant onines into 
Superior and Inferior ; and the mouth of the 
river Arrobo, or Raab, in the Danube, formed 
the separation of it, according to Ptolemy. Af- 
terwards we find employed the terms first and 
239 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



second, as in the other provinces of the empire ; 
and in a later age a third, under the name of 
Valeria, between the former two. This second, 
occupying the banks of the Drave and Save, ob- 
tained the name of Savia, which now gives to a 
canton of this couniry the name of Po-Savia ; 
expressing, in the Slavonic language, a situa- 
tion adjacent to the Save. Among the several 
people which are named in the extent of Pan- 
nonia, the Scor disci and the Taurisci are par- 
ticularly noted. Gauls by origin, and far re- 
moved from their ancient dwelling as the Boii, 
they were separated by Mons Claudius, which 
appears to extend between the Drave and the 
Save." D^Anville. In the latter days of the 
Empire, Pannonia became successively the pos- 
session of almost every barbarous nation that 
now tumultuously thronged within the limits of 
the Danube, The Goths and Vandals were 
in turn dislodged, and the Lombards, on their 
invasion of Italy under Alboin, left to an equal- 
ly barbarous race, the Hungarians, this coun- 
try, no longer the subject of imperial protection, 
or the object of imperial care ; and no nation in 
Europe at the present day consists of a more 
heterogeneous population. " Different nations 
are united in Hungary round the ancient cross 
of St. Stephen ; the Magiars came thither on 
their swift horses from the banks of the Wolga ; 
the Slowak descended from the Carpathian 
mountains or Norican Alps ; the Germans and 
Wallachian shepherds advanced along the Da- 
nube ; all of European origin, although distin- 
guished by their national and picturesque cos- 
tumes; all Christians, although differing from 
each other in their rites and observances." 
Malte-Brun. The same author elsewhere re- 
marks, " the MagiarsoY Hungarians form three 
fourths of the population in the Trans-Danubian 
circle, and the western frontiers are chiefly in- 
habited by Germans. The Vandals are most 
numerous in the counties of Szalad and Szu- 
meg, some of them are scattered over different 
parts of Oedenburg and Eisevhurg. Their 
name has excited attention from the fact that 
the ancient Vandals, who fled for refuge to 
Pannonia, continued during forty years citizens 
of Rome ; they committed afterwards dreadful 
devastations, but according to the general opi- 
nion they were of Gothic origin. The Vandals 
of Hungary call themselves Slovenes, their dia- 
lect is almost the same as that of other Slavo- 
nic tribes, they appear to have been a colony of 
the Windes or Wendes in Styria, and differ at 
present from them only by their adherence to 
protestantism." The principal rivers of Pan- 
nonia, besides the Danube, were the Savus, the 
Dravus, and the Arrabona; while the Claudius 
mons and the mons Pannonius constituted ano- 
ther geographical feature. The chief towns 
were Carnuntum in the north, and Sirmiumon 
the Savus in the south. 

P.4nop6lts, the city of Pan, a town of Egypt, 
called also Chemmis. Pan had there a temple, 
where he was worshipped with great solemnity, 
and represented in a statute, fascino longissimo 
etrerecto. Diod. 5. — Stro.b. 17. 

Panormus, I. now called Palermo, a town of 
Sicily, built by the Phoenicians, on the north- 
west part of the island, with a good and capa- 
cious harbour. It was the strongest hold of the 
Cartnaginians in Sicily, and it was at last taken 
^0 



■with difficulty by the Romans. Mela, 2, c. 1.— 

Ital. 14, V. 262. II. A town of the Thracian 

Chersonesus. III. A town of Ionia, near 

Ephesus. IV. Another in Crete. V. In 



Macedonia. 



-VI. Achaia. VII. Samos. 



Pantagyas, a small river on the eastern coast 
of Sicily, which falls into the sea, after running 
a short space in rough cascades over rugged 
stones and precipices. Virg. Mn. 3, v. 689. — 
Ital. 14, V, 232.— Ot;irf. Fast. 4, v. 471. 

Pantanus lacus, the lake of Lesina, is situ- 
ated in Apulia, at the mouth of the Frento. 
Plin: 3, c. 12. 

Pantheon, a celebrated temple at Rome, 
built by Agrippain the reign of Augustus, and 
dedicated to all the gods, whence the name n-a? 
Ocos. It was struck with lightning some time 
after, and partly destroyed. Adrian repaired it, 
and it still remains at Rome, converted into a 
Christian temple, the admiration of the curious. 
Plin. 36, c. 15.—Marcell. 16, c. 10. " The 
Pantheon is supposed by many antiquaries to be 
of republican architecture, and of course more 
ancient than the portico, which, as its inscription 
imports, was erected by Agrippa about thirty 
years before the Christian era. But whether 
the temple was built at the same time, or per- 
haps one hundred years before its portico, is a 
matter of little consequence, as it is on the whole 
the most ancient edifice that now remains in a 
state of full and almost perfect preservation. 
The square of the Pantheon, or Piazza della 
Rotonda, is adorned with a fountain and an ob- 
elisk, and terminated by the portico of Agrippa. 
This noble colonnade consists of a double range 
of Corinthian pillars of red granite. Between 
the middle columns, which are a little further re- 
moved from each other than the others, a pas- 
sage opens to the brazen portals, which, as they 
unfold, expose to view a circular hall of immense 
extent, crowned with a lofty dome, and lighted 
solely from above. It is paved and lined with 
marble. Its cornice of while marble is support- 
ed by sixteen columns and as many pilasters of 
Giallo antico ; in the circumference there are 
eight niches, and between these niches are eight 
altars adorned each with two pillars of less size 
but of the same materials. The niches were 
anciently occupied by statues of the great deities; 
the intermediate altars served as pedestals for 
the inferior powers. The proportions of this 
temple are admirable for the efl!ect intended to be 
produced ; its height being equal to its diameter, 
and its dome not an oval but an exact hemi- 
sphere. The Pantheon was converted into a 
church by Pope Boniface IV. about the year 
609, and has since that period attracted the at- 
tention and enjoyed the patronage of various 
pontiflJs." Eustace. 

Panticap^um, now Kerche, a town of Tau- 
rica Chersonesus, built by the Milesians, and 
governed some time by its own laws, and after- 
wards subdued by the kings of Bosphorus. It 
was, according to Strabo, the capital of the Eu- 
ropean Bosphorus. Mithridates the great died 
there. Pliyi. — Strab. 

Panticapes, a river of European Scythia, 
which falls into the Borysthenes, supposed to be 
the Samara of the moderns. Herodot. 4, c. 54. 
Paphlagonia, a country of Asia Minor. It 
was separated by the Parthenius from Bithynia 
on the west ; the mountains of Galatia lay upon 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



its south ; on the south-east the river Halys form- 
edits dividing line towards Pontus ; and the wa- 
ters of the Euxine washed it on the north and 
north-east, from the mouth of the Parthenius to 
that of the Halys. " Till the time of the Trojan 
war this countrj'- was occupied by the Heneti, 
who are pretended to have afterwards passed in- 
to Italy, in confounding their name with that of 
the Ve-neti. There is an ambiguity concerning 
the limits of Paphlagonia and Galatia. Gangra 
was the metropolis of the former province under 
the lower empire ; yet the local position of this 
city, and the circumstance of its having been 
the residence of a Galatian prince, as king De- 
jotarus, seem to favour the claim of Galatia 
during the ages of antiquity." D^Anville. 

Paphos, a famous city of the island of Cy- 
prus, founded, as some suppose, about 1184 years 
before Christ, by Agapenor, at the head of a co- 
lony from Arcadia. The goddess of beauty was 
particularly worshipped there, and all male ani- 
mals were offered on her altars, which, though 
100 in nmnber, daily smoked with the profusion 
of Arabian frankincense. The inhabitants were 
very effeminate and lascivious, and the young 
virgins were permitted by the laws of the place, 
to get a dowry by prostitution. Strab. 8, &c. — 
Plin. 2, c. 96.— Mda, 2, c. 1.— Homer. Od. 8. 

— Virg. JEn. 1, v. 419, &c. 1. 10, v. 51, &c.— 
Horat. 1, od. 30, v. 1.— Tacit. A. 3, c. 62, H. 2, 
c. 2. " There were two cities of the name of 
Paphos : the more ancient, which had received 
Venus when issuing from the foam of the sea ; 
and anew one which has prevailed, preserving 
its name under the form of Bafo, or Bafa." 
D'Anville. 

Paradisus, a town of Syria or Phoenicia. 

Plin. 5, c. 23. — Strd). 16. In the plains of 

Jericho there was a large palace, with a gar- 
den beautifully planted with trees, and called 
Balsami Paradisus. 

PAR.ETACiE, or Taceni, a people between 
Media and Persia, where Antigonus was de- 
feated bv Eumenes. C. Nep. in Eum. 8. — Strab. 
11 and \&.-Plin 6, c. 26. 

PAR.aBTONiuM, a town of Egypt, at the west of 
Alexandria, where Isis was worshipped. The 
word ParcEtonius is used to signify Egy^tmn, 
and is sometimes applied to Alexandria, which 
was situate in the neighbourhood. Strab. 17. 
—Flor. 4, c. U.—Iyucan. 3, v. 295, 1. 10, v. 9. 

— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 712. A. 2, el. 13, v. 7. 
Parish, a people of Gaul. In the distribu- 
tion of this country, according to the Commen- 
taries, the Parisii belong to Celtica and Belgica, 
their possessions occupying either bank of the 
Seine. Their capital was Lutetia, called from 
them Parisiorum, the city of Paris. Vid. Lmte- 
tia. CcES. Bell. G. 6, c. 3. 

Parsius, a river of Pannonia, falling into the 
Danube. Strai. 

Paritjm, now Camanar, a town of Asia Mi- 
nor, on the Propontis, where Archilochus was 
born, as some say. Strab. 10. — Plin. 7, c. 2, 1. 
36, c. 5. 

Parma, a toMm of Gallia Cisalpina, belong- 
ing in the early ages to the Boii. It stood on the 
Via ^raylia, by a little river of the same name, 
and which, like itself, has retained its old appel- 
lation. This town was of great antiquity, being 
founded by the Gauls, or perhaps, even before 
their invasion, by the Tuscans. In the civil 

Part I.— 2 H 



wars Parma espoused the cause of Antony, 
and suffered greatly on the final success of his 
worthless competitor. The poet Cassius and 
the critic Macrobius were born there. It was 
made a Roman colony A. U. C. 569. Cic. 
Philip. 14. — Liv. 39, c. 55. 

Parnassus, a mountain of PhocLs, anciently 
called Lamossos, from the boat of Deucalion 
{Xaova^) which was carried there in the univer- 
sal deluge. It received the name of Parnassus 
from Parnassus the son of Neptune, by Cleobu- 
la, and was sacred to the Muses, and to Apollo 
and Bacchus. The soil was barren, but the val- 
leys and the greenwoods that cover its sides, 
rendered it agreeable, and fit for solitude and 
meditation. " Above Delphi rises this moun- 
tain, which extends from the country of the Lo- 
cri Ozolce to the extremity of Phocis, in a north- 
easterly direction, where it joins the chain of 
QEta. Towards the south-east it is connected 
with those of Helicon and the other Boeotian 
ridges. Parnassus is the highest mountain of 
central Greece, and retains its snows for the 
greater part of the year ; hence the epithets so 
universally applied to it by the poets. The 
name of Parnassus does not occur in the Iliad, 
but it is frequently mentioned in the Odyssey, 
where Ulysses recounts his adventure in himt- 
ing a bore with Autolycus, and his sons. Its 
summit was especially sacred to Bacchus. Two 
lofty rocks rise perpendicularly from Delphi, 
and obtained for the mountain the* epithet of 
SiKopwpoc, or the two-headed. The celebrated 
Castalian fount pours down the cleft or chasm 
between these two summits, being fed by the 
perpetual snows of Parnassus." Cram. 

Parnes, (etis,) " now Nozea, the highest 
mountain of Attica, rises on the northern fron- 
tier of that province, being connected with Pen- 
telicus to the south, and towards Bcpotia with 
Cithasron. ' It is intermingled,' says Dodwell, 
' with a multiplicity of glens, crags, and well 
wooded rocks and precipices, and richly diver- 
sified with scenery^, which is at once grand and 
picturesque ; its summit commands a view over 
a vast extent of country.' Pausanias says that 
on mount Parnes there was a statue of Jupiter 
Parnethius, and an altar of Jupiter Semaleus. 
It abounded with wild boars and bears." Cram. 

Paropamisus, a ridge of mountains at the 
north of India, called the Stonv Girdle, or In- 
dian Caucasus. Strab. 15. This extensive 
chain belonged, for a great part of its course, to 
Aria, which it separated from Bactriana, and, 
running east into Scjthia, covered all the north 
of India, as far as the sources of the river from 
which that countn,'- takes its name. This will 
make it correspond to the Hindoo Coosh moun- 
tains of Afghanistan, on the northern borders 
of Cabul, from which the Himalah mountains 
diverge towards the south; the Indus making 
its ways through the defiles which separate these 
lofty chains. 

Paroreia, I. a toAvn of Thrace, near mount 

Haeraus. Liv. 39, c. 27. II. A town of 

Peloponnesus. III. A district of Phr)^gia 

Magna. Strab. 12. 

Paros, a celebrated island among the Cy- 
clades, about seven and a half miles distant 
from Naxos, and twenty-eight from Delos. Ac- 
cording to Pliny, it is half as large as Naxos, 
that is, about ihirty-six or thirty-seven miles m 
241 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PA 



circumference, a measure which some of the 
moderns have extended to fifty and even eighty- 
miles. It has borne the different names of Pac- 
tia, Minoa, Hiria, Demetrias, Zacynthus, Ca- 
barnis, and Hyleassa. It received the name of 
Paros, which it still bears, from Paros, a son 
of Jason, or, as some maintain, of Parrhasius. 
The island of Paros was rich and powerful, and 
well known for its famous marble, which was 
always used by the best statuaries. The best 
quarries were those of Marpesus, a mountain 
where still caverns, of the most extraordinary 
depth, are seen by modern travellers, and admir- 
ed as the source from whence the labyrinth of 
Egypt and the porticos of Greece received their 
splendour. According to Pliny, the quarries 
were so uncommonly deep, that, in the clearest 
weather, the workmen were obliged to use lamps ; 
from which circumstance the Greeks have called 
the marble Ln/chnites, worked by the light of 
lamps. Paros is also famous for the fine cattle 
which it produces, and for its partridges and 
wild pigeons. The capital city was called Pa- 
roa. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, 
and afterwards a colony of Cretans settled in it. 
The Athenians made war against it, because 
it had assisted the Persians in the invasion of 
Greece, and took it, and it became a Roman 
province in the age of Pompey. Archilochus 
was born there. The Parian marbles, perhaps 
better known by the appellation of Arundelian^ 
were engraved in this island in capital letters, 
B. C. 264, and, as a valuable chronicle, preserv- 
ed the most celebrated epochas of Greece from 
the year 1582 B. C. These valuable pieces of 
antiquity were procured originally by M. de Pei- 
risc, a Frenchman, and afterwards purchased by 
the earl of Arundel, by whom they were given 
to the university of Oxford, where they are still 
to be seen. Prideaux published an account of all 
the inscriptions in 1676. Mela^ 2, c. 7. — Strab. 
b.—C. JVep. in Milt. & Alc.— Virg. ^n. 1, v. 
593. G. 3, V. 3i.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 419, 1. 7, v. 
466.— PZm. 3, c. 14, 1. 36, c. 11.— Diod. 5, and 
Thucyd. 1. — Herodot. 5, &c. — Horat. 1, od. 19, 
v. 6. 

Parrhasii. " The Parrhasii were an Arca- 
dian people, apparently on the Laconian fron- 
tier ; but the extent and position of their terri- 
tory is not precisely determined. Thucydides 
says their district was under the subjection of 
Mantinea, and near Sciritis of Laconia. But 
Pausanias seems rather to assign to the Parrha- 
si a more western situation ; for he names as 
their towns, Lycosura, Thocnia, Trapezus, Aca- 
cesium, Macaria, and Dasea, all which were 
to the west and north-west of Megalopolis." 
Cram. 

Parthenius, I. a river of Paphlagonia, which, 
after separating Bithynia, falls into the Euxine 
Sea near Sesamum ; it received its name either 
because the virgin Diana {napQcvoi) bathed her- 
self there, or perhaps it received it from the pu- 
rity and mildness of its waters. Herodot. 2, c. 

104. — Plin. 6, c. 2. II. A mountain which 

formed the boundary between the territories of 
Argolis and Arcadia. Upon this mountain it 
was that Philippides, the Athenian courier, was 
said to have been met by the god Pan, while 
on his way to solicit the aid of Sparta against 

the Persians. TIL A river of European 

Sarmatia. Ovid, ex Pont. 4, el. 10, v. 49. 
242 



Parthenon, a temple of Athens, sacred to 
Minerva. Vid. Athence. 
Parthenope. Vid. JYeapolis. 
Parthia, a country of Asia, bounded on the 
east by Margiana, on the north by the country 
of the Derbicae, west by Hyrcania, and south 
by Aria. This was the proper country of the 
Parthi, while subjects of ihe Persian kings ; 
nor was it till about the year of Rome 504 that 
they established an independent empire, destin- 
ed to make head against the Romans themselves, 
oppressors of the world. Under Arsaces this 
new state commenced, that leader rejecting the 
claim of the Syrian king, and establishing the 
independence of this, then inconsiderable pro- 
vince. The ninth in succession from Arsa ces 
engaged in war with the Romans, and had the 
honour of capturing the Roman standards,which 
the ambition of Rome and of Crassus had car- 
ried in the hope of planting them among these 
independent tribes. Nor did the usurping em- 
pire of Europe ever succeed in reducmg this 
people, whose government existed from the pe- 
riod mentioned above, till the year of our era 
224, when it was destroyed by the Persians, and 
Parthia became again a province of the Persian 
monarchy. In the greatest stretch of tlieir em- 
pire, the Parthi possessed an extensive territo- 
ry, to which they never imparted their name; 
and the greatest surface of country which bore 
the appellation of Parthia, may perhaps be de- 
scribed within the following boundaries: Aria 
on the east, Hyrcania on the north, the country 
of the Median Parsetaceni on the west, and the 
Carmanian deserts on the south. Some sup- 
pose that the present capital of the country is 
built on the ruins of Hecatompylos. Accord- 
ing to some authors, the Parthians were Scy- 
thians by origin, who made an invasion on the 
more southern provinces of Asia, and at last 
fixed their residence near Hyrcania. The Par- 
thians were naturally strong and warlike, and 
were esteemed the most expert horsemen and 
archers in the world. The peculiar custom of 
discharging their arrows while they were retir- 
ing full speed, has been greatly celebrated by the 
ancients, particularly by the poets, who all ob- 
serve that their flight was more formidable than 
their attacks. This manner of fighting, and 
the wonderful address and dexterity with wnich 
it was performed, gained them many victories. 
The following extract from Malte-Brun con- 
tains the opinion of that learned writer in re- 
gard to the origin of the Parthi. " The Par- 
thians. who, two centuries after the death of 
Alexander, re-established in great glory the in- 
dependence of Persia, were Scythians or Sacae, 
according to some authors of middling autho- 
rity. Herodotus and other writers of greater 
weight, mention them simply as inhabitants of 
a province of eastern Persia. Nothing in their 
habits nor in the names of their kings gives any 
indication of a Scythian origin. In short, we 
may consider it as clear, that up to the great re- 
volution effected by the Arabians, and the Ma- 
hometan religion, Iran, or Persia, has, in gene- 
ral, been peopled by the same indigenous race, 
divided into different nations, and speaking the 
same language, though with differences of dia- 
lect." Strab. 2, c. 6, &c.—Cnrt. 6, c. 11.— 
Plor. 3, c. 5.— Virg. G. 3, v. 31, &c. ^n. 7, 
V. 606.— Ovid. art. am. 1, &c. Fast. 5, v. 580, 



PA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



^Dio. Cass. AO.—Ptol. 6, c. b.—Plin. 6, c. 25. 
— Polyb. 5, &c. — Marcellin. — Herodian. 3, &c. 
—Lucan. 1, v. 230, 1. 6, v. 50, 1. 10, v. 53.— 
Justin. 41, c. 1. — Horat. 1, od. 19, v. 11, 1. 2, od. 
13, V. 17. 

Parthini, a people of Illyricum. Liv. 29, c. 
12, 1. 33, c. 34, 1. 44, c. 2Q.—Suet. Aug. 19.— 
Cic. in Pis. 40 

Parthyene, a province of Parthia, according 
to Ptolemy, though some authors support that 
it is the name of Parthia itself. 

Pargadres, now lldiz Dagi, a part of the 
mountain range that separates the territories of 
Pontus and Cappadocia. 

Pasargada, a town of Persia, near Carma- 
nia, founded by Cyrus on the very spot where 
he had conquered Astyages. The kings of Per- 
sia were always crowned there, and the Pasar- 
gadfe were the noblest families of Persia, in the 
number of which were the Achaemenides. 
" Cyrus had there his tomb ; and a city which 
preserves the name of Pasa, or Fasa, with the 
surname of Kuri, according to the Persians, 
shows us the position of Pasargades, or Pasa- 
gardes ; for the name is also thus written : and 
the modern termination of Gherd^ to the names 
of many places in Persia, may authorize this 
diversity." D'Anville.—Strab. 15.—Plin. 8, 
c. 26.—Herodot. 1, c. 125.— Mela, 3, c. 8, 

Passaron, a town of Epirus, where, after 
sacrificing to Jupiter, the kings swore to govern 
according to law, and the people to obey and 
to defend the country. Plut. in Pyrrh. — Liv. 
45, c. 26 and 33. 

Patala, a harbour at the mouth of the In- 
dus, in an' island called Patale. The river here 
begins to form a Delta like the Nile. Pliny 
places this island within the torrid zone. Plin. 
2, c. 73. — Curt. 9, c. 7. — Strab. 15. — Arrian. 6, 
c. 17. 

Patara, {orum,) now Patera, a toT^m of Ly- 
cia, situate on the eastern side of the mouth of 
the river Xanthus, with a capacious harbour, a 
temple, and an oracle of Apollo, surnamed Pa- 
tareus, where was preserved and shown in the 
age of Pausanias, a brazen cap which had been 
made by the hands of Vulcan, and presented by 
the god to Telephus. The god was supposed 
by some to reside for the six winter months at 
Patara, and the rest of the year at Delphi. The 
city was greatly embellished by Ptolemy Phi- 
ladelphus, who attempted in vain to change its 
original name into that of his wife Arsinoe. 
Liv. 37, c. 15. — Strab. 14. — Paus. 9, c. 41. — 
Horat. 3, od. 14, v. 64:.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 516.— 
Mela, 1, c. 15, 

Patavium, a city of Italy, at the north of the 
Po, on the shores of the Adriatic, now called 
Padua, and once said to be capable of sending 
20,000 men into the field. Vid. Padua. It 
is the birth-place of Livy, from which reason 
some writers have denominditediPatavinity those 
peculiar expressions and provincial dialect, 
which they seem to discover in the historian's 
style, not strictly agreeable to the purity and 
refined language of the Roman authors who 
flourished in or near the Augustan age. Mar- 
tial. 11, ep. 17, V. 8. — Quintil. 1, c. 5, 56, 1. 8, 
c. n.—Liv. 10, c. 2, 1. 41, c. 21.— Strab. 5.— 
Mela, 2, c. 4. 

Patmos, an island in the Icarian Sea, south 
of Samos and Icaria, with a small town of the 



same name, situate at the south of Icaria, and 
measuring 30 miles in circumference according 
to Pliny, or only 18 according lo modern tra- 
vellers. It has a large harbour, near which are 
some broken columns, the most ancient in that 
part of Greece. The Romans generally ba- 
nished their culprits there, and here St. John, 
an exile, delivered the sublime inspirations of 
the Apocalypse. It is now called Palmosa. 
Strab.— Plin. 4, c. 12. 

Patr.e, a town of Achaia, on that part of 
the Sinus Corinthiacus which lay between 
Achaia and ^Etolia, outside of the promontories 
Rhium and Antirrhium. This town, " which 
still retains its ancient appellation, is said to 
have been built on the site of three towns, called 
Aroe, Anthea, and Messatis, which had been 
founded by the lonians when they were in pos- 
session of the country. On their expulsion by 
the Achgeans, the small towns above mentioned 
fell into the hands of Patreus, an illustrious 
chief of that people ; who, uniting them into 
one city, called it by his name. Patras is enu- 
merated by Herodotus among the twelve towns 
of Achaia. This was one of the first towns 
which renewed the federal system after the in- 
terval occasioned by the Macedonian domina- 
tion throughout Greece. Its maritime situa- 
tion, opposite to the coast of ^tolia and Acar- 
nania, rendered it a very advantageous port for 
communicating with these countries ; and in 
the Social War Philip of Macedon frequently 
landed his troops there in his expeditions into 
Peloponnesus. The Patraeans sustained such 
severe losses in the different engagements fought 
against the Romans during the Achaean war, 
that the few men who remained in the city de- 
termined to abandon it, and to reside in the 
surroimding villages and boroughs. Patrse was 
however raised to its former flourishing condi- 
tion after the battle of Aclium by Augustus, 
who, in addition to its dispersed inhabitants, 
sent thither a large body of colonists chosen 
from his veteran soldiers, and granted to the ci- 
ty, thus restored under his auspices, all the pri- 
vileges usually conceded by the Romans to their 
colonies. Strabo affirms, that in his day it was 
a large and populous town, withagood harbour. 
Chandler describes Patras ' as a considerable 
town at a distance from the sea, situated on 
the side of a hill, which has its summit crowned 
with a ruinous castle ; a dry flat before it was 
once the port, which has been choked with mud. 
It has now, as in the time of Strabo, only an 
indifferent road for vessels.' According to Sir 
W. Gell, ' the remains of antiquity are few and 
insignificant, part of a Doric frieze, and a few 
small capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian or- 
ders are foimd in the streets.' At the church 
of St. Andrea is the well mentioned by Pausa- 
nias as the oracular fountain of Ceres." Cram. 

Patrocli, a small island on the coast of At- 
tica. Paus. 4, c. 5. 

Paxos, a small island in the Ionian Sea. 
The modem name of this island is Po.xo, and 
another in its immediate vicinity is called Anti- 
paxo. They lie south-east of Corcyra. 

Pedum, a town of Latium, about ten miles 
from Rome, conquered by Camillus. The inha- 
bitants were called Pedani. Liv. 2, c. 39, 1. 8, 
c. 13 and 14. — Horat. 1, ep. 4, v. 2. 

Peg.e, I. a fountain at the foot of mount Ar- 
243 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



ganthus in Bitliynia, into which Hylas fell. 
Propert. 1, el. 20, v. 33. II. A place be- 
longing to Megaris, on that part of the Crissaan 
gulf which was called the Halcyonian Sea. " It 
was occupied by the Athenians before the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, and used by them as a naval 
station, but was afterwards restored to the Me- 
gareans. Pausanias notices in this place the 
monument of ^gialeus, son of Adiastus, and 
a statue of Diana Sospita. The modern site of 
Psato. not far from Livadostro, in a gulf formed 
by a projection of Ciihsron, is generally sup- 
posed to answer to the ancient Paga." Cram. 

Pegasium Stagnum, a lake near Ephesus, 
which arose from the earth when Pegasus struck 
it with his foot. 

Pelagonta, one of the divisions of Macedo- 
nia at the north. " The Pelagones, though not 
mentioned by Homer as a distinct people, were 
probably known to him, from his naming Pele- 
gon, the father of Asteropseus, a Paeonian war- 
rior. They must at one period have been widely 
spread over the north of Greece, since a district 
of upper Thessaly bore the name of Pelagonia 
Tripoliiis, and it is ingeniously conjectured by 
Gatterer, in his learned commentary on ancient 
Thrace, that these were a remnant of the remote 
expedition of the Teucri and Mysi, the proge- 
nitors of the Paeonians, who came from Asia 
Minor, and conquered the whole of the country 
between the Strymon and Peneus. Frequent 
allusion is made of Pelagonia by Livy in his ac- 
count of the wars between the Romans and the 
kings of Macedon. It was exposed to invasions 
from the Dardani, who bordered on its northern 
frontiers ; for which reason the communication 
between the two countries was carefully guard- 
ed by the Macedonian monarchs. This pass 
led over the chain of mount Scardus. A curious 
account of the modern route is given in Dr. 
Browne's Travels : ' From Kuprulih in Servia 
we came by hbar to Pyrlipe, first passing the 
high mountains of Pyrlipe, in Macedonia, 
which shine like silver as those of Clissura, and 
beside Moscovia glass, may contain good mine- 
rals in their bowels ; the rocks of this mountain 
are the most craggy that I have seen, and massy 
stones lie upon stones without any earth about 
them; and upon a ridge of mountains, many 
steeples high, stands the strong castle of Ma,rco 
Callowitz, a man formerly famous in these 
parts.' From thence the traveller journeyed 
through a plain country to Monastir or Toll, 
a well-peopled and pleasantly situated town, 
which, I conceive, represents the ancient city of 
Pelagonia, the capital of the fourth division of 
Roman Macedonia. Although it must from this 
circumstance have been a considerable place, 
little else is known beyond the fact of its exist- 
ence at a late period, as we find it noticed in 
the Synecdemus of Hierocles and the Byzan- 
tioe historian Malchus, who speaks of the 
strength of its citadel." Cram. 

Pelasgi, a people of Greece, supposed to be 
one of the most ancient in the world. Vid. 
Gracia. 

Pelasgia, or PELAsoicns, a country of 
Greece, whose inhabitants are called Pelasgi, 
or Pelasgiot(s. The name should be more par- 
ticularly confined to a part of Thessaly, on the 
south bank of the Peneus and the coast of the 
./Es^ean Sea, The maritime borders of this 
^44 



part of Thessaly were afterwards called Magtie^ 
sia, though the sea, or its shore, still retained 
the name of Pelasgicus Sinus, now ttie gulf oi 
Volo. Pelasgia is also one of the ancient names 
of Epirus, as also of Peloponnesus. Vid. Gra- 
cia. 

Pelasgicum, the most ancient part of the 
fortifications of the Athenian acropolis. Vid. 
Athena. 

Pelethronh, an epithet given to the Lapi- 
thae, because they inhabited the town of Peie- 
thronium, at the foot of mount Pelion in Thes- 
saly -, or because one of their number bore the 
name of Pelethronius. It is to them that man- 
kind is indebted for the invention of the bit 
with which they tamed their horses with so 
much dexterity. Virg. G. 3, v. 115. — Ovid. 
Met. 12, V. Ab%—Ijiican. 6, v. 387. 

Peligni, a people of Italy, who dwelt near 
the Sabines and Marsi, and had Corfinium and 
Sulmo for their chief towns. The most expert 
magicians were among the Peligni, accordingto 
Horace. Liv. 8, c. 6 and 29, 1. 9, c. 41. — Ovid. 
ex Pont. 1, el. 8, v. 42. — Strab. 5. — Horat. 3, 
od. 19, V. 8. 

Peuon, and Pelios, a mountain of Thessa- 
lia, " whose principal summit rises behind lolcos 
and Ormenium, and which forms a chain of 
some extent, from the south-eastern extremity 
of the lake Boebeis, where it unites with one of 
the ramifications of Ossa, to the extreme pro- 
montory of Magnesia. Homer alludes to this 
mountain as the ancient abode of the Centaurs, 
who were ejected by the Lapirhae. It was, 
however, more especially ihe haunt of Chiron, 
whose cave, as Dicaearchus relates, occupied the 
highest point of the mountain. In a fragment 
of Dicaearchus, which has been preserved to us, 
we have a detailed description of Pelion, and its 
botanical productions," which appear to have 
been very numerous, both as to the forest trees 
and plants of various kinds. According to the 
same writer, it gave rise to two rivulets named 
Crausindon and Brychon; the source of the 
former was towards its base, while the latter, 
after passing what he terms the Pelian wood, 
discharged its waters into the sea. On the most 
elevated part of the mountain was a temple de- 
dicated to Jupiter Actseus ; to which a troop of 
the noblest youths of the city of Demetrias as- 
cended every year by appointment of the priest; 
and such was the cold experienced on the sum- 
mit, that they wore the thickest woollen fleeces 
to protect themselves from the inclemency of 
the weather. It is with propriety therefore that 
Pindar applies to Pelicon the epithet of stormy." 
Cram. 

Pella, a celebrated town of Macedonia, on 
the Ludias, not far from the Sinus Thermaicus. 
which became the capital of the country after 
the ruin of Edessa. Philip, king of Macedonia, 
was educated there, and Alexander the Great 
was born there, whence he is often called Pel- 
Iceus Juvenis. The tomb of the poet Euripides 
was in the neighbourhood. The epithet Pel- 
laus is often applied to Egypt or Alexandria, 
because the Ptolemies, kings of the country, 
were of Macedonian origin. Martial. 13, ep. 
m.—lAican. 5, V. 60, 1. 8, v. 475 and 607, 1. 9, 
V. 1016 and 1073. 1. 10, v. bb.—Mela, 2, c. 3. - 
Strah. l.—Liv. 42, c. 41. 

Pellene, I, a town of Achaia, in the Pelo- 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



ponnesus, at the west of Sicyon, It was built 
by the giant Pallas, or, according to others, by 
Pellen of Argos, son of Phorbas, and was the 
country of Proteus the sea-god. Strab. 8. — 
Pans. 7, c. 26.— Lw. 33, c. 14. " Pellene was 
situated on a lofty and precipitous hill about 
sixty stadia from the sea. From the nature of 
its situation the town was divided into two dis- 
tinct parts. Its name was derived either from 
the Titan Pallas, or Pellen, an Argive, who was 
son of Phorbas. It was celebrated for its manu- 
facture of woollen cloaks, which were given as 
prizes to the riders at the gymnastic games held 

there in honour of Mercury." Cram. II. 

Another in Laconia, between the Eurotas and 
the borders of Messenia, north-west of Sparta. 
It was the residence of " Tyndareus during his 
exile from Sparta. Polybius states that Pellene 
was in the district called Tripolis, which Livy 
places on the confines of Megalopolis. Pellene 
contained a temple of >Slsculapius, and two 
fountains named Pellanis and Lancea. The 
ruins of this town probably correspond with 
those observed by Sir W. Gell, north of Peribo- 
lia, and near a beautiful source called Cepkalo- 
brisso, with the foundations of a temple, and 
fragments of white marble ; further on, another 
fount and walls, and a gate in the walls which 
run up to a citadel rising in terraces." Cram. 

Peloponnesus, a celebrated peninsula, which 
comprehends the most southern parts of Greece. 
It received its name from Pelops, who settled 
there, as the name indicates (tt/hAotto? vtaog, the 
island of Pelops). It had been called before Ar- 
gia, Pelasgia, and Argolis, and in its form, it 
has been observed by the moderns highly to re- 
semble the leaf of the plane tree. Its present 
■ name is Morea, which seems to be derived either 
from the Greek word fxopea, or the Latin morus, 
which signifies a mulberry-tree, which is found 
there in great abundance. " It was bounded on 
the north by the Ionian Sea, on the west by that 
of Sicily, to the south and south-east by that of 
Libya and Crete, and to the north-east by the 
Myrtoan and the ^g^an. These several seas 
form in succession five extensive gulfs along its 
shores ; the Corinthiacus Sinus, which separates 
the northern coast from ^Etolia, Locris, and 
Phocis; the Messeniacus, now Gulf of Coron, 
on the coast of Messenia ; the Laconicus, Gulf 
of Colokythia, on that of Laconia ; the Argoli- 
cus. Gulf of Napoli ; and lastly, the Saronicus, 
a name derived from Saron, which in ancient 
Greek signified an oak leaf, now called Gulf of 
Engia. ' The narrow stem from which it ex- 
pands,' says Pliny, ' is called the isthmus. At 
this point the iEgaean and Ionian seas, breaking 
in from opposite quarters, north and east, eat 
away all its breadth, till a narrow neck of five 
miles in breadth is all that connects Peloponne- 
sus with Greece. On one side is the Corin- 
thian, on the other the Saronic gulf Lecha- 
um and Cenchrese are situated on opposite ex- 
tremities of the isthmus, a long and hazardous 
circumnavigation for ships, the size of which 
prevents their being carried over-land in wag- 
ons. For this reason various attempts have been 
made to cut a canal across the isthmus by king 
Demetrius, Julius Csesar, Caligula, and Nero, 
but in every instance without success.' The 
principal mountains of Peloponnesus are those 
of Cyllene, Zyria^ and Erymanthus, Olenos, in 



Arcadia, and Taygetus, St. Elias, in Laconia. 
Its rivers are the Alpheus, now Rouphia, which 
rises in the south of Arcadia, and after travers- 
ing that province from south-east to north-west, 
enters ancient Elis, and discharges itself into 
the Sicilian Sea ; the Eurotas, now called Ere, 
which takes its course in the mountains that 
separate Arcadia from Laconia, and, confining 
its cdurse within the latter province, falls into 
the Laconicus Sinus : and the Pamisus, Pirnat- 
za, a river of Messenia, which rises on the con- 
fines of Arcadia, and flows into the gulf of Co- 
ron, the ancient Messeniacus Sinus. The Pe- 
lopponnesus contains but one small lake, which 
is that of Stymphalus, Zaracca, in Arcadia. 
According to the best modern maps, the area of 
the whole peninsula may be estimated at 7800 
square mile ; and, in the more flourishing pe- 
riod of Grecian history, an approximate com- 
putation of the population of its different states 
furnishes upwards of a million as the aggregate 
number of its inhabitants. Peloponnesus was 
inhabited in the time of Herodotus by seven 
distinct people, all of whom he regards of dif- 
ferent origin. These were the Arcadians, 
Cynurians, Achseans, Dorians, iEtolians, Dry- 
opes, and Lemnians. The two first only are 
considered by him as indigenous, the others 
being known to have migrated from other 
countries. The Arcadians are universally ac- 
knowledged by ancient writers to havq^been the 
oldest nation of the Peloponnese, a fact which 
is confirmed by the testimony of Herodotus ; 
but allowing their priority of existence in the 
peninsula, we have yet to discover the primeval 
stock from whence they sprang, since they must 
have migrated thither from some other country, 
Vid. Grmcia. From the mountainous and 
secluded nature of their country, they appear to 
have preserved to the latest period their race un- 
mixed with the surrounding nations. The Cy- 
nurians occupied a small tract of country on the 
borders of Argolis and Laconia, and became, 
from their situation, a constant object of con- 
tention to these two states. Herodotus ob- 
serves, that this really indigenous people was 
for some time supposed to be of Ionian origin, 
though, from their long subjection to Argos, 
they were afterwards considered as Dorians. 
The Achaeans never quitted the Peloponnese, 
but often changed their abode, till they finally 
settled in the province which from them took 
the name of Achaia. Under the Dorians, who 
came, as we have already ascertained, from Do- 
ris, near Parnassus, with the Heraclidae, must 
be ranged the Corinthians, Argives, Laconians 
and Messenians, which include the most pow- 
erful and celebrated states of the peninsula. ' 
The -fitolians occupied Elis, after having ex- 
pelled the Epeans, the original inhabitants of 
the country. The Dryopes, who were an- 
ciently settled in northern Greece, formed at an 
uncertain period some few settlements on the 
coast of Argolis and Laconia. The Lemnians 
are stated by Herodotus to have occupied the 
Parorea, better known in Grecian history by 
the name of Triphylia. These were the Min- 
yre, who had been expelled from Lemnos by 
the Tyrrheni Pelasgi, and part of whom colo- 
nized the island of Thera. To this list of Pe- 
loponnesian nations we must add the Caucones, 
who were looked upon bv many as of Pelasgic 
245 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



?E 



origin. Nor is it improbable that we should as- 
sign to the Leleges a place among these primi- 
tive tribes of the Peloponnesus, since the Lace- 
daemonians, according to Pausanias, regarded 
them as the first possessors of Laconia. Thus 
it appears that the Peloponnesus, like the rest 
of Greece, was originally inhabited by various 
barbarous tribes, under the names of Caucones, 
Leleges, and Pelasgi, who became gradually 
blended with the foreign population introduced 
by successive migrations from the time of Pe- 
Jops to the invasion of the Dorians and Heracli- 
dae. From this period these may be said to 
have totally disappeared, with the exception of 
the Arcadians, who alone could fairly boast of 
being the autochthones of the peninsula. In 
the time of Thucydides the Peloponnesus ap- 
pears to have been divided into five portions, for, 
speaking of the Lacedaemonians, the historian 
ODserves, of the five parts of the Peloponnesus 
they occupy two, and are also at the head of its 
whole confederacy. But this division would 
compel us, as Pausanias justly remarks, to con- 
sider Elis as part of Arcadia, or Achaia ; where- 
as, both historically and geographically, it is 
entitled to a separate place in the description of 
Greece." Cram. 

Pelopea Mcenia, is applied to the cities of 
Greece, but more particularly to Mycenae and 
Argos, where the descendants of Pelops reign- 
ed. Virg. JEn. 2, v. 193. 

Pelorum, {v. is-dis, v. ias-iados,) now Cape 
Faro, one of the three great promontories of 
Sicily, on whose top was erected a tower to di- 
rect the sailor on his voyage. It lies near the 
coast of Italy, and received its name from Pelo- 
rus, the pilot of the ship which carried away 
Annibal from Italy. This celebrated general, 
as it is reported, was carried by the tides into 
the straits of Charybdis, and as Ke was ignorant 
of the coast, he asked the pilot of the ship the 
name of the promontory which appeared at a 
distance. The pilot told him it was one of the 
capes of Sicily, but Annibal gave no credit to 
his information, and murdered him on the spot, 
on the apprehension that he would betray him. 
into the hands of the Romans. He was, how- 
ever, soon convinced of his error, and found that 
the pilot had spoken with great fidelity ; and, 
therefore, to pay honour to his memory, and to 
atone for his cruelty, he gave him a magnificent 
fmieral, and ordered that the promontory should 
bear his name, and from that time it was called 
Pelorum. Some suppose that this account is 
false, and they observe that it bore that name 
before the age of Annibal. Val. Max. 9, c. 8. 
—Mela, 2, c. l.—Strab. 5.— Virg. jEn.3, v. 
411 and 681.— Ovid. Met 5, v. 350, 1. 13, v. 
727, 1. 15, V. 706. 

Pelt^, a town of Phrygia, south-east of 
Cotyaeium. According to D'Anville, " Peltae 
and an adjacent plain may be the same with 
what is now called Uschak." 

Pelustom, now Tineh, a town of Egypt, 
situate at the entrance of one of the mouths of 
the Nile, called from it Pelusian. It is about 
20 stadia from the sea, and it has received the 
name of Pelusium from the lakes and marshes 
(tdtXo?) which are in its neighbourhood. It was 
the key of Egypt on the side of Phoenicia, as it 
was impossible to enter the Egyptian territories 
without passmg by Pelnsium, and on that ac-, 
246 



I count it was always well fortified and garrison-' 
ed. It produced lentils, and was celebrated for 
the linen stuffs made there. It is now in ruins. 
Pelusium was said " by Ammianus to be the 
work of Peleus, father of Achilles, commanded 
by the gods to purge himself in the lake adjoin- 
ing for the murder of his brother Phocus. Ac- 
counted the chief door of Egypt towards the 
land, as Pharos was to those that came by sea ; 
the metropolis oftlie province of Augustamnica, 
the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer, and 
the episcopal see of St. Isidore, surnamed Pelu- 
siotes. Out of the ruins hereof, (if not the same 
under another title,) rose Damiata, memorable 
for the often sieges laid to it by the Christian 
armies." Heyl. Cosm. — Mela, 2, c. 9. — Colum. 
5, c. 10.— >S'i^. //. 3, V. 2b.—Iyucan. 8, v. 466, 1. 9, 
V. 83, 1. 10, V. b3.—Liv. 44, c. 19, 1. 45, c. 11.— 
Strab. 11.— Virg. G. 1, c. 228. 

Peneus, I. a river of Thessaly, rising on 
mount Pindus, and falling into the Thermean 
gulf, after a wandering course between mount 
Ossa and Olympus, through the plains of 
Tempe. It received its name from Peneus, a 
son of Oceanus and Tethys. The Peneus an- 
ciently inundated the plains of Thessaly, till an 
earthquake separated the mountains Ossa and 
Olympus, and formed the beautiful vale of 
Tempe, where the waters formerly stagnated. 
From this circumstance, therefore, it obtained 
the name of Araxes, ab apauaw scindo. Daphne, 
the daughter of the Peneus, according to the 
fables of the mythologists, was changed into a 
laurel on the banks of this river. This tradi- 
tion arises from the quantity of laurels which 
grow near the Peneus. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 452, 
&LC.— Strab. 9.— Mela, 2, c. ^.— Viig. G. 4, 

V. 317. — Diod. 4. II. Also a small river of 

Elis in Peloponnesus, better known under the 
name of Araxes. It is now Igliaco, and is, ac- 
cording to modern travellers, a broad and rapid 
stream. Cram. — Paus. 6, c. 24. — Strah. QdJidiW. 

Pennin^e Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 

Pentapolis, I. a town of India. II. A 

part of Africa near Gyrene. It received this 
name on accovint of the Jive cities which it con- 
tained; Gyrene, Arsinoe, Berenice, Ptolemais 

or Barce, and Apollonia. Plin. 5, c. 5. III. 

Also part of Palestine, containing the five cities 
of Gaza, Gath, Ascalon, Azotus, and Ekron. 

Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. " Mount 
Pentelicus, celebrated in antiquity for the beau- 
tiful marble which its quarries yielded, still re- 
tains its name. It surpasses in elevation the 
chain of Hymettus, with which it is connected. 
Pausanias reports that a statue of Minerva was 
placed on its summit. ' Pentelikon,' says Dod- 
well, ' is separated from the northern foot of 
Hymettus, which in the narrowest part is about 
three miles broad. It shoots up into a pointed 
summit ; but the outline is beautifully varied, 
and the greater part is either mantled with 
woods or variegated with shrubs. Several vil- 
lages, and some monasteries and churches, are 
seen near its base.' The same traveller gives 
a very interesting account of the Penfelic quar- 
ries, which he visited and examined with atten- 
tion. According to Sir W. Gell, the great 
quarry is 41 minutes distant from the monaste- 
ry of Penteli, and affords a most extensive 
prospect from Cithseron to Sunium." Cram. 

Peparethos, a small island of the .^gean 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



Sea, on the coast of Macedonia, about 20 miles 
in circumference. It abounded in olives, and 
its wines have always been reckoned excel- 
lent. They were not, however palatable before 
they were seven years old, Flin. 4, c. 12. — 
OrM. Met. 7, v. AIQ.—Liv. 28, c. 5, 1. SI, c. 28. 
Per.ea, I. a part of Caria. opposite to Rhodes, 

Liv. 32, c. 33. II. " That part of Palestine 

which lies between the river Jordan and the 
mountains of Arnon, east and west ; and reach- 
eih from Pella in the north, to Petra, the chief 
town of Arabia Petraea, in the south. By Pliny 
it is made to bend more towards Eg}^t Pe- 
trsea, (says he.) is the furthest part of Judea, 
neighbouring Arabia and Egypt, interspersed 
wiih rough and cragg}' mountains, and parted 
from the rest of the Jews by the river Jordan. 
So called from the Greek word -epav. in regard 
to the situation of it on the other side of that 
river ; and not improperly might be rendered by 
Trans- Jordana. Blessed with a rich soil, and 
large fields beset with divers trees, especially of 
olives, vines, and palms. The habitation in 
times past of the Midianites, Moabites, Ammo- 
nites, as also of the two tribes of Gad and 
Reuben." Heyl. Cosm. 
Per COPE. Vid. Per cote. 
Percote, a town on the Hellespont, between 
Abydos and Lampsacus, near the sea-shore. 
Artaxerxes gave it to Themistocles, to maintain 
his wardrobe. It is sometimes called Percope. 
Herodot. 1, c. 117. — Horn. 

Perga, a town of Pamphylia. Vid. Perge. 
Liv. 38, c. 57. 

Pergamus, Pergama, (Plur.) the citadel of 
the city of Troy. The word is often used for 
Troy. It was situated in the most elevated pan 
of the town, on the shores of the river Scaman- 
der. Xerxes mounted to the top of this citadel 
when he reviewed his troops as he marched to 
invade Greece. Herodot. 7, c. 13. — Virg. jEn. 
1, v. 466, &c. 

Pergaisius, now Bergamo, a town of Mysia, 
on the banks of the Caycus. It was the capital 
of a celebrated empire called the kingdom of 
Pergamus, which was founded by Philaeterus. 
a eunuch, whom Lysimachus, after the battle 
of Ipsus, had intrusted with the treasures which 
he had obtained in the war. Philseterus made 
himself master of the treasures, and of Perga- 
mus in which they were deposited, B. C. 283, 
and laid the foundations of an empire, over 
which he himself presided for 20 years. His 
successors began to reign in the following order : 
his nephew Eumenes ascended the throne 263 
B. C. ; Attains, 241; Eumenes the second, 197; 
Attains Philadelphus, 159; Attains Philomator, 
138, who, B. C. 133, left the Roman people 
heirs to his kingdom, as he had no children. 
The right of the Romans, however, was dis- 
puted by an usurper, who claimed the empire 
as his own, and Aquilius, the Roman general, 
was obliged to conquer the different cities one 
by one, and to gain their submission by poison- 
ing the waters which were conveyed to their 
houses, till the whole was reduced into the form 
of a dependant province. The capital of the 
kingdom of Pergamus was famous for a librarv 
of 200,000 volumes, which had been collected 
by the difierent monarchs who had reigned 
there. This noble collection was afterwards 
transported to Egypt by Cleopatra, with the per- 



mission of Antony, and it adorned and enriched 
the Alexandrian library, till it was most fatally 
destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. 642. Parch- 
ment was first invented and made use of at Per- 
gamus, to transcribe books, as Ptolemy king of 
Eg}^pt had forbidden the exportation of papyrus 
from his kingdom, in order to prevent Eumenes 
from making a library as valuable and as choice 
as that of Alexandria. From this circumstance 
parchment has been called charta pergamena. 
Galenus the physician, and Apollodorus the my- 
thologist, were born there. iEsculapius was the 
chief deit}^ of the country. Plin. 5 and 15. — 
hid. 6, c. W.—Strab. 13.— Liv. 29, c. 11, 1. 
31, c. 46.— PZm. 10, c. 21, 1. 13, c. 11. 

Perga, a town of Pamphylia, where Diana 
had a magnificent temple, whence her surname 
of Pergsea. Apollonius the geometrician was 
born there. Mela, 1, c. 14. — Strab. 14. 

Pergus, a lake of Sicily near Enna, where 
Proserpine was carried away by Pluto. Ovid. 
5, V. 386. 

Perinthus, Vid. Heraclea, V. 

Permessus, a river of Boeotia, which received 
its name from Permessus, the father of Aganip- 
pe. Vid. Helicon. 

Peroe, a fountain of Boeotia, called after Pe- 
roe, a daughter of the Asopus. Paus. 9, c. 4. 

Perperene, a place of Phrygia, where, as 
some suppose, Paris adjudged the prize of beau- 
ty to Venus. Strab. 5, 

PERRH.EBIA, a part of Thessaly situate on 
the borders of the Peneus, extending between 
the town of Atrax and the vale of Tempe. The 
inhabitants were driven from their possessions 
by the Lapithse, and retired into iEtolia, where 
part of the country received the name of Per- 
rhcebia. Propert. 2, el. 5, v, 33. — Strab. 9. — 
Liv. 33, c. 34, 1. 39, c. 34. 

Pers£, the inhabitants of Persia. Vid. Per- 
sia. 

Persepolis, a celebrated city, the capital of 
the Persian empire. It was laid in ruins by 
Alexander after the conquest of Darius. The 
reason of this is unknown. Diodorus says that 
the sight of about 800 Greeks, whom the Per- 
sians had shamefully mutilated, so irritated 
Alexander, that he resolved to punish the bar- 
barity of the inhabitants of Persepolis, and of 
the neighbouring country, by pennitting his 
soldiers to plunder their capital. Others sup- 
pose that Alexander set it on fire at the instiga- 
tion of Thais, one of his courtezans, when he 
had passed the day in drinking, and in riot and 
debauchery. The ruins of Persepolis, now Es- 
taker, or Tchel-Minar, still astonish the mo- 
dem traveller by their grandeur and magnifi- 
cence. " Thirty miles north-west of )S'AirG2^ and 
about ten to the east of the town of Mayn, are 
the famous ruins of Istakhar, or Persepolis, the 
ancient capital of Persia, in which Alexander 
triumphed, and in a moment of mad festivity 
gave way to the suggestions of a spirit of wan- 
ton destruction of which he almost instantly re- 
pented. This city was destroyed ultimately by 
the fanatic Arabs, as is showT) in a memoir by 
M. Langles, contained in his Collection of 
Travels. We have no satisfactory means of 
ascertaining the period at which Persepolis was 
founded. The iDest are perhaps those suggest- 
ed by the appearance of the most conspicuous 
remains found on the spot. Accordingly, Sir 
247 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



Robert Ker Porter, in applying to this subject 
the exertions of an inquiring mind, aided by- 
extensive erudition and correct taste, observed 
that the most remarkable objects contained in it, 
viz. the S/iehel-minar, of ' Forty Columns,' 
produced in him the impression, that both as a 
whole, and in their details, they bore a strong 
resemblance to the architectural taste of Egypt ; 
a resemblance sufficiently accounted for by the 
early hostile intercourse between the two coun- 
tries and their interchanges of inhabitants by 
captivity. About forty years before the conquest 
of Babylon by Cyrus, Nebuchadnezzar overran 
the whole of Egypt, and returned with the rich 
spoils of the country and a multitude of cap- 
tives. Cambyses, king of Persia, the friend and 
kinsman of the conqueror, was likely to share 
in the ingenuity and talents of the ingenious 
among the captives of the former; and when 
Cyrus afterwards added Babylon to his empire, 
he would then transfer them to his own coun- 
try, and employ them in the superb edifices of 
Persepolis. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, in his 
expeditions against Amasis and Psammeticus, 
kings of Egypt, carried off the richest ornaments 
of Its edifices to decorate his palaces of Susa and 
Persepolis, and took along with him Egyptian 
workmen to place them properly in their new 
stations. Other princes followed the example, 
and Persepolis became the most splendid city 
in the east. The remains of the Shehel-minar 
continue to bear testimony to this fact. To de- 
scribe them fully in this place would far exceed 
our bounds, and we must refer the reader to the 
account given by the traveller now mentioned, 
which, in graphic description, ingenious re- 
search, and irresistible interest, is not exceeded 
by any writing in existence. From his ample de- 
tails we can only select a few lines as a specimen. 
The royal palace of forty pillars, or Skehel-vd- 
nar^ consists of a number of buildings, forming 
both a palace of ample magnitude, and a cita- 
del, or bulwark for the capital, on a situation of 
a most commanding character. This situation 
consists of an artificial plain or platform, cut 
out of a mountain, and having a higher part of 
the same mountain connected with its eastern 
side, being on the other three sides at a great 
elevation in a perpendicular precipice from the 
plain beneath. On the royal mountain to the 
east are the ancient sepulchres of the kings, 
consisting of artificial excavations. The extent, 
of the faces of the square are 1425 feet in length 
on the west side, 802 on the south, and 926 on 
the north ; part of the steep is faced up with 
gigantic square blocks of dark gray marble, 
without mortar, but fitted with such precision 
as to appear part of the solid mountain. The 
general height seems to have been about fifty 
feet, though now much lowered by the accumu- 
lation of ruins beneath. The only road to the 
summit is by an ascent of steps on the western 
side, forming a double flight. The steps are 
broad and shallow, and ten or fourteen of them 
are cut out of one block of marble. The ascent 
is so beautiful and easy, that they may be as- 
cended and descended on horseback with the 
utmost facility. On ascending the platform, the 
first objects that meet the eye are the remains of 
two colossal bulls, of a noble form and attitude, 
indicated that thev were intended as symbolical 
representations of power. These are sculptur- 
248 



ed on the lofty sides of the enormous portal. 
Other symbolical representations in basso-relievo 
are found in different places of huge size, and 
rather strange mixtures of the forms of differ- 
ent animals. From the great platform, differ- 
ent others rise, distinguished by ruins, difiering 
somewhat in their character and the apparent 
destination of the buildings. On one of these 
are the striking ruins of the magnificent palace 
of Forty Pillars. Only a few of the pillars are 
standing entire, at different places, but the bases 
and other remains of the rest still exhibit some- 
thing of the original arrangement. The former 
capitals and decorations of those which stand, 
and of many of the fragments, lying on the sur- 
face of the heap of rubbish, are beautiful and 
elegant, the taste different from the Grecian, yet 
correct and commanding in the highest degree, 
and executed with a delicacy which cannot be 
excelled ; ' I gazed at them,' says this traveller, 
' with wonder and delight. Besides the admi- 
ration which the general elegance of their form, 
and the exquisite workmanship of their parts 
excited, I never was made so sensible of the im- 
pression of perfect symmetry, comprising also 
in itself that of perfect beauty.' " Malte-Brun. 
— Curt. 5, c. 7. — Died. 17, &c, — Arrian. — Plut. 
in Alex. — Justin. 11, c. 14. 

Persia, a celebrated kingdom of Asia, which 
in its ancient state extended from the Helles- 
pont to the Indus, above 2800 miles, and from 
Pontus to the shores of Arabia, above 2000 miles. 
As a province, Persia was but small, and, ac- 
cording to the description of Ptolemy, it w£is 
bounded on the north by Media, west by Susi- 
ana, south by the Persian gulf, and east by Car- 
mania. " The whole of Persia is a highly ele- 
vated country, as is proved by the great abun- 
dance of snow. This plateau joins that of Ar- 
menia and Asia Minor on the west, and becomes 
confounded with that of central Asia on the 
east. This is the chain of high lands which the 
ancients called Taurus, a general term which 
they applied to any thing gigantic. Taurus 
divided Asia into two, or rather, according to 
Strabo, into three parts. The first lies on the 
north of the mountains. The second is on the 
top of the Taurus, lying between the different 
chains of mountains of which it consists, and 
the third is that which is situated to the south. 
This mode of division is founded on an accurate 
observation of the leading differences of climate 
and of produce. But the ancients knew that 
the numerous chains of mountains comprehend- 
ed under the general name of Taurus were ' di- 
vided by many valleys and elevated plains.' 
Strab. They also knew that several of the 
mountains of Persia, after rising abruptly from 
the middle of the plain, gradually became flat 
at the summit, and presented an absolute plain. 
These observations are confirmed by modern 
travellers. The mountains of Persia, accord- 
ing to M, Olivier, do not seem to form any con- 
tinued chain, nor to have any leading direction. 
But the plateau itself on which this hepp of 
mountains is reared, must have two declivities, 
one towards the Euphrates and the Persian 
Gulf, and the other towards the Caspian Sea. 
It is on the south side of the basin of the river 
Kur that we must look for the northern con- 
tinuation of mount Taurus. The Ararat, and 
the chain to which it belongs, join the high 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



mountains which separate the lake Van from 
the lake Oormia. I'bese Isist are a part of the 
Niphates of the ancients. But to the south of 
the river Ara^es there is a chain of very cold 
mountains, the south side of which embraces 
Adjerbidjan, the ancient Atrapatene. These 
mountains defied the arms of Alexander the 
Great ; from their sides the Alpons go ofl^ to- 
wards the east, a belt of high limestone moun- 
tains which runs parallel to the southern shore 
of the Caspian Sea. In the ancient Hyrcania,' 
the sides of these mountains are described as 
not only steep towards the sea, but projecting 
' in such a manner, that the rivers throw them- 
selves iQto the sea, forming a liquid arch, under 
which men could pass on dry ground.' Strab. 
The political revolutions to which this country 
has constantly been a prey, have most frequent- 
ly ended in a union of it under one sceptre. In 
the earliest dawn of history, we find it possess- 
ed by several independent nations ; the Per- 
sians in the south, the Arians in the east, and 
the Medes in the centre; different barbarian 
hordes — as the Hyrcanians, Parthians, and Ca- 
dusians, on the north. It is a matter of doubt 
whether the ancient empires of Nineveh and 
Babylon ever included ancient Persia, that is, 
the ancient Fars, with Kerman and Larislan. 
History hangs in suspense about the truth of 
the marvellous expeditions of Semiramis ; but 
we know that every momentary inroad figures 
as a conquest in the chaos of primitive history. 
The Medes, however, really subjugated the Per- 
sians. That people seem to have first carried 
their arms against the Scythians of Asia, in 
Tooran or the present Tartary, and against the 
Indians. Five centuries before the Christian 
era, Cyrus delivered his nation from the yoke, 
and gave it the sovereignty over the whole of 
western Asia. But on entering Europe, the 
little nation of the Greeks arrested the progress 
of the numberless armies of Asia. Soon after, 
united under Alexander, they overthrew the 
feeble colossus of the Persian power. After his 
death, when the discord of the victors gave rise 
to a multitude of separate kingdoms, the war- 
like tribe of the Parthians, about the year 248 
before Christ, took possession of the provinces 
which form the modern Persia. The Greeks 
still maintained their ground in Bactriana. De- 
metrius, their king, subjugated and civilized 
Indostan. Eucratides, the first, reigned over a 
thousand cities. But the Scythians, or rather 
the new nations which succeeded to the Scy- 
thians, uniting with the Parthians, overthrew 
the Bactrian throne. The Parthians, under 
their king of the Ashkanian dynasty, the Arsa- 
cides of the Greek historians, successfully re- 
sisted the progress of the Roman power. To- 
wards the year 220 of the Christian era, a pri- 
vate man in Persia, according to the Greek 
authorities, wrested the power out of the hands 
of the Parthians, and founded the dynasty of 
the Sassanides. But the oriental writers do 
not consider the modern Persians as distinct 
from the Parthians ; and, according to them, 
Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, is descended from the 
royal blood of the Parthians. Whatever be 
the fact on this dark point, the Persian empire 
often struggled against that of Constantinople ; 
and having a brilliant appearance under the 
sway of the wise Nooshervan, submitted to the 
Part L— 2 I 



Arabians, and to the Mahometan religion, about 
the year 636. Two centuries after this the 
kingdom of Persia was re-established in Kho- 
rasan ; and, after several revolutions, recovered 
its original extent of territory. In the year 934 
the house of Bouiah ascended the throne, Shi- 
raz being the seat of government, Persia was 
included in the conquests of Gengis-Khan in 
1220, and Tamerlane in 1392, and recovered 
its freedom again under the Sophis, who ascend- 
ed the throne in 1506. Shah- Abbas, surnamed 
the Great, began in 1586 a reign of half a cen- 
tury, which was brilliant but tyrannical. In 
1722 Persia was conquered by the Afghans. 
This event was followed in 1736 by the extinc- 
tion of the family of the Sophis, and the eleva- 
tion of Nadir, surnamed Thamas-Khouli-Khan, 
to the imperial throne. This ferocious, but 
able and fortunate prince, was a native of Kho- 
rasan. On the 20th of June 1747 he was kill- 
ed, after a reign of eleven years, which was 
chiefly signalized by the rapid conquest of In- 
dostan. This was the commencement of a pe- 
riod entirely new, by which the modern geogra- 
phical division of the country was fixed. The 
weakness of Nadir-Shah's successors, and the 
dreadful war which devastated western Persia, 
gave to the Afghans an opportunity of consoli- 
dating a new empire, which embraced the whole 
of eastern Persia, and of which the city of Kau- 
but is the capital. Western Persia enjoyed 
some repose under the government of Kerim- 
Khan, who did not assume the title of Shah, 
contenting himself with that ofvekil or regent. 
This good prince had served under Nadir, with 
whom he was a particular favourite. When 
the tyrant died he was at Skiraz. He took on 
him the reins of government, and was support- 
ed by the inhabitants of that city, who were 
charmed by his beneficence, and placed unboun- 
ded confidence in his justice. In return for this 
attachment, Kerim embellished their city wiih 
beautiful palaces, mosques, and elegant gar- 
dens; he repaired the high roads, and built 
the caravanseras. His reign was not soiled 
by any act of cruelty. His charity to the poor, 
and the efforts which he made for the re-esta- 
blishment of trade, met with universal praise. 
He died about the year 1779, after a reign of 
sixteen years. The death of Kerim was fol- 
lowed by new disturbances and misfortunes, as 
his brothers attempted to take possession of the 
sovereignty to the exclusion of his children. 
At last, in 1784, Ali-Murat, a prince of the 
blood, obtained peaceful possession of the throne 
of Persia. In the meantime, a eunuch of the 
name Aga-Mohammed took independent pos- 
session of Mazanderan. Ali-Murat, in march- 
ing against this usurper, was killed by a fall 
from his horse. His son Jaafar succeeded to 
the sceptre, but he was defeated by Aga-Mo- 
hammed at Yezde-Kast, and withdrew to Shi- 
raz. In 1792, Aga-Mohammed attacked that 
city, and Jaafar htst his life in an insurrection. 
The victor defaced the tomb of Kerim, and in- 
sulted his ashes. The heroic valour of Louthf- 
Ali, son of Jaafar, was opposed in several des- 
perate engagements to the fortunes of the eu- 
nuch, but without success; and the latter be- 
came final master of the whole of western Per- 
sia. He named as his successor his own nephew, 
Baba-Khan J who, since 1796, has reigned peace- 
249 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PE 



ably under the name of Futte-Ali-Shah. This 
prince has been engaged in several wars against 
the Russians, and, that he might the more ad- 
vantageously defend the northern provinces 
from that power, he established his residence at 
Tehran. The provinces which in 1810 were 
subject to him, were Erivan, Adzerbidjan, Ghi- 
lan, Mazanderan, western Khorazan, Irak-Ad- 
jemi, Persian Kuordisian^ Farsistan, and Ker- 
man. The Arabian sheiks on the Persian Gulf 
were tributary to him, and respectful presents 
were sent to him by the ooali ox prince of Mek- 
ran. Malie-Brun. 

Persicum auRE, or Persicus sinus, a part 
of the Indian ocean, on the coast of Persia and 
Arabia now called the Gulf of Balgora. 

Persis, a province of Persia, bounded by 
Media, Carmania, Susiaua, and the Persian 
gulf It is often taken for Persia itself " Its 
name in Scripture is Paras, which is nearly the 
same with that of Fars, according to the mo- 
dern form, as the permutation in the initial of 
P to F is frequent in this country, where Ispa- 
han, for example, is pronounced Isfahan. Elam, 
son of Shem, is the parent of this nation, ac- 
cording to the holy text." D'Anville. 

Perusia, now Perugia, a city of Etruria, 
to the south-east of the Thrasimenelake. " From 
Justin we collect that Perusia was of Achaean, 
that is, of Pelasgic origin." Cram. It was 
" one of the most ancient and most distinguish- 
ed cities of Etruria ; the era of its foundation 
long preceded that of Rome, and, like the origin 
of Clusium, Cortona, &c. is almost lost in dis- 
tance of time. In conjunction with all the 
other Etrurian states, it long resistedthe Ro- 
mans, and when subjected, or rather reconciled 
to them, it became a faithful and a courageous 
ally ; it defied the power of Annibal, and flou- 
rished in peace and opulence till the reign of 
Augustus •, when unfortunately it engaged in 
the rebellion of Lucius Antonius, uncle of the 
Triumvir, and, under his command, shut its 
gates against Augustus, who took it, and, as it is 
reported, wished to spare it; but one of its prin- 
cipal citizens setting fire to his own house,which 
he intended as a funeral pile for himself and 
his family, the flames communicated to the 
neighbouring buildings, and, spreading rapidly 
around, reduced the city to ashes. Perugia, 
however, rose immediately from its ruins ; and 
on its restoration, by a strange inconsistency, 
chose for its patron Vulcan, a divinity to whom 
it seems to have had very few obligations, as 
the god had spared his own temple only in the 
general conflagration. In the Gothic war it 
displayed much spirit, and stood a siege of seven 
years against these barbarians. It afterwards, 
with the whole Roman state, submitted to the 
Pope, and with some intervals of turbulent in- 
dependence has remained ever since attached to 
the Roman See. Perugia is now a large, clean, 
well-built, and well-inhabited city. Seated on 
the summit of a mountain, it commands from 
its ramparts, and particularly from its citadel, 
an extensive view over a vast range of country, 
fertile, varied with hill and dale, and enlivened 
with villages and towns. There are many 
churches, convents, and palaces in this city, 
most of which were adorned with the paintings 
of Pietro Perugino, the master of Raffaello. 
Perugia has an university supplied with able , 
250 ' 



professors, and several academies, all of which 
can boast of illustrious names ; and it is upon 
the whole an interesting city, capable of enter- 
taining the curious and inquisitive traveller for 
several days." Eustace. 

Pessinus {untis), a town of Phrygia, where 
Atys, as some suppose, was buried. " It ap- 
pears to have been the Sango/r, in the country 
occupied by the Tolistoboians^'' (D'Anville,) 
and was particularly famous for a temple and 
a statue of the goddess Cybele, who was from 
thence called Pessinuntia. StraJ). 12. — Paus. 
7, c. \1.—Liv. 29, c. 10 and 11. 

Petelinus lacus, a lake near one of the 
gates of Rome, Liv. 6, c. 20. 

Petilia, a town in the Brutian territory, 
one of the settlements of Philoctetes, " which, 
in the opinion of the most judicious and best 
informed topographers, occupiied the situation 
of the modern Strongoli. This small town, of 
whose earlier history we have no particulars, 
gave a striking proof of its fidelity to the Ro- 
mans in the second Punic war, when it refused 
to follow the example of the other Brutian cities 
in joining the Carthaginians, In consequence 
of this resolution it was besieged by Hannibal, 
and, though imassisted by the Romans, it held 
out until reduced to the last extremity by fa- 
mine ; nor was it till all the leather in the town, 
and the grass in the streets, had been consumed 
for subsistence, that they at length surrendered. 
Ptolemy incorrectly classes it with the inland 
towns of Magna Grsecia. It may be here ob- 
served, that Strabo has confounded this town 
with the Lucanian Petilia," although he " is the 
only author who seems to have given any hint 
of the existence of such a place. Strabo, in his 
general description of the inland towns of the 
Lucani, remarks, that the chief towTi of this 
people was Petelia, which could at that time 
boast of a considerable population ; he adds, that 
it was built by Philoctetes, who had been forced 
by an adverse faction to quit Thessaly, his na- 
tive country; and that on account of the strength 
of its position, the Samnites had been obliged to 
construct forts around it for the defence of their 
territory. It is observed by Antonini, the writer 
above alluded to, that Strabo here contradicts 
himself, by ascribing to Philoctetes the origin 
of a town of Lucania ; whilst that hero is said 
in a few lines further on, to have occupied a part 
of the coast near Crotona, which was certainly 
in the territory of the Brutii. It will be seen, 
in fact, that all the ancient authors agree in the 
maritime situation of the colonies founded by 
the Grecian chieftain. This error of Strabo 
does not, however, affect the truth of his ac- 
count with reference to to the Lucanian Petilia; 
and Antonini has adduced, in confirmation of 
the authority of that writer, so many inscrip- 
tions of early date, together with more recent 
documents, that it seems impossible to entertain 
further doubts on the subject. He has recog- 
nised the ruins of this ancient town precisely 
on the Monte della Stella.'" Cram. 
Petra, I. the capital town of Arabia Petraea. 

St,rai. 16. II. a town of Sicily, near Hybla, 

Avhose inhabitants are called Petrini and Pe- 

trenses. III. A town of Thrace. Liv. 40, 

c. 22. IV. Another of Pieria in Macedonia. 

Liv. 39, c. 26.— ac. in Verr. 1, c. 39. V. 

An elevated place near Dyrrhachium. Lucan. 



PE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



6, V. 16 and 70.— C^5. Civ. 3, c. 42. VI. 

Another in Elis. VII.Another near Corinth. 

PETRiEA, one of the divisions of Arabia, 
bounded on the north by Palestine, on the east 
by Arabia Deserta and part of the Sinus Per- 
sicus, on the south by a long ridge of mountains, 
which separate it from Arabia Felix, on the 
west by the isthmus which joins Africa to Asia, 
and part of the Red Sea. " It had this name 
from the rockiness of the soil hereof, or more 
properly from Petra, the chief city of it, called 
also by Ethicus, Sicaria, by the Hebrews Chus, 
generally translated Ethiopia ; by William of 
Tyre, Arabia Secunda, Felix being reckoned 
for the first. By Strabo, Ptolemy, and Plmy, 
it is called Nabathaea, which name it had from 
Nabaioth, the eldest of the twelve sons of Is- 
mael, though properly that name belonged only 
to those parts of it that lay next Judea. The 
people, for the most part were descended of the 
sons of Chus and Ismael, intermixed with the 
Midianites descended from Abraham by Ketu- 
rah, and the Amalekites, descended probably 
from Amalek, the grandson of Esau, but all 
united at last in the name of Saracens. This 
name, derived, as some think from Sarra, sig- 
nifying ' a desert,' and Saken, which signifieth 
* to inhabit,' because they live for the most part 
in these desert places ; as others say, from Sa- 
rak, signifying ' a robber.' This last is most 
suitable to their nature, and best liked by Sca- 
liger." Hey I. Cosm. 

Petrinum, a town of Campania, Horat. 1, 
ep. 5, V. 5. 

PETROCORn, a people of Celtic Gaul, ac- 
cording to- the divisions of that country as re- 
corded by Caesar. At a later period their ter- 
ritory formed part of Aquitania Secunda, 
" From the appellation of Petrocorii are formed 
the names of Peris;ord and Perigueux, though 
Vesuna, the primitive name of the capital, is 
still retained in the quarter of the city called la 
Visone." D^Anville, 

Peuce, an island between the arms which 
form the mouth of the Danube, and whose mo- 
dern name, Piczini, preserves an evident ana- 
logy to that of the Peucini, whom it is remark- 
able to find re-appear in the Lower Empire un- 
der the names of Picziniges and Patzinacites." 
D'Anville. — Strab. 7. — iMcan. 3, v, 202. — 
Plin. 4, c. 12. 

Peucetia, a part of Apulia, forming the ter- 
ritory of " the Peucetii, who, if the opinion of 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus is to be adopted, de- 
rived their name from Peucetius, son of Lycaon, 
king of Arcadia, who, with his brother "(Eno- 
trus migrated to Italy seventeen generations be- 
fore the siege of Troy. But modern critics have 
felt little disposed to give credit to a story, the 
improbability of which is so very apparent, whe- 
ther we look to the country from whence these 
pretended settlers are said to have come, or the 
state of navigation at so remote a period. Had 
the Peucetii and (Enotri really been of Grecian 
origin, Dionysius might have adduced better 
evidence of the fact than the genealogies of the 
Arcadian chiefs, cited from Pherecydes. The 
most respectable authority he could havebrought 
forward on this point would unquestionably 
have been that of Antiochus the Syracusan ; 
but this historian is only quoted by him in proof 
of the Eintiquity of the CEnotrij not of their 



Grecian descent. The Peucetii are always 
spoken of in history, even by the Greeks them- 
selves, as barbarians, who differed in no essen- 
tial respect from Daunii, lapyges, and other 
neighbouring nations. The name of Poediculi 
was given to the inhabitants of that portion of 
Peucetia which was more particularly situated 
on the coast between the Aufidus and the con- 
fines of the Calabri. It is stated by Pliny, that 
this particular tribe derived their origin from 
lUyria. The Peucetii appear then to have ex- 
tended along the cosist of the Adriatic, from the 
Aufidus to the neighbourhood of Brundusium, 
which belonged to lapygia; and in the inte- 
rior, their territory reached as far as Silvium in 
the Appenines, constituting principally what in 
modern geography is called Terra di Bari." 
Cram. 

Peucini. Vid. Peuce. 

Phacusa, a town of Egypt, on the eastern 
mouth of the Nile. 

PH.aEACiA, an island of the Ionian Sea, near 
the coast of Epirus, anciently called Scheria, 
and afterwards Corcyra. The iahabitants, call- 
ed Phceaces, were a luxurious and dissolute 
people, for which reason a glutton was generally 
stigmatized by the epithet of Phaax. When 
Ulysses was shipwrecked on the coast of Phas- 
acia, Alcinous was then king of the island, 
whose gardens have been greatly celebrated. 
Horat. 1, ep. 15, v. "HA.— Ovid. Met. 1^, v. 719. 
—StroJ). 6 and l.—Propert. 3, el. 2, v. 13. 

Phalacrine, a village of the Sabines, where 
Vespasian was born. Sv£t. Vesp. 2. 

Phalarium, a citadel of Syracuse, where 
Phalaris's bull was placed. 

Phalarus, a river of Boeotia;, falling into the 
Cephisus. Paus. 9, c. 34. 

Phalerum, the most ancient of the Athe- 
nian ports. Vid. Athence. 

Phan^us, a promontory of the island of Chi- 
os, famous for its wines. It was called after a 
king of the same name, who reigned there, 
Liv. 36, c, A3.— Virg. G. 2, v, 98, 

PHARiE, I. "one of the twelve cities of 
Achaia, was situated on the bank of the river 
Pirus, about 70 stadia from the sea, and 120 
from Patras, Pharae, whose territory was ex- 
posed during the Social war to the frequent ra- 
vages of the ^tolians, on receiving no succour 
from the Achaean prsetor, determined, as we 
learn from Polybius, no longer to furnish sup- 
plies for the service of the confederation. This 
city, which was afterwards annexed by Augus- 
tus to the colony of Patrae, possessed an exten- 
sive forum, where was placed an image of Mer- 
cury, and near it an oracle of the god ; also a 
fountain named Hama, consecrated to the same 
divinity. On the banks of the Pirus, called Pie- 
rus by the Pharseans and sometimes Achelous, 
Pausanias observed a number of plane trees re- 
markable from their age and size, many of their 
trunks were hollow, and so capacious that per- 
sons might feast and recline within them. The 
inhabitants of this city were named Pharaei, 
while those of the Messenian Pharae were call- 
ed Pharatae or Phariatae. The ruins of Pharse 
in Achaia were observed by Dodwell on the lefl 
bank of the Camenitza." Cram II. Ano- 
ther in Messenia. Vid. Pherce. 

Pharis, a town of Laconia, whose inhabitants 
are called Pharita. Paus. 3, c. 30. 
251 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



Pharmecusa, I. an island of the iEgean Sea, 
where Julius Caesar was seized by some pirates. 

Suet. CcBS. 4. II. Another, where was shown 

Circe's tomb. Strab. 

Pharnacia, a town of Pontus, probably the 
same as Cerasus. 

Pharos, I. a small island in the bay of Alex- 
andria, about seven furlongs distant from the 
continent. It was joined to the Egyptian shore 
with a causeway, by Dexiphanes, B. C. 284, 
and upon it was built a celebrated tower, in the 
reign of Ptolemy Soter and Philadelphus, by 
Sostratus, the son of Dexiphanes. This tower, 
which was called the tower of Pharos, and which 
passed for one of the seven wonders of the 
world, was built with white marble, and could 
be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the 
lop, fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors 
in the bay, which was dangerous and difficult 
of access. The building of this tower cost the 
Egyptian monarch 800 talents, which are equi- 
valent to above 165,000Z. English, if Attic ; or 
if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was 
this inscription upon it, King Ptolemy to the 
Gods the saviours^ for the benefit of sailors ; but 
Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the 
glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, 
and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, 
and wrote the above-mentioned inscription. 
When the mortar had decayed by time, Pto- 
lemy's name disappeared, and the following 
inscription then became visible ; Sostratus the 
Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods the 
saviours, for the benefit of sailors. The word 
Pharias is often used as Egyptian. Lucan. 2, 
V. 636, 1. 3, V. 260, 1. 6, v. 308, 1. 9, v. 1005, &c. 
— Ovid. A. A. 3, V. 635.— P^w. 4, c. 31 and 
85, 1. 36, c. n.— Strab. 11.— Mela, 2, c. 7.— 
Plin. 13, c. \\.— Homer, od. 4.— Mac. 2.— Stat. 

3. Sylv. 2, V. 102. II. A watch-tower near 

Capreae. III. An island on the coast of II- 

lyricum, now called Lesina. Mela, 2, c. 7. 

The emperor Claudius ordered a tower to be 
built at the entrance of the port of Ostia, for 
the benefit of sailors, and it likewise bore the 
name of Pharos, an appellation afterwards giv- 
en to every other edifice which was raised to 
direct the course of sailors, either with lights or 
by signals. Juv. 11, v. 76. — Su£t. 

Pharsalus, " a city of Thessaly, so celebra- 
ted for the battle fought in its plains between 
the armies of Caesar and Pompey, appears to 
have been situated in that part of the province 
which Strabo designates by the name of Thes- 
saliotis. Although a city of considerable size 
and importance, we find no mention of it prior 
to the Persian invasion, Thucydides reports 
that it was besieged by the Athenian general 
Myronides after his success in Boeotia, but with- 
out avail. The same historian speaks of the 
services rendered to the Athenian people by 
Thucydides the Pharsalian, who performed the 
duties of proxenos to his countrymen at Athens ; 
and he also states that the Pharsalians general- 
ly favoured that republic during the Peloponne- 
sian war. Diodorus reports, that on one occa- 
sion Pharsalus was taken by Medius, tyrant of 
Larissa. Xenophon notices it as an indepen- 
dent republic, though it afterwards fell into the 
hands of Jason, lyiaiit of Pherae. Several years 
aflerwards it was occupied by Antiochus, king 
of Syria, but on his retreat from Thessalv it , 
252 



surrendered to the consul Acilius Glabrio. Livy 
seems to make a distinction between the old and 
new town, as he speaks of Palaeo Pharsalus. 
Dr. Clarke in his Travels remarks there are 
but few antiquities at Pharsalus. The name 
of Phersale alone remains to show what it 
once was. South-west of the town there is a 
hill surrounded with ancient walls, formed of 
large masses of a coarse kind of marble. Upon 
a lofty rock above the town, towards the south, 
are other ruins of greater magnitude, shewing 
a considerable portion of the walls of the Acro- 
polis and remains of the Propylaea. According 
to Strabo, Pharsalus was situated near the river 
Enipeus, and not far from its junction with the 
Apidanus, which afterwards enters the Peneus." 
Oram. 

Pharusii, or Phaurusii, a people of Africa, 
beyond Mauretania. According to Pliny, the 
Pharusii were said to have been Persians, who 
accompanied Hercules to Africa. Probably this 
same people are alluded to by Sallust, when he 
describes the Persian followers of Hercules. 
Mela, 1, c. 4. 

Pharybus, a river of Macedonia, more pro- 
perly styled Baphyrus. 

Phaselis, a city in the vicinity of the pass 
which mount Climax, in Lycia, forms with the 
sea. According to D'Anville, Fionda occupies 
the site of the ancient city. Some have assign- 
ed this city to Lycia, others to Pamphylia, and 
others to the Cilicians. This has perplexed 
geographers, as well as the fact that Lucan de- 
scribes Phaselis as a small place, although Stra- 
bo calls it a city of note. Phaselis was origin- 
ally inhabited by Lycians, and was therefore as- 
signed to Lycia. But subsequently, as the Pam- 
phylians extended their dominion over the sea- 
coast, it was attributed to Pamphylia, although 
occupied by Lycians. At a still later period, in- 
duced by the convenience of their harbour, they 
devoted themselves to piracy, or else were pre- 
vailed on by the Cilicians to give protection to 
the pirates. Hence, having deserted the Ly- 
cians, or having been cast off by them, their 
city was called Cilician. After the reduction 
of this ciiy by Publius Servilius, the population 
became very trifling; and hence the epithet 
parva bestowed upon it by Lucan, Mela, 1, 14, 
ed. Voss. 

Phasiana, a canton which was traversed by 
the Aras at its entrance in Armenia. It is now 
Pasiani,orPas7ii, as the Turks call it. D'Anville. 

Phasis, I. a river of Colchis, rising in the 
mountains of Armenia, now called Faoz, and 
falling into the Euxine on the east. It is famous 
for the expedition of the Argonauts, who en- 
tered it after a long and perilous voyage, from 
which reason all dangerous voyages have been 
proverbially intimated by the words of sailing 
to the Phasis. There were on the banks of 
the Phasis a great number of large birds, of 
which, according to some of the ancients, the 
Argonauts brought some to Greece, and which 
were called, on that account, pheasants. The 
Phasis was reckoned by the ancients one of the 
largest rivers of Asia. Plin. 10, c. 48. — Mar- 
tial. 13, ep. e2.—Strab. U.—Mela, 1, c. 19.— 
Apollod. 1, &c. — Pans. 4, c. 44. — Orpheus. 

II. or Araxes, now the Aras. III. A 

city of Colchis, at the mouth of the Phasis. It 
was of Greek foundation. D'Anville, 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



Phelloe, " a fortress of Achaia, distant for- 
ty stadia from -^gira, in the mountains. Its 
territory produced wine, and the oak forests 
around abounded with stags and wild boars. It 
was remarkable also for the number of its 
springs and fountains ; the town contained a 
temple of Bacchus, and another of Diana. Sir 
W. Gell is inclined to place Phelloe near the 
village of Zakoula^ ' where there is a pass 
through a chasm in the mountain, and at the 
top of the pass on the right is a precipitous 
rock, on which the castle may have been situa- 
ted. " Cram. 

Pheneus, " a town of Arcadia, of some note 
and of great antiquity, since Hercules is said to 
have resided there after his departure from Ti- 
ryns, and Homer has mentioned it amongst the 
principal Arcadian cities. The citadel was plac- 
ed on a lofty and steep rock, which was further 
strengthened by artificialworks; it contained a 
temple of Minerva Tritonia, the vestiges only 
of which were apparent when Pausanias tra- 
velled in Arcadia. Below the citadel were the 
stadium and tomb of Iphiclus, and the temples 
of Mercury and the Eleusinian Ceres. Phe- 
neum was surrounded by some extensive marsh- 
es, which are said to have once inundated the 
whole country, and to have destroyed the an- 
cient town. These were principally formed by 
the river Aroanius, or Olbius, which descends 
from the mountains to the north of Pheneus, 
and usually finds a vent in some natural caverns 
or katabathra at the extremity of the plain ; but 
when by accident these happened to be blocked 
up, the waters filled the whole valley, and, com- 
municating with the Ladon and Alpheus, over- 
flowed the beds of those rivers as far as Olym- 
pia. Pausanias reports, that vestiges of some 
great works undertaken to drain the Phenean 
marshes, and ascribed by the natives to Hercu- 
les, were to be seen near the city. There was 
a foss fifty stadia long, and in some places thirty 
feet deep. Pheneus is noticed by Polybius. 
The vestiges of this town according to Dodweil, 
are to be seen near the village of Phonia upon 
an insulated rock. The foundations of the 
walls only remain ; the rest of the ruins consist 
of masses of rubbish and scattered blocks. The 
same antiquary informs us, that the katabath- 
ron of the Aroanius is at the foot of a steep and 
rocky mountain called Kokino-bouno. The lake 
is very small, and varies according to the sea- 
son of the year." Cram. 

Pher^, I. " one of the most ancient and im- 
portant cities of Thessaly, the capital of Adme- 
tus and Eumetus. Subsequently to the heroic 
age we find the Pherseans assisting the Athe- 
nians in the Peloponnesian war, at which time 
they probably enjoyed a republican form of go- 
vernment. Some years after, Jason, a native of 
Pherae, having raised himself to the head of af- 
fairs by his talents and ability, bepame master, 
not only of his own city, but of nearly the whole 
of Thessaly, and, having caused himself to be 
proclaimed generalissimo of its forces, formed 
the most ambitious projects for extendmg his in- 
fluence and aggrandizing his power. These 
were however frustrated by his sudden death, 
which occurred by assassination, whilst celebra- 
ting some public games at Pherae, in the third 
year of the 102d Olympiad. The independence 
of Pherae was not, however, secured by this 



event, as Jason was succeeded by his brothers 
Polydorus andPolyphron. The former of these 
died soon after; not wdthoutsome suspicion at- 
taching to Polyphron, who now became the sove- 
reign of Pherse ; but after the lapse of a year, 
he in his turn was put to death by Alexander, 
who continued for eleven years the scourge of 
his native city and the whole of Thessaly. His 
evil designs were for a time checked by the brave 
Pelopidas, who entered that province at the head 
of a BcEotian force, and occupied the citadel of 
Larissa ; but on his falling into the hands of the 
tyrant, the Boeotian army was placed in a most 
perilous situation, and was only saved by the 
presence of mind and ability of Epaminondas, 
then serving as a volunteer. The Thebans 
subsequently rescued Pelopidas, and under his 
command made war upon Alexander of Pherae, 
whom they defeated, but at the expense of the 
life of their gallant leader, who fell in the ac- 
tion. Alexander was not long after assassinat- 
ed by his wife and her brothers, who continued 
to tyrannize over this country until it was libe- 
rated by Philip of Macedon. Tisiphonus, the 
eldest of these princes, did not reign long, and 
was succeeded by Lycophron, who, being at- 
tacked by the young king of Macedon, sought 
the aid of Onomarchus the Phocian leader. 
Philip was at first defeated in two severe en- 
gagements, but having recruited his forces, he 
once more attacked Onomarchus, and .succeed- 
ed in totally routing the. Phocians, their general 
himself falling into the hands of the victors. 
The consequence of this victory was the capture 
of Pherse and the expulsion of Lycophron. Pi- 
tholaus, his brother, not long after, again usurp- 
ed the throne, but was likewise quickly expel- 
led on the return of the king of Macedonia. Ma- 
ny years after, Cassander, as we are informed 
by Diodorus, fortified Pherae, but Demetrius Po- 
liorcetes contrived by secret negotiations to ob- 
tain possession both of the town and the cita- 
del. In the invasion of Thessaly by Antio- 
chus,Pherae was forced to surrender to the troops 
of that monarch after some resistance. Ix af- 
terwards fell into the hands of the Roman con- 
sul Acilius. Strabo observes that the constant 
tyranny under which this city laboured had has- 
tened its decay. Its territory was most fertile, 
and the suburbs, as we collect from Polybius, 
were surrounded by gardens and walled enclo- 
sures. Stephanus Byz. speaks of an old and 
new town of Pherae, distant about eight stadia 
from each other. Pherae, according to Strabo, 
was ninety stadia from Pagasae its emporium." 

Cram. II. A city of Messenia, to the east 

of the river Pamisus, " where Telemachus and 
the son of Nestor were entertained by Diodes 
on their way from Pylos to Sparta. Pherae was 
one of the seven towns offered by Agamemnon 
to Achilles. It was annexed by Augustus to 
Laconia after the battle of Actium." Cram. 

Phigalea, " a city of Arcadia, situated to the 
west of Lycosura, and beyond the river Plata- 
nistus, on the brow of a lofty and precipitous 
rock which overhung the bed of the Neda. It 
had been founded by Phigakis, son of Lycaon, 
or, as others affirmed, by Phialus,sonof Buco- 
lion, whence it was called Phialea. A curious 
account of the Phigalean repasts is extracted by 
Athenaeus from the work of Harmodius of Le- 
preum. w^ho wrote on the customs and institu- 
253 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



tions of the place. According to the same au- 
thor the Phigaleans had the character of being 
drunkards. In the time of Pausanias the city- 
was still in a flourishing state, and contained a 
forum and several public edifices ; the temple of 
Bacchus Acratophorus stood near the gymna- 
sium, that of Diana Sospita was placed on the 
ascent leading up to the lown : Paulizza now 
occupies the site of the ancient Phigaleia. Sir 
W. Gell informs us that the entire and exten- 
sive circuit of the walls may still be observed ; 
they were defended by numerous towers, some 
of which are circular, situated on rocky hills 
and tremendous precipices. The village of 
Paulizza contains some columns, and other 
fragments of temples. The Neda flowed below 
the town, and was joined, not far from thence, 
by the little river Lymax, near the source of 
which were some warm springs." Cram. 

Phila, the first town in Macedonia, begin- 
ning from the mouth of the Peneus, " situated 
apparently near the sea, at no great distance 
from Tempe. It was occupied by the Romans 
when their army had penetrated into Pieriaby 
the passes of Olympus from Thessaly ; and was 
built, as Stephanus informs us, by Demetrius, 
sonof Antigonus Gonatas, and father of Philip, 
who named it after his mother Phila. The ru- 
ins of this fortress are probably those which Dr. 
Clarke observed near Platamona, which he re- 
garded as the remains of Heracleum." Cram. 

Philadelphia, I. a city of Lydia, " which 
owed this name to a brother of Eumenes, king 
of Pergamus, was situated immediately under 
the extremity of a branch of Tmolus ; but was 
constructed with little solidity in its edifices, as 
being extremely subject to earthquakes. These 
phenomena were most dreadful in their effects 
in the seventeenth year of the Christian era ; for 
then twelve of the principal cities of Asia, par- 
ticularly this and Sardes, were nearly destroyed. 
A great tract of country, which from Mysia ex- 
tended in Phrygia, being at all times most ex- 
posed to these disasters, was called Catdkecau- 
mene^ or the Burnt Country. It must be said, to 
the honour of Philadelphia, that when all the 
country had sunk under the Ottoman yoke, it 
still resisted, and yielded only to the efforts of 
Bajazet I., orllderim. The Turks call it Alah- 
Shehr, or the Beautiful City ; probably by rea- 
son of its situation." D'Anville. II. The 

chief city of Ammonitis, the country of the Am- 
monites. It was more anciently called Ammon 
and Rabbath- Ammon, or the Great Ammon, un- 
til the name of Philadelphia was given to it, pro- 
bably from Philadelph us, king of Egypt. It has 
resumed its primitive name in the form of Am- 
Ttian. D'Anville. III. Another in Cilicia. 

Phil«, I. a town and island of Egypt, above 
the smaller cataract, but placed opposite Syene 
by Plin. 5, c. 9. Isis was worshipped there. 
Lnican. 10, v. Z13.— Seneca. 2, Nat. 4, c. 2. 
II. One of the Sporades. Plin. 4, c. 12. 

Phil^norum ar^. Vid. Ara PhilcBnorum. 

Philene, a town of Attica, between Athens 
and Tanagra. Stat. Tkeh. 4, v. 102. 

Philippi, a town of Macedonia, anciently 
called Datos, and situate at the east of the Stry- 
mon, on a rising ground which abounds with 
springs and water. Mount Pangaeum, which 
was in the vicinity of this city, contained gold 
and silver mines. " These valuable mines na- 
354 



turally attracted the attention of the Thasians, 
who were the first settlers on this coast ; and 
they accordingly formed an establishment in this 
vicinity at a place named Crenides, from the 
circumstance of its being surrounded by nume- 
rous sources which descended from the neigh- 
bouring mountain. Philip of Macedon havmg 
turned his attention to the affairs of Thrace, the 
possession of Crenidae and mount Pangaeum na- 
turally entered into his views ; accordingly he 
invaded this country, expelled the feeble Cotys 
from his throne, and then proceeded to found a 
new .city on the site of the old Thasian colony, 
which he named after himself Philippi. When 
Macedonia became subject to the Romans, the 
advantages attending the peculiar situation of 
Philippi induced that people to settle a colony 
there ; and we know from the Acts of the Apos- 
tles that it was already at that period one of the 
most flourishing cities of this part of their em- 
pire. It is moreover celebrated in history, from 
the great victory gained here by Mark Antony 
and Octavian over the forces of Brutus and Cas- 
sius, by which the republican party was com- 
pletely subdued. Philippi, however, is rendered 
more interesting from the circumstance of its 
being the first place in Europe where the Gos- 
pel was preached by St. Paul, (A. D. 51.) as 
we know from the 16th of the Acts of the Apos- 
tles, and also from the Epistle he has addressed 
to his Philippian converts where the zeal and 
charity of the Philippians towards their Apostle 
received a just commendation. We hear fre- 
quently of bishops of Philippi in the ecclesiasti- 
cal historians ; and the town is also often men- 
tioned by the Byzantine writers. Its ruins still 
retain the name of Filibah. Theophrastus 
speaks of the rosa centifolia, which grew in 
great beauty near Philippi, being indigenous on 
mount Pangaeum." Cram. 

Phintia, a town of Sicily, at the mouth of 
the Himera. Cic. in Verr. 3, c. 83. 

Phinto, a small island between Sardinia and 
Corsica, now Figo. 

Phlegra, or Phlegr^eus campus, a place of 
Macedonia, afterwards called Pallene, where 
the giants attacked the gods and were defeated 
by Hercules. The combat was afterwards re- 
newed in Italy, in a place of the same name 
near Cumae. Sil. 8, v. 538, 1. 9, v. 305.— 
Strab. 5. — DiodA and 5. — Ovid. Met. 10, v. 
351, 1. 12, V. 378, I. 15, v. b2,2.—Stat. 5, Sylv. 
3, V. 196. 

PHLEGY.E, a people of Thessaly. Some au- 
thors place them in BoBotia. They received 
their name from Phlegyas the son of Mars, with 
whom they plundered and burned the temple 
of Apollo at Delphi. Few of them escaped to 
Phocis, where he settled. Pans. 9, c. 36. — 
Hovier. II. 13, v. 301.— S^rai. 9. 

Phltasia. Vid. Phlius. 

Phlius. " The little state of Phlius, though 
an independent republic, may with propriety be 
referred to Argolis, since Homer represents ic 
under the early name of Araethyreaas depend- 
ent on the kingdom of Mycenae. Pausanias de- 
rives this appellation of the city from Araethy- 
rea, daughter of Arus, its earliest sovereign ; 
and states that it afterwards took that of Philius 
from a son of Asopus, who was one of the Ar- 
gonauts. The Phliasian territoiy adjoined Co- 
rinth and Sicyon on the north, Arcadia on the 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



west, and tlie Nemean and CleonBean districts 
on the south and south-east. After the arival of 
the Heraclidffi and Dorians, the Phliasians were 
invaded by a parly of their forces under the 
command of Rhegnidas, a grandson of Teme- 
nus, and compelled to admit these new colonists 
into their city, which thus became annexed to 
the Dorian race. Phlius sent 200 soldiers to 
Thermopylae, and 1000 to Platsea, In the Pe- 
loponnesian war it espoused the Lacedcemonian 
cause, together with the Corinthians and Sic)^- 
onians ; and at a time when those states formed 
a coalition against that power, it still adhered to 
the Spartan alliance. The Phiiasians having 
on this occasion sustained a severe loss in an 
engagement with the Athenian general Iphi- 
crates, they were under the necessity of receiv- 
ing a Lacedaemonian force within their town to 
protect it against the enemy. In gratitude for 
which assistance they readily contributed to the 
expedition subsequently undertaken by the Spar- 
tans against Olynthus, and received the thanks 
of Agesipolis for their zeal on this occasion. 
3S"ot long after, however, they became mvolved 
in war with that powerful state, from their re- 
fusing to make good the agreement they had 
entered into with Sparta, to restore to the ex- 
iles, who had been reinstated by its interference, 
the possession of their property. Agesilaus was 
in consequence deputed by the Spartan govern- 
ment to reduce the refractory city ; and after 
an obstinate siege and blockade, which lasted 
nearly two years, it was compelled to surren- 
der : Delphion, wLo was the principal leader 
of the besieged, and had given great proofs of 
courage and talent, escaped by night during the 
negotiations. It appears from Xenophon that 
at this period Phlius contained more than 5000 
citizens, which supposes a population of 20,000 
souls. Sometime after the capture of the town 
it was again attacked, as the ally of Sparta, by 
the Argives, Boeotians, and other confederates ; 
and would have been taken by assault, but for 
the courage and intrepidity of the inhabitants. 
These being also successful against the Sicy- 
onians and Pellenians, who had invaded their 
territory, and having obtained the assistance of 
some Athenian troops under the command of 
Chares, were finally enabled to maintain their 
independence against all their enemies. In the 
revolutionary period which succeeded the death 
of Alexander, Phlius became subject to despotic 
rule; but on the organization of the Achsean 
league by Aratus, Cleonymus, tyrant of that 
city, voluntarily abdicated, and persuaded his 
countrymen to join the confederacy. The fo- 
rum was decorated with a bronze gilt statue of 
a goat, representing the constellation of that 
name, which the people were desirous of propi- 
tiating, that it might not injure their vines. 
Here was also the tomb of Aristias, an excellent 
writer of satiric plays. Beyond might be seen 
a building called the house of prophecy, and the 
spot said to be the centre of Peloponnesus, near 
which were ranged the temples of Bacchus, 
Apollo, and Isis. The remains of Phlius are 
to be seen not far from the town of Agios Gior- 
gios, on the road to the lake of Stymphalus in 
Arcadia. Sir W. Gell affirms, that the ruins 
extended for some distance across the plain, and 
Pouqueville discovered on the height above the 
Asopus, where the citadel was nlaced, the ves- 



tiges of several temples. This river, as we learn 
from Strabo, had its source on mount Carneates. 
The Arantinus was a hill adjoining that of the 
acropolis. It is now called Agios Basili. These 
mountains separated the Phliasian territorj' 
from the Nemean plain." Cram. 

PnociEA, now Fochia, a maritime town of 
Ionia, in Asia Minor, with two harbours, be- 
tween Cumae and Smyrna, founded by an Athe- 
nian colony. It received its name from Pho- 
'cus, the leader of the colony, or from (jphoccc) 
sea calves^ which are found in great abundance 
in the neighbourhood. The inhabitants, called 
Phocai and Phocaenses, were expert mariners, 
and founded many cities in diflerent parts of 
Europe. They lell Ionia, when Cyrus attempt- 
ed to reduce them under his power, and they 
came, after many adventures, into Gaul, where 
they founded Massilia, now Marseilles. The 
town oi Marseilles is often distinguished by the 
epithet of Phocaica, and its inhabitants called 
Phocceenses. Phocsea was declared independent 
by Pompey, and under the first emperors of 
Rome it became one of the most flourishing 
cities of Asia Minor. Liv. 5, c. 34, 1. 37, c. 31. 
1. 38, c. 2,^.— Mela, 1, c. \1.—Paus. 7, c. 3.— 
Herodot. 1, v. 165. — Strai). 14. — Herat, efod. 
16.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. d.—Plin. 3, c. 4. 

Phocenses, and Phocici, the inhabitants of 
Phocis in Greece. 

Phocicum, a place in Phocis, where "the 
general assembly of the Phocian states was 
usually convened, in a large building erected 
for that purpose." Cram. 

Phocis. " The Greeks designated by the 
name of Phocis that small tract of country which 
bordered on the Locri Ozolae and Doris to the 
west and north-west, and the Opuntian Locri to 
the north ; while to the east it was botmded by 
the Boeotian territory, and to the south by the 
Corinthian gulf Its appellation was said to be 
derived from Phocus the son of .^acus. The 
more ancient inhabitants of the countiy were 
probably of the race of the Leleges ; but tne 
name of Phocians already prevailed at the lime 
of the siege of Troy, since we find them enu- 
merated in Homer's catalogue of Grecian war- 
riors. From Herodotus we learn, that prior to 
the Persian invasion the Phocians had been 
much engaged in war with the Thessalians, and 
had often successfully resisted the incursions of 
that people. But when the defile of Thermopylae 
was forced by the army of Xerxes, the Thes- 
salians, who had espoused the cause of that 
monarch, are said to have urged him, out of 
enmity to the Phocians, to ravage and lay waste 
with fire and sword the territory of that people. 
Delphi and Parnassus on this occasion served 
as places of reftige for many of the unfortunate 
inhabitants, but numbers fell into the hands of 
the victorious Persians, and were compelled to 
serve in their ranks under the command of Mar- 
donius. They seized, however, the earliest op- 
portunity of joining their fellow-countrymen in 
arms; and many of the Persians, who were dis- 
persed after the rout of Platoea, are said to have 
fallen victims to their revengeful fury. A lit- 
tle prior to the Peloponnesian war, a dispute 
arose respecting the temple of Delphi, which 
threatened to involve in hostilities the princi- 
pal states of Greece. This edifice was claimed 
apparentlv by the Phocians as the common 
255 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



property of the whole nation, whereas the Del- 
phians asserted it to be their own exclusive 
possession. The Lacedaemonians are said by 
Thucydides to have declared in favour of the 
latter, whose cause they maintained by force of 
arms. The Athenians, on the other hand, were 
no less favourable to the Phocians, and, on the 
retreat of the Spartan forces, sent a body of 
troops to occupy the temple, and deliver it into 
their hands. The service thus rendered by the 
Athenians seems greatly to have cemented the 
ties of friendly union which already subsisted 
between the two republics. After the battle of 
Leuctra, Phocis, as we learn from Xenophon, 
became subject for a time to Boeotia, until a 
change of circumstances gave a new impulse 
to the character of this small republic, and call- 
ed forth all the energies of the people in de- 
fence of their country. A fine had been im- 
posed on them by an edict of the Amphictyons 
for some reason which Pausanias professes not 
to have been able to ascertain, and which they 
themselves conceived to be wholly unmerited. 
Diodorus asserts, that it was in consequence of 
their having cultivated a part of the Cirrhean 
territory which had been declared sacred. By 
the advice of Philomelus, a Phocian high in 
rank and estimation, it was determined to op- 
pose the execution of the hostile decree ; and, 
m order more eifectually to secure the means of 
resistance, to seize upon the temple of Delphi 
and its treasures. This measure having been 
carried into immediate execution, they were thus 
furnished with abundant supplies for raising 
troops to defend their country. These events 
led to what the Greek historians have termed 
the Sacred war, which broke out in the second 
year of the 106th Olympiad. The Thebans 
were the first to take up arms in the cause of 
religion, which had been thus openly violated by 
the Phocians ; and, in a battle that took place 
soon after the commencement of hostilities, the 
latter were defeated with considerable loss, and 
their leader Philomelus killed in the rout which 
ensued. The Phocians, however, were not in- 
timidated by this ill success, and, having raised 
a fresh army, headed by Onomarchus, they ob- 
tained several important advantages against the 
Amphictyonic army, notwithstanding the acces- 
sion of Philip king of Macedon to the confe- 
deracy. Onomarchus having united his forces 
with those of Lycophron, tyrant of Pherae, then 
at war with Philip, he was enabled to vanquish 
the latter in two successive engagements, and 
compel him to evacuate Thessaly. Philip, how- 
ever, was soon in a state to resume hostilities 
and re-enter Thessaly, when a third battle was 
fought, which terminated in the discomfiture 
and death of Onomarchus. Diodorus asserts, 
that he was taken prisoner, and put to death by 
order of Philip; Pausanias, that he perished by 
the hands of his own soldiers. He was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Phayllus, who at first 
appears to have been successful, but was at 
length overthrown in several engagements with 
the Boeotian troops ; and was soon after seized 
with a disorder, which terminated fatally. On 
his death the command devolved on Phalaecus, 
who, according to Pausanias, was his son ; but 
Diodorus aflSirms that he was the son of Ono- 
marchus. This leader being not long after de- 
posed, the army was intrusted to a commission, 
^ 256 



at the head of which was Philo ; whose totai 
want of probity soon became evident by the 
disappearance of large sums from the sacred 
treasury. He was in consequence brought to 
trial, condemned, and put to death. Diodorus 
estimates the whole amount of what was taken 
from Delphi during the war at 10,000 talents, 
Phalascus was now restored to the command, 
but, finding the resources of the state nearly ex- 
hausted, and Philip being placed by the Am- 
phictyonic council at the head of their forces, 
he deemed all further resistance hopeless, and 
submitted to the king of Macedon, on condition 
of being allowed to retire with his troops to the 
Peloponnesus. This convention put an end at 
once to the Sacred war, after a duration of ten 
years, when a decree was passed in the Amphic- 
tyonic council, by which it was adjudged that 
the walls of all the Phocian towns should be 
razed to the ground, and their right of voting in 
the council transferred to those of Macedonia, 
Phocis, however, soon after recovered from this 
state of degradation and subjection by the assist- 
ance of Athens and Thebes, who united in 
restoring its cities in a great measure to their 
former condition.- In return for these benefits 
the Phocians joined the confederacy, that had 
been formed by the two republics against Philip ; 
they also took part in the Lamiac war after the 
death of Alexander ; and when the Gauls made 
their unsuccessful attempt on the temple of 
Delphi, they are said by Pausanias to have dis- 
played the greatest zeal and alacrity in the pur- 
suit of the common enemy, as if anxious to 
efface the recollection of the disgrace they had 
formerly incurred. The maritime part of this 
province occupied an extent of coast of nearly 
one day's sail, as Dicsearchus reports, from the 
border of the Locri Ozolse to the confines of 
Boeotia." Cram. 

Phcbnice, a province of Syria, bounded on 
the north by Syria proper, on the east and south 
by Palestine, and on the west by the Mediterra- 
nean. Although this country was very incon- 
siderable in extent, being a narrow strip of land 
between the coast of the Mediterranean and the 
Syrian mountains, its inhabitants, notwith- 
standing, hold a high rank among the most re- 
markable nations of Asia. We have not, how- 
ever, a " complete, or even continuous history of 
them ; but only separate accounts, from which, 
however, a picture of them in its great features 
may be traced. It did not form one state, or at 
least not one kingdom ; but contained several 
cities with their territory. But among these 
leagues were formed, and by this means a sort of 
supremacy of the more powerful established, 
especially of Tyre. Yet notwithstanding Tyre 
stood at the head, and perhaps also usurped a 
supremacy in the confederacy, each individual 
state still preserved its constitution within itself. 
In each of them we find kings ; who seem, how- 
ever, to have been limited princes, in as much as 
there were magistrates at their side. Strict des- 
potism could not long subsist in a nation which 
carried on commerce and founded colonies. Of 
the several cities, Tyre is the only one of which 
we have a series of kings, and even this series 
is not altogether unbroken. The flourishing 
period of Phoenicia in general, and especially of 
Tyre, was between 1000—332. In this period 
the Phoenician nation was extended bv sending 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PH 



out colonies 5 of which some, especially Car- 
thage, became as powerful as the mother cities. 
At a very early period they were possessed of 
most of the 'islands of the Archipelago, from 
which, however, they were again driven by the 
Greeks. Their chief countries for colonization 
were partly southern Spain, (Tartessus, Gades, 
Carteja,) partly the northern coast of Africa to 
the left of the lesser Syrtis, (Utica, Carthage, 
Adrumetum,) partly also the north-west coast 
of Sicily, (Panormus, Lilybseum.) It is v^ery' 
highly probable that they also had settlements to 
the east, in the Persian gulf, on the islands Ty- 
los and Aradus (the Bahhrein islands.) The view 
of the PhcEnician colonies serves as a foundation 
for the view of their commerce and navigation ; 
which, however, was extended still further than 
their settlements. It began among them, as 
many other nations, with plundering by sea ; and 
in Homer they still appear as pirates. Their 
chief objects were, their colonial countries, north- 
ern Africa and Spain, especially the latter, on 
account of its productive silver mines. Beyond 
the Pillars of Hercules, the western coast of 
Africa ; Britain and the Scilly islands for tin, 
and probably for amber. From the harbours 
on the northern extremity of the Arabian gulf, 
Elath and Ezion-Geber,they, in connexion with 
the Jews traded Vvdth Ophir, i. e. the rich south- 
ern countries, especially Arabia Felix and 
Ethiopia. From the Persian gulf to the nearer 
Indian peninsula and Ceylon. Andthey also 
undertook several great voyages of discovery, 
among which the sailing round Africa is the 
most important. But their traffic by land, con- 
sisting for the most part of the traffic done in 
the caravans, was of not inferior importance. 
' The chief branches of it were, the African traf- 
fic by caravans for spices and incense ; directed 
as well to Arabia Felix, as to Gerra near the 
Persian gulf. The traffic with Babylon by way 
of Palmyra ; and from there, yet only through 
a medium, across Persia, as far as \\il\e Bucharia 
and little Thibet, perhaps even as far as China. 
The traffic with Armenia and the neighbouring 
countries for slaves, horses, vessels of copper, 
&c. To finish the sketch, we must add their 
own fabrics and manufactures ; especially their 
establishments for weaving and dyeing; the 
purple dye with a liquor extracted from shell- 
fish ; and manufactures of glass and play-things, 
which were disposed of to advantage in their 
trade with rude nations, which commonly con- 
sisted in barter. Several other important in- 
ventions, among which that of letters deserves 
to be first named, are to be attributed to them." 
{Heereri's History of the States of Antiquity ; 
Bancroft's translation.') After Alexander had 
deposed the Sidonian king, and overthrown the 
city of Tyre, Phoenicia followed the common 
fortune of Syria, and was subject to the house 
of Seleucus until made a Roman province. Un- 
der Constantine and his successors a division of 
the country was made, forming the two pro- 
vinces of Phoenicia Prima and Phoenicia Liba- 
nica, from the mount Libanus. The origin of 
the name Phoenicia has given rise to much con- 
jecture. Thus some trace it to Phoenix, the 
son of Agenor, who is said to have succeeded 
his father. But this etymology is too closely al- 
lied to fiction to be entitled to credence. Much 
less rational is the fanciful derivation of Bo- 
PartI.~2 K 



chart, who considers Phoenices a corruption cf 
Ben-Anak, the "sons of Anak." The most 
probable on the whole is that which supposed 
the name Phoenicia to have been applied by the 
Greeks in reference to the palm-trees which 
abound in the country, (poivi^ signifying " a 
palm." " And for a further proof hereof, the 
palm was anciently the special cognizance or 
ensign of this country ; as the olive-branch and 
cony of Spain, the elephant of Africa, the ca- 
mel of Arabia, and the crocodile of Egypt, being 
peculiar to those countries. Bui thus first called 
by the Grecians only ; for, by themselves and 
the people of Israel, their next neighbours, they 
are called Canaanites, or the posterity of Ca- 
naan, five of whose sons were planted here; 
the other six inhabiting more towards the south 
and east, in the land of Palestine." Heyl. 
Cosm. 
Phcbnicia. Vid. Phcenice. 
PHCBNictJsA, now Felicudi, one of the JEolian 
islands. 

Pholoe, a mountain of Arcadia, near Pisa. 
It received its name from Pholus, the friend of 
Hercules, who was buried there. It is often 
confounded with another of the same name in 
Thessaly, near mount Othrys. Plin. 4, c. 6. — 
lAican. 3, V. 198, 1. 6, v. 318, 1. 7, v. Md.— Ovid. 
2. Fast. 2, V. 273. 

Phrixus, a river of Argolis. There is also 
a small town of that name in Elis, built by the 
Minyae. Herodot. 4, c. 148. 

Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor, having 
Lydiaon the west, Cappadocia on the east, and 
Cicilia and Pisidia on the south, with the ex- 
ception of a narrow neck, that, passing the bor- 
ders of these countries, reached south to the 
confines of Lycia, and had Pisidia and Pam- 
phylia on the east. The northern boundaries 
were more uncertain and variable, extending at 
one lime to the borders of Paphlagonia, all 
along that country and Bithynia. This part, 
indeed, was the first habitation of the Phry- 
gians, and yet in the established geography of 
Asia Minor it is not known by this name ; the 
Gallic occupation having caused it to be called 
Galatia. From the western limits ofGalatia, 
however, as far as Lydia, Phrygia still confined 
upon Bith)mia on the north. " The Phryges 
were of Thracian origin, according to Strabo; 
and their first establishments, from the time that 
Gordius and Midas reigned over this nation, 
were towards the sources of the Sangar, which 
divided their territory from Bithynia, according 
to the report of the same author. It is to this part, 
although at first but of small extent compared 
with its subsequent expansion, that the name of 
the greater Phrygia is given by distinction from 
a Phrygia Minor, which encroached on Mysia 
towards the Hellespont, and was thus denomi- 
nated from Phrygians who occupied this coun- 
try after the destruction of Troy. The testi- 
mony of Strabo is explicit; and if the Trojans 
are called Phrygians by Virgil, they became so 
by usurpation ; and that accidental event will not 
justify us in obliterating the distinction between 
Mysia and Phrygia as provinces. But by a 
dismemberment which the kingdom of Bithynia 
suffered on the part of the Romans, and to the 
advantage of the kings of Pergamus, this part of 
the territory, which was Phrygian, assumed 
under these kings the name of Epictetus, or 
257 



PH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PI 



Phrygia, by acquisition. The territory which 
Phrygia possessed towards the south, and con- 
tiguous to Pisidia and Lycia, appears to have 
been called Paroreias ; denoting it in the Greek 
to be in the vicinity of mountains. In the sub- 
division of provinces that took place in the time 
of Constantine, we distinguish two Phrygias : 
one surnamed Pacatiana ; the other Salutaris ; 
and Laodicea appears to have been metropolis 
in the first, and S3^nnada in the second." D'An- 
ville. Lycaonia was also considered to be but 
a subdivision of this extensive province. This 
country was at different times a separate state, 
and successively a constituent part of the king- 
dom ofPergamus and of the praetorian province 
of Asia. Of Phrygia Proper the capital cities 
are Synnada, Apamea, and Cotygeum ; of Phry- 
gia Epictetos, Cibyria; and those of Lycaonia 
and Galatia may be seen under those articles. 
In its geographical features this country was 
not distinguished for its rivers, though the Ly- 
ons had in it the greater part of its course ; the 
Halys formed in part its eastern boundary ; and 
the Masander with the Marsyas rose on its 
western confines. The Taurus mountains, 
however, constituted a striking object on the 
southern limits, w^hich they defined along the 
borders of Pamphylia. Cybele was the chief 
deity of the country, and her festivals were ob- 
served with the greatest solemnity. The most 
remarkable towns, besides Troy, were Laodice, 
Hierapolis, and Synnada. The invention of 
the pipe of reeds, and of all sorts of needle- work, 
is attributed to the inhabitants, who are repre- 
sented by some authors as stubborn, but yielding 
to correction, (hence Phryx verberatus melior,) 
as imprudent, effeminate, servile, and voluptu- 
ous ; and to this Virgil seems to allude, JSn. 
9, V. 617. The Phrygians, like all other na- 
tions, were called Barbarians by the Greeks ; 
their music {Phrygii canius) was of a grave 
and solemn nature, when opposed to the brisker 
and more cheerful Lydian airs, Mela, 1, c. 19. 
—Strab. 2, &.c..—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 429, &c.— 
Cic. 7, ad fam. ep, 16. — Place. 27. — Dio. 1, c. 

50.— Plin. 8, c. m.—Horat. 2, od. 9, v. 16. 

II. A city of Thrace. 

PHTmA, a town of Phthiotis, at the east of 
mount Othrys in Thessaly, where Achilles was 
born, and from which he is often called Pkthius 
Her OS. Horat. 4, Od. 6, v. 4:.— Ovid. Met. 13, 
V. 156.— MeZa, 2, c. 3. 

Phthiotis, a small province of Thessaly, be- 
tween the Pelasgicus Sinus and the Maliacus 
Sinus, Magnesia, and mount ffita. It was also 
called Achaia. Pans. 10, c. 8. " Phthiotis, 
according to Strabo, included all the southern 
portion of Thessaly as far as mount CEla and 
the Maliac gulf. To the west it bordered on 
Dolopia, and on the east reached the confines of 
Magnesia. Referring to the geographical ar- 
rangement adopted by Homer, we shall find 
that he comprised within this extent of territory 
the districts of Phthia and Hellas properly so 
called, and, generally speaking, the dominions 
of Achilles, together with those of Protesilaus 
and Eurypylus. Many of his commentators 
have imagined that Phthia was not to be dis- 
tinguished from the divisions of Hellas and 
Achaia, also mentioned by him ; but other cri- 
tics, as Strabo observes, were of a different opi- 
nion, and the expressions of the poet certainly 
258 



lead us to adopt that notion in preference to 
the other. 

Oi r' sX')(ov (pdir}Vj fid' 'EXAdJa KaWiyvvaiKu. 

Jl. B.6S3. 

^evyov iiTsiT dnavevde 6s' 'EWiiSog evpvyopoiOj 

11. 1. 478. 

Again, it has been doubted, v/hether under the 
name of Hellas he meant to designate a tract of 
country or a city. Those who mclined to the 
former interpretation, applied the term to that 
portion of Thessaly which lay between Pharsa- 
lus and Thebese Phthiotiae; whilst those who 
contended for the latter, identified it with the 
ruins of Hellas, in the vicinity of Pharsalus, 
close to the river Enipeus and the town of Me- 
litaea." Cram. 

Phycus, {v,7ilis,) a promontory near Gyrene, 
now called Ras-al-sern. Lucan. 9. 

Phylace, I. a town of Thessaly, built by 
Phylacus. Protesilaus reigned there, from 
whence he is often called Phylacides. Jjucan. 
6, V. 252. — -II. Atov/n of Arcadia. Pans. 1, 

c. 54. III. A town of Epirus. Liv. 45, 

c. 26. 

Phyle, a. well-fortified village of Attica, at a 
little distance from Athens. C. Nep. in Thras. 
" It was celebrated in the history of Athens as 
the scene of Thrasybulus^ first exploits in behalf 
of his oppressed country, and was situated about 
100 stadia from Athens, according to Diodorus, 
but Demosthenes estimates the distance at more 
than 120 stadia. It belonged to the tribe CEneis. 
The fortress of Phyle, according to Sir W. 
Gell, is now Bigla Castro. ' It is situated on a 
lofty precipice, and, though small, must have 
been almost impregnable, as it can only be ap- 
proached by an isthmus on the east. Hence is 
a most magnificent view of the plain of Athens, 
with the acropolis and Hymettus, and the sea in 
the distance.' Dodwell maintains that its modern 
name is Argiro Castro. He describes at length 
the ruins of the fortress. The town was placed 
near the foot of the castle or acropolis ; some 
traces of it yet remain, which consist of the 
foundations of a square tower, and a transverse 
wall to guard the pass, and several large blocks 
scattered about." Cram. 

Physcos, a town of Caria, opposite Rhodes. 
Strab. 14. 

PicENi, the inhabitants of Picenum, called 
also Picentes. They received their name from 
Picus, a bird by whose auspices they had set- 
tled in that part of Italy. Ital. 8, v. 425. — 
Strah. b.—Mela, 2, c. 4. 

PiCENTiA, the capital of the Picentini. 

PicentIni, a people of Italy, between Luca- 
nia and Campania, on the Tuscan Sea. They 
" occupied an inconsiderable extent of territory 
from the promontory of Minerva to the mouth 
of the river Silarus. We are informed by Stra- 
bo that they were a portion of !he inhabitants of 
Picenum, whom the Romans transplanted thi- 
ther to people the shores of the gulf of Posidonia 
or Paestum. It is probable that their removal 
took place after the conquest of Picenum, and 
the complete subjugation of this portion of an- 
cient Campania, then occupied by the Samnites. 
According to the same writer, the Picentini 
were at a subsequent period compelled by the 



PI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PI 



Romans to abandon the few towns which they 
possessed, and to reside in villages and hamlets, 
in consequence of having sided with Hannibal 
in the second Punic war. As a further punish- 
ment, they were excluded from military service, 
and allowed only to perform the duties of cou- 
riers and messengers." Cravi. — Sil. It, 8, v. 
450.-Tacit.H. 4, c. 62. 

PicENCjM, or PicENUs, AGER, a couulry of Italy, 
near the Umbrians and Sabines, on the borders 
of the Adriatic. ''It may be considered as li- 
mited to the north by the river Msis. To the 
west it was separated from Umbria and the Sa- 
bine country by the central chain of the Appe- 
nines. Its boundary to the south was the river 
Matrinus, if we include in this division the Prse- 
lulii, a small tribe confined between the Matri- 
nus and Helvinus. Little has been ascertained 
respecting the Picentes, except the fact that they 
were a colony of the Sabines, established under 
the auspices of the ancient Picus, a well-known 
character in the Latin mytholog}'-, who trans- 
mitted his name to his colonists. But the Sa- 
bines were not apparently the first or sole pos- 
sessors of the country. The Siculi, Liburni, 
and Umbri, according to Pliny, the Pelasgi, as 
Silius ItalicuG reports, and the Tyrrheni, ac- 
cording to Strabo, all at different periods formed 
settlements in that part of Italy. The conquest 
of Picenum cost the Romans but little trouble : 
it was effected about 484 U. C. not long after 
the expedition of Pyrrhus into Italy ; when 
360,000 men, as Pliny assures us, submitted to 
the Roman authorities. From the same writer 
we learn, that Picenum constituted the fifth re- 
gion in the division of Augustus. This province 
was considered as one of the most fertile parts 
of Italy. The produce of its fruit trees was par- 
ticularly esteemed." Cram. — Liv. 21, c. 6, 1, 
22, c. 9, 1. 27, c. 43. Sil. 10, v. 3\3.—Horat. 2, 
sat. 3, V. 122.— Mart. 1, ep. 44. 

PicTiE, or PicTi, a people of Scythia, called 
also Agathyrsa. They received this name from 
their paintingtheir bodies with different colours, 
10 appear more terrible in the eyes of their ene- 
mies. A colony of these, according to Servius, 
Virgil's commentator, emigrated to the northern 
parts of Britain, where they still preserved their 
name and savage manners, but they are men- 
tioned only by later writers. Of course this is 
to be viewed but as a theory, and that but ill 
sustained. The opinions in regard to these peo- 
ple are numerous, without leading, or promis- 
ing to lead, to any satisfactory, not to say, use- 
ful result. Vid. Caledonia. Marcell. 27, c. 18. 
— Claudian. de Hon. cons. v. 54. — Plin. 4, c. 
\2.—Mela, 2, c. 1. 

PicTAVi, or PiCTONES, a people of Gaul, in 
the modern country of Poictou. Cas. 7, Bell. 
G. c. 4. 

PiERES, a people of Thrace, on the east bank 
of the Strymon-. Vid. Pieria. 

PiERiA, a region of Macedonia. " The na- 
tural boundary of Pieria toward Perrhsebia, the 
contiguous district of Thessaly to the west, was 
the great chain of Olympus, which, beginning 
from the Peneus, closely follows the coast of 
Pieria till beyond Dium, where it strikes off in 
a north-west direction towards the interior of 
Macedonia. This was one of the most interest- 
ing parts of Macedonia ; both in consideration 
of the traditions to which it has given birth, as 



being the first seat of the Muses, and the birth- 
place of Orpheus ; and also of the important 
events which occurred there at a later period, 
involving the destiny of the Macedonian em- 
pire, and many other parts of Greece. The 
name of Pieria, which was known to Homer, 

Yiiepiriv <5' tiri^aua koX ^Hnadiriv ipareivfiv. 

II. S. 226. 

was derived apparently from the Pieres, a Thra- 
cian people, who were subsequently expelled by 
the Temenidae, the conquerors of Macedonia, 
and driven north beyond the Strymon and 
mount Pangaeus, where they formed a new set- 
tlement. The boundaries which historians and 
geographers have assigned to this province 
vary ; for Strabo, or rather his epitomizer, in- 
cludes it between the Haliacmon and Axius. 
Livy also seems to place it north of Dium, while 
most authors ascribe that town to Pieria. Pto- 
lemy gives the name of Pieria to ail the coun- 
try between the mouth of the Peneus and that 
of the Lydias ; and, in fact, if it was not to be 
so defined, we should not know under what 
division to class this extent of coast, which cer- 
tainly appertains to Macedonia. Herodotus and 
Thuc3^dides have not determined the limits of 
Pieria ; but the former rather leads us to sup- 
pose he extends it to the Peneus. Upon the 
whole, therefore, it will be safer to adhere to 
the arrangement of Ptolemy." Cram.^ 

PiERUs, I. a mountain of Thessaly, sacred to 
the Muses, who were from thence, as some 

imagine, called Pierides. II. A river of 

Achaia, in Peloponnesus. III. A town of 

Thessaly. Paus. 7, c. 21. — r-IV. A moun- 
tain, with a lake of the same name, in Mace- 
donia. 

PiGRUM MARE, a name applied to the North- 
ern Sea, from its being frozen. The word Pi- 
gra is applied to the Palus Maeotis. Ovid. 4, 
Pont. 10, V. &\.—Plin. 4, c. \Z.— Tacit. G. 45. 

PiMPLA, a mountain of Macedonia, with a 
fountain of the same name, on the confines of 
Thessaly, near Olympus, sacred to the Muses, 
who on that account are often called Pimplece 
and PimpleadSs. Horat. 1, od. 26, v. 9. — Strab. 
10.— Martial. 12, ep. 11, v. 3.— Stat. I, Sylv. 4, 
V. 26, Sylv. 2, v. 36. 

PiNARUs, or PiNDUs, now Deliso2i, a river fall- 
ing into the sea near Issus, after flowing be- 
tween Cilicia and Syria. Dionys. Per. 

PiNcuM, a town of Moesia Superior, now 
Gradisca. 

PiNDENissus, a town of Comagene, near the 
base of the Amanus Mons. Cicero, when pro- 
consul in Asia, besieged it for 25 days, and took 
it. Cic. ad. M: Ccslium. ad Fam. 2, ep. 10. 

PiNDUs, I. a mountain, or rather a chain of 
mountains, in Greece. " The Greeks applied 
this name to the elevated chain which separates 
Thessaly from Epirus, and the waters falling 
into the Ionian Sea and Ambracian gulf, from 
those streams which discharge themselves into 
the jEgean. Towards the north, it joined the 
great Illyrian and Macedonian ridges of Bora 
and Scardus, while to the south it was con- 
nected with the ramifications of (Eta, and the 
jEtolian and Acarnanian mountains. The most 
frequented passage from northern Epirus into 
Thessaly appears to have led over that part of 
the chain of Pindusto which the name oi mons 
S59 



PI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PI 



Cercetius was attached. And if, as is very like- 
ly, Livy again refers to it under the corrupt 
name of mons Citius, it must have aiforded a 
passage over one of its summits from Macedo- 
nia into Epirus. From Pouqueville's account 
this passage appears to be slill frequented by 
those who cross from Epirus into Macedonia ; 
and he himself proceeded by that route on his 
way to Greuno, which is to be considered as re- 
presenting the ancient Elimea. In the map 
which accompanies his work the mountain 
bears the name of Zygos, or Ian Cantara." 

Cram. II. a town of Doris in Greece, called 

also Cyphas. It was watered by a small river 
of the same name, which falls into the Cephi- 
sus near Lilaea. Herodot. 1, c. 56. 

PiR^us, or Piraeus, a celebrated harbour 
at Athens. Vid. Athence. 

Pisa, a town of Elis, on the Alpheus, at the 
west of the Peloponnesus, founded by Pisus the 
son of Perieres and grandson of iEolus. Its 
inhabitants accompanied Nestor to the Trojan 
war, and they enjoyed long the privilege of pre- 
siding at the Olympic games which were cele- 
brated near their city. This honourable ap- 
pointment was envied by the people of Elis, 
who made war against the Piseans, and, after 
many bloody battles, took their city and totally 
demolished it. It was at Pisa that CEnomaus 
murdered the suitors of his daughter, and that 
he himself was conquered by Pelops. The in- 
habitants were called Pisai. Some have doubt- 
ed the existence of such a place as Pisa, but 
this doubt originates from Pisa's having been 
destroyed in so remote an age. The horses of 
Pisa were famous. The year on which the 
Olympic games were celebrated was often 
called Pisaus annus, and the victory which 
was obtained there was called Pisecs ramus 
olives. Vid. Olympia. Strab. 8. — Ovid. Trist. 
2, V. 386, 1. 4, el. 10, v. 95.— MeZa, 'H.— Virg. 
G. 3. V. \%Q.—Stat. Theb. 7, v. 417.— Paws. 
6, c. '22. 

Pis^, a town of Etruria, built by a colony 
from Pisa in the Peloponnesus. The inhabit- 
ants were called Pisani. " The origin of Pisa 
is lost amidst the fables to which the Trojan 
war give rise, and which are common to so ma- 
ny Italian cities. If we are to believe a tradition 
recorded by Strabo,it owed its foundation to some 
of the followers of Nestor, in their wanderings 
after the fall of Troy. The poets have not failed 
to adopt this idea. Servius reports, that Cato 
had not been able to discover who occupied Pisa 
before the Tyrrheni under Tarcho, with the ex- 
ception of the Teutones. From which account 
it might be inferred, that the most ancient pos- 
sessors of Pisa were of Celtic origin. Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus names it among the towns oc- 
cupied by thePelasgi in the territory of the Sicu- 
li. The earliest mention we have of this city in 
the Roman history is in Polybius, from whom 
we collect, as well as from Livy, that its harbour 
was much frequented by the Romans in their 
communication with Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain. 
It was here that Scipio landed his army when 
returning from the mouths of the Rhone to op- 
pose Hannibal in Italy. It became a colony 572 
A. U. C. Strabo speaks of it as having been 
formerly an important naval station : in his day 
it was still a very flourishingcommercialtown, 
from the supplies of limber which it furnished 
260 



to the fleets, and the costly marbles which the 
neighbouring quarries afforded for the splendid 
palaces and villas of Rome. Its territory pro- 
duced wine, and the species of wheat called 
siligo. The Portus Pisanus was ar the mouth 
of the Arno. We learn from Strabo, that for- 
merly it stood at the junction of the Ausar and 
Arnus, the Serchio and Ar7io, but now they 
both flow into the sea by separate channels. 
Some indication of the junction of these rivery 
seems preserved by the name ot'Osari, attached 
to a little stream or ditch which lies between 
theni." Cram. In the middle ages the Pisani 
became a great people among the small but in- 
dependent and illustrious republics of Italy. 
Their fleets, which covered the mosi distant 
seas then known, bore equally the fame of their 
prowess and the benefits of their commercial 
enterprize and skill ; and the expulsion of the 
Saracens from the islands of the Mediterra- 
nean, was the work of their valour and their 
strength. Having embraced the Ghibeline par- 
ty in Florence, and being continually engaged 
in wars with the republic of Florence principal- 
ly for this cause, and with the Genoese from 
motives of commercial jealousy, the Pisani lo.st 
at last their state in Italy, and Pisa now remains 
deserted amid her palaces, ennobled by a thou- 
sand recollections of early power and splendour, 
a magnificent solitude. 

PisATA, or PisiEi, the inhabitants of Pisa in 
the Peloponnesus. 

PisADRUs, now Foglia, a river of Picenum, 
with a town called Pisaurum, now Pesaro, 
which became a Roman colony in the consul- 
ship of Claudius Pulcher. The town was des- 
troyed by an earthquake in the beginning of 
the reign of Augustus. Mela, 2, c. 4. — Catull. 
82.— Plin. 3.—Liv. 39, c. 44, 1. 41, c. 27. 

PisiDiA, an inland country of Asia Minor, 
between Phrygia, Pamphylia, Galatia, and 
Isauria. It was rich and fertile. The inhabit- 
ants were called PisidcE. Cic. de Div. 1, c. 1. 
—Mela, 1, c. 2.— Strab. 12.— Liv. 37, c. 54 
and 56. 

PisoNis Villa, a place near Baiae in Cam- 
pania which the emperor Nero often frequent- 
ed. Tacit. Ann. 1. 

PisTORiA, now Pistoja, a town of Etruria, at 
the foot of the Appenines, north-east of Pisa 
and Luca, and north-w^est of Florentia, where 
Catiline was defeated. Sallust. Cat. 57. — Plin. 
3, c. 4. 

PiTANE, I. a town of ^olia in Asia Minor, 
between the Evenus and the Caicus, at the 
mouth of the former river opposite Lesbos. 
LMcan. 3, v. 305.— Strab. 13.— Vitruv. 2, c. 3. 

-~Mela,l, C.18.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 357. II. 

A town of Laconia. Pindar, ol. 6, v. 46. 

PiTHRCusA. Vid. ^naria. 

PiTTHEA, a town near Troezene. Hence the 
epithet of Pittheus in Ovid. Met. 14, v. 296. 

PiTULANi, a people of Umbria. Their chiel 
town was called Pitulum. 

PiTYONEsus, a small island on the coast ot 
Peloponnesus, near Epidaurus. Plin. 

PiTYUs, (untis,) now Pitchinda, a town ot 
Colchis, at the mouth of a small stream, which, 
rising in the Corax mons, fell into the Euxine. 
Plin. 6, c. 5. 

PiTYiJSA, a small island on the coast of Ar- 
golis. Plin. 4, c. 12. Two small islands in 



PL 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PL 



the Mediterranean, near the coast of Spain, 
of which the larger was called Ebusus, and 
the smaller Ophiusa, now Yvica and Formen- 
tara, to the soulh-west of the Balearic isles. 
Mela, 2, c. 7. — SLrab. — Plin, 3, c. 5. 

Placentia, now called Piacenza, an ancient 
town and colony of Italy, at the confluence of 
the Trebia and Po. " It was colonized by the 
Romans v/ith Cremona 535 U. C. to serve as a 
bulwark against the Gauls, and to oppose the 
threatened approach of Hannibal, lis utility 
in this latter respect was fully proved, by afford- 
ing a secure retreat to the Roman general after 
the battle of the Ticinus, and more especially 
after the disaster of the Trebia. Placentia 
withstood all the efforts of the victorious Han- 
nibal, and, eleven years after, the attempts which 
his brother Asdrubal made to obtain possession 
of it. The resistance which it offered to the lat- 
ter caused a delay which led to his overthrow, 
and thus eventually perhaps saved the empire." 
Cram. 

Planasia, I. a small island on the Tyrrhene 

Sea. II. Another on the coast of Gaul, where 

Tiberius ordered Agrippa, the grandson of Au- 
gustus, to be put to death. Tacit. Ann. 1. c. 3. 
III. A town on the Rhone. 

PLAT.EA, and E, (arum,) a town of BoBotia, 
near mount Citheeron, on the confines of Mega- 
ris and Attica. " The Plataans, animated by a 
spirit of independence, had early separated them- 
selves from the Boeotian confederacy , conceiving 
the objects of this political union to be hostile to 
their real interests; and had, in consequence of 
the enmity of the latter city, been induced to 
place themselves under the protection of Athens. 
Grateful for the services which they received on 
this occasion from that power, they testified their 
zeal in its behalf, by sending a thousand soldiers 
to Marathon, who thus shared the glory of that 
memorable day. The Plataeans also manned 
some of the Athenian vessels at Artemisium, 
and fought in several battles which took place 
off that promontory ; though not at Salamis, as 
they had returned to their homes after the 
Greeks withdrew from the Euripus, in order to 
place their families and valuables in safety, and 
could not therefore arrive in time. They also 
fought most bravely in the great battle which 
took place near their city against Mardonius, 
the Persian general, and earned the thanks of 
Pausanias and the confederate Greek command- 
ers, for their gallant conduct on this as well as 
other occasions. The Persian army consisted 
of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped 
with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, 
which v/as greatly inferior, lost but few men, and 
among these 91 Spartans, 52 Athenians, and 
16 Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the 
number of the slain. The plunder which the 
Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was im- 
mense. Pausanias received the tenth of all the 
spoils, on account of his uncommon valour dur- 
ing the engagement, and the rest were reward- 
ed each according to their respective meiit. This 
battle was fought on the 22d of September, the 
same day, as the battle of Mycale, 479 B. C. 
and by it Greece was totally delivered for ever 
from the continual alarms to which she was ex- 
posed on account of the Persian invasions, and 
from that time none of the princes of Persia 
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the 



Hellespont. Plataea, which was burnt by the 
army of Xerxes, was soon restored, with the 
assistance of Athens, and the alliance between 
the two cities was cemented more closely than 
before. In the third year of the war, a large 
Peloponnesian force, under Archidamus king of 
Sparta, arrived under the walls of Platasa, and 
having summoned the inhabitants to abandon 
their alliance with Athens, proceeded, on their 
refusal, to lay siege to the town. Worn out at 
length by hunger and fatigue, those Plataeans 
who remained in the town were compelled to 
yield to their persevering and relentless foes, 
who instigated by the implacable resentment of 
the Thebans. caused all who surrendered to be 
put to death, and razed the town to the ground, 
with the exception of one building, constructed 
out of the ruins of the city, which they con- 
secrated to Juno, and employed as a house of re- 
ception for travellers. Though it seems to have 
been the intention of Philip, and also of Alex- 
ander, to restore Plataea, this was not carried 
into effect till the reign of Cassander, who is 
said to have rebuilt both Thebes and Plataea at 
the same time. Dicaearchus, who lived about 
that period, represents the town as still existing, 
when he says, ' The inhabitants of Plataea have 
nothing to say for themselves, except that they 
are colonists of Athens, and that the battle be- 
tween the Persians and the Greeks took place 
near their town.' ' The ruins of Plataea,' ac- 
cording to Dr. Clarke, ' are situated upon a pro- 
montory projecting from the base of Citha^ron. 
The place has now the usual appellation bes- 
towed upon the ruins of Grecian citadels ; it is 
called PalcBo Castro. The walls are of the 
earliest kind of military structure, consisting of 
very considerable masses, evenly hewn, and well 
built.' ' The walls of Plateea,' says Sir W. 
Gell, ' may be traced near the little village of 
Kockla, in their circuit. The whole forms a 
triangle, having a citadel of the same form in the 
southern angle, with a gate towards the moun- 
tain at the point. The north-western angle 
seems to have been the portion which was re- 
stored after the destruction of the city. The 
north side is about 1025 yards in length, the 
west 1154, and the east 1120. It is about six 
geographical miles from the Cadmeia of The- 
bes. There were two gates on the west side, 
and as many on the east." Cram. 

Plavis, a river of Venetia, in Italy. For the 
northern half of its course it formed the boun- 
dary between Rhaetia and Venetia. crossing the 
line and belonging wholly to the latter country, 
some distance south of Feltria. After entering 
Venetia, its course was south-east to the Adri- 
atic, into which it discharged itself north of the 
Portus Venetus. It is now the Piava. 

PLEMRryRiDM, uow Massa Oliveri, a pro- 
montory with a small castle of that name, in 
the bay of Syracuse. Virs[. ^n. 3, v. 693. 

Pleumosii, a people of Belgium, the inhabit- 
ants of modern Tournay. Cas. G. 5, c. 38. 

Plinthine, a to\^ni of Eg}'pt on the coast, 
west of Alexandria and the Mareotis Lacus. 
It gave its name to that part of the Mediterra- 
nean on the coast of which it stood. 

Plinthenetes sinus, that part of the Me- 
diterranean which extended along the coast of 
Africa, from the bay of Alexandria and the 
Avestern mouths of the Nile, as far as the limits 
261 



PO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PO 



of Egypt towards the west, and the borders of 
Marmarica. 

Plotinopolis, L a town of Thrace, built by 
the emperor Trajan, and called after Plotina, 
the founder's wife. It stood on the Hebrus, 
about midway between Adrianopolis,which w^as 
on the other or eastern side of rhe river, and 
Tiajanopolis. II. Another in Dacia. 

Pnyx, a place of Athens, set apart by Solon 
for holding assemblies. Vid. AUiencB. 

PcBcij.E, a celebrated portico at Athens. Vid. 
AlMna. 

PcENi, a name given to the Carthaginians. 
It seems to be a corruption of the word Phmii, 
or Phcenices, as the Carthaginians were of PhcE- 
nician origin. Serv. ad Virg. 1, v. 302. 

PoGON, a harbour of the Troezeneans on the 
coast of the Peloponnesus. It received this 
name on account of its appearing to come for- 
ward before the town of Trcezene, as the beard 
(ffwyw)/) does from the chin. Strab. 8. — Mela, 2. 

Pol A, a city of Istria, founded by the Col- 
chians, and afterwards made a Roman colony, 
and called Pietas Julia. The Colchian ori- 
gin of this place belongs to the fable by which 
the Absyrlides are supposed to have'derived 
their name from the unfortunate brother of Me- 
dea. It was by far the most important place in 
Histria. Plin. 3, c. 2.— Mela, 2, c. S.^Strab. 1 
and 5, 

PoLEMONiuM, now Vatija^ a town of Pon- 
tus, at the east of the mouth of the Thermo- 
don. 

PoLicHNA, I. a town of Troas, on the Ida. 

Herodot. 6, c. 28. II. Another at Crete. 

Thucyd. 2, c, 85. 

PoLLENTiA, 1. now Poleuza, a town of Ligu- 
ria in Italy, famous for wool. There was a cele- 
brated battle fought there between the Romans 
and Alaric king of the Goths, about the 403d 
year of the Christian era, in which the former, 
according to some, obtained the victory, Mela^ 
2, c. 7.— Plin. 8, c. 48.— Suet. Tib. Sl.—Sil. 8, 

V. 598.— Cic. 11, Fam. 13. II. A town of 

Majorca. Plin. & Mela. III. of Picenum. 

Liv. 39, c. 44, 1. 41, c. 27. 

PoLUscA, a town of Latium, formerly the ca- 
pital of the Volsci. The inhabitants were called 
Pollustini. Liv. 2, c. 39. 

PoLYANUs, a mountain of Macedonia, near 
Pindus. Strab. 

POMETIA, POMETII, and POMETIA SUESSA. Vid. 

Suessa. 

PoMPEH, or, according to the Greek form, 
Pompeia, a city of Cainpania. " Tradition as- 
cribed the origin of Pompeii, as well as that of 
Herculaneum, to Hercules; and like that city, 
it was in turn occupied by the Oscans, Etrus- 
cans, Samnites, and Romans. At the instiga- 
tion of the Samnites, Pompeii and Herculaneum 
took an active part in the Social war, but were 
finally reduced by Sylla. In the general peace 
which followed, Pompeii obtamed the rights of 
a municipal town, and became also a military 
colony, at the head of which was Publius Sj^lla 
nephew of the dictator. Other colonies appear 
to nave been subsequently sent here under Au- 
gustus and Nero. In tl;e reign of the latter, a 
bloody affray occurred at Pompeii during the 
exhibition of a fight of gladiators, between the 
inhabitants of that town and those of Nuceria, 
in which many lives were lost. The Pompeiani 
Q62 



were in consequence deprived of these shows 
for ten years, and several individuals were ba- 
nished. Shortly after we hear of the destruction 
of a considerable portion of the city by an earth- 
quake. Of the more complete catastrophe,which 
buried Pompeii under the ashes of Vesuvius, 
we have no positive account ; but it is reason- 
ably conjectured that iiwascaused by the famous 
eruption under the reign of Titus. The ruins of 
Pompeii were accidentally discovered in 1748 ; 
consequently long after the time of Cluverius." 
Cram. " In other times," says Eustace, " and 
in other places, one single edifice, a temple, a 
theatre, a tomb, that had escaped the wreck of 
ages, would have enchanted us : nay, an arch, 
the remnant of a wall, even one solitary column, 
was beheld with veneration ; but to discover a 
single ancient house, the abode of a Roman in 
his privacy, the scene of his domestic hours,was 
an object of fond, but hopeless longing. Here, 
not a temple, nor a theatre, nor a column, nor a 
house but a whole city rises before us, untouch- 
ed, unaltered, the very same as it was eighteen 
hundred years ago, when inhabited by Romans. 
We range through the same streets, tread the 
very same pavement, behold the same walls, en- 
ter the same doors, and repose in the same 
apartments. We are surrounded by the same 
objects, and out of the same windows we con- 
template the same scenery. While you are 
wandering through the abandoned rooms, you 
may, without any great effort of imagination, 
expect to meet some of the former inhabitants, 
or perhaps the master of the house himself, and 
almost feel like intruders who dread the appear- 
ance of any of the family. In the streets you 
are afraid of turning a corner, lest you should 
jostle a passenger ; and on entering a house, 
the least sound startles, as if the proprietor was 
coming out of the back apartments. The tra- 
veller may long indulge the illusion, for not a 
voice is heard, not even the sound of a foot to 
disturb the loneliness of the place, or to inter- 
rupt his reflections." 

PoMPEiopoLis, I. a to-uTi of Cilicia, formerly 
called Soli. This city received its second name 
from Pompey, who established there such of the 
pirates of Cilicia as had been admitted to a ca- 
pitulation in the war carried on against them 
by that general. D^Anville. It was situated 
on the river Lamus, near the mouth. Mela, 1, 
c. 13 II. Another in Paphlagonia, origi- 
nally called Eupatoria, which name was ex- 
changed when Pompey conquered Mithridates. 

PoMPELO, a town of Spain, now Pompelwm, 
the capital of Navarre. Plin. 1, c. 3. 

Pons ^lius, I. was built by the emperor 
Adrian at Rome. It was the second bridge of 
Rome in following the current of ihe Tiber. It 
is still to be seen, the largest and most beautiful 

in Rome. II. iEmylius, an ancient bridge 

at Rome, originally called SiMiciu:^, because 
built with wood {subliccB). It was raised by 
Ancus Martins, and dedicated with great pomjj 
and solemnity by the Roman priests. It was 
rebuilt with stones by JEmylius Lepidus, whose 
name it assumed. It was much injured by the 
overflowing of the river, and the emperor Anto- 
ninus, who repaired it, made it all with white 
marble. It was the last of all the bridges of 
Rome, in following the course of the river, and 
some vestiges of it mav still be seen. III. 



PO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PO 



Aniensis,was built across the river Anio, about 
three miles from Rome. It was built by the 
eunuch Narses, and called after him when des- 
troyed by the Goths. IV. Cestus, was re- 
built in the reign of Tiberius by a Roman called 
Cestius Gallus, from whom it received its name, 
and carried back from an island of the Tiber, to 

which the Fabricius conducted. V. Aure- 

lianus, was built with marble by the emperor 

Antoninus. VI. Armoniensis, was built by 

Augustus, to join the Flaminian to the ^my- ' 

lian road. VII. Bajanus, was built at Baiae 

in the sea by Caligula. It was supported by 
boats, and measured about six miles in length. 

VIII. Janicularis, received its name from 

its vicinity to mount Janiculum. It is still 

standing. IX. Milvius, was about one mile 

from Rome. Ii was built by the censor ^lius 
Scaurus. It was near it that Constantine de- 
feated Maxentius. X. Fabricius, was built 

by Fabricius, and carried to an island of the Ti- 
ber. XL Gardius, was built by Agrippa. 

XII. Palatinus near mount Palatine, was also 
called Se/uitorius, because the senators walked 
over it in procession when they went to consult 
the Sybillme books. It was begun by M. Fal- 
vius, and finished in the censorship of L. Mum- 
mius, and some remains of it are still visible. 

XIII. Trajani, was built by Trajan across the 
Danube, celebrated for its bigness and magni- 
ficence. — The emperor built it to assist more ex- 
peditiously the provinces against the barbarians, 
bat his successor destroyed it, as he supposed 
that it would be rather an inducement for the 
barbarians to invade the empire. It was raised 
on 20 piers of hewn stones, 150 feet from the 
foundation, 60 feet broad, and 170 feet distant 
■one from the other, extending in length above 

a mile. Some of the pillars are still standing. 

XIV. Another was built by Trajan over 

the Tagus. part of which still remains. Of 
temporary bridges, that of Caesar over the Rhine 

w-as the most famous. XV. The largest 

single arched bridge known is over the river 
Elaver in France, called Pons Veteris Brivatis. 
The pillars stand on two rocks at the distance 
of 195 feet. The arch is 84 feet high above the 

water. XVI. Suffragiorum, was built in the 

Campus Martins, and received its name be- 
cause the populace were obliged to pass over 
it whenever they delivered their suffragCo at the 
elections of magistrates and officers of the state. 
XVII. Tirensis, a bridge of Latium, be- 
tween Arpinum and Mintumae. XVIII. 

Triumphalis, was on the way to the capital, 
and passed over by those who triumphed. 



XIX. Narniensis joined two mountains near 
Narnia, built by Augustus, of stupendous 
height, 60 miles from Rome ; one arch of it re- 
mains, about 100 feet high. 

PoNTiA, now Ponza, an island ofi" the coast 
of Latium. "From Li\7- we learn that it re- 
ceived a Roman colony A. U. C. 441, and that 
it obtained the thanks of the Roman senate for 
its zeal and fidelity in the second Punic war. 
It became afterwards the spot to which the vic- 
tims of Tiberius and Caligula were secretly 
conveyed, to be afteru^ards despatched or doom- 
ed to a perpetual exile : among these might be 
numbered many Christian martyrs." Cram. 
_ Pontine, or Pomptin.s; Paludes, an exten- 
sive piece of marshy land in the country of the 



Volsci, extending south towards Minturnse, 
" They derive their appellation from Pametmni, 
a considerable to\\m of the Volsci. Though this 
city was so opulent as to enable Tarquin to 
build the Capitol with its plunder, yet it had 
totally disappeared even before the time of Piiny. 
It is difficulL to discover the precise date of the 
origin of these marshes. Homer, and after him 
Virgil, represent the abode of Circe as an isl- 
and, and Pliny, alluding to Homer, quotes this 
opinion, and confirms it b}' the testunony of 
Theophrastus, who, in the year of Rome 440, 
gives this island a circumference of eighty stadia 
or about ten miles. It is not improbable that 
this vast plain, even now so little raised above 
the level of the sea, may, like the territory of 
Ravenna on the eastern coast, have once been 
covered by the waves. Whatever may have 
been its state in fabulous times, the same Pliny, 
relates, on the authority of a more ancient Latin 
writer, that at an early period of the Roman re- 
public, the tract of country afterwards included 
in the marshes contained thirty-three cities, all 
of which gradually disappeared before the rava- 
ges of war, or the still more destructive influence 
of the increasing fens. These fens are occasion- 
ed by the quantity of water carried into the 
plain by numberless streams that rise at the foot 
of the neighbouring moimtains, and for want of 
suSicient declivity creep sluggishly over the 
level space, and sometimes stagnate ki pools, or 
lose themselves in the sands. Appius Claudius, 
about three hundred years before the Christian 
era, when employed in carrying his celebrated 
road across these marshes, made the first attempt 
to drain them ; and his example was, at long 
intervals, followed by various consuls, emperors, 
and kings, do^^•n to the Gothic Theodoric in- 
clusively. Of the methods employed by Ap- 
pius, and afterwards by the consul Cethegus, 
we know little ; though not the road only, but 
the traces of certain channels dug to draw the 
water from it, and mounds raised to protect it 
from sudden swells of water, are traditionally 
ascribed to the former. Julius Caesar is said to 
have resolved in his might)' mind a design wor- 
thy of himself; of turning the course of the Ti- 
ber from Ostia, and carrying it through the 
Pomptine territory and marshes to the sea at 
Terracina, This grand project, which existed 
only in the mind of the Dictator, perished vrith 
him, and gave way to the more moderate but 
more practicable plan of Augustus, who endea- 
voured to carry off the superfluous waters by 
opening a canal all along the Via Appia from 
Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia. It was 
customary to embark on this canal at night-time, 
as Strabo relates and Horace practised ; because 
the vapours that arise from the swamps are less 
noxious during the coolness of the night than 
in the heat of Ihe day. The canal opened by 
Augustus still remains, and is called the Cavata. 
Nerva resumed the task ; and his glorious suc- 
cessor Trajan, carried it on during ten years, and 
with so much activity that the whole extent of 
country from Trepovti to Tc/racz??r/ was drain- 
ed, and the Via Appia completely restored, in 
the third consulate of that emperor. Of the 
different popes who have revived this useful en- 
terprise, Boniface II., Martin V., and Sixtus 
Gluintus, carried it on with a vigour adequate to 
its importance, and with a magnificence worthy 
•263 



PO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PO 



of the ancient Romans. The glory of finally 
terminating this grand undertaking, so often at- 
tempted and so often frustrated, was reserved for 
the late pontiff Pius VI. who immediately on 
his elevation to the papal throne turned his at- 
tention to the Pompline marshes. His success 
was complete ; this, however, must be under- 
stood upon the supposition that the canals of 
communication be kept open, and the beds of 
the streams be cleared. It is reported that since 
the last French invasion these necessary pre- 
cautions have been neglected, and that the wa- 
ters begin to stagnate again. But it is not to be 
understood that these marshes presented in eve- 
ry direction a dreary and forbidding aspect to 
the traveller or the sportsman who ranged over 
them. On the side towards the sea they are 
covered with extensive forests, that ench)se and 
shade the lakes which border the coasts. These 
forests extend with little interruption from Os- 
tia to the promontory of Circe, and consist of 
oak, ilex, bay, and numberless flowering 
shrubs." Eustace. 

PoNTUs, I. a country of Asia Minor, bound- 
ed north by the Euxine Sea ; east by Armenia ; 
south by Armenia Minor and Cappadocia ; and 
west by Galatia and Paphlagonia ; from which 
it was separated by the river Halys. " Pontus 
was a dismemberment from Cappadocia, as a 
separate satrapy under the kings of Persia, till 
it was erected into a kingdom about 300 years 
before the Christian era. The name of Leuco- 
Syri, or White Syrians, which was given to the 
Cappadocians, extended to a people who inha- 
bited Pontus : and it is plainly seen that the 
term Pontus distinguished the maritime people 
from those who dwelt in the Mediterranean 
country. This great space, extending to Col- 
chis, formed, under the Roman empire, two pro- 
vinces : the one, encroaching on Paphlagonia 
on the side of Sinope, was distinguished by the 
term Prima, and afterwards by the name of 
Helenopontus, from Helen, mother of Constan- 
tine. The other was called Pontus Polemoni- 
acus, from the name of Polemon, which had 
been that of a race of kings; the last of which 
made a formal cession of his state to Nero." 
D'Anville. It was divided into three parts ac- 
cording to Ptolemy, Pontus Galaticus, of which 
Amasia was the capital; Pontus Polemoniacus, 
from its chief town Polemonium; and Pontus 
Cappadocius, of which Tapezus was the capi- 
tal. Continuing for a long time a mere satra- 
py of the Persian empire, from the accession of 
Darius Hystaspes to the Persian throne, when 
its government was bestowed upon Artabazes, 
one of the conspirators against Smerdis, it be- 
came at last an independent monarchy; and, 
under the rule of Mithridates, proved an enemy 
to Rome as formidable almost as Carthage had 
been in the better days of the republic. The 
kingdom of Pontus was in its most flourishing 
state under Mithridates the Great. When J. 
Caesar had conquered it, it became a Roman 
province, though it was often governed by mo- 
narchs who were tributary to the power of 
Rome. Under the emperors a res:ular governor 
was always appointed over it. Pontus produc- 
ed castors, highly valued among the ancients. 
Amasea may be considered the capital of the 
Helenopontus, and was the most considerable 
of the cities of Pontus. The rivers of this coun- 
264 



try deserving to be specially enumerated, were 
the Iris, flowing nearly north through the whole 
width of the widest part ; the Lycus and the 
Scylax, its principal branches ; the Halys on 
the western boundary; and the Thermodon, 
east of the Iris, remarkable not so much for its 
length as for its connexion with the traditionary 
abode of the Amazons. Towards Cappadocia, 
a range of high mountains skirt the whole ex- 
tent of Pontus, and distinguish the southern re- 
gion as a rugged country from the districts on 
the coast, which was a level region and called 
Phanarea. A great number of different tribes 
made up the Pontic population. " There is 
mention in Xenophon's retreat, of the Drylceas 
adjacent to Trebisond. These nations received 
the general name of Chalybes, from being occu- 
pied in the forging of iron. They are mention- 
ed by Strabo under the name of Chaldai; and 
all this country, distributed into deep valleys and 
precipitate mountains, is still called Keldir. 
The character of the people corresponded with 
the face of the country as above described ; 
which was composed of Hepta-cometce, or seven 
communities." D'Anville. Pontus as a diocese 
under the distribution of Constantine, included 
Bithynia, Galatia, and the Armenias; the capi- 
tal being Neo-Caesarea, towards the mountains 
and the country of the Chalybes or Chaldaei. 
Virg. G. 1, V. b8.—Mela, 1, c. 1 and 19.— 
Strab. 12. — Cic. pro Leg.— Man. — Appian. — 

Ptol. 5, c. 6. n. A partof Moesia in Europe, 

on the borders of the Euxine Sea, where Ovid 
was banished, and from whence he wrote his 
four books of epistles <:/e Ponlo, and his six books 
de Tristibus. Ovid, de Pont. 

Pontus EuxiNUs. Vid.Euxiniis. 

PopuLONiA, or PopuLONiuM, a town of Etru- 
ria, near Pisae, destroyed in the civil wars of 
Sylla. Strd). 5.— Virg. Mn. 10, v. 172.— 
Mela, 2, c. b.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 

Porta Capena, I. a gate at Rome, which 
leads to the Appian road. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 
192. II. Aurelia, a gate at Rome, which re- 
ceived its name from Aurelius, a consul who 
made a road which led to Pisa, all along the 

coast of Etruria. III. Asinaria, led to mount 

Coelius. It received its name from the family 

of the Asinii. IV. Carraentalis, was at the 

foot of the capitol, built by Romulus. It was 
afterwards called Scelerata, because the 300 
Fabii marched through when they went to fight 
an enemy, and were killed near the river Cre- 

mera. V. Janualis, was near the temple of 

Janus. VI. Esquilina, was also called Melia, 

Taurica, or Libitinensis, and all criminals who 
were going to be executed generally passed 
through, as also dead bodies which were carried 

to be burnt on mount Esquilinus. VII. Fla- 

minia, called also Flumentana, was situate be- 
tween the capitol and mount durrinalis, and 

through it the Flaminian road passed. -VIII. 

Fontinalis, led to the Campus Martins. It re- 
ceived its name from the great number of foun- 
tains that were near it. IX. Navalis, was 

situate near the place where the ships came 

from Ostia. X. Viminalis, was near mount 

Viminalis. XI. Trigemina, called also Os- 

tiensis, led to the town of Ostia. XII. Ca- 

tularia,was near the Carmentalis Porta, at the 

foot of mount Viminalis. XIII. Collatina, 

received its name from its leading to CoUatia. 



PR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PS 



-XIV. Collina, called also Quirinalis, 

Agonensis, and Salaria, was near duirinalis 
Mons. Annibal rode up to this gate and threw 
a spear into the city. It is to be observed, that 
at the death of Romulus there were only three 
or four gates at Rome, but the number was in- 
creased, and in the time of Pliny there were 
37, when the circumference of the walls was 
13 miles and 200 paces. 

PosiDEUM, I. a promontory and town of Ionia, 

where Neptune had a temple. Strab. 14. 

II. A town of Syria, below Libanus. Plm. 5, 

c. 20. III. A town near the Strymon, on 

the borders of Macedonia. Pli7i. 4, c. 10. 

PosiDONiA. Vid. Pastum. 

PosiDONroM, a town or temple of Neptune, 
near Caenis in Italy, where the straits of Sicily 
are narrowest, and scarce a mile distant from 
the opposite shore. 

PoTAMos, a town of Attica, near Sunium. 
Strai. 9. 

PoTiDSA, a town of Macedonia, situate in 
the peninsula of Pallene. It was founded by a 
Corinthian colony, and became tributary to the 
Athenians, from whom Philip of Macedonia 
took it. The conqueror gave it to the Olyn- 
thians to render them more attached to his in- 
terest. Gassander repaired and enlarged it, and 
called it Cassandria^ a name which it still pre- 
serves, and which has given occasion to Livy to 
say, that Gassander was the original founder of 
that city, Liv. 44, c. 11. — Demosth. Olijnth. — 
Strab. I.—Paus. 5, c. ^^.—Mela, 2, c. 2. 

PoTNi-E, I. a town of Boeotia. where Bacchus 
had a temple. The Potnians having once mur- 
dered the priest of the god, were ordered by the 
oracle, to appease his resentment, yearly to offer 
on his altars a young man. This unnatural 
sacrifice was continued for some years, till Bac- 
chus himself substituted a goat, from which cir- 
cumstance he received the appellation of jE go- 
bolus and jEgophagus. There was here a 
fountain, whose waters made horses run mad as 
soon as they were touched. There were also 
here certain goddesses called Potniades, on 
whose altars, in a grove sacred to Geres and 
Proserpine, victims were sacrificed. It was also 
usual, at a certain season of the year, to con- 
duct into the grove young pigs, which were 
found the following year in the groves of Do- 
dona. The mares of PotniiK destroyed their 
master Glaucus, son of Sisyphus. ( Vid. Glau- 
cus.) Pans. 9, c. 8.— Virg. G. 3, v. 267.— 
JEHan. V. H. 15, c. 25. II. A town of Mag- 
nesia, whose pastures gave madness to asses, 
according to Pliny. 

Pr^neste, a town of Latium, about 21 miles 
from Rome, built by Telegonus, son of Ulysses 
and Circe, or, according to others, by Caeculus 
the son of Vulcan. There was a celebrated 
temple of Fortune there with two famous ima- 
ges, as also an oracle, which was long in great 
repute. Cic. de Div. 2, c. 41. — Virg. JEn. 7, v. 
Q^Q.—Horat. 3, od. A.— Stat. 1, Sylv. 3. v. 80. 

Pr^etoria, I. a town of Dacia, now Cron- 
stadt. II. Another. Vid. Augusta. 

Prasias, a lake between Macedonia and 
Thrace, where were silver mines. Herodot. 5, 
c.17. 

Prelius, a lake in Tuscany, now Castiglione. 
Cic. Mil. Tl.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 

Priapus, I. a iowrci of Asia Minor, near ^ 

Part I.— 2 L 



iLampsacus, now Caraboa. Priapus was the 

I chief deity of the place, and from him the town 

received its name, because he had taken refuge 

there when banished from Lampsacus. Strab. 

12.—Plin. 5, c. 32.— Mela, 1, c. 9. 11, An 

island near Ephesus. Plin. 5, c. 31, 

Priene, a maritime town of Asia Minor, at 
the foot of mount Mycale, one of the twelve in- 
dependent cities of Ionia, It gave birth to Bias, 
one of the seven wise men of Greece. It had 
been built by an Athenian colony. Paus. 7, c. 
2, 1. 8, c. 24..— Strab. 12, 

Privernum, now Piperno Vecchio, a town of 
the Volsci in Italy, whose inhabitants were call- 
ed Privernaies. It became a Roman colony. 
Liv. 8, c. \Q.— Virg. jEn. 11, v. 540.— Cic. 1, 
Div. 43. 

PpncHYTA, an island of Campania, in the bay 
of Puteoli, now Procita. It was situated near 
Inarima, from which it was said that it had 
been separated by an earthquake. It received 
its name, according to Dionysius, from the 
nurse of JEneas. Virg. JEn. 2, v. 715, — Mela, 
2, c. 7. — Dionys. Hal. 1. 

Proconnesus, now Marmora, an island of 
the Propontis, at the north-east of Gyzicus ; also 
called Elaphonnesus and Neuris. It was fa- 
mous for its fine marble. Plin. 5, c. 32. — Sirai. 
13.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 

Promethei Jugum and Antrum, a place on 
the top of mount Caucasus, in Albania. 

Propontis, a sea which has a coihmunica- 
tion with the Euxine,by the Thracian Bospho- 
rus, and with ihe ^gean by the Hellespont. 
The name designates its position in relation to 
that of the Ponius Euxinus, being compounded 
of Trpo and IIoi/Toj, "An isle which it includes, 
but nearer to Asia than Europe, and of which 
the modern name is Marmora, communicates 
this name to the Propontis, which is also called 
the White Sea, in contradistinction to the name 
of Black Sea, which is given to the Euxine." 
D'Anville. 

Prosymna, " a town of Argolis, which Stra- 
bo places near Midea, and which contained a 
temple of Juno. The vestiges of this town are 
to be seen on a hill near the sea, and above the 
port of Tolone, which it overlooks; those of 
Midea are more inland ; near the monastery of 
Agios Adrianos, where there is a Palao Cas- 
tro on a bold rock, the walls are of ancient 
masonry." Cram. 

Protei Column^:, a place in the remotest 
parts of Egypt. Virg. jEn. 11, v. 262. 

Protesilai turris, the monument of Pro- 
tesilaus, on the Hellespont. Plin. 4, c. 11. — 
Mela, 2, c. 2. 

Prusa, one of the principal cities of Bithy- 
nia, situated at the foot of mount Olympus, on 
the northern side. " This city, afterwards sig- 
nalized by the residence of the Ottoman sultans 
before the taking of Constantinople, still pre- 
serves its name, although the Turks, by their 
pronunciation, change the P into B, and, re- 
fusing to begin a word with two consonants, 
call it Bursa.^' lyAnville. 

Psamathos, a town on the Laconian gulf, 
also called Araathus. Strabo uses the latter 
appellation, Pausaniasthe former. Porto Quag- 
lio probably occupies the site of the ancient 
town. Cram. 

PsAPffls, " a demus belonging to the tribe 
265 



PT 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PU 



-Mantis, as we learn from an inscription cited by 
Spon, to the north of Rhamnus. Strabo also 
states that it was situated near Oropus. The 
vestiges of Psaphis remain midiscovered, but it 
is probable they would be found near the pre- 
sent town of Marcopuli." Cram. 

PsoPHis, " placed by Pausanias at the foot of 
the chain of mount Erymanthus, from whence 
descended a river of the same name which 
flowed near the town, and, after receiving ano- 
ther small stream called Aroanius, joined the 
Alpheus on the borders of Elis. Psophis was 
apparently a city of great antiquity, having pre- 
viously borne the names of Erymanthus and 
Phegea. At the time of the Social war it was 
ill the possession of the Eleans, on whose terri- 
tory it bordered, as well as on that of the Achae- 
ans; and, as it was a place of considerable 
strength, proved a source of great annoyance 
to the latter people. Philip, king of Macedon, 
then in alliance with the Achaians, after de- 
feating the Eleans near Orchomenus, advanced 
against Psophis, and reaching it in three days 
from Caphyae, proceeded to assault the town, 
notwithstanding the great strength of its posi- 
tion and the presence of a numerous garrison. 
Such was the suddenness and vigour of the at- 
tack, that after a short resistance the Eleans 
fled to the citadel, leaving the assailants in pos- 
session of the town. The acropolis also not 
long after capitulated. After this success, Phi- 
lip made over the conquered town to the Achae- 
ans, who garrisoned it with their own troops. 
In the time of Pausanias, Psophis presented no- 
thing worthy of notice, but the temple of Ery- 
manthus, the tomb of Alcmaeon, and the ruins 
of a teniple once sacred to Venus Erycina. The 
territory of this city extended as far as a spot 
named Seirse, near the Ladon, where that of 
Clitor commenced. The remains of Psophis 
are to be seen near the khan of Tripotamio., so 
called from the junction of three rivers. Pou- 
queville observed there several vestiges of the 
ancient fortifications, the foundations of two 
temples, a theatre, and the site of the acropolis." 
Cram. 

PsYCHRUs, a river of Thrace. When sheep 
drank of its waters they were said always to 
bring forth black lambs. Aristot. 

PsYLLi, a people of Libya, near the Syrtes, 
very expert in curing the venomous bite of ser- 
pents, which had no fatal effect upon them. 
Strab. n-Dio. 51, c. li.-lAican. 9, v. 894, 
m.—Herodot. 4, c. 173.— Paws. 9, c. 28. 

Pteleum, " a town of Thessaly, distant, ac- 
cording to Artemidorus, one hundred and ten 
stadia from Alos. Homer ascribes it to Prote- 
silaus, together with the neighbouring town of 
Atron. Diodorus notices the fact of this city 
having been declared free by Demetrius Polior- 
cetes when at war with Cassander. In Livy, 
it is nearly certain that for Pylleon we should 
read Pteleon, as this place is mentioned in con- 
nexion with Antron. Antiochus landed here 
with the intention of carrying on the war 
against the Romans in Greece. Elsewhere 
the same historian informs us that Pteleon, hav- 
ing been deserted by its inhabitants, was com- 
pletelv destroyed by the Roman consul Licini- 
us. Pliny speaks of a forest named Pteleon, 
without noticing the town. The ruins of Pte- 
leum probably exist near the present village of 
366 



Ptelio, though none were observed by Mr. 
Dodwell on that site." Cram. 

Pteria, a well-fortified town of Cappadocia, 
It was in this neighbourhood, according to some, 
that Croesus was defeated by Cyrus. Herodot. 
1, c. 76. 

Ptolem5:um, a certain place at Athens, dedi- 
cated to exercise and study. Cic. 5, dejin. 

Ptolemais, a town of Thebais in Egypt, 
called after the Ptolemies, who beautified it. 
There was also another city of the same name 
in the territories of Cyrene. It was situate on 
the sea-coast, and, according to some, it was 

the same as Barce. Vid. Barce. II. A 

city of Palestine, called also Aeon. Mela, 1, c. 
8, 1. 3, c. Q.—Plin. 2, c. 13.— Strab. 14, &c. 

PuLCHRUM, apromontoiy near Carthage, now 
Rasafran. Liv. 29, c. 27. 

PuRPURARiiE. Vid. FortunatcB Insula;. 

PuTEOLi, " a town of Greek origin, and first 
called Dicccarchia. It was erected by the in- 
habitants of Cumae as a sea-port, and is by some 
supposed to have derived its original appellation 
from the excellence of its government, an ad- 
vantage which few colonies have ever enjoyed. 
However, it owes its present name, and indeed 
its fame and prosperity, to the Romans, who, 
about two centuries before the Christian era, 
fortified it, and made it the emporium of the 
commerce of the east. Its situation as a sea- 
port is indeed unrivalled. It stands on a point 
that juts out a little into the sea, nearly in the 
centre of a fine bay, called from it Puleolano 
or Puzzolano. Its prominence forms a natural 
port, if a port can be wanting in a bay so well 
covered by the surrounding coasts, and divided 
into so many creeks and harbours. It is easy 
to guess what the animation and splendour of 
Puteoli must have been at the time when the 
riches of the east were poured into its bosom, 
and when its climate, baths, and beauty, allured 
the most opulent Romans to its vicinity. Com- 
merce has long since forsaken it; the attraction 
of its climate and its situation still remain, but 
operate very feebly on the feelings of a people 
little given to rural enjoyments. Its population, 
which formerly spread over the neighbouring 
hills, and covered them with public and private 
edifices, is now confined to the little prominent 
point which formed ihe ancient port ; and all 
the magnificence of antiquity has either been 
undermined by time, demolished by barbarism, 
or levelled in the dust by earthquakes. Ves- 
tiges however remain, shapeless indeed and de- 
formed, but numerous and vast enough to give 
some idea of its former extent and grandeur. 
In the square stands a beautiful marble pedestal, 
with basso relievos on its pannels, representing 
the fourteen cities of Asia Minor, which had 
been destroyed by an earthquake and rebuilt by 
Tiberius. It supported a statue of thai emperor, 
erected by the same cities as a monument of 
their gratitude. Each city is represented by a 
figure bearing in its hand some characteristic 
emblem. The cathedral is supposed to stand on 
the ruins of a temple, and is undoubtedly built 
in a great degree of ancient materials, as ap- 
pears by the blocks of marble which in many 
places form its walls." Eustace. 

PuTicuLi, pits dug in the Campus Esquili- 
nus, in which the dead bodies of the lower or- 
ders were buried in the early days of Rome. 



PY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PY 



" These holes were called puticuli, from their 
resembiance to wells, or more probably from the 
stench which issued from them in consequence 
of this practice." {Cram.) Vid. Campus Es- 
quilinus. 

Pydna, a city of Macedonia, " celebrated for 
the decisive victory gained by P. jEmilius over 
the Macedonian army under Perseus, which put 
an end to that ancient empire. The earliest 
mention of this town is in Scylax, who styles it 
a Greek city, from which it appears to have been 
at that time independent of the Macedonian 
princes. Thucydides speaks of an attack made 
upon it by the Athenians before the Peloponne- 
sian war. It was afterwards taken by Arche- 
laus king of Macedon, who removed its site 
twenty stadia from the sea, as Diodorus Siculus 
asserts ; bat Thucydides states, that it had been 
long before that period in the possession of Alex- 
ander the son of Amyntas, and that Themisto- 
cles sailed from thence on his way to Persia. 
After the death of Archelaus, Pydna again fell 
into the hands of the Athenians, but the circum- 
stances of this change are not known to us; 
Mr. Mitford is inclined to think it occurred du- 
ring the reign of Philip, and makes the first jup- 
ture between that sovereign and the Athenians 
the consequence of that event ; but this I be- 
lieve is unsupported by any direct testimony ; 
all that we know is, that Athens was at some 
time or other in possession of Pydna and the ad- 
joining towns, but that it was afterwards taken 
from them by Philip, and given to Olynthus. 
The next fact relative to Pydna, which is re- 
corded in history, is posterior to the reign of 
Alexander the Great, whose mother Olympias 
was here besieged by Cassander ; and all hopes 
of relief being cut off, by an entrenchment hav- 
ing been made round the town from sea to sea, 
famine at length compelled Olympias to surren- 
der, when she was thrown into prison, and soon 
after put to death. Livy speaks of two small 
rivers which fall into the sea near Pydna, the 
JEson and Leucus, and a mountain named Olo- 
crus; their modern appellations are unknown 
to us. The Epitomizer of Strabo says, that in 
his time it was called Kitros, as likewise the 
Scholiast to Demosthenes; and this name is 
still attached to the spot at the present day. Dr. 
Clarke observed at Kitros 3. Yast tumulus, which 
he considered with much probability, as mark- 
ing the site of the great battle fought in these 
plains." Cram. 

PvGMiEi, a nation of dwarfs, in the extremest 
parts of India, or, according to others, in jEthio- 
pia. Some authors affirm, that they were no 
more than one foot high, and that they built 
their houses with e^g^ shells. Aristotle says 
that they lived in holes under the earth, and 
that they came cut in the harvest time with 
hatchets to cut down the corn as if to fell a fo- 
rest. They went on goats and lambs of pro- 
portionable stature to themselves, to make war 
against certain birds whom some call cranes, 
which came there yearly from Scythi a to plun- 
der them. They were originally governed by 
Gerana, a princess, who was changed into a 
crane for boasting herself fairer than Juno. 
Ovid. Met. 6, V. "dO.— Homer. U. 3.—Strab. 7.— 
Arist.Anim. 8, c. 12.—Juv. 13, v. 186.— Plin. 4, 
Sec—Mela, 3, c. Q.—Suet. in Aug. 83. 

Pyls. The word PyZ«, which signifies ^ai^s. 



was often applied by the Greeks to any straits 
or passages which opened a communication be- 
tween one country and another, such as the 
straits of Thermopylae, of Persia, Hyrcania, &c. 

Caspi^. Vid. CaspicB Pyla. Cilicije. 

Vid. Cilicia. 

Pylos, I. a town of the province of Elis, 
about 80 stadia to the east of the city of that 
name. It " disputed with two other towns of 
the same name the honour of being the capital 
of Nestor's dominions ; these were Pylos of Tri- 
phylia and the Messenian Pylus, of which we 
have yet to speak. Pausanias writes that the 
Elean city was originally founded by Pylus, son 
of Cleson, king of Megara ; but that having 
been destroyed by Hercules, it was afterwards 
restored by the Eleans. Diodorus says that in 
the expedition of the Lacedaemonians against 
Elis, under their king Pausanias, they encamp- 
ed close to Pylos, of which they made them- 
selves masters. He also states that it was sev- 
enty stadia from Elis ; but Pausanias reckons 
eighty. Pliny places it at a distance of twelve 
miles from Olympia. This town was deserted 
and in ruins when Pausanias made the tour of 
Elis. We collect from Strabo that Pylos was 
at the foot of mount Pholoe, and between the 
heads of the rivers Peneus and Selleis. This 
site agrees sufficiently with a spot name Par- 
tes^ where there are vestiges of antiquity under 
mount Maura bouni, which must be the" Pholoe 
of the ancients. Near Pylos flowed the Ladon, 
a small stream that discharged itself into the 
Peneus. In modern maps it is called Derviche 

or Tcheliber.^' Cram. II. Tryphiliagus, 

another town of the same province, " regarded 
by Sirabo with great probability as the city of 
Nesios, is placed by that geographer at a dis- 
tance of thirty stadia from the coast, and near a 
small river once called Amathus and Pamisus, 
but subsequently Mamaus and Arcadicus. The 
epithet rjnaddeis, applied by Homer to the Py- 
lian territory, was referred to the first of these 
names. Notwithstanding its ancient celebrity, 
this city is scarcely mentioned in later times. 
Pausanias even does not appear to have been 
aware of its existence. Strabo, affirms, that, on 
the conquest of Triphylia by the Eleans, they 
annexed its territory to the neighbouring town 
of Lepreum. The vestiges of Pylos are thought 
by Sir W. Gell to correspond with a Palaio 
Castro situated at Piskini, or Pischioii, about 
two miles from the coast. Near this is a village 
called Sarene, perhaps a corruption of Arene." 

Cram. III. Messeniacus, a city on the 

Messenian coast, at the foot of mount .^galeus, 
" regarded by many as the capital of Nestor's 
dominions, and at a later period celebrated for 
the brilliant successes obtained there by the 
Athenians in the Peloponnesian war. It is ne- 
cessary, however, to distinguish between the an- 
cient city of Pylos and the fortress which the 
Athenian troops, under Demosthenes, erected 
on the spot termed Coryphasium by the Lace- 
daemonians. Strabo affirms, that when the town 
of Pylos was destroyed, part of the inhabitants 
retired to Coryphasium : but Pausanias makes 
no distinction between the old and new town, 
simply stating that Pylos, founded by Pylus son 
of Cleson, was situated on the promontory of 
Coryphasium. To Pylus he has also attributed 
, the foundation of Pylos in Elis, whither that 
267 



PY 



QSOGRAPHV. 



PY 



chief retired on his expulsion from Messenia by 
Neleus and the Thessalian Pelasgi. He adds, 
that a temple of Minerva Coryphasia was to be 
seen near the town, as well as the house of Nes- 
tor, whose monument was likewise shewn there. 
Strabo, on the contrary, has been at considerable 
pains to prove that the Pylos of Homer was not 
in Messenia, but in Triphyjia. From Homer's 
description he observes, it is evident that Nes- 
tor's dominions were traversed by the Alpheus; 
and from his account of Telemachus's voyage, 
when returning to Ithaca, it is also clear that 
the Pylos of the Odyssey could neither be the 
Messenian nor the Elean city ; since the son of 
Ulysses is made to pass Cruni, Chalcis, Phea, 
and the coast of Elis, which he could not have 
done, if he h-ad set out from the last-mentioned 
place ; if from the former, the navigation would 
have been much longer than from the descrip- 
tion we are led to suppose, since we must reck- 
on 400 stadia from the Messenian to the Tri- 
phylian Pylos only, besides which, we may pre- 
sume the poet would in that case have named 
the Neda, the Acidon, and other intervening 
rivers and places. Again ; from Nesior's ac- 
count of his battle with the Epeans, he must 
have been separated from that people by the 
Alpheus, a statement which cannot be recon- 
ciled with the position of the Elean Pylos. If, 
on the other hand, we suppose him to allude to 
the Messenian city, it will appear very improba- 
ble, that Nestor should make an incursion into 
the country of the Epei, and return from thence 
with a vast quantity of cattle which he had to 
convey such a distance. His pursuit of the 
enemy as far as Buprasium and the Olenian 
rock, after their defeat, is equally incompatible 
with the supposition that he marched from Mes- 
senia. In fact, it is not easy to understand how 
there could have been any communication be- 
tween the Epeans and the subjects of Nestor, if 
they had been so far removed from each other. 
But as all the circumstances mentioned by Ho- 
mer agree satisfactorily with the situation of the 
Triphylian city, we are necessarily induced to 
regard it as the Pylos of Nestor. Such are the 
chief arguments advanced by Strabo in support 
of his opinion ; and they must, we imagine, be 
deemed conclusive in deciding the question. At 
the same time it must be confessed, that there 
are still some obscure points in the Homeric 
geography relative to Nestor's dominions which 
require elucidation, notwithstanding the atten- 
tion bestowed upon the subject by Strabo. The 
sites of Arene and Thryoessa in particular are 
very dubious ; and thus the whole account of 
Nestor's operations against the Epeans is in- 
volved in uncertainty. We must now endea- 
vour to identify the positions of Pylos and Co- 
ryphasium with those places which are known 
to us from maps and the information conveyed 
by travellers in modern Greece. We learn from 
Pausanias's history of the Messenians that Py- 
los was a sea-port town, and Thucydides affirms 
that it was the most frequented haven of that 
people. It was nearly closed by the island of 
Sphacteria, which, like the islet Rhenea with 
respect to Delos, stood in front of the port. Ac- 
cording to Thucydides, it had two entrances, 
one on each side of the island, but of unequal 
breadth ; the narrowest being capable of admit- 
'ing only two vessels abreast. The harbour it- 
268 



self must have been very capacious for two sucn 
considerable fleets as those of Athens and Spar- 
ta to engage within it. These characteristics 
sufficiently indicate the port or bay of Navarino 
and the scene of those most interesting events 
of the Peloponnesian war, which are detailed in 
the fourth book of Thucydides^; but antiquaries 
are not agreed as to the exact position which 
should be assigned to Coryphasium ; D'An- 
ville fixes it at New JSavarino^ on the south side 
of the harbour, but Barbie du Bocage at Old 
Navarino on the opposite or north side of the 
bay. Now we learn from Pausanias, that Py- 
los or Coryphasium was at least 100 stadia from 
Methone, or Modon, but from the best maps it 
appears not more than fifty stadia from the lat- 
ter to New Navarino, while the distance to Old 
Navarino, is nearly the same as that stated by 
the Greek writer; which seems conclusive in 
favour of Barbie du Bocage. The point of land 
on which Old Navarino is situated, answers 
also better to the Coryphasium Promontorium 
of Pausanias. Sir W. Gell, in his Itinerary 
does not seem to have noticed any antiquities 
at Navarino, but he calls the old town Pylos. 
Some vestiges are laid down in Lapie's map 
above the coast, and nearly in the centre of the 
bay, on a spot named Pila, which probably 
answers to the ancient Pylos. The fort erected 
by the Athenians could not have been Cory- 
phasium itself, since Thucydides represents it 
as a deserted place, but it must have stood on 
the promontory facing the open sea, a circum- 
stance which is likewise applicalale to Old Na- 
varino. It is well known that the Athenians 
maintained this position against all the effiarts 
of the Spartans ; and by placing there a Mes- 
senian garrison, occasioned a serious annoyance 
to that people during the fifteen years it remain- 
ed in their possession." Cram. 

Pyra, part of mount (Eta, on which the body 
of Hercules was burnt. Liv. 36, c. 30. 

Pyramides. " On the west bank of the 
Nile, we find the city of Djizeh, pleasantly 
shaded by sycamores, date trees, and olives. 
To the west of this city stand the three pyra- 
mids, which, by their unequalled size and cele- 
brity, have eclipsed all those numerous struc- 
tures of the same form, which are scattered 
over Egypt. The height of the first, which is 
ascribed to Cheops, is 447 feet, that is, forty 
feet higher than St. Peter's at Rome, and 133 
higher than St. Paul's in London. The length 
of the base is 720 feet. The antiquity of these 
erections, and the purpose for which they were 
formed, have furnished matter of much inge- 
nious conjecture and dispute, in the absence of 
certain information. It has been supposed that 
they were intended for scientific purposes, such 
as that of establishing the proper length of the 
cubit, of which they contain in breadth and 
height a certain number of multiples. They 
were, at all events, constructed on scientific 
principles, and give evidence of a certain pro- 
gress in astronomy ; for their sides are accurate- 
ly adapted to the four cardinal points. Whe- 
ther they were applied to sepulchral uses, and 
intended as sepulchral monuments, had been 
doubted; but the doubts have been dispelled by 
the recent discoveries made by means of labo- 
rious excavations. The drifting sand had, in 
the course of ages, collected round their base to 



PY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



PY 



a considerable height, and had raised the surface 
of the country above the level which it had 
when they were constructed. The entrance to 
the chambers had also been, in the finishing, 
shut up with large stones, and built round so as 
to be uniform with the rest of the exterior. The 
largest, called the pyramid of Cheops, had been 
opened, and some chambers discovered in it, but 
not so low as the base, till Mr. Davison, British 
consul at Algiers, explored it in 1763, when ac- 
companying Mr. Wortley Montague to Egypt. 
He discovered a room before unknown, and de- 
scended the three successive wells to a depth of 
155 feet. Captain Caviglia, master of a mer- 
chant vessel, has lately pursued the principal 
oblique passage 200 feet farther down than any 
former explorer, and found it communicating 
with the bottom of the well. This circumstance 
creating a circulation of air, he proceeded twen- 
ty-eight feet farther, and found a spacious room 
sixty-six feet by twenty-seven, but of unequal 
height, under the centre of the pyramid, sup- 
posed by Mr. Salt to have been the place for 
containing the theca^ or sarcophagus, though 
now none is found in it. The room is thirty 
feet above the level of the Nile. The upper 
chamber, 35 1-2 feet by 17 1-4, and 18 4-5 high, 
still contains a sarcophagus. JBerodotus erred in 
supposing that the water of the Nile could ever 
surround the tomb of Cheops. In six pyramids 
which have been opened, the principal passage 
preserves the same inclination of 26° to the 
horizon, being directed to the polar star. M. 
Belzoni, after some acute observations on the 
appearances connected with the second pyramid, 
or that of Cephrenes, succeeded in opening it. 
The stones, which had constituted the coating, 
(by which the sides of most of the pyramids 
which now rise in steps had been formed into 
plain and smooth surfaces,) lay in a state of 
compact and ponderous rubbish, presenting a 
formidable obstruction ; but somewhat looser in 
the centre of the front, showing traces of ope- 
rations for exploring it, in an age posterior to 
the erection. On the east side of the pyramid 
he discovered the foundation of a large temple, 
connected with a portico appearing above 
ground, which had induced him to explore that 
part. Between this and the pyramid, from 
which it was fifty feet distant, a way was clear- 
ed through rubbish forty feet in height, and a 
pavement was found at the bottom, which is 
supposed to extend quite round the pyramid ; 
but there was no appearance of any entrance. 
On the north side, though the same general ap- 
pearance presented itself after the rubbish was 
cleared away, one of the stones, though nicely 
adapted to its place, was discovered to be loose ; 
and when it was removed, a hollow passage was 
found, evidently forced by some former enter- 
prising explorer, and rendered dangerous by the 
rubbish whichfell from the roof, it was therefore 
abandoned. Reasoning by analogy from the 
entrance of the first pyramid, which is to the 
east of the centre on the north side, he explored 
in that situation, and found at a distance of 
thirty feet the true entrance. After incredible 
perseverance and labour, he found numerous 
passages all cut out of the solid rock, and a 
chamber forty-six feet three inches by sixteen 
feet three, and twenty-three feet six inches high, 
containing a sarcophagus in a comer surround- 



ed by large blocks of granite. When opened, 
after great labour, this was found to contain 
bones, which mouldeied down when touched, 
and from specimens afterwards examined, turn- 
ed out to be the bones of an ox. Human bones 
were also found in the same place. An Arabic 
inscription, made with charcoal, was on the wall, 
signiiying that " the place had been opened by 
Mohammed Ahmed, lapicide, attended by the 
^Master Othman, and the king Alij Mohammed." 
supposed to be the Ottoman emperor, Mahomet 
I. in the beginning of the fifteenth century. It 
was observed, that the rock surrounding the 
pyramid on the north and west sides, was on a 
level with the upper part of the chamber. It is 
evidently cut away all round, and the stones 
taken from it were most probably applied to 
the erection of the pyramid. There are many 
places in the neighbourhood where the rock has 
been evidently quarried, so that there is no 
foundation for the opinion formerly common, 
and given by Herodotus, that the stones had 
been brought from the east side of the Nile, 
which is only probable as applied to the granite 
brought from Syene. The operations of Bel- 
zoni have throum light on the manner in which 
the pyramids were constructed, as well as the 
purpose for which they were intended. That 
they were meant for sepulchres cannot admit 
of a doubt. Their obliquity is so adjusted as 
to make the north side coincide witl^the obli- 
quity of the sun's ra)^s at the summer solstice. 
The Egyptians connected astronomy with their 
religious ceremonies, and their funerals ; for 
zodiacs are found even in their tombs. It is 
remarkable that no hieroglyphical inscriptions 
are found in or about the pyramids, as in the 
other tombs, a circumstance which is supposed 
to indicate the period of their construction to 
have been prior to the invention of that mode 
of writing, though some think that the diffe- 
rence may be accounted for by a difference in 
the usages of different places and ages. Bel- 
zoni, however, says that he found some hiero- 
glyphics in one of the blocks forming a mauso- 
leum to the west of the first pyramid. The first 
pyramid seems never to have been coated, and 
there is not the slightest mark of any coating. 
The second pyramid showed that the coating 
had been executed from the summit downward, 
as it appeared that it had not in this instance 
been finished to the bottom. The following are 
the dimensions of the second pyram^id: the ba- 
sis, 684 feet; the central line down the front 
from the apex to the basis, 568 ; the perpendicu- 
lar, 456 ; coating from the top to where it ends, 
140. These dimensions being considerably 
greater than those usually assigned even to the 
first or largest pyramid, are to be accounted for 
by those of Belzoni being taken from the base 
as cleared from sand and rubbish, while the 
measurements of the first pyramid given by 
others, only applied to it as measured from the 
level of the surrounding sand." MaUe-Brun. 
PYREN.EI, a mountain, or a long rid^e of high 
mountains, which separate Gaul from Spain, 
and extend from the Atlantic to the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. They receive their name from Py- 
rene the daughter of Bebrycius, ( Vid. Pyrene,') 
or from the fire {rrvp) which once raged there for 
several days. This fire was originally kindled 
by shepherds, and so intense was the heat which 
269 



RA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RE 



it occasioned, that all the silver mines of the 
mountains were melted, and ran down in large 
rivulets. This account is justly deemed fabu- 
lous by Strabo. Diod. 5. — StraJ). 3. Mela^ 2, 
c. 6.—Ital. 3, V. 415— Lir. 21, c. GO.—Plui. 4, 
c. 20. 

PvTHo, the ancient name of the town of 
Delphi, which it received ano tov Tradecrdai, be- 
cause the serpent which Apollo killed rotted 
there. It was also called Parnassia Nape. Vid. 
Delfhi. 

a. 

duADi, an ancient nation of Germany, near 
the couniry of the Marcomanni, on the borders 
of the Danube, in modern Moravia. They 
rendered themselves celebrated by their opposi- 
tion to the Romans, by whom they were often 
defeated, though not totally subdued. Tacit, in 
Germ. 42 and 43. An. 2, c. 63. 

duERauETULANUs, a name given to mount 
Coelius at Rome, from the oaks which grew 
there. Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 65. 

duiETis Fanum, a temple without the walls 
of the city of Rome, duies was the goddess 
of rest. Her temple was situate near the Col- 
line gate. Liv. 4, c. 4. — August, de Civ. D. 4, 
c. 16. 

duiNTiA Prata, a place on the borders of 
the Tiber near Rome, which had been culti- 
vated by the great Cincinnatus. Liv. 3, c. 26. 

dcriRiNALis, I. a hill at Rome, originally called 
Agonius, and afterwards Collinus. The name 
of duirinalis is obtained from the inhabitants 
of Cures, who settled there under their king 
Tatius. It was also called Cabalinus, from 
two marble statues of a horse, one of which was 
the work of Phidias and the other of Praxiteles. 
Liv. 1, c. U.—Ovid. Fast. 375. Met. 14, v. 845. 

II. One of the gates of Rome near mount 

duirinalis. 



R. 



Ravenna, an important city of Cisalpine 
Gaul, on the Utis, not far from the place at which 
that river discharged iiself into the Hadriaticum 
Mare. " Strabo informs us, that Ravenna was 
situated in the midst of marshes, and built en- 
tirely on wooden piles. A communication was 
established between the different parts of the 
town by means of bridges and boats. But the 
noxious air arising from the stagnant waters 
was so purified by the tide, that Ravenna was 
considered by the Romans as a very healthy 
place, in proof of which they sent ??ladiators 
there to be trained and exercised. We are not 
informed at what period Ravenna received a 
Roman colony, but it is not improbable, from a 
passage in Cicero, that this event took place un- 
der the consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo. Ra- 
venna became the great naval station of the Ro- 
mans on the Adriatic in the latter limes of the 
republic, a measure which seems to have origi- 
nated with Pompey the Great. It was from this 
place that Coesar set forward on that march 
which brought him to the Rubicon, and involv- 
ed his country and the world in civil war. The 
old port of Ravenna was situated at the mouth 
of the river Bedesis, il Ronco. But Augustus 
caused a new one to be constructed at the en- 
270 



trance of the little river Candianus into the sea, 
and about three miles from Ravenna. He es- 
tablished a communication between this har- 
bour and a branch of the Po, by means of a 
canal which was called Fossa Augusti; and he 
also made a causeway to connect the port and 
city, which obtained the name of Via Caesaris. 
As the new harbour from thenceforth became 
the usual station for the fleet, it received the 
distinguishing appellation of Portus Classis, a 
name which still subsists in that of a well-known 
monastery near the modern town of Ravenna. 
Ravenna continued to flourishes a naval station 
long after the reign of Augustus ; and after the 
fall of the western empire, it became the seat of a 
separate government, known by the name of the 
exarchate of Ravenna." Cram. With this dig- 
nity Ravenna played a conspicuous part in the 
ages of the Lombard rule, when the fate of Ita- 
ly, as yet undecided, seemed to wait the issue of 
the contest between the barbarian power in the 
north, the papal pretensions in the south, and 
the claims of the imperial master of the east. 
It was founded by a colony of Thessalians, or, 
according to others^ of Sabines. It is now fallen 
from its former grandeur, and is a wretched 
town situate at the distance of about four miles 
from the sea, and surrounded with swamps and 
marshes. Strab. 5. — Suet, in Aug. 49. — Plin. 
36, c. \%—Mela, 2, c. 4:.— -Martial. 3, ep. 93, v. 
8, «&c. 

Rauraci, a people of Gaul, whose chief town 
is now Augst on the Rhine. Cces. G. 1, c. 5. 

Reate, a town of the Sabines, between the 
rivers Velinus and Telonius, just above their 
confluence. Having scarcely undergone any 
change, it " holds a distinguished place among 
the Sabine towns, and in the antiquity of its 
origin is equalled by few of the cities of Italy, 
since, at the most remote period to which the 
records of that country extend, it is reported to 
have been the first seat of the Umbri, who have, 
it appears to us, the best claim to be considered 
as the Aborigines of Italy. It was here like- 
wise that the Arcadian Pelasgi probably fixed 
their abode, and by intermixing with the earlier 
natives, gave rise to those numerous tribes, 
known to the Greeks by the name of Opici, and 
subsequently to the Romans under the various 
appellations of Latins, Oscans, and Campa- 
nians ; these subsequently drove the Siculi from 
the plains, and occupied in their stead the shores 
of the Tyrrhenian Sea. If we may credit Si- 
lius Italicus, Reate derived its name from Rhea, 
the Latin Cybele. From Cicero we learn that 
it was only a prafectura in his time : from Sue- 
tonius we collect that it was a municipal town. 
Reate was particularly celebrated for its excel- 
lent breed of mules, and still more so for that 
of its asses, which sometimes fetched the enor- 
mous price of 60,000 sestertii, about 484L of our 
money. The valley of the Velinus, in which 
this city was situated, was so deli2:htful as to 
merit the appellation of Tempe; and from their 
de^vy freshness, its meadows obtained the name 
of Rosei Campi. It was however subject to in- 
undations from the Velinus, Velino, which river 
forms some small lakes before it joins the Nar 
above Terni ; the chief of these was called the 
Lacus Velinus, now Lago di Pie di Liigo. 
The drainage of the stagnant waters produced 
by the occasional overflow of these lakes, and of 



RH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RH 



the river, was first attempted by Curius Denta- 
tus, the conqueror of the Sabines : he caused a 
channel to be made for the Velinus, through 
which the waters of that river were carried into 
the Nar, over a precipice of several hundred 
feet. This is the celebrated fall of Terni, 
known in Italy by the name of Caduta delle 
MarmoreP Cram. 

Redones, a nation among the Armorici, now 
the people of Rennes and St. Maloes, in Bri- 
tany. Cces. B. G. 2, c. 41. 

Regill^, or Regillum, a town in the coun- 
try of the Sabines in Italy, about 20 miles from 
Rome, celebrated for a battle which was fought 
there, A. U. C. 258, between 24,000 Romans, 
and 40,000 Etrurians, who were headed by the 
Tarquins. The Romans obtained the victory, 
and scarce 10,000 of the enemy escaped from 
the field of battle. Castor and Pollux, accord- 
ing to some accounts, were seen mounted on 
white horses, and fighting at the head of the 
Roman army. Liv. 2, 16. — Dionijs. Hal. 2. — 
Plut. in Cor. — Val. Max. 1. — Flor. I.— Suet. 
Tib. 1. 

Regillus, a small lake of Latium, whose 
waters fall into the Anio at the east of Rome. 
The dictator Posthumius defeated the Latin ar- 
my near it. Liv. 2. c. 19. 

Regium Lepidum, a town of Modena, now 
Regio, at the south of the Po. Plin. 3, c, 15, 
—Cic. 12, f am. 5, 1. 13, ep. 7. 

Remi, a nation of Gaul, whose principal town, 
Durjcortorium, is now Rheims, in the north of 
Champagne. Plin. 4, c. 17. — Ccbs. B. G. 2, c 5. 

Res^na, a town of Mesopotamia, famous for 
the defeat of Sapor by Gordian. The name of 
Theodosiopolis was afterwards conferred upon 
Ressena, either in honourof that emperor, or 
as a mark of his favour ; but the original name, 
derived in the language of the people from the 
nature of the surrounding district, watered by 
numberless springs, has been retained in the 
present appellation of Ros-Ain. It stood on the 
Chaboras. between the mountain regions of 
Mygdonia and Osroene. 

Rha, the greatest river of Europe, but little 
known to the ancients, whose acquaintance 
with the country through which it flowed was 
founded on the erroneous opinion of a few geo- 
graphers, and not by intercourse with the inha- 
bitants. Of the knowledge which the ancients 
actually possessed, some notion maybe collected 
from D'Anville, who also presents an etymolo- 
gy of the ancient name. " It is after Ptolemy 
alone that we can mention the Rha, great as it 
is. Antiquity may be supposed to have been 
very little informed of these countries, when we 
see Strabo, and Pliny who is still later, taking 
the Caspian Sea for a gulf formed by the North- 
ern Ocean : but it must be admitted that Hero- 
dotus, in a remoter age, had a more correct idea 
of it. As to the name of Rha, it appears to be 
an appellative term, having affinity with Rhea, 
or Reka ; which, in the Sarmatian or Sclavo- 
nian language, signifies a river : and from the 
Russian denomination of Velika Reka, or the 
Great River, appears to be formed the name of 
Volga. In the Byzantine and other writers of 
the middle age, this is called Atel, or Etel ; a 
term, in many northern languages, signifying 
the quality great or illustrious. The approxi- 
mation of the Tanais to this river, before it 



changes its course to the Palus, is the occasion 
of the erroneous opinion of some authors that 
it is only an emanation of the Rha taking a dif- 
ferent route," The actual course of the river, and 
the signification of its modern name are thus gi v- 
en by Malte-Brun, " The Wolga, or the largest 
river in Europe, flows through that country into 
the Caspian Sea. A rivulet rises in the forests of 
theWaldaic chain, in the neighbourhood of WoU 
chino- Werchovia, crosses the lakes Oselok,Pia- 
Tia, and Wolga, receives the waters of the lake 
Seliger, and becomes navigable near Rjev- Wo- 
lodomirow, at which place its breadth is not less 
than 95 feet. It then flows eastward to Ka~ 
san, where it is enlarged by the Kama, a very 
great river, turns to the south, and makes appa- 
rently for the sea of Azof ; but unfortunately 
for the commerce of the Russians, its course is 
determined by the position of the Wolgaic hills, 
and it discharges itself into the Caspian Sea. 
Before it receives the Kama, its breadth is up- 
wards of 600 feet, and it is more than 1200 after 
its junction with that river. It encompasses ma- 
ny islands in the vicinity of Astrakan, and its 
width there is about 14 English miles. The 
depth of its current varies from seven to eigh- 
teen feet. Its water, though not good, is drink- 
able, and it abounds with several varieties of the 
sturgeon and different kinds offish. The course 
of the Wolga is regular and calm, but the river 
has made a passage for itself near Nischnei- 
Novgorod, and by the sinking of th^ ground 
thus occasioned, several large buildings in the 
town have been overturned. The Wolga is 
speedily swollen by excessive rains and by the 
melting of snow, so that the streams are divert- 
ed into the channels of the feeders, and the flux 
of their waters is thus impeded. The river, dur- 
ing part of the winter, is covered with ice, but 
there are always many apertures in the south, 
from which currents of air escape ; hence they 
are termed the lungs of the Wolga. The po- 
lumna often change their position, and travel- 
lers are thus exposed to imminent danger. The 
Wolga en closes the central ridge of Russia, and 
receives the streams of the Oka, the principal 
river in that fertile region ; it communicates in 
the upper parts of its course by the canal of 
Wyschnei-Wolotchok with the lakes Ladoga and 
Newa ; lastly, the Kama conveys to it all the 
waters of eastern Russia. The word Wolga, 
says M. Georgi, signifies great in the Sarma- 
tian, it might have been as well had the writer 
explained what is meant by the Sarmatian lan- 
guage. If the old Slavonic, or rather the Proto- 
Slavonic, which was spoken by the vassal tribes 
of the ancient Scythians, be understood by that 
incorrect term, we think the etymology not un- 
likely, although its accuracy cannot now be as- 
certained. The Finnic tongues furnish us with 
a more easy explanation ; Volgi signifies a val- 
ley, now the bed of the Wolga extends in the 
g^reat valley of Russia. The Tartars called the 
Wolga the Ethele or Itel, which, according to 
some philologists, means liberal or profuse; ac- 
cording to others, merely the river. The last 
name is still retained by the Tartars under the 
form of Ichtil-gad. The most ancient desig- 
nation is that of the Rha or Rhas, which has 
been thought a corruption of the Araxes, a 
river in Armenia, although the two words are 
radically different m the Armenian language, 
271 



RH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RH 



The Morduates, a Finnic tribe, still term it the 
Rhaou, a name which in their dialect was pro- 
bably expressive of rain water. All the etymo- 
logies are involved in the darkness of a remote 
antiquity." 

Rhacotis, an ancient name of Alexandria 
in Egypt. Strab. — Paus. 5, c. 21. 

Rh^ti, or RiBTi, an ancient and warlike na- 
tion of Etruria. They were driven from their 
native country by the Gauls, and went to settle 
on the other side of the Alps. Vid. RhcBtia. 
Plin. 3, c. 10. — Justin. 20. c. 5. 

RhjEtia, a country of ancient Europe, and 
province of the Roman empire. It was bound- 
ed by the country of the Helvetii on the west, 
by Vindelicia on the north, by Noricum on the 
east, and on the south and south-east by Cisal- 
pine Gaul. On no side were the limits of this 
province marked by any natural line of separa- 
tion, except that a small portion of the northern 
boundary was indicated by the course of the 
(Enus. Within those limits are now compre- 
hended, the Tyrol, the league of the Grisons, 
and the parts of Switzerland south-east of the 
Simplon, St. Gothard, &c. among which moun- 
tains the ancient Rhaeti were scattered. " The 
sources and the course of the Rhine to its en- 
trance into the lake to which the city of Con- 
stance communicates its name, the course of the 
(Enus, or the Itm, from its source to the point 
where it bounded Noricum, belonged to Rhaetia ; 
as did also the declivity of the Alps which re- 
gards the south, where Ticinus or the Tesin, 
Addica or the Add.a, Athesis or the Adige, be- 
gin their courses. The Rhcetia were a colony 
of the 7^usci, or Tuscans, a civilized nation, es- 
tablished in this country when the Gauls came 
to invade Italy, This colony, becoming savage, 
and infesting Cisalpine Gaul, were subjugated 
under the reign of Augustus by Drusus. And 
because the Vindelici armed in favour of their 
neighbours, Tiberius sent a force that reduced 
them also to obedience. This double conquest 
formed a province called Rhcetia, comprehend- 
ing Vindelicia, without obliterating altogether 
the distinction. But in the multiplication that 
Dioclesian, and some emperors after him made 
of the provinces, Rhsetia was divided into two, 
under the distinction of the first and second: a 
circumstance that caused Rhaetia Proper and 
Vindelicia to reassume their primitive distinc- 
tions. The Lepontii inhabited the high Alps, 
whence flow the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Te- 
sin ; and the name of Leventina, which distin- 
guishes amongmany valleys thatthrough which 
the Tesin runs, is formed of the name of this 
nation, who on the other side extended in the 
Pennine valley, where they possessed Oscela, 
now Domo d' Usula." D'Anville. Besides the 
sources of the numerous rivers that rose in Rhae- 
tia, that province was distinguished geographi- 
cally by its mountainous character, the Rhae- 
tian Alps forming no small portion, or rather, 
with the adjacent valleys, constituting the 
whole ; and by the Alpine lakes, which in mo- 
dern times are remarked and visited for their 
beauty. The country was occupied by number- 
less barbarous tribes, till reduced, and in some 
degree civilized, by the Romans. Among these 
the Lepontii, the Sarunetes, the Brigantii, the 
Vennones, and the Tridentini, may be special- 
ly noticed 

272 



Rhamnus, a town of Attica, famous for a 
temple of Amphiaraus, and a statue of the god- 
dess Nemesis, who was from thence called 
Rhamnusia. This statue was made by Phidias, 
out of a block of Parian marble which the 
Persians intended as a pillar to be erected to 
commemorate their expected victory over 
Greece. Paus. 1. — Plin. 36. 

Rharos, or Rharium, a plain of Attica, 
where corn was first sown by Triptolemus. It 
received its name from the sower's father 
who was called Rharos. Paus. 1, c. 14 and 
38. . 

Rhegium, now Rheggio, a town of Italy, in 
the country of theBrutii, opposite Messana in 
Sicily, where a colony of Messenians under 
Alcidamidas settled, B. C. 723. It was origi- 
nally called Rhegium, and afterwards Rhegium 
Julium, to distinguish it from Rhegium Lepidi, 
a town of Cisalpine Gaul. Some suppose that 
it received its name from the Greek word priy- 
vvjji to break, because it is situate on the straits 
of Charybdis, which were formed when the isl- 
and of Sicily, as it were, was broken and sepa- 
rated from the continent of Italy. This town 
has always been 'subject to great earthquakes, 
by which it has often been destroyed. The 
neighbourhood is remarkable for its great fertili- 
ty, and for its delightful views. Sil. 13, v. 94. 
— Cic. pro Arch. 3. — Ovid. Met. 14, v. 5 and 
iS.— Justin. 4, c. l.—Mela, 2, c. i.— Strab. 6. 

Rhemi. Vid. Remi. 

Rhene, a small island of the ^gean, about 
200 yards from Delos, 18 miles in circumfe- 
rence. The inhabitants of Delos always buried 
their dead there and their women also retired 
there during their labour, as their own island 
was consecrated to Apollo, where Latona had 
brought forth, and where no dead bodies were 
to be inhumed. Strabo says that it was unin- 
habited, though it was once as populous and 
flourishing as the rest of the Cyclades. Poly- 
crates conquered it, and consecrated it to Apollo, 
after he had tied it to Delos by means of a long 
chain. Rhene was sometimes called the Small 
Delos, and the island of Delos the Great Delos. 
Thucyd. 3.— Strab. 10.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 

Rheni, a people on the borders of the Rhine. 

Retenus, I. one of the largest rivers in Europe. 
It formed for a long time the limit of the Roman 
dominion, separating the Gallic provinces from 
Germany, till Cassar carried the arms of the re- 
public beyond that ancient and formidable bar- 
rier which opened the passage for the Roman 
eagles to the distant Elbe. " It rises in the 
south-west part of the canton of the Grisons, a 
country in which all the streams are denomi- 
nated Currents or Rheinen, a word that appears 
to be of Celtic or ancient Germanic origin. It 
is thus difficult and vain to determme whether 
the Eore Rhine ( Vorder-Rhein) is formed by 
several springs on the sides of mount Nixena" 
dun near the base of mount Crirpali, a branch 
of Saint Gothard, or \\\e Hind Rhine {Hinter- 
Rhein) issuing majestically below a vault of ice, 
attached to the great glacier oiRheinwald, ought 
to be considered the principal branch. But at 
all events the central Rhein is onXy on insignifi- 
cant branch, of which the distinctive name is the 
Froda ; although the inhabitants of the neigh- 
bouring village of Medel called it by the generic 
term Rhein. Descending from these snowy 



RH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RH 



heights, which are more than 6000 feet above 
the ocean, the Rhine leaves the couniry of the 
Orisons^ and throws itself into the lake of Bo- 
den or Constance^ at the level of 1250 feet. M. 
Hoffman, a distinguished German geographer, 
supposes that the course of the Rhine was once 
very different ; that as soon as it passed the ter- 
ritory of the Grisons it flowed down the moun- 
tains of Sargans, entered the lake of WalleTi- 
stadtj from thence into that of Zurich, and, fol- 
lowing the present channel of the Limath, united 
with the Aar opposite the small town of Rein. 
That hypothesis, founded on some local obser- 
vations, is indeed worthy of attention, but it re- 
quires to be corroborated by additional facts be- 
fore it can be admitted. Following its present 
course, the Rhine after leavingthe lakes of Con- 
stance^ and Zell, arrives at a lower branch of the 
Alps, a little below Schaffhousen; it crosses 
them, and forms the celebrated fall near Lauffen, 
which has been often admired, although its ele- 
vation is little more than fifty feet, an elevation 
inferior to that of the secondary falls in Scandi- 
navia. After its fall at Lauffen, it is about 11 73 
feet above the level of the sea, but when it reach- 
es Basle it is not more than 765. That part of 
its course, which is very rapid, is broken by a 
faHnear Laufenburg, and. the dangerous eddy of 
RJveinfelden. The Rhine unites there with the 
Aar, a river almost equal to it in size, and one 
which, after being enlarged by the streams and 
lakes of Switzerland, brings a greater body of 
water to the Rhine than that which it receives 
from the lake of Constance. After it passes 
Basle, the Rhine turns to the north, and waters 
the rich and beautiful valley, in which are situ- 
ated Alsace, part of the territory of Baden, the 
ancient Palatinate, and Mayence. Its course on- 
wards to Kehl is very impeiuous ; but flowing 
afterwards in a broad channel, studded with 
agreeable and well-wooded islands, it assumes a 
very different character, its banks have been in 
several places gradually undermined, and its wa- 
ters are covered with boats. The breadth of the 
river at Mayence is about 700 yards ; as it pro- 
ceeds in its course, it waters a romantic, though 
fertile country ; and a line of hills, covered with 
vineyards, extends at no great distance from its 
banks. It receives in that part of its course the 
Neckar, which conveys to it the waters of Low- 
er Swabia, and the Maine, which in its nume- 
rous windings collects the streams of the ancient 
Franconia. The Rhine is confined by moun- 
tains from Bingen to the country above Cob- 
lentz ; small islands and headlands are formed 
by the rocks, and, according to a supposition, 
which is by no means confirmed, its course was 
in ancient times broken by a cataract between 
these two towns. In its picturesque passage 
through that high country, at the base of many 
old castles, suspended on rugged rocks, the 
Rhine receives among other feeders, the Lahn, 
that is concealed under mountains, and the Mo- 
selle, which, free from shallows, marshes, and 
every incumbrance, resembles in the mazes of 
its meandering course, a canal fashioned by the 
hand of man, and conducted through vineyards 
and fertile meadows. The confluence of these 
two rivers maybe considered the boundary of the 
romantic course of the Rhine. It then flows in 
an open and plain country, and receives, among 
other feeders, the Ruhr and the Lippe. Having 
Pjirt 1.-^2 M 



reached Holland, its three artificial branches, 
the Waal, the Leek, and the Yssel, form the 
great delta in which are situated the wealthiest 
towns in that industrious country. But its wa- 
ters are divided into numerous canals, its an- 
cient channel is left dry, and a small brook, all 
that remains of the majestic river, passes into 
the sea. According to every principle of phy- 
sical geography, the Leek and the Yssel, if not 
the Waal, must be considered the present 
mouths of the Rhine. The Meuse hos obtained 
at Rotterdam and Dordrecht a distinction which 

it does not deserve." Malte-Brun. II. A 

small river of Cisalpine Gaul, flowing from the 
Appenines northwards towards the Po. This 
river is celebrated " in history for the meeting of 
the second triumvirate, which took place U. C. 
709, in an island formed by its stream. The 
spot which witnessed this famous meeting is 
probably that which is now known by the name 
of Crocetta del Trebbo, where there is an island 
in the Rheno about half a mile long, and one 
third broad, and about two miles to the west of 
Bologna.^^ Cram. 

RmNocoLURA, a town on the borders of Pa- 
lestine and Egypt, now El-Arish. Liv. 45, c. 11. 

Rhion Vid. Rhium. 

RmPH^i, large mountains at the north of 
Scythia, where, as some suppose, the Gorgons 
had fixed their residence. The name of Ri- 
phcean was applied to any cold mountain in a 
northern country, and indeed these mountains 
seem to have existed only in the imagination of 
the poets, though some make the Tanais rise 
there. Plin. 4, c. I'^.—Dwcan. 3, v. 272, 1. 3, v. 
282, 1. 4, V. ^\S.— Virg. G. 1, v. 240, 1. 4, v. 
518. 

RmuM, a promontory of Achaia, opposite to 
Antirrhium in iEtolia, at the mouth of the Co- 
rinthian gulf, called also the Dardanelles of Le- 
panto. The strait between Naupactum and 
Patrae bore also the same name. The tomb of 
Hesiod was at the top of the promontory. Liv. 
27, c. 30, 1. 38, c, l.—Plin. 4, c. ^.—Paus. 7, 
c. 22. 

Rh5da, now Roses, a sea-port town of Spain. 
Liv. 34, c. 8. 

Rhodanus, one of the principal rivers of 
Gaul. It rises in the Lepontine Alps, and flows 
through the Vallis Pennina, till it enters the Le- 
manus Lacus at the eastern extremity of that 
sheet of water. In this part of its course it re- 
ceives the tribute of no considerable stream. Is- 
suing again from the lake, it resumes its course 
south-east, till it receives the Arar, from the 
mouth of which, precipitating itself almost di- 
rectly south, it terminated its course in several 
mouths, by \vhich it discharged itself into the 
Sinus Gallicus. This river belonged for the 
greater part of its course to the province of Nar- 
bonensis. Towards its mouth it received the 
waters of the Durentia, which flowed into it 
from the east. It is one of the most rapid rivers 
of Europe, now known by the name of the 
Rhone. Mela, 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 3.— Ovid. Met. 2, 
V. 258.— S-i^. 3, V. ni.^Marcell. 15, &c.— 
Ccesar. Bell. G. 1, c. 1. 

Rhodope, a high mountain of Thrace,, ex- 
tending as far as the Euxine Sea, all across the 
country nearly in an eastern direction. "The 
summits of Rhodope and Scomius belong to the 
same great central chain. The Rhodope also 
273 



RO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RO 



of Herodotus is evidently the Scomius of Thu- 
cydides, since he asserts, that the Thracian 
river Escius, now Isker^ rises in the former 
mountain, while Thucydides makes it flow from 
the latter." Cram.— Ovid. Met.6, v. 87, &.C.— 
Virg. Ed. 8, G. 3, v. 351.— Mela, 2, c. 2.— 
Strab. 7. — Ital. 2, v, 73. — Setiec. in Here. Oct. 

Rhodqs, a celebrated island in the Carpa- 
thian Sea, 120 miles in circumference, at the 
south of Caria, from which it is distant about 20 
miles. " The isle of Rhodes has a well-earned 
celebrity : the Rhodians signalized themselves 
particularly in the marine ; and the services ren- 
dered by them to the Romans, in the war against 
the last king of Syria, procured them extensive 
possessions on the continent. Lindus, Cami- 
rus, and lalysus, had preceded in this isle the 
foundation of a city named Rhodus, which re- 
mounts no higher than the Peloponnesian war, 
or about four hundred years before the Christian 
era. It was in vain that Demetrius, surnamed 
Poliorcetes, or the Taker of Cities, held it be- 
sieged for a year. Having successfully resisted 
Mohammed .11. it yielded at length to the efforts 
ofSoliman II. in 1522." D'Anville. The island 
of Rhodes has been known by the several names 
of Ophiusa, Stadia, Telchinis, Corymbia, Trin- 
acria, JEthrea, Asteria,Poessa, Atabyria, Olo- 
essa, Marcia, and Pelagia. It received the 
name of Rhodes, either on account of Rhode, a 
beautiful nymph who dwelt there, and who was 
one of the favourites of Apollo, or because roses, 
{po5ov), grew in great abundance all over the 
island. Strab. 14. — Homer. 11. 2. — Mela, 2, c. 
l.—Diod. b.—Plin. 2, c. 62 and 87, 1. 5, c. 31. 
—Flor. 2, c. 7. — Pindar. Olymp. 7. — Lnican. 
8, V. 248. — etc. pro Man. leg. in Brut. 13, — 
Liv.2'l,c. 30, 1. 31,c. 2. 

Rhceteum, or Rhcetus, a promontory of 
Troas, on the Hellespont, on which the body 
of Ajax was buried. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 197, 4. 
Fast. V. 219.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 505, 1. 12, v. 456. 

Rhosus, a town of Syria, on the gulf of 
Issus, celebrated for its earthern ware. Cic. 6, 
Alt. 1. 

Rhoxalani, a people at the north of the Pa- 
lus Maeotis. Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 79. 

Rhuteni, and Rqtheni, a people of Gaul, 

Rhyndacus, a large river of Mysia, in Asia 
Minor, separating Mysia from Bithynia, and 
emptying into the Euxine considerably east of 
the mouth of the Granicus, for which, accord- 
ing to D'Anville, it is often mistaken. Plin. 5, 
c.32. 

RiGODULUM, a village of Germany,now Rigol, 
near Cologne. Tacit. H. 4, c. 71. 

RoDUMNA, now Roanne, a town of the jEdui, 
on the Loire. 

Roma, the ancient capital of Italy. " In 
treating of the topography of ancient Rome, it 
is usual with antiquaries to consider that city 
at three distinct periods of its existence ; under 
Romulus, Servius Tullius, and Aurelian, as 
comprehending every addition or change which 
is known to have taken place in its extent and 
the circuit of its walls. The extent of Rome 
tinder the first of these periods cannot now be 
ascertained, though we may meet with topo- 
graphers who define its limits with as much 
confidence and precision as those of any modern 
capital in Europe. We must perhaps rest sa- 
tisfied with knowing generally, that the city of 
274 



Romulus is said to have occupied at first only 
the Palatine hill. That its figure was square is 
affirmed by Festus, who quotes a verse of En- 
nius to that effect. If we may believe Tacitus, 
the Capitol was taken in by I'atius. According 
to Dionysius, the Coelian and Gluirinal hills 
were added at the same time. Pliny tells us, 
that the city had at this time three, or at most 
four gates. According to Nardini these were 
Porta Romanula, Porta Mugonia, so called 
from the lowing of cattle, and Porta Trigonia. 
The former of these faced the Capitol and Fo- 
rum-; the second led to the Esquiline hill; the 
third looked towards the Aventine. The Ca- 
pitol had also two gates; Porta Carmentalis, 
near the foot of the Tarpeian rock towards the 
Tiber, and Porta Janualls, which afterwards 
was converted into a temple of Janus. From 
the time of Romulus to the reign of Servius 
Tullius, Rome received all the aggrandizement 
which the nature of its situation and the in- 
crease of its population seemed to render de- 
sirable. Under the latter king the seven hills 
were included, and even the Janiculum on the 
right bank of the Tiber. Such was the extent 
of Rome under Servius, and this was preserved 
with but little alteration till the time- of Aure- 
lian. Antiquaries are not precisely agreed as 
to the increase made in the circuit of the walls 
of Rome by Aurelian. If we are to believe Vo- 
piscus, it must have been very considerable, as 
he estimates the new circumference at fifty 
miles. We know too that the circuit of the 
walls by actual measurement, in the time of 
Honorius, was computed at twenty-one miles. 
But even this account is supposed to be exag- 
gerated. Rome under Servius had been divided 
into four regions, as we learn from Varro, who 
has also specified their names. ' They were the 
Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, and Palaiina. 
The Suburana comprised chiefly the Coelian 
mount ; the Collina, both the Cluirinal and Vi- 
minal ; the situation of the other two evidently 
coincided with that of the hills from which they 
derived their names. This division is thought 
to have been in use until the reign of Augustus, 
when a new arrangement was rendered neces- 
sary by the vast increase of the city during so 
long an interval. He now divided Rome into 
fourteen regions, and those were again subdi- 
vided into vici, which may be considered as pa- 
rishes ; of these SQetonius says there were above 
a thousand. In the time of Vespasian the num- 
ber of the regions remained the same, but they 
were further divided into compita, or wards, 
which amounted, according to Pliny, to 265. 
There is every reason for believing that the 
same division prevailed till the decline of the 
Roman empire, and the fall of Rome itself, with- 
out any variation as to the limits of the regions 
themselves, whatever change may have taken 
place in the buildings they contained, or in the 
names and arrangement of parishes, streets, &c. 
Porta Capena. This region, of whose limits 
little else is known, except the fact that it was 
entirely without the walls of Servius, took its 
name from the Porta Capena, the most cele- 
brated of the gates of Rome. The origin of the 
name is unknown, as it cannot be supposed to 
have any reference to the Etruscan town so 
called, since it was situated in a very opposite 
direction. The position of this gate has been 



RO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RO 



fixed by modern discoveries posterior to Nardi- 
ni, close to the church of S. Nereo and the Villa 
Mattel. CcELiMONTANA. The second region, 
as the name by which it was distinguished suf- 
ficiently implies, was almost wholly situated on 
the Coelian hill, and consequently was included 
within the walls of Servius. It is chiefly to be 
noticed as containing the Suburra, one of the 
most populous and busy parts of ancient Rome. 
Varro gives various etymologies of that name, 
but I confess that they all appear equally unsatis- 
factory, and, with many other appellations be- 
longing to Rome, I would refer it to an early 
state of things in that city with which we are 
wholly unacquainted. The origin of the name 
of Coelius Mons is not much better determined, 
though it seems agreed that it was so called 
from Coelius Vibenna, an Etruscan chief, who 
once resided there. If the Suburra was one of 
the most frequented parts of Rome, it was also 
the most profligate, Isis et Serapis. The 
third region comprised nearly all the space 
which lies between the Coelian and Esquiline 
hills, and also a considerable portion of the lat- 
ter, especially on that side which faces the south. 
It derived its name from a temple dedicated to 
Isis and Serapis ; probably the same which Au- 
gustus is said to have consecrated with Marc 
Antony. It is also sometimes designated by the 
appellation of Moneta. Templum Pacis. The 
fourth region, which derived its name from the 
temple of Peace, built by Vespasian after the 
overthrow of Jerusalem, seems to have been 
contiguous to the third, and to have occupied in 
breadth nearly all the space which lies between 
the Palatine on one side, and the south-western 
extremity of the Esquiline on the other. In 
length it reached from the vicinity of the Colos- 
seum to the beginning of the Forum, and the 
southern angle of the Gtuirinal. EsauiLiNA. 
Though the fifth region took its name from the 
Esquiline, it occupied, in fact, but a small part 
of that hill ; it however comprised nearly the 
whole of the Viminal, and extended beyond the 
rampart of Servius to the Castrum Prsetorium 
and the wallof Aurelian. We are informed by 
Varro that the Esquiline derived its name from 
the Latin word ezcultus ; in proof of which he 
mentions that Servius had planted on its sum- 
mit several sacred groves, such as the Lucus 
Cluerquetulanus, Fagutalis, and Esquilinus. It 
was the most extensive of all the seven hills, 
and was divided into principal heights, which 
were called Cispius and Oppius. Alta Semi- 
TA, The sixth region was contiguous to the 
fifth; it occupied the whole of the CLuirinal, a 
great portion of the Pincian, and part of the 
ground which lies at the base of these two hills. 
Via Lata. The seventh region was conti- 
guous tothe sixth, and extended from the base 
of the Pincian hill round that of the Cluirinal, 
to the angle which that hill forms with the Ca- 
pitol. FoRDM RoMANUM. The eighth region, 
which was in the centre of Rome, comprised the 
Forum and Capitol, and consequently the most 
celebrated and conspicuous buildings of that 
city. Circus Flaminius. The ninth region 
seems to have stood almost entirely without the 
walls of Servius, being confined principally by 
the Tiber on the west and north, the Capital on 
the south, and the Pincian hill on the east. It 
was by much the most extensive of the fourteen \ 



regions, being upwards of 30,000 feet in circuit. 
It comprised the celebrated Campus Martius, 
which in the reign of Augustus already con- 
tained several splendid edifices. Palatium. 
The tenth region, as its name suflniciently indi- 
cates, occupied the Palatine hill, and conse- 
quently was the most ancient part of the city. 
Although of little extent, it was remarkable as 
the favourite residence of the Caesars, from the 
time of Augustus to the decline of the empire. 
It contained also several spots, venerable from 
their antiquity, and to which the Romans at- 
tached a feeling of superstition, from being con- 
nected with the earliest traditions of their infant 
city. Among these were the Lupercal, a cave 
supposed to have been consecrated to Pan by 
Evander. Circus Maximus. The eleventh 
region was situated, together with the Circus 
from which it derived its name, in the valley 
between the Aventine and Palatine hills, the 
proper name of which was Martia or Murtia. 
Piscina Publica. The twelfth region was a 
continuation of the last, between the Palatine 
and Aventine, as far as the baths of Caracalla 
inclusively. The Piscina Publica, which gave 
its name to this section of ancient Rome, con- 
sisted of several basins filled with water, to 
which people resorted for the purpose of learn- 
ing to swim. 

In Thermas fugio : sonas ad aurem. 
Piscinam feto : non licet natare. * 

Mart. III. Ep. 44. 

It appears from Livy that public business was 
sometimes carried on in this part of the city. 
AvENTiNUs. This region included not only 
the Aventine, but also the space which lies be- 
tween that hill and the Tiber. Transtybe- 
rina. The fourteenth and last region of an- 
cient Rome, as its name signified, was situated 
on the right bank of the Tiber; and contained, 
besides the space enclosed within the walls ot 
Aurelian, the Janiculum, the Mons and Cam- 
pus Vaticanus, and all the ground occupied by 
the modern city as far as the castle of S. Angela. 
This part of Rome was at first peopled by the 
inhabitants of certain Latin cities, removed 
thither by Ancus Martius. Subsequently we 
find it assigned as a place of security as well as 
punishment to the turbulent Volsci of Velitrae. 
Though it seems to have been chiefly frequented 
by the poorer classes, we hear of some distin- 
guished characters in the Roman history as 
having gardens and pleasure-grounds within its 
precincts. We shall now conclude this descrip- 
tion of ancient Rome, with the summary cata- 
logue of its diflTerent buildings, monuments, and 
principal curiosities, as contained in the notice 
of Publius Victor. Senatula urbis quatuor. 
Bibliothecffi Publicae xxvin. Obelisci Magni 
VI. Obelisci Parvi xlii. Pontes viii. Campi 
viii. Fora xviii. Basilicae xi. Thermae xii. 
Jani XXXVI. Aquae xx. Vise xxix. Capitolia 
11. Amphitheatra ni. Colossi ii. Columnse 
Coclides n, Macella n. Theatra in. Ludi v. 
Naumachise v. Nymphaea xi. Equi aenei inau- 
rati XXIV. Equi ebumei xciv. Tabulae et signa 
sine numero. Arcus marmorei xxxvi. Portae 
xxxvii. Vici ccccxxiiii. ^Edes ccccxxiin. 
Vicomagistri dclxxii. Curatores xxiiii. In- 
sulae XLViMDcn. Domus mdcclxxx. Balnea 
DcccLVi. Lacus mccclh. Pristrina ccliiil 
275 



RO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RO 



Lupanaria xlv. Latrinse publicae xliiii. Co- 
hortes Praetoriae x. Urbanae iv. Vigilum vii. 
Excubitoria xiiii. Vexilla communia n. Cas- 
tra equitum ii." Cram. Romulus is univer- 
sally supposed to have laid the foundations of 
this celebrated city, on the 20th of April, ac- 
cording to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian 
period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 
753 before the birth of Christ, and 431 years af- 
ter the Trojan war, and in the 4th year of the 
fifth Olympiad. In its original state Rome was 
but a small castle on the summit of mount Pa- 
latine ; and the founder, to give his followers 
the appearance of a nation, or a barbarian horde, 
was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, 
who fled from their native country to avoid the 
punishment which attended them. After many 
successful wars against the neighbouring states, | 
the views of Romulus were directed to regulate j 
a nation naturally fierce, warlike, and unciviliz- 
ed. The people were divided into classes, the 
interests of the whole were linked in a common I 
chain, and the labours of the subject, as well as 
those of his patron, tended to the same end, the 
aggrandizement of the state. Under the suc- 
cessors of Romulus, the power of Rome was in- 
creased, and the boundaries of her dominions 
extended. During 244 years the Romans were 
governed by kings, but the tyranny, the op- 
pression, and the violence of the last of these 
monarchs and of his family, became so atrocious, 
that a revolution was effected in the state, and 
the democratical government was established. 
The monarchical government existed under 
seven princes, who began to reign in the follow- 
ing order : Romulus. B. C. 753; and after one 
year's interregnum, Numa, 715 ; TuUus Hosti- 
lius, 673; Ancus Martius, 640 ; Tarquin Pris- 
cus, 616 ; Servius Tullius, 578; and Tarquin 
the Proud, 534 ; expelled 25 years after, B. C. 
509; and this regal administration has been 
properly denominated the infancy of the Roman 
empire. After the expulsion of the Tarquins 
from the throne, the Romans became more sen- 
sible of their consequence ; with their liberty 
they acquired a spirit of faction, and they be- 
came so jealous of their independence, that the 
first of their consuls, who had been the most 
zealous and animated in the assertion of their 
freedom, was banished from the city because he 
bore the name, and was of the family of the ty- 
rants. They knew more effectually their pow- 
er when they had fought with success against 
Porsenna, the king of Etruria, and some of the 
neighbouring states, who supported the claim of 
the tyrant, and attempted to replace him on his 
throne by the force of arms. Though the Ro- 
mans could once boast that every individual in 
their armies could discharge with fidelity and 
honour the superior offices of magistrate and 
consul, there are to be found in their annals ma- 
ny years marked by overthrows, or disgraced by 
the ill conduct, the oppression, and the wanton- 
ness of their generals. ( Vid. Consul.) To the 
fame which their conquest and daily successes 
had gained abroad, the Romans were not a little 
indebted for their gradual rise to superiority; 
and to this maybe added the policy of the cen- 
sus, which every fifth year told them their actual 
strength, and how many citizens were able to 
bear arras. When Rome had flourished under 
276 



the consular government for about 120 years, 
and had beheld with pleasure the conquests of 
her citizens over the neighbouring states and 
cities, which, according to a Roman historian, 
she was ashamed to recollect in the summit of 
her power, an irruption of the barbarians of 
Gaul rendered her very existence precarious, 
and her name was nearly extinguished. The 
valour of an injured individual, {Vid. CamiU 
lus) saved it from destruction, yet not before its 
buildings and temples were reduced to ashes. 
This celebrated event, which gave the appella- 
tion of another founder of Rome to Camillus, 
has been looked upon as a glorious era to the 
Romans. No sooner were they freed from the 
fears of their barbarian invaders, than they turn- 
ed their arms against those states which refused 
to acknowledge their superiority or yield their 
independence. Their wars with Pyrrhus and 
the Tarentines displayed their character in a dif- 
ferent view; if they before had fought for freedom 
and independence, they now drew their sword 
for glory ; and here we may see them conquer- 
ed in the field, and yet refusing to grant that 
peace for which their conqueror himself had 
sued. The advantages they gained from their 
battles with Pyrrhus were many. The Roman 
name became known in Greece, Sicily, and 
Africa, and in losing or gaining a victory, the 
Romans were enabled to examine the manoeu- 
vres, observe the discipline, and contemplate 
the order and the encampments of those soldiers 
whose friends and ancestors had accompanied 
Alexander the Great in the conquest of Asia. 
Italy became subjected to the Romans at the 
end of the war with tlie Tarentines, and that 
period of time has been called the second age, 
of the adolescence of the Roman empire. Af- 
ter this memorable era they tried their strength 
not only with distant nations, but also upon a 
new element ; and in the long wars which they 
waged against Carthage, they acquired terri- 
tory and obtained the sovereignty of the sea ; 
and though Annibal for sixteen years kept them 
in continual alarms, hovered round their gates 
and destroyed their armies almost before their 
walls, yet they were doomed to conquer, ( Vid. 
Punicv/m Betlum) and soon to add the kingdom 
of Macedonia, ( Vid. Macedonicum Bellum) and 
the provinces of Asia, ( Vid. Mithridaticum Bel- 
lum) to their empire. But while we consider 
the Romans as a nation subduing their neigh- 
bours by war, their manners, their counsels, 
and their pursuits at home are not to be forgot- 
ten. The senators and nobles were ambitious 
of power, and endeavoured to retain in their 
hands that influence which had been exercised 
with so much success, and such cruelty, by 
their monarchs. This was the continual occa- 
sion of tumults and sedition. The plebeians, 
though originally the poorest and most con- 
temptible citizens of an indigent nation, whose 
food in the first ages of the empire was only 
bread and salt, and whose drink was water, 
soon gained rights and privileges by their oppo- 
sition. Though really slaves, they became 
powerful in the state; one concession from the 
patricians produced another. The laws which 
forbade the intermarriage of plebeian and patri- 
cian families were repealed, and the meanest 
peasant could, by valour and fortitude, be raised 
to the dignity of dictator and consul. But su- 



RO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RO 



preme power, lodged in the hands of a factious 
and am oitious citizen, becomes too often danger- 
ous. The greatest oppression and tyranny took 
place of subordination and obedience ; and from 
those causes proceeded the unparalleled slaugh- 
ter and effusion of blood under a Sylla or a Ma- 
rius. It has been justly observed, that the first 
Romans conquered their enemies by valour, 
temperance, and fortitude; their moderation 
also, and their justice, were well known among 
their neighbours ; and not only private posses- 
sions, but even mighty kingdoms and empires, 
were left in their power, to be distributed among 
a family, or to be ensured in the hands of a suc- 
cessor. They were also chosen umpires to de- 
cide quarrels ; but in this honourable ofiice they 
consulted their own interest ; they artfully sup- 
ported the weaker side, that the more powerful 
might be reduced, and gradually become their 
prey. Under J. Cassar and Pompey, the rage of 
civil war was carried to unprecedented excess. 
What Julius began, his adopted son achieved ; 
the ancient spirit of national independence was 
extinguished at Rome, and after the battle of 
Actium, the Romans seemed unable to govern 
themselves without the assistance of a chief, 
who, under the title of imperator, an appellation 
given to every commander by his army after 
some signal victory, reigned with as much pow- 
er and as much sovereignty as another Tarquin. 
Under their emperors the" Romans lived a lux- 
urious and indolent life. After they had been 
governed by a race of princes remarkable for the 
variety of their characters, the Roman posses- 
sions were divided into two distinct empires by 
the enterprising Constantine, A. D. 328. Con- 
stantinople became the seat of the eastern em- 
pire, and Rome remained in the possession of 
the western emperors, and continued to be the 
capital of their dominions. In the year 800 of 
the Christian era, Rome, with Italy, was deli- 
vered by Charlemagne, the then emperor of the 
west, into the hands of the Pope, who still con- 
tinues to hold the sovereignty, and to maintain 
his independence under the name of the Eccle- 
siastical States. The original poverty of the 
Romans has often been disguised by their poets 
and historians, who wished it to appear, that a 
nation who were masters of the world, had had 
better beginning than to be a race of shepherds 
and robbers. Yet it was to this simplicity they 
were indebted for their success. Their houses 
were originally destitute of every ornament ; 
they were made with unequal boards and cover- 
ed with mud, and these served them rather as a 
shelter against the inclemency of the seasons, 
than for relaxation and ease. Till the age of 
Pyrrhus they despised riches, and many saluta- 
ry laws were enacted to restrain luxury and to 
punish indolence. They observed great tem- 
perance in their meals : young men were not 
permitted to drink wine till they had attained 
their 30th year, and it was totally forbidden to 
women. Their national spirit was supported 
by policy ; the triumphal procession of a con- 
queror along the streets, amidst the applause of 
thousands, was well calculated to promote emu- 
lation ; and the number of gladiators which 
were regularly int'-oduced, not only in public 
games and spectacles, but also at private meet- 
ings, served to cherish their fondness for war, 
whilst it steeled their hearts against the calls of 



compassion; and when they could gaze with 
pleasure upon wretches whom they forcibly 
obliged to murder one another, they were not 
inactive in the destruction of those whom they 
considered as inveterate foes or formidable ri- 
vals in the field. In their punishments, civil as 
well as military, the Romans were strict and 
rigorous ; a deserter wels severely whipped, and 
sold as a slave; and the degradation from the 
rank of a soldier and dignity of a citizen, was 
the most ignominious stigma which could be 
affixed upon a seditious mutineer. Marcellus 
was the first who introduced a taste for the fine 
arts among his countrjTnen. The spoils and 
treasures that were obtained in the plunder of 
Syracuse and Corinih, rendered the Romans 
partial to elegant refinement and ornamental 
equipage. Of the little that remains to celebrate 
the early victories of Rome, nothing can be com- 
pared to the noble effusions of the Augustan 
age. Virgil has done so much for the Latin 
name, that the splendour and the triumphs of 
his country are forgotten for a while, when we 
are transported in the admiration of the majesty 
of his numbers, the elegant delicacy of his ex- 
pressions, and the fire of his muse ; and the ap- 
plauses given to the lyric powers of Horace, the 
softness of Tibullus, the vivacity of Ovid, and 
to the superior compositions of ether respectable 
poets, shall be unceasing as long as the name of 
Rome excites our reverence and our praises, 
and so long as genius, virtue, and abilities are 
honoured amongst mankind. Though they 
originally rejected with horror a law which pro- 
posed the building of a public theatre, and the 
exhibition of plays, like the Greeks, yet the Ro- 
mans soon proved favourable to the compositions 
of their countrymen. Livius was the first dra- 
matic writer of consequence at Rome, whose 
plays began to be exhibited A. U. C. 514. Af- 
ter himNasvius and Ennius wrote for the stage; 
and in a more polished period Plautus, Terence, 
Ca?cilius, and Afranius, claimed the public at- 
tention, and gained the most unbounded ap- 
plause. Satire did not make its appearance at 
Rome till 100 years after the introduction of 
comedy, and so celebrated was Lucilius in this 
kind of writing, that he was called the inventor 
of it. In historical writing the progress of the 
Romans was slow and inconsiderable, and for 
many years they employed the pen of foreigners 
to compile their annals, till the superior abilities 
of a Livy were made known. In their worship 
and sacrifices the Romans were uncommonlj/- 
superstitious, the will of the gods was consulted 
on every occasion, and no general marched to 
an expedition without the previous assurance 
from the augurs that the omens were propitious 
and his success almost indubitable. The pow- 
er of fathers over their children was very ex- 
tensive and indeed unlimited; they could sell 
them or put them to death at pleasure, without 
the forms of trial or the interference of the civil 
magistrates. When Rome was become power- 
ful, she was distinguished from other cities by 
the flattery of her neiglibours and citizens ; a 
form of worship was established to her as a 
deity, and temples were raised in her honour, 
not only in the city, but in the provinces. The 
goddess Roma was represented like Minerva, 
all armed and sitting on a rock, holding a pike 
in her hand, with her head covered with a 
277 



RO 



GEOGRAPHY. 



RU 



helmet, and a trophy at her feet. Such is an 
outline of the rise, progress, and decline of Rome, 
according to the writings of her historians and 
poets ; and, as an abstract of their relations, it 
is entitled to a place in an account of antiquity, 
although we give to a very small portion of it 
that credit which the ancients, without inquiry, 
thought proper to yield to the whole. The 
Trojan settlement in Italy we are not called on 
to disturb, and its little bearing on the import- 
ant points of Roman history permits us, with 
the indulgence of a reasonable scepticism, to 
leave, without too close an investigation, the 
grounds on which repose the pleasing tradition. 
Indeed, the minutest examination of this point 
can lead to nothing but the comparison of au- 
thorities, deriving their own information from 
the most questionable sources ; and the writers 
from whom the historians of antiquity deduced 
their proofs, unsatisfactory to them, have no ex- 
istence for us. But as we approach the era of 
the first appearance of the Roman people among 
the nations of Italy, that period to which we 
must look for the origin of laws and institutions, 
which spread one vast and inexorable empire 
over the earth, if the research be no less diffi- 
cult, the necessity of conducting it with care 
becomes imperative. With little and very in- 
sufficient light to guide us, either to receive or 
reject, we may hesitate before we deny to the 
reputed founder of the Roman state and nation 
any real existence ; but we have no room for 
doubt when called upon to reconcile the story of 
the birth of Rome, as related by Livy, the as- 
sembling merely of an outlawed band under the 
command of the twin-brothers, and the regal 
stale of one of these, but the next moment, with 
an army to make front against the confederated 
people around, to cope with, and little less than 
to conquer, the warlike Sabines of the Apen- 
nines. "We reject therefore, at once, the ac- 
count of the foundation of the city, as compiled 
from the legendary traditions of the earliest days 
by the first historians, and concede at most, that, 
on the first emerging of the Roman scale from 
obscurity, and perhaps from dependence, we 
may believe a Remus or a Romulus to have as- 
sisted in the organization of a state that had 
been gradually gaining strength, and preparing 
itself for independent government. Till then 
we may not have been able to distinguish it 
among the many cities over which the Tuscan 
rule had extended itself in the progress of its 
ascendency. The first institutions ascribed to 
the fabled founder are distinctly of Etruscan 
origin. The affairs of Rome, then, before her 
history, are connected with the wanderings and 
the settlements of the Pelasgic tribes ; and it is 
well observed, therefore, by Niebuhr, that the 
founding of Rome may indeed be referred to as 
a chronological era, but it mu.st at the same time 
be distinguished from an historical fact. The 
origin of the name of Rome, no less than that 
of her institutions, was early wrapped in mys- 
tery ; and while a real ignorance concealed the 
latter, a superstitious or a political fanaticism 
shrouded the former. To utter the mysteries 
connected with this name, confessedly not of 
Latin origin, and perhaps involving secrets of 
the early history of the republic, was punisha- 
ble by death. No inquiry is more interesting 
than that which proposes for investigation the I 



nature of the Roman policy, and the causes of 
the Roman greatness, apart from the fictions of 
poetrj'' and the exaggerations of national vanity. 
Bui while to the philosopher it offers a wide and 
interesting, and instructive field, it throws but 
little light upon the works that remain to us from 
antiquity, as it receives from them but little elu- 
cidation. Liv. 1, &c. — Cato de R. R. — Virg. 
jEn. G. & Ecl.—Horat. 2, sat. 6, Scc—Flor. 
1, c. 1, &c. — Palerc. — Tacit. Ann. & Hist. — 
Tidull. 4. — Lmcan. — Plut. in Rom. Num. &c. 
— Cic. de Nat. D. &c. — Plin. 7, &c. — Justin. 
43. — Varro de L. L. 5. — Val. Max. 1, &c.— 
Martial. 12, ep. 8. 

RoMiJLiD.E, a patronymic given to the Roman 
people from Romulus their first king, and the 
founder of their city. Virg. yEn. 8, v. 638. 
RosciANUM, the port of Thurii, now Rossano. 
RosiiE Campus, or Rosia, a beautiful plain 
in the country of the Sabines, near the lake 
Velinum. Varro. R. R. 1, c. 7. — Virg. jEn. 
7, V. 112.— Cic. 4, Att. 15. 
RoTOMAGUs, a town of Gaul, now Rouen. 
RoxoLANi, a people of European Sarmatia, 
who proved very active and rebellious in the 
reign of the Roman emperors. 

RuBEAs PROMONToanjM, the north cape at the 
north of Scandinavia. 

RuBi, now Ruvo, a town of Apulia, from 
which the epithet Rubeus is derived, applied to 
bramble bushes which grew there. The inha- 
bitants were called Rvhitini. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, 
V. 94. Virg. G.l,v. 266. 

Rubicon, now Rugone, a small river of Italy, 
which it separates from Cisalpine Gaul. It 
rises in the Apennine mountains, and falls into 
the Adriatic Sea. By crossing it, and thus 
transgressing the boundaries of his province, J. 
Csesar declared war against .the senate and 
Pompey, and began the civil wars. " To iden- 
tify this celebrated stream is a question which 
has long puzzled writers on comparative geo- 
graphy, and does not even now seem perfer'tly 
settled. Without entering into the details of 
this inquiry, we may safely say, that the Rubicon 
is formed from several small streams, which 
unite about a mile from the sea, and then as- 
sume the name of Fiumicino. Cassar coming 
from Ravenna along the coast, would cross the 
Rubicon near its mouth, where it is one stream : 
had he proceeded by the Via Emilia, he would 
have had to cross the three rivulets, called Riv- 
gone, Pisatello, and Savignano, which by their 
junction constitute the Fiumicino. It is to Lu- 
can that we are indebted for the most interest- 
ing description of this famous event." Cram. 
— iMcan. 1, V. 185 and 213. — Strab. 5. — Suet. 
in C(BS. 32. — Plin. 3, c. 15. 

RuBo, the Dwina, which falls into the Baltic 
at Riga. 

RuBRUM MARE. Vid. Arohicvts Sinus and 
Erythrceum Mare. 

RuDi^, a touTi of Calabria, near Brundusium, 
built by a Greek colony, and famous for giving 
birth to the poet Ennius. Cic. pro Arch. 10. — 
Ital. 12, V. 396.— M^Zfl., 2, c. 4. 

RuPRiE, a town of Samnium, which Cluve- 
rius, D'Anville, and Cramer, identify with the 
little to^m of Ruvo near Conza. Cic. 10. 
Fam. ll.—Sil. 8, v. 568.— Virg. JEn. 7. v. 739. 
RuFFRiuM, a town of Samnium, probably now 
S". Angela Raviscanino south of Venafri, thou^^h 



SA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SA 



Romanelli fixes there the site of Rufrae. Cram. 
—Liv. 8, c. 25. 

RuGiA,now Rugen, an island of the Baltic. 

RuGii, a nation of Germany. Tacit, de 
Germ. 43. 

RusELLJE. " Two or three miles to the 
north-east of the Lago di Castiglione, some re- 
markable ruins, with the name of Roselle at- 
tached to them, point out the site of the ancient 
Rusellae, one of the twelve Etruscan cities. It 
is mentioned more than once by Iayj in the 
course of the wars with Etruria. It was taken 
by assault in the year 454 U. C. by the consul 
L. Posth. Megillus. In the second Punic war, 
we hear of its furnishing timber, especially fir, 
for the Roman fleets. From Pliny we learn 
that it subsequently became a colony, which is 
confirmed by an inscription cited by Holste- 
nius." Cram. 

RuTENi, a people of Celtic Gaul. They oc- 
cupied the region which is now called le Roiu- 
ergue ; their city Segodunum afterwards took 
the name Rhodez from that of the people. 
But a part of the Ruteni were in the Province, 
and another without, in Celtic Gaul. Csesar 
calls the former Provincials, and they occupied 
that part of Gaul which is now styled VAlbige- 
ois, whose city was Albiga, Albi. Cas. B.^ G. 
ed. Lem. 

RuTULi, a people of Latium, known as well 
as the Latins, by the name of AborigiTies. 
When ^neas came into Italy, Turnus was 
their king, and they supported him in the war 
which he waged against this foreign prince. 
The capital of their dominions was called Ar- 
dea. Ovtd. Fast. 4, v. 883. Met. 14, v. 455, 
&iC.— Virg. Mn. 7, &.c.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 

RtJTUPJE, a sea-port town on the southern 
coast of Britain, abounding in excellent oysters, 
whence the epithet of Rutupinus. Some sup- 
pose that it is the modem town of Dover, hut 
others Richborough or Sandwich. L/ucan. 6, v. 
67. — Juv. 4, V. 141. 



Saba, a town of Arabia, famous for frankin- 
cense, myrrh, and aromatic plants. The mha- 
bitants were called SoJxd. Strab. 16. — Diod. 
3.— Virg. G. 1, V. 57. ^n. 1, v. 420. 

Sab^i, a people of Arabia Felix. " Among 
the several inhabitants of this country, the Sa- 
ted are the most distinguished and sometimes 
comprise others under their name. Another 
name, that of the HcnneritcB, thought to be de- 
rived from Himiar, the name of a sovereign, 
and which signifies the Red King appears 
latterly confounded with that of the Sabeans." 
D'Anville. 

Sabata, I. a town of Liguria, with a safe and 
beautiful harbour, supposed to be the modem 

Savona. Sil. 8, v. 461. — Strab. 4. 11, A town 

of Assyria. 

Sabatha, a town of Arabia, now Sanaa. 

Saba TINT, a people of Samnium, living on 
the banks of the Sabatus, a river which falls 
into the Vulturnus. Liv. 26, c. 33. 

Sabelli, a people of Italy, descended from 
the Sabines, or according to some, from the 
Samnites. They inhabited that part of the 
country which lies between the Sabines and 
the Marsi. Hence the epithet of Sabellicus, 
Horat. 3, od. 6.— Virg. G. 3, v. 255. 



Sabini. " The Sabines appear to be gene- 
rally considered one of the most ancient indige- 
nous tribes of Italy, and one of the few who 
preserved their race pure and unmixed. We 
are not to expect, however, that fiction should 
have been more sparing of its ornaments in set- 
ting forth their origin, than in the case of other 
nations far less interesting and less celebrated: 
Dionysius of Halicamassus, among other tra- 
ditions respecting the Sabines, mentions one 
"U'hich supposes them to have been a colony ot 
the Lacedaemonians about the time of Lycur- 
gus, a fable which has been eagerly caught up 
by the Latin poets and mythologists. Their 
name, according to Cato, was derived from the 
god Sabus, an aboriginal deity, supposed to be 
the same as the Medius Fidius of the Latins. 
His son Sancus was the Sabine Hercules. 
They were, in all probability, a branch of the 
aboriginal Umbri. How inconsiderable a com- 
munity they constituted at first may be seen 
from the accounts of Cato ; who, as quoted by 
Dionysius in his Antiquities of Rome, reported, 
that the first Sabines settled in an obscure place, 
named Testrina, in the vicinity of Amitemum. 
As their numbers increased, however, they ra- 
pidly extended themselves in every direction : 
expelling the aborigines from the district of Ri- 
eii, and from thence sending numerous colonies 
into Picenum, Samnium, and the several petty 
nations who are named at the head of this sec- 
tion. The early connexion of the Sabines with 
Rome, which was yet in its infancy, naturally 
forms Lhe most interesting epoch in their histo- 
ry. The event which brought the two states 
into contact, as related by the Roman histori- 
ans, is too well known to require further notice 
here. But whatever truth may be attached to 
the rape of the Sabine women, we cannot but 
look upon the accession of Tatius to the regal 
power, and the incorporation of the Cluirites 
with the citizens of Rome, as well attested 
proofs of the control once exercised by the Sab- 
ine nation over that city. With the reign of 
Numa, however, this influence ceased, for at 
that time we find the Sabines engaged in war 
with his successor Hostilius, and experiencing 
defeats which were only the prelude to a series 
of successful aggressions on the one hand, and 
of losses and humiliations on the other. It was 
reserved for the consul Curius Dentatus, A. U. 
C. 462, to achieve the entire subjugation of the 
Sabines,by carrying fire and desolation beyond 
the sources of the Nar and Velinus, to the very 
shores of the Adriatic. Though the conquered 
country was apparently poor and void of re- 
source, the rapacity of the victors is said to have 
been amply gratified in this expedition by plun- 
der, such as they had never obtained in any or 
their former conquests. A fact from which it 
may be inferred, that the Sabines of that day 
were no longer that austere and hardy race, to 
whose simplicity and purity of manners such 
ample testimony is paid by the ancient writers; 
whose piety and pristine worth were the model 
of the royal legislator, and an example of all 
that was noble and upright to the early patriots 
of Rome. In fixing the limits of the Sabine 
territory, we must not attend so much to those 
remote times when they reached nearly to the 
gates of Rome, as to that period in which the 
boundaries of the different people of Italy were 
279 



SA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SA 



marked out with greater clearness and preci- 
sion, we mean the reign of Augustas. We shall 
then find the Sabines separated from Latium 
by the river Anio ; from Etruria by the Tiber, 
beginning from the point where it receives the 
former stream, to within a short distance of 
Otricoli. The Nar will form their boundary 
on the side of Umbria, and the central ridge of 
the Apennines will be their limit on that of Pi- 
cenum. To the south and south-east it may be 
stated generally, that they bordered on the iEqui 
and Vestini. From the Tiber to the frontier 
of the latter people, the length of the Sabine 
country, which was its greatest dimension, 
might be estimated at 1000 stadia, or 120 miles, 
its breadth being much less considerable." 
Cram. 

Sabis, now Sa'mhre, a river of Belgic Gaul, 
falling into the Maese at Nwmar. Cess. 2, c. 16 
and 18. 

Sabrata, a maritime town of Africa, near 
the Syrtes. It was a Roman colony, about 70 
miles from the modern Tripoli. Ital. 3, v. 
256.— PZiri. 5, c. 4. 

Sabrina, the Severn in England. 

Sac^, a people of Scythia, who inhabited 
the country that lies at the east of Bactriana 
and Sogdiana, and towards the north of mount 
Imaus. The name of Saca was given in gene- 
ral to all the Scythians by the Persians. They 
had no towns according to some writers, but 
lived in tents. Ptol. 6, c. 13. — Herodot. 3, c. 
93, I. 7, c. m.—Plin. 6, c. ll.—Solin. 62. 

Sacer mons, a mountain near Rome. Vid. 
Mons Sacer. 

Sacer portus, or Sacri portus, a place of 
Italy, near Pr^neste, famous for a battle that 
was fought there between Sylla and Marius, in 
which the former obtained the victory. Paterc. 
% c. 26.— Lwca7i. 2, v. 134. 

Sacrani. Vid. Latium. 

Sacra via, a celebrated street of Rome, 
where a treaty of peace and alliance was made 
between Romulus and Tatius. It led from the 
amphitheatre to the capitol, by the temple of 
the goddess of peace, and the temple of Caesar. 
The triumphal processions passed through it to 
go to the capitol. Horat. 4, od. 2, 1. 1, sat. 9. — 
Liv. 2, c. 13.— Cic, Plane. l.—Att. 4. ep. 3. 

Sacrum promontorium, a promontory of 
Spain, now Caps St. Vincent, called by Strabo 
the most westerly part of the earth. 

SffiTABts, a town of Spain, now Xativa, on a 
little river which falls into the Xucar, (D^An- 
ville,) famous for its fine linen. Sil. 3, v. 373. 

Sagaris. Vid. Sangaris. 

Sagra, a small river of Italy, in the country 
of the Brutii. Cic. JVat. D. 2, c. 2.—Strab. 6. 

Saguntum, or Saguntus, a town of Hispa- 
nia Tarraconensis, at the west of the Iberus, 
about one mile from the sea-shore, now called 
Morviedro. It had been founded by a colony of 
Zacynthians, and by some of the Rutuli of Ar- 
dea. Saguntum is celebrated for the clay in its 
neighbourhood, with which cups, pocula Sa- 
guntina, were made ; but more particularlvit is 
famous as being the cause of the second Punic 
war, and for the attachment of its inhabitants 
to the interests of Rome. Hannibal took it after 
a siege of about eight months ; and the inhabit- 
ants, not to fall into the enemy's hands, burnt 
themselves with their houses, and with all their 
280 



effects. The conqueror afterwards rebuilt it, 
and placed a garrison there, with all the noble- 
men whom he detained as hostages from the 
several neighbouring nations of Spain. Some 
suppose that he called it Spariagene. Sagun- 
tum " preserves its vestiges in a place, of which 
the modern name of Morviedro is formed of 
the Latin muri veteres, " old walls." D'Anville. 
—FloT. 2, c. 6.—Liv. 21, c. 2, 7, 2.— Sil. 1, v. 
Til.—LMcan. 3, v. 250.— ^^ra^. Z.—Mela, 2, 
c. 6. 

Sais, now SVi, a town in the Delta of Egypt, 
situate between the Canopic and Sebennyiican 
mouths of the Nile, and anciently the capital 
of Lower Egypt. There was there a celebrat- 
ed temple dedicated to Minerva, with a room 
cut out of one stone, which had been conveyed 
by water from Elephantis by the labours of 
2000 men in three years. The stone measured 
on the outside 21 cubits long, 14 broad, and 8 
high. Osiris was also buried near the town of 
Sais. The inhabitants were called Saita. One 
of the mouths of the Nile, which is adjoining 
to the town, has received the name of Saiticum. 
Strab. 11.— Herodot. 2, c. 17, &c. 

Salamis. " Opposite the Eleusinian coast 
was the island of Salamis, said to have derived 
its name from Salamis, mother of the Asopus. 
It was also anciently called Sciras and Cychrea, 
from the heroes Scirus and Cychreus, and Pity- 
ussa, from its abounding in firs. It had been 
already celebrated in the earliest period of Gre- 
cian history from the colony of the jEacidas, 
who settled there before the siege of Troy. The 
possession of Salamis, as we learn from Strabo> 
was once obstinately contested by the Athenians 
and Megareans : and he affirms that both par- 
ties interpolated Homer, in order to prove from 
his poems that it had belonged to them. Hav- 
ing been occupied by Athens, it revolted to 
Megara, but was again conquered by Solon, or, 
according to some, by Pisistratus. From this 
period it appears to have been always subject to 
the Athenians. On the invasion of Xerxes they 
were induced to remove thither with their fami- 
lies, in consequence of a prediction of the ora- 
cle, which pointed out this island as the scene 
of the defeat of their enemies, and soon after, 
by the advice of Themistocles, the whole of the 
naval force of Greece was assembled in the bay 
of Salamis. Meanwhile the Persian fleet sta- 
tioned at Phalerum held a council, in which it 
was determined to attack the Greeks, who were 
said to be planning their flight to the Isthmus. 
The Persian ships accordingly were ordered to 
surround the island during the night, with a 
view of preventing their escape. In the morn- 
ing the Grecian galleys moved on to the attack, 
the vEginetans leading the van, seconded by the 
Athenians, who were opposed to the Phoenician 
ships, while the Peloponnesian squadron was 
engaged with the lonians. The Persians were 
completely defeated, and retired in the greatest 
disorder to Phalerum. The following night the 
whole fleet abandoned the coast of Attica, and 
withdrew to the Hellespont. A trophy was erect- 
ed to commemorate this splendid victory on the 
isle of Salamis, near the temple of Diana, and 
opposite to Cynosura, where the strait is nar- 
rowest. Here it was seen by Pausanias, and 
some of its vestiges were observed by Sir W. 
Gell, who reports that it consisted of a column 



SA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SA 



on a circular base. Many of the marbles are in 
the sea. Stephanus Byz. mentions a village of 
Salamis named Cychreus. Strabo informs us 
that the island contained two cities; the more 
ancient of the h\-o, which was situated on the 
southern side, and opposite to ^gina, was de- 
serted in his time. The other stood in a bay, 
formed by a neck of land which advanced to- 
wards Attica. Pausanias remarks that the city 
of Salamis was destroyed by the Athenians, in 
consequence of its having surrendered to the 
Macedonians when the former people were at 
war with Cassander ; there still remained, how- 
ever, some ruins of the agora, and a temple de- 
dicated to Ajax. Chandler states that the walls 
may still be traced, and appear to have been 
about four miles in circumference." Cram. 

Salams, or Salamina, a town at the east 
of the island of Cyprus. It was built by Teu- 
cer, who gave it the name of the island of Sala- 
mis, from which he had been banished about 
1270 years before the Christian era ; and from 
this circumstance the epithets of ambigua and 
altera were applied to it, as the mother countr}' 
was also called vera, for the sake of distinction. 
His descendants continued masters of the toT\Ti 
for above 800 years. It was destroyed by an 
earthquake, and rebuilt in the 4th century, and 
called Constantia. Strab. 9. — Herodot. 8, c. 
94, &,c.—Horat. 1, od. 7, v. 21. — Paterc. 1, c. 1. 
— Lucan. 3, v. 183. 

Salapia, " a town of Apulia, situated be- 
tween a lake thence called Salapina Palus and 
the Aufidus, is stated by Strabo to have been the 
emporium of Arpi. Without such authority we 
should have fixed upon Sipontum as answering 
that purpose better from its greater proximity. 
This town laid claims to a Grecian origin, though 
not of so remote a date as the Trojan war. We 
do not hear of Salapia in the Roman history till 
the second Punic war, when it is represented as 
falling into the hands of the Carthaginians, after 
the battle of Cannag; but not long after, it was 
delivered up to Marcellus by the party which 
favoured the Roman interest, together with the 
garrison which Hannibal had placed there. The 
Carthaginian general seems to have felt the loss 
of this town severely; and it was probably the 
desire of revenge which prompted him, after the 
death and defeat of Marcellus, to adopt the stra- 
tagem ofaddressing letters, sealed wath that com- 
mander's ring, to the magistrates of the town, 
in order to obtain admission with his troops. 
The Salapitani, however, being warned of his 
design, the attempt proved abortive. The prox- 
imity of Salapia to the lake or marsh already 
mentioned, is said to have proved so injurious 
to the health of the inhabitants, that some years 
after these events they removed nearer the coast, 
where they built a new town, with the assist- 
ance of M. Hostilius, a Roman praetor, who 
caused a communication to be opened between 
the lake and the sea. Considerable remains of 
both to"WTis, are still standing at some distance 
from each other, under the name of Saljri, which 
confirm this account of Vitruvius. The Palus 
Salapina, now Lago diSalpi, is noticed by Ly- 
cophron and Lucan." Cram. 

Salarfa, I. a street and gate at Rome, which 
led towards the country of the Sabines. It re- 
ceived the name of Salo.ria, because salt (sal) 
w^as generallv conveyed to Rome that way. 

P4RtT.^2N 



Mart. 4. ep 64. II. A bridge, called SaUi- 

rius, was built four miles from Rome through 
the Salarian gate on the river Anio. 

Salassi, a people of Gallia Cisalpina, " situ- 
ated to the north of the Libicii, and at the foot 
of the Alps. The main part of their territory 
lay chiefly, however, in a long valley, which 
reached to the summits of theGraian and Pen- 
nine Alps, the Little and Great St. Bernard. 
The passages over these mountains into Gaul 
were too important an object for the Romans, 
not to make them anxious to secure them by the 
conquest of the Salassi ; but these hardy moun- 
taineers, though attacked as early as 609 U. C. 
held out for a long time, and were not finally 
subdued till the reign of Augustus. Such 
was the difficult nature of their country, that 
they could easily intercept all communication 
through the valleys by occupying the heights. 
Strabo represents them as carrying on a sort of 
predatory warfare, during which they seized 
and ransomed some distinguished Romans, and 
even ventured to plunder the baggage and mili- 
tary chest of Julius Caesar. Augustus caused 
their country at last to be occupied permanentlv 
by a large force under Terentius Varro. A 
great many of the Salassi perished in this last 
war, and the rest to the number of 36,000, were 
sold and reduced to slavery." {Vid. Augusta 
Prcetoria.) Cram. 

Salentini, a people of Italy, near Apulia, 
on the southern coast of Calabria. Their chief 
towns were Brundusium, Tarentum, and Hy- 
druntnm. Hal. 8, v. 579. — Virg. Mn. 3, v. 
AQO.— Varro de R. R. 1, c. ^.—Strab. 6.— 
Mela, 2, c. 4. 

Salernum, now Salerno, a town of the Pi- 
centini, on the shores of the' Tyrrhene Sea, 
south of Campania, and famous for a medical 
school in the lower ages. Plin. 13, c. 3. — Liv. 
34, c. 45. — lAtcan. 2, v. 425. — Paterc. 1, c. 15. 
— Herat. 1, ep. 15. 

Salmacis, a fountain of Caria, near Hali- 
carnassus, which rendered effeminate all those 
who drank of its waters. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 285, 
1. 15, V. Sl9.—Hygin. fab. 211.— Fesl/us. de V. 

fig- 

Salmantica, a town of Spain, now Sala- 
manca. 

Salmone, I. a town of Elis in Peloponnesus, 
with a fountain, from which the Enipeus takes 
its source, and falls into the Alpheus, about 40 
stadia from Olympia, which, on account of 
that, is called Salmonis. Ovid. 3, Amor. el. 6, 

V. 43. II. A promontory at the east of Crete. 

Dionys. 5. 

Salo, now Xalon, a river in Spain, falling 
into the Ibems. Mart. 10, ep. 20. 

Salodtjrum,. now Soleure, a town of the 
Helvetii. 

Salona, Salons, and Salon, a town of 
Dalmatia, about ten miles distant from the 
coast of the Adriatic, conquered by Pollio, who 
on that account called his son Saloninus, in ho- 
nour of the victory. It was the native place of 
the emperor Dioclesian, and he retired there to 
enjoy peace and tranquillity, after he had abdi- 
cated the imperial purple, and built a stately 
palace, the ruins of which were still seen in 
the I6th century at Spalatro, about three miles 
from Salona. L/ucan. 4, v. 404. — Cas. BeL 
Civ. 9.— Mela, 2, c. 3. 

281 



SA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SA 



Salyes, or Saluvii, a powerful nation of Gaul, 
" who extended from the Rhone along the 
southern bank of the Durance, almost to the 
Alps ; and with whom the Massilians had to 
contend." D'Anville. — Liv. 5, c. 34 and 35, 
1. 21, c. 26. 

Samara, a river of Gaul, now called the Som- 
me, which falls into the British channel near 
Abbeville. 

Samaria, a city and country of Palestine, 
famous in sacred history. The inhabitants, 
called Samaritans, were composed of Heathens 
and rebellious Jews, and on having a temple 
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, 
a lasting enmity arose between the people of 
Judasa and of Samaria, so that no intercourse 
took place between the countries, and the name 
of Samaritan became a word of reproach, and 
as if it were a curse. 

Samarobriva, a town of Gaul, now Amiens^ 
in Picardy. 

Same. Vid. Cephallenia. 

Samnites, a people of Italy, who inhabited 
the country situate between Campania, Apulia, 
and Latium, T hey distinguished themselves by 
their implacable hatred against the Romans in 
the first ages of that empire, till they were at 
last totally extirpated, B. C. 272, after a war of 
71 years. Their chief town was called Sam- 
nium or Samnis. Liv. 7, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 16, 
&c. 1. 3, c. 18. — Strab. 5. — LMcan. 2. — Eutrop. 2. 

Samosata, a town of Syria, in Commagene, 
near the Euphrates, below mount Taurus, 
where Lucian was born. 

Samothrace, or Samothracia, an island in 
the iEgean Sea, opposite the mouth of the He- 
brus, on the coast of Thrace, from which it is 
distant about 32 miles. It was known by the 
ancient names of Leucosia, Melitis, Electria, 
Leucania, and Dardania. " Though insigni- 
ficant in itself, considerable celebrity attaches to 
it from the mysteries of Cybele and her Cory- 
bantes, which are said to have originated there, 
and to have been disseminated from thence 
over Asia Minor and difierent parts of Greece. 
We shall not here attempt to investigate the ori- 
gin either of the mysteries above alluded to, or 
of the Cabiric worship, with which they were 
intimately connected, the subject, although in- 
teresting, being too obscure to be elucidated but 
in an elaborate dissertation. Herodotus is posi- 
tive in affirming that the Samothracians prac- 
tised the Cabiric orgies, and states that they de- 
rived them from the Pelasgi, who once occupied 
that island, but afterwards obtained a settlement 
in Attica, The Samothracians joined the Per- 
sian fleet in the expedition of Xerxes : and one 
of their vessels distinguished itself in the battle 
of Salamis." Cram. It enjoyed all its rights 
and immunities under the Romans till the reign 
of Vespasian, who reduced it, with ihe rest of 
the islands in the ^Egean, into the form of a 
province. Plin. 4, c. 12. — Strab. 10. — Herod. 
7, c. 108, &c.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. ^%.—Mela, 2, 
c. 7 -Pans. 7, c. 4:.— Flor. 2, c. 12. 

Sana, a town of mount Athos, near which 
Xerxes began to make a channel to convey the 
sea. 

Sandaliotis, a name given to Sardinia, from 
its resemblance to a sandal. Plin. 3, c. 7. 

Sangarius, or Sangaris, a river of Asia Mi- 
nor, rising in the mountains that separate Phry- 
282 



gia from Galatia. It belongs, however, to the 
latter country and to Bithynia, and empties inio 
the Euxine Sea, between the possessions of the 
Thyni and the Mariandyni. It is still called 
the Sakaria. 

Santones, and Santon^e, now Saintonge, a 
people with a town of the same name in Gaul. 
Lucan. 1, v, 422. — Martial. 3, ep. 96. 

Sapis, now Savio, a river of Gaul Cispadana, 
falling into the Adriatic. LMcan. 2, v. 406. 

Saracene, part of Arabia Petraea, the coun- 
try of the Saracens who embraced the religion 
of Mahomet, 

Sarasa, a fortified place of Mesopotamia, on 
the Tigris. Strab. 

Saravus, now the Save, a river of Belgium, 
falling into the Moselle. 

Sardi, the inhabitants of Sardinia. Vid. Sar- 
dinia. 

Sardinia, the greatest island in the Mediter- 
ranean after Sicily, is situate between Italy and 
Africa, at the south of Corsica. It was origi- 
nally called Sandaliotis or Ichnusa, from its re- 
sembling the human foot, {L')(yos) and it received 
the name of Sardinia from Sardus, a son of Her- 
cules, who settled'here with a colony which he 
had brought with him from Libya. Other colo- 
nies, under Aristoeus, Norax, and lolas, also set- 
tled there. The Carthaginians were long mas- 
ters of it, and were dispossessed by the Romans 
in the Punic wars, B. C. 231. Some call it with 
Sicily, one of the granaries of Rome. The 
air was very unwholesome, though the soU was 
fertile in corn, in wine, and oil. Neither 
wolves nor serpents are found in Sardinia, nor 
any poisonous herb, except one, which, when 
eaten, contracts the nerves, and is attended with 
a paroxysm of laughter, the forerunner of 
death; hence risus Sardonicus, or Sardous. 
Cic. Fam. 7, c. 25. — Servius ad Virg. 7, eel. 41. 

— Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 8b.— Mela, 3, c. 1.— Strab. 
2 and 5. — Cic. pro Manil. ad Q. frat. 2, ep. 3. — 
Plin. 3, c, l.—Paus. 10, c. ll.— Varro de R.R. 

— Val. Max. 7, c, 6. 

Sardis, or Sardes, now Sart, a town of Asia 
Minor, the capital of the kingdom of Lydia, 
situate at the foot of mount Tmolus, on the 
banks of the Paclolus. It is celebrated for the 
many sieges it sustained against the Cimme- 
rians, Persians, Medes, Macedonians, lonians, 
and Athenians, and for the battle in which, B. 
C. 262, Antiochus Soter was defeated by Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus. It was destroyed 
by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, who 
ordered it to be rebuilt. It fell into the hands 
of Cyrus, B. C. 548, and was burnt by the 
Athenians, B. C. 504, which became the cause 
of the invasion of Attica by Darius. Pint, in 
Alex.— Ovid. Met. 11, v. 137, 152, &.Q.— Strab. 
n.— Herod. 1, c. 7, &c. 

Sardones, the people of Roussilon in France, 
at the foot of the Pyrenees. Plin. 3, c. 4. 

Sarephta, a town of Phoenicia, between 
Tyre and Sydon, now Sarfand. 

Sarmat^}, or Sauromat^, the inhabitants of 
Sarmatia. Vid. Sarmatia. 

Sarmatia, an extensive country at the north 
of Europe and Asia, divided into JEuropean and 
Asiatic, The European was bounded by the 
ocean on the north of Germany, and the Vistii^ 
la on the west, the Jazygae on the south, and 
Tanais on the east. The Asiatic was bounded 



SA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SC 



by Hyrcania, the Tanais, and the Euxine Sea. 
The lormer contained the modern kingdoms of 
Russia., Poland, Lithuania, and Little Tartary ; 
and the latter, Great Tartary, Circassia, and 
the neighboaring country. The Sarmatians 
were a savage, uncivilized nation, often con- 
foimded with the Scythians, naturally warlike, 
and famous for painting their bodies to appear 
more terrible in the field of battle. In the time 
of the emperors they became very powerful, 
they disturbed the peace of Rome by their fre- 
quent incursions ; till at last, increased by the 
savage hordes of Scythia, under the barbarous 
names of Huns, Vandals, Goths, Alans, &c. 
they successfully invaded and ruined the em- 
pire in the 3d and 4th centuries of the Chris- 
tian era. They generally lived on the moun- 
tains without any habitation, except their char- 
iots, whence they have been called Hamaxobii; 
they lived upon plunder, and fed upon milk 
mixed with the blood of horses. Strab. 7, &c. 
—Mela, 2, c. i.—Diod. ^.—Flor. 4, c. 12.—Lni- 
can. 1, &C.—JUV. 2.— Ovid. Trist. 3, &c. The 
ancients did attach to the name of Sarmatia a 
meaning sufficiently definite, as the boundaries 
given above may explain ; but it was very dif- 
ferent as regarded the Sarmatas, or people in- 
habiting the region thus indicated ; and modern 
investigations for a long time only added to the 
obscurity that prevailed upon this point. Vid. 
Europa. 

Sarmaticum mare, a name given to the 
Euxine Sea, because on the coast of Sarmatia. 
Ovid. 4, ex Pont. ep. 10, v. 38. 

Sarnus, a river of Picenum, dividing it from 
Campania,- and falling into the Tuscan Sea. 
Stat. 1, Sylv. 2, v. 265.— Fir^. ^n. 7, v. 738. 
—Strab. 5. 

Saroniccjs sinus, now the gulf of Engia, a 
bay of the ^Egean Sea, lying at the south of 
Attica, and on the north of the Peloponnesus. 
The entrance into it is between the promontory 
of Sunium and that of Scyllaeum. Some sup- 
pose that this part of the sea received its name 
from Saron, who was drowned there, or from a 
small river which discharged itself on the coast, 
or from a small harbour of the same name. The 
Saronic bay is about 62 miles in circumference, 
23 miles in its broadest, and 25 in its longest 
part, according to modern calculation. 

Sarpedon, I. a town of Cilicia, famous for a 

temple sacred to Apollo and Diana. II. Also 

a promontory of the same name in Cilicia, be- 
yond which Andochus was not permitted to sail 
by a treaty of peace which he had made with 
the Romans. Liv. 38, c. 38. — Mela, 1, c, 13. 
III. A promontory of Thrace. 

Sarra, a town of Phoenicia, the same as 
Tyre. It receives this name from a small shell- 
fish of the same name, which was found in the 
neighbourhood, and with whose blood garments 
were dyed. Hence came the epithet of sarra- 
nus, so often applied to Tyrian colours, as well 
as to the inhabitants of the colonies of the 
Tyrians, particularly Carthage, Sil. 6, v. 
662, 1. 15, V. ^b.— Virg. G. 2, v. ^m.—Festnis 
de V. sig. 

Sarrastes, a people of Campania, on the 
Sarnus, who assisted Tumus against .ffineas. 
Virg. JEn. 7, v. 738. 

Sarsina, an ancient town of Umbria, where 
the poet Plautus was bom. The inhabitants 



I are called Sarsiimtes. Martial. 9 ep. 59. — 
Plin. 3, c. U.—Ital. 8, v. 462. 

Sason, an island at the entrance of the Adri- 
atic Sea, lying between Brundusium and Aulon 
on the coast of Greece. It is barren and inhos- 
pitable. Strab. 6. — Lucan. 2, v. 627, and 5, v. 
650.— S-zZ It. 7, v. 480. 

Saticula, and Saticulus, a town near Ca- 
pua. Virg. ^n. 7, v. 12Q.—Liv. 9, c. 21, 1. 23, 
c. 39. 

' Satura, a lake of Latium, forming part of 
the Pontine lakes. Sil. 8, v. 382.— Virg. JEn. 
7, V. 801. 

Satdreium, or Satureum, a town of Cala- 
bria, near Tarentum, with famous pastures 
and horses, whence the epithet of satureianus 
in Horat. 1, Sat. 6. 

Saturnia, a name poetically applied to Italy. 
It was an early appellation of Rome, the latter 
being, as it is supposed, a later name, and not 
of Latin origin. 

Saturum, a town of Calabria, where stuffs of 
all kinds were dyed in different colours with 
great success. Virg. G. 2, v. 197, 1. 4, v. 335. 

Savo, or Savona, I. a town with a small river 
of the same name in Campania. Sto.t. 4. — 
Plin. 3, c. 5. II. A town of I^guria. 

Sauromat^. Vid. Sarmatia. 

Savus, a river of Pannonia, rising in Nori- 
cum, at the north of Aquileia, and falling into 
the Danube, after flowing through Pannonia in 
an eastern direction. Claudius de StiV2. 

Saxones, a people of Germany, near the 
Chersonesus Cimbrica. They were probably 
of a race between the Teutones and Scandina- 
vians, and though from their first appearance in 
history they bore the character of a bold and 
warlike people, yet they do not appear with 
that resistless power till the people of the north, 
embracing a new life, embarked upon the seas 
to carry beyond their continent the devastating 
influence of their arms. The conquest of Eng- 
land was their first great achievement; and their 
establishment in that country extended the ter- 
ror of the Saxon name throughout all the states 
just rising out of the ruins of the dismembered 
empire. Ptol. 3, \l.— Claud. 1, Eutr. v. 392. 

Sc5:a, one of the gates of Troy, where the 
tomb of Laomedon was seen. The name is de- 
rived by some from o-^ato? {sinister.^ Homer. 
n.—Sil. 13, v. 73. 

ScALABis, now St. Irene, a town of ancient 
Spain. 

ScALDis, or ScALDirM, I. a river of Belgium, 
now called the Scheld, and dividing the modern 
country of the Netherlands from Holland. Cces. 

G. 6, V. 33. II. Pons, a to-wTi on the same 

river, now called CoTzrfg. Cces. 

ScAMANDER, or ScAMANDRos, a Celebrated 
river of Troas, rising at the east of mount Ida, 
and falling into the sea below Sigaeum. It re- 
ceives the Simois in its course, and towards its 
mouih it is very muddy, and flows through 
marshes. This river, according to Homer, was 
called Xanthus by the gods, and Scamander by 
men. It was usual among all the virgins of 
Troas to bathe in the Scamander when they 
were arrived to nubile years. jElian. Anim. 8, 
c. 21.— ^ra*. 1 and 13.— Plin. 5, c. 30.~Mela, 1, 
c. 18. — Homer. 11. 5. — Plut. — JEschin. ep. 10. 

ScAMANDRiA, a town on the Scamander. 
Plin. 4, c. 30. 

283 



sc 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SE 



Scandinavia, a name given by the ancients 
to that tract of territory which contains the 
modern kingdoms of JS'orwaij, Sweden, Deu- 
mark, Lapland^ Finland, &c. supposedly them 
to be an island. Plin. 4, c. 13. 

ScANTiA SYLVA, a wood of Campania, the 
property of the Roman people. Cic. 

ScAPTESYLE, a town of Thrace, near Abdera, 
abounding in silver and gold mines, belonging 
to Thucydides, who is supposed there to have 
written his history of the Peloponnesian war. 
Lucret. 6, v. 810. — Pkd. in Cim. 

ScARDii, a ridge of mountains of Macedonia, 
which separate it from Illy ricum. Liv. 43, c. 20. 

ScENA, a river of Ireland, now the Shannon. 
Orosius. 1, c. 2. 

Scepsis, a town of Troas, where the works of 
Theophrastus and Aristotle were long conceal- 
ed under ground, and damaged by the wet, &c. 
Strab. 10. 

ScHEDiA, a small village of Egypt, with a 
dock-yard, between the western mouths of the 
Nile and Alexandria. Strab. 

SciATHos, an island in the iEgean Sea, op- 
posite mount Pelion, on the coast of Thessaly. 
Val. Flacc. 2. 

SciRADiuM, a promontory of Attica, on the 
Saronicus Sinus. 

ScoMBRUs, a mountain of Thrace, near Rho- 
ilope. 

ScoRDisci, and Scordisce, a people of Pan- 
nonia and Thrace, well known during the reign 
of the Roman emperors for their barbarity and 
uncivilized manners. They were fond of drink- 
ing human blood, and they generally sacrificed 
their captive enemies to their gods. Liv. 41, c. 
\^.— Strab. l.—Flor. 3, c. 4. 

ScoTi, the ancient inhabitanis of Scotland, 
mentioned as different from the Picts. Clau- 
dian de Hon. 3, cons. v. 54. Vid. Caledonia. 

ScuLTENNA, a river of Gaul Cispadana, fall- 
ing into the Po, now called Panaro. Liv. 41, 
c. 12 and 18.— PZm. 3, c. 16. 

ScYLACEUM, a town of the Brutii, built by 
Mnestheus at the head of an Athenian colony. 

ScYLLiEUM, a promontory of Peloponnesus, 
on the coast of Argolis. 

ScYROs, a rocky and barren island in the 
^gean, at ihe distance of about 28 miles north- 
east from Euboea, sixty miles in circumference. 
It was originally in the possession of the Pelas- 
gians and Carians. Achilles retired there not 
to go to the Trojan war, and became father of 
Neoptolemus bybeidamia, the daughter of king 
Lycomedes. Scyros was conquered by the 
Athenians under Cimon. Homer. Od. 10, v. 
508.— Oyi<^. Met. 7, v. 464, 1. 13, v. 156.— 
Vans. 1, c. 7. — Strab. 9. 

SuythjE, the inhabitants of Scythia. Vid. 
Scythia. 

Scythia, a large country situate on the most 
northern parts of Europe and Asia, from which 
circum^itance it is generally denominated Eu- 
ropean and Asiatic. The most northern parts 
of Scythia were uninhabited on account of the 
extreme coldness of the climate. The more 
southern in Asia that were inhabited, were dis- 
tinguished by the name of Scythia intra ^ extra 
Tmaum, &c. The boundaries of Scythia were 
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had 
penetrated beyond the vast tracts of land which 
lay at the north, east, and west. Scythia com- 
284 



prehended the modern kingdoms ol Tarlary, 
Russia in Asia, Siberia, Muscovy, the Crimea, 
Poland, part of Hungary, Lithuania, the north- 
ern parts of Germany, Sweden, Norway, &c. 
The Scythians were divided into several nations 
or tribes ; they had no cities, but continually 
changed their habitations. They inured them- 
selves to bear labour and fatigue, they despised 
money, and lived upon milk, and covered them- 
selves with the skins of their cattle. The vir- 
tues seemed to flourish among them ; and that 
philosophy and moderation which other nations 
wished to acquire by study, seemed natural to 
them. Some authors, however, represent them 
as a savage and barbarous people, who fed upon 
human flesh, who drank the blood of their ene- 
mies, and used the sculls of travellers as vessels 
in their sacrifices to their gods. The Scythians 
made several irruptions upon the more southern 
provinces of Asia, especially B. C. 624, when 
they remained in possession of Asia Minor for 
28 years, and we find them at diflferent periods 
extending their conquests in Europe, and pene- 
trating as far as Egypt. Their government was 
monarchical, and the deference which they paid 
to their sovereigns was unparalleled. When 
the king died, his body was carried through 
every province, where it was received in solemn 
procession, and afterwards buried. In the first 
centuries after Christ they invaded the Roman 
empire with the Sarmatians. Vid. Sarmatia 
and MassagetcB. Herodot. I, c. 4, &c. — St/rab. 
7. — Diod. 2. — Val. Max. 5, c. 4. — Justin. 2, c. 
1, &.c.— Ovid. Met. 1, V. 64, 1. 2, v. 224. 

Sebennytus, a town of the Delta in Egypt. 
That branch of the Nile which flows near it 
has been called the Sebennytic. Plin. 5, c. 10, 

Sebetus, a small river of Campania, falling 
into the bay of Naples ; wlierice the epithet Se- 
bethis, given to one of the nymphs who fre- 
quented its borders and became mother of CEba- 
lus by Telon. Virg. jE7i. 7, v. 734. 

Seduni, an ancient nation of Gaul. Their 
country was in the upper part of the Vallis 
Pennina, and their principal town, Civitas Se- 
dunorum, is now Sion. Cas. Bell. G. 3. 

Segesta, a town of Sicily, founded by JEne- 
as, or, according to some, by Crinisus. Vid. 
JEgesta. 

Segobrica, a town of Spain, near Saguntum. 
Plin. 3, c. 3. 

Segovia, a town of Spain, of great power in 
the age of the Ccesars. It stood at the head of 
one of the small streams that formed the Du- 
rius, and still retains its ancient name, being 
one of the principal towns of Old Castile. 

Seguntfum, a town of Britain, supposed to be 
Carnarvon in Wales. Cas. G. 5, c. 21. 

Segusiani, a people of Gaul on the Loire. 
Coes. G.l,c. 10.— Plin. 4, c. 18. 

Seleucia, I, a town of Babylonia. This place 
owed its origin to Seleucus Nicator, and was 
erected avowedly as a rival to Babylon. It stood 
upon the right bank of the Tigris, opposite the 
Parthian city of Ctesiphon. The bishop of this 
see was in process of time, when the Christian 
religion superseded the old superstition, invested 
with the dignity of Primate of all the churches 

east of Syria. II. Another of Syria, on the 

seashore, generally called Pleria, to distinguish 
it from others of the same name. There were 
no less than six other cities which were called 



SE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SE 



Seleucia, and which had all received their name 
from Seleucus Nicaton They were all situate 
in the kingdom of Syria, in Cilicia, and near the 
Euphrates. Flor. 3, c. 11. — Plut. in Dem. — Me- 
la, 1, c. V2,.—Strab. 11 and Ib.—Plin. 6, c. 26. 

Seleucis, a division of Syria, which received 
its name from Seleucus, the founder of the Sy- 
rian empire after the death of Alexander the 
Great. It was also called Tetrapolis from the 
four cities it contained, called also sister cities ; 
Seleucia called after Seleucus, Antioch called 
after his father, Laodicea after his mother, and 
Apamea after his wife. Sirab. 16. 

Selga, a town of Pamphylia, made a colony 
by the Lacedsemonians. Liv. 35, c. 13. — 
Strabo. 

Selinuns, or SelInus, (uniis,) I. a town on 
the southern parts of Sicily, founded A, U. C. 
127. It received its name from aeXivov, parsley, 
which grew there in abundance. The marks of 
its ancient consequence are visible in the vene- 
rable ruins now found in its neighbourhood. 

Virg. jEn. 3, v. 105.— Pans. 6, c. 19 II. 

A river of Elis in Peloponnesus, which watered 
the town of Scillus. Pans. 5, c. 6. III. An- 
other in Achaia. IV. Another in Sicily. 

V. A river and town of Cilicia, where Tra- 
jan died. Liv. 33, c. QO.—Strab. 14. VI. 

Two small rivers near Diana's temple at Ephe- 

sus. PZm. 5, c. 29. VII. A lake at the 

entrance of the Cayster. Stra-b. 14. 

Sellasia, a town of Laconia, " situated near 
the confluence of the CEnus and Gongylus, in a 
valley confined between two mountains named 
Evas and Olympus. It commanded the only 
road by which an army could enter Laconia 
from the north, and was therefore a position of 
great importance for the defence of the capital. 
Thus when Epaminondas made his attack upon 
Sparta, his first object, after forcing the passes 
which led from Arcadia into the enemy's coun- 
try, was to march directly upon Sellasia with 
all his troops. Cleomenes, tyrant of Sparta, was 
attacked in this strong position by Antigonus 
Doson, and totally defeated, after an obstinate 
conflict. When Pausanias visited Laconia, 
Sellasia was in ruins." Cram. 

Selleis, a river of Peloponnesus, falling into 
the Ionian Sea. Homer. 11. 

Selymbria, a town of Thrace, on the Pro- 
pontis. Liv. 39, c. 39. 

Semnones, a people of Germany, belonging 
to the Suevic family. They occupied the re- 
gion lying between the Oder and the Elbe, to- 
wards their sources, and were surrounded by 
the most warlike of the German tribes. 

Sena, I. a town of Hetruria, east of Vola- 
terra and south of Florentia. It was surnam- 
ed Julia, to distinguish it from the Umbrian 
town of the same name. As Sienna, among 
the republican cities of the middle ages, it be- 
came illustrious for the part which it bore in 
the differences of the Guelphs and Ghibelines, 
and is now most remarkable for the purity of 

the idiom in use among its inhabitants. II. 

Another, surnamed Gallica, now Sinigaglia in 
Umbria. " It was colonized by the Romans 
after they had expelled, or rather exterminated, 
the Senones, A. U. C. 471 ; but according to 
Livy some years before that date. During the 
civil wars between Sylla and Marius, Sena, 
which sided with the latter, was taken and 



sacked by Pompey." Cram. There was also 
a small river in the neighbourhood which bore 
the name of Setia. 

Senones, I, an uncivilized nation of Gallia 
Transalpina, who left their native possessions, 
and, under the conduct of Brennus, invaded 
Italy and pillaged Rome. They afterwards 
united with the Umbri, Latins, and Etrurians to 
make war against the Romans, till they were 
totally destroyed by Dolabella. The chief of 
their towns in that part of Italy where they set- 
tled near Umbria, and which from them was 
called Senogallia, were Fanum Fortunae, Sena, 
Pisaurura, and Ariminum. Vid. Cimbri. Im- 
can. 1, V. ^M.—Sil. 8, v. Abi.—Liv. 5, c. 35, 

&c. — Flor. II. A people of Germany near 

the Suevas. 

Sepias, a cape of Magnesia in Thessaly, at 
the north of Eubcea, now >S^. George. 

Septem AGIU.E, I. a portion of the lake near 
Reate. Cic. 4, Att. 15. II. Fratres, a moun- 
tain of Mauritania, now Gebel-Mousa. Strab. 

17. III. Maria, the entrance of the seven 

mouths of the Pa. 

SEauANA, a river of Gaul, which separates 
the territories of the Belgse and the Celtse, and 
is now called la Seine. Strab. 4. — Mela, 3, c. 2. 
— Lucan. 1, v. 425. 

Sequani, a people of Gaul, near the territo- 
ries of the iEdui, between the Soane and mount 
Jura, famous for their wars against Rome, &c. 
The country which they inhabited is iiow call- 
ed Franche Compte, or Upper Burgundy. Cces. 
Bell. G. 

Serbonis, a lake between Egypt and Pales- 
tine, " in the vicinity of mount Casius, where 
Typhon, the murderer of Osiris, is said to have 
perished. It has taken the name of Sebaket 
Bardoil, from the first king of Jerusalem of 
that name, who died on his return from an ex- 
pedition in Egypt." D'Anville. 

Seres, a nation of Asia, according to Ptole- 
my, between the Ganges and the eastern ocean 
in the modern Thibet. They were naturally 
of a meek disposition. Silk, of which the fab- 
rication was unknown to the ancients, who 
imagined that the materials were collected from 
the leaves of trees, was brought to Rome from 
their country, and on that account it received 
the name of Sericum, and thence a garment or 
dress of silk is called serica vestis. Heliogaba- 
lus, the Roman emperor, was the first who wore 
a silk dress, which at that time was sold for its 
weight in gold. It afterwards became very 
cheap, and consequently was the common dress 
among the Romans. Some suppose that the 
Seres are the same as the Chinese. Ptol. 6, c. 
\G.—Horat. 1, od. 29, v. ^.—Uican. 1, v. 19, 1. 
10, V. 142 and ^'2.— Ovid. Am. 1, el. 14, v. 6. 
— Virg. G!.2,v. 121. 

Seriphus, an island in the iEgean Sea, about 
35 miles in circumference, according to Pliny 
only 12, very barren and uncultivated. The 
Romans generally sent their criminals there in 
banishment, and it was there that Cassius Se- 
verus, the orator, was exiled, and there he died. 
According to iElian the frogs of this island 
never croaked but when they were removed 
from the island to another place they were more 
noisy and clamorous than others ; hence the 
proverb of seriphia rana applied to a man who 
never speaks nor sings. This, however, is 
285 



SI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SI 



found to be a mistake by modern travellers. 
It was on the coast of Seriphus that the chest 
was discovered in which Acrisius had exposed 
his daughter Danae and her son Perseus. 
Strab. 10. — Mlian. Anim. 3, c. 37. — Mela, 2, 
c. 7. — Apollod. 1. c. 9. — Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 21. — 
Ovid. Met. 5, V. 242, 1. 7, v. 65. 

Sestos, or Sestus, a town of Thrace, on the 
shores of the Hellespont, exactly opposite Aby- 
dos on the Asiatic side. It is celebrated for the 
bridge which Xerxes built there across the Hel- 
lespont, as also for being the seat of the amours 
of Hero and Leander. Mela, 2, c. 2. — Strab. 
U.—Miisaus de L. & H.— Virg. G. 3, v. 258. 
— Ovid. Heroid. IS, V. 2. 

Setabis, a town of Spain, between New Car- 
thage and Saguntum, famous for the manufac- 
ture of linen. There was also a small river of 
the same name in the neighbourhood. Sil. 16, 
v. 41i.— Strab. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 6.—Plin. 3. c. 3, 
1. 19, c. 1. 

Setia, a town of Latium, above the Pontine 
Marshes, celebrated for its wines, which Augus- 
tus is said to have preferred to all others. Plin. 
14. c. 6. — Tuv. 5, V. U.—Sat. 10, v. 21.— Mar- 
tial. 13, ep. 112. 

Sevo, a ridge of mountains between Norway 
and Sweden, now called F'iell, or Dofre. Plin. 
4, c. 15. 

SEXT1.E A^uiE, now Aix, a place of Cisal- 
pine Gaul, where the Cimbri were defeated by 
Marius. It owed its foundation to Sextius 
Calvinus, who subdued the Salyes, or Saluvii, 
whence the epithet Sextiae. The term Aquae 
is used in reference to its warm baths. It be- 
came at length the metropolis of Narbonensis 
Secunda. D'Anville. — Liv. 61. — Veil. Paterc. 
1, c. 15. 

SicAMBRi, or Sygambri. " The Sicaynbri 
inhabited the south side of the course of the 
Lippe. Pressed by the Cattians, powerful 
neighbours, whom Caesar calls Suevi, they were 
together with the Ubii, received inio Gaul on 
the left bank of the Rhine, under Augustus ; 
and there is reason to believe that the people 
who occupied this position under the name of 
Gugerni, were Sicambrians. It was in favour 
of the Ubians that Cassar crossed the Rhine, at 
the extremity of the territory of Treves, ravaged 
that of the Sicambrians, and caused the Cattians 
to decamp." D'Anville. 

SiCAMBRiA, the country of the Sicambri, form- 
ed the modern province of Guelderland. Claud, 
in Eutrup. 1, v. 383. 

SicANi. Vid Latium. 

Sicca, a town of Numidia, at the west of 
Carthage, which received from Venus, who 
was worshipped there, the epithet of Venerea. 
Remains of antiquity are still visible around the 
modern place, which is called Urbs, and other- 
wise Kef ; " although Shaw, an English tra- 
veller, to whose information we owe much of 
the topographical intelligence of this country, 
makes a distinction between those names, as 
appropriate to two several positions." D'An- 
ville. — Sat. in Jug. 56. 

SrciLiA, the largest and most celebrated isl- 
and in the Mediterranean Sea, at the bottom of 
Italy. It was anciently called Sicania, Trina- 
cria, and Triquetra. It is of a triangular form, 
and has three celebrated promontories, one look- 
ing towards Africa, called Lilybseum ; Pachy- 
386 



num, looking towards Greece ; and Pelorum, to- 
wards Italy. Sicily is about 600 miles in cir- 
cumference, celebrated for its fertility, so much 
so that it was called one of the granaries of Rome, 
and Plmy says that it rewards the husbandman 
an hundred-fold. Its most famous cities were 
Syracuse, Messana, Leontini, Lilybseum, Agri- 
gentum, Gela, Drepanum, Eryx, &c. The 
highest and most famous mountain in the island 
is iEtna, whose frequent eruptions are dange- 
rous, and often fatal to the country and its inha- 
bitants ; from which circumstance the ancients 
supposed that the forges of Vulcan and the Cy- 
clops were placed there. The poets feign that 
the Cyclops were the original inhabitants of this 
island, and that after them it came into the pos- 
session of the Sicani, a people of Spain, and at 
last of the Siculi, a nation of Italy. Vid. Si- 
culi. The plains of Enna are well known for 
their excellent honey, and, according to Diodo- 
rus, the hounds lost their scent in hunting, on 
account of the many odoriferous plants that pro- 
fusely perfumed the air. Ceres and Proserpine 
were the chief deities of ihat place ; and it was 
there, according to. poetical tradition, that the 
latter was carried away by Pluto. The Phoeni- 
cians and Greeks settled some colonies there, 
and at last the Carthaginians became masters 
of the whole island, till they were dispossessed 
of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some 
authors suppose that Sicily was originally join- 
ed to the continent, and that it was separated 
from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits 
of the Charybdis were thus formed. The inha- 
bitants of Sicily were so fond of luxury, that 
Siculce mens£B became proverbial. The rights 
of citizens of Rome were extended to them by 
M. Antony. Cic. 14. Att. 12. Verr. 2, c. 13.— 
Homer. Od. 9, &c. — Justin. 4, c. 1, «Sz:c. — Virg. 
JEn. 3, V. 414, &c.—Ital. 14, v. 11, &c.—Plin. 

3, c. 8, &c. The island of Naxos, in the 

iEgean, was called Little Sicily, on account of 
its fruitfulness. 

SicoRus, now Segro, a river of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, rising in the Pyrenaean moun- 
tains, and falling into the Iberus a little above 
its mouth. It was near this river that J. Cssar 
conquered Afranius and Petreius, the partisans 
of Pompey. I/ucan. 4, v. 14, 130, &c. — Plin. 
3, c. 3. 

Siculi. Vid. Latium. 

SicuLi FRETUM, the sca which separates 
Sicily from Italy, is 15 miles long, but in some 
places so narrow that the barking of dogs can 
be heard from shore to shore. This strait is 
supposed to have been formed by an earthquake, 
which separated the island from the continent. 
" We find the name of Mare Siculum applied 
to the waters which washed the southwestern 
coast of Greece." Strab. 2, 123.— Plin. 4. 5. 
— Cram. — Plin. 3, c. 8. 

SicYON, now Basilica, a town of Poloponne- 
sus, the capital of Sicyonia. " Few cities of 
Greece could boast of such high antiquity, since 
it already existed under the names of ^Egialea 
and Mecone long before the arrival of Pelops 
in the Peninsula. Homer represents Sicyon 
as forming part of the kingdom of Mycenoe with 
the whole of Achaia. Pausanias and other 
genealogists have handed down to us a long list 
of the kings of Sicyon, from ^Egialus its found- 
er, to the conquest of the city by the Dorians 



SI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SI 



and Heraclidse, from which period it became 
subject to Argos. Its population was then di- 
vided into four tribes, named, Hyllus, Pamphyli, 
Dymantae, and -^gialus, a clEissification intro- 
duced by the Dorians, and adopted, as we learn 
from Herodotus, by the Argives. How long 
a connexion subsisted between the two states 
we are not informed; but it appears that when 
Cleisthenes became tyrant of Sicyon they were 
independent of each other, since Herodotus re- 
lates that whilst at war with Argos he changed 
the names of the Sicyonian tribes which were 
Dorian, that they might not be the same as those 
of the adverse city; and in order to ridicule the 
Sicyonians, the historian adds, that he named 
them afresh after such animals as pigs and 
asses; sixty years after his death the former 
appellations were however restored. Sicyon 
continued under the dommion of tyrants for the 
space of one hundred years; such being the 
mildness of their rule, and their observance of 
the existing laws, that the people gladly beheld 
the crown thus transmitted from one generation 
to another. It appears, however, from Thucy- 
dides, that at the time of the Peloponnesian war 
the government had been changed to an aristo- 
cracy. In that contest, the Sicyonians, from 
their Dorian origin, naturally espoused the 
cause of Sparta; and the maritime situation of 
their territory not unfrequently exposed it to the 
ravages of the naval forces of Athens. After 
the battle of Leuctra, we learn from Xenophon 
that Sicyon once more became subject to a des- 
potic government, of which Euphron, one of 
its principal citizens, had placed himself at the 
head with the assistance of the Argives and 
Arcadians. His reign, however, was not of 
long duration, being waylaid at Thebes, whither 
he went to conciliate the favour of that power, 
by a party of Sicyonian exiles, and murdered 
in the very citadel. On the death of Alexander 
the Great, Sicyon fell into the hands of Alex- 
ander, son of Polysperchon; but on his being 
assassinated, a tumult ensued, in which the in- 
habitants of the city endeavoured to recover 
their liberty. Such, however, was the courage 
and firmness displayed by Cratesipolis his wife, 
that they were finally overpowered. Not long 
after this event, Demetrius Poliorcetes made 
himself master of Sicyon, and having persuaded 
the inhabitants to retire to the Acropolis, he 
levelled to the ground all the lower part of the 
city which connected the citadel with the port. 
A new town was then built, to which the name 
of Demetrius was given. This, as Strabo re- 
ports, was placed on a fortified hill dedicated to 
Ceres, and distant about 12 or 20 stadia from 
the sea. The change which was thus effected 
in the situation of this city does not appear to 
have produced any alteration in the character 
and political sentiments of the people. For 
many years they still continued to be governed 
by a succession of tyrants, until Nicocles, the 
last, was expelled by Aratus the son of Clinias. 
Clinias himself had previously reigned for a 
short period, when he wasput to death by Aban- 
tidas, who usurped the authority and forced 
Aratus to fly. Nicocles having succeeded Aban- 
tidas, Aratas formed the design of freeing his 
country in conjunction with a party of exiles 
and some Argive mercenaries, and advanced 
^ith his troops to the walls of the city, which 



he scaled during the night, and overpowering 
the satellites of Nicocles, who escaped during 
the tumult, became master of Sicyon. He then 
proclaimed liberty, recalled all the exiles and re- 
stored to them their lands and property. Wise- 
ly foreseeing also the dangers to which so small 
a republic was exposed both from foreign as well 
as domestic enemies, he determined to unite it 
to the Achaean league; by which measure it 
acquired that degree of strength and security of 
which it stood so much in need. By the great 
abilities and talents of Aratus, Sicyon was 
raised to a distinguished rank among the other 
Achaean states, and being already celebrated as 
the first school of painting in Greece, continued 
to flourish imder his auspices in the cultivation 
of all the finest arts ; it being said, as Plutarch 
reports, that the beauty of the ancient style had 
there alone been preserved pure and uncorrupt- 
ed. Aratus died at an advanced age, after an 
active and glorious life, not without suspicion of 
having been poisoned by order of Philip king 
of Macedon. He was interred at Sicyon with 
great pomp, and a splendid monument was 
erected to him as the foimder and deliverer of 
the city. After the dissolution of the Achaean 
league litttle is known of Sicyon ; it is evident, 
however, that it existed in the time of Pausa- 
nias, from the number of remarkable edifices 
and monuments which he enumerates within its 
walls, though he allows that it had greatly suf- 
fered from various calamities, but Especially 
from an earthquake, which nearly reduced it to 
desolation. The ruins of this once great and 
flourishing city are still to be seen near the small 
village of Basilica. Dr. Clarke informs us that 
these remains of ancient magnificence are yet 
considerable, and in some instances exist in such 
a state of preservation, that it is evident the 
buildings of the city must either have survived 
the earthquake to which Pausanias alludes, or 
have been constructed at some later period. In 
this number is the theatre, which that traveller 
considered as the finest and most perfect struc- 
ture of the kind in all Greece. Dr. Clarke iden- 
tified also the site of the Acropolis, and observed 
several foundations of temples and other build- 
ings in a style as massive as the Cyclopean : 
verj' grand walls of brick tiles ; remains of a 
palace with many chambers ; the stadium ; ruins 
of a temple near the theatre ; some ancient 
caves, and traces of a paved way. Sir W. Gell 
reports that ' Basilica is a village of fifty houses, 
situated in the angle of a little rocky ascent, 
along which ran the walls of Sicyon . This city 
was in shape triangular, and placed upon a high 
flat, overlooking the plain, about an hour from 
the sea, where is a great tumulus on the shore. 
On the highest angle of Sicyon was the citadel ; 
the situation is secure, without being inconve- 
niently lofty.' It appears from Polybius that 
Sicyon had a port capable of containing ships of 
war ; and we know from Herodotus that it sent 
twelve ships to Artemisium, and the same num- 
ber to Salamis. The territory of Sicyon was 
separated from that of Corinth by the small 
river Nemea." Cram. 

SicYONiA, a province of Peloponnesus, on 
the bay of Corinth, of which Sicyon was the 
capital. The territory is said to abound with 
corn, wine, and olives, and also with iron 
mines.. Vid. Sicyon. 

287 



SI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SI 



SiDiciNUM, a town of Campania, called also 
T^anum. Vid. T'eanum. Virg. ^Hin. 7, v. 727. 

SiDON, " the most ancient city of Phoenicia, 
and the most northerly of all those which were 
assigned for the portion of the sons of Asher. 
Beyond it the country of Phoenicia, hitherto 
nothing but a bare seacoast begins to open to- 
wards the east in a fine rich valley, having Li- 
banus upon the north and the Anti-Libanus on 
the south. It was called so from Zidon, one of 
the sons of Canaan, who first planted here ; not, 
as some say, from Sida, the daughter of Belus, 
once a king hereof. It was situate in a fertile 
and delightful soil defended with the sea on the 
one side, and on the other by the mountains lying 
betwixt it and Libanus. This city was at sev- 
eral times both the mother and the daughter 
of Tyre ; the mother of it in the times of hea- 
thenism, Tyre being a colony of this people ; 
and the daughter of it, when instructed in the 
Christian faith, acknowledging the church of 
Tyre for its mother church. The city, in those 
times very strong, both by art and nature, hav- 
ing on the north side a fort or citadel, mounted 
on an inaccessible rock, and environed on all 
sides by the sea ; which, when it was brought 
under the command of the western Christians, 
was held by the order of the Dutch knights ; 
and another on the south side of the port, which 
the templars guarded." Heyl. Cosm. " The 
ancient Sidon, mother of the Phoenician cities, 
is;now a town of 7000 or 8000 inhabitants, un- 
der the name of Scyde. It is the principal port 
of Damascus. The harbour, like all the others 
on this coast, was formed with much art, and at 
an immense expense, by means of long piers. 
These works, which still subsisted under the 
Lower Empire, and the harbour, are now fallen 
to decay. The Enin Facardin, who dreaded 
the visits of the Turkish fleets, completed the 
destruction of the famous harbours of Phoeni- 
cia." Malte-Brun. The city of Sidon was 
taken by Ochus, king of Persia, after the in- 
habitants had burnt themselves and the city, 
B. C. 351 ; but it was afterwards rebuilt by its 
inhabitants, Lucan. 3, v. 217, 1. 10, v. 141. — 
Diod. 16. — Tustin. 11, c. 10.— Plin. 36, c. 26.— 
HoTner. Od. 15, v. ill.—Mela, 1, c. 12. 

SiDONioRUM INSULJE, islauds in the Persian 
gulf Strad. 16. 

SiDONis, is the country of which Sidon was 
the capital, situate at the west of Syria, on the 
coast of the Mediterranean. Ovid.Met. 2, fab. 19. 

Siena julia, a town of Etruria. Cic. Brut. 
18.— Tacit. 4. Hist. 45. 

SiGA, now Ned-Roma, a town of Numidia, 
famous as the palace of Syphax. Plin. 5, c. 11. 

SiGJEUM, or SiGEUM, uow capc Iv£ihisari, a 
town of Troas, on a promontory of the same 
name, where the Scamander falls into the sea, 
extending six miles along the shore. It was 
near Sigaeum that the greatest part of the bat- 
tles between the Greeks and Trojans were 
fought, as Homer mentions, and there Achilles 
was buried. Virg. Mn. 2, v. 312, 1. 7, v. 294. 
— Ovid. Met. 12, v. H.-Lmcan. 9, v. 962.— 
Mela, 1, c. IS.—Strab. 13.— Dictys. Cret. 5, c. 12. 

SiGNiA, I. an ancient town of Latium, whose 
inhabitants were called Signini. The wine of 
Signia was used by the ancients for medicinal 
purposes. Martial. 13, ep. 116. II. A moun- 
tain of Phrygia. Plin. 5, c. 29. 
2S8 



SiLA, or Syla, a large wood in the country of 
the Brutii, near the Apennines, abounding with 
much pilch. Strab. 6. — Virg. JEn. 12, v. 715. 

Silarus, " which divides Lucania from Cam- 
pania, takes its rise in that part of the Apen- 
nines which formerly belonged to the Hirpini ; 
and after receiving the Tanager, now Negro, 
and the Calor, Calore, empties itself into the 
Gulf of Salerno. The waters of this river are 
stated by ancient writers to have possessed the 
property of incrusting, by means of a calcareous 
deposition, any pieces of wood or twigs which 
were thrown into them. At its mouth was a 
haven named Portus Alburnus, as we learn 
from a verse of Lucilius, cited by Probus the 
grammarian." Cram. 

SiLis, a river of Venetia m Italy, falling into 
the Adriatic. Plin. 3, c. 18. 

SiLviuM, a town of Apulia, now Gorgolione. 
Plin. 3. c. 11. 

SiLUREs, the people of So^dh Wales in Brit- 
ain. They occupied the northern shore of the 
Sabringe ^stuarium. Isea, their chief city, 
was " the residence of a Roman legion; its site 
is now recognized in the name of Caer-Leon, on 
a river, whose name of Usk is evidently the 
same as those of the city." D'Anville. 

SiMBRivius, or SiMBRUvius, a lake of Latium, 
formed by the Anio. Tacit. 14, Ann. 22. 

SiMETHus, or Symethus, a town and river 
at the east of Sicily, which served as a bound- 
aiy between the territories of the people of Ca- 
tana and the Leontini. Virg. JE71. 9, v. 584. 

SiMois, {entis,) a river of Troas, which rises 
in mount Ida, and falls into the Xanthus. It is 
celebrated by Homer and most of the ancient 
poets, as in its neighbourhood were fought many 
battles during the Trojan war. It is found to 
be but a small rivulet by modern travellers, and 
even some have disputed its existence. Homer. 
II.— Virg. uEn. 1, v. 104, 1. 3, v. 302, &c.— 
Ovid. Met. 13, v. 324.— Mela, 1, c. 18. 

SiNM, a people of India, called by Ptolemy 
the most eastern nation of the world. " The 
accounts of the Mahometan travellers of the 
ninth century, published by Renaudot, give 
southern China the name of Si7i, pronounced 
by the Persians Tchin. The origin of this 
name is uncertain ; and, though the Sina of 
the ancients were situated more to the west 
than any part of modern China, the resem- 
blance of the names is too great to allow it to 
be considered as unmeaning. It is highly 
probable that it was the ancient generic name 
for all the nations of Thibet, China, and India, 
east of the Ganges." Malte-Brun. 

Sind;e, islands in the Indian ocean, supposed 
to be the Nicabar islands. 

SiNG^i, a people on the confines of Macedo- 
nia and Thrace. 

SiNGARA, a city at the north of Mesopotamia, 
now Sinjar. 

SiNGiTicus SINUS, a gulf on the Thracian 
coast, confined between the peninsula of Sitho- 
nia on one side, and that of Acte on the other. 
On the Sithonian shore stood the town of Sin- 
gus, whence the ancient name of the gulf, 
which receives its modern appellation from 
Monte-Santo, the Athos of antiquity which 
rises from the peninsula of Acte. 

SiNGUS. Vid. Slngiticus Siwi.'^. 

SinOpe, a seaport town of Asia Minor, in 



SI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SM 



Pontus, nov: Sinub, founded or rebuilt by a co- 
lony of Milesians. It was long an independent 
state, till Pharnaces, king of Pontus, seized it. 
It was the capital of Pontus, under Mithridates, 
and was the birthplace of Diogenes, the cj^nic 
philosopher. It received its name from Sinope, 
whom Apollo married there. Ovid. Pont. 1, 
el. 3, V. Ql.—Strab. 2, &c. \2.—Dioci. 4:.— Mela, 
1, c. 19. 

SixVTii, a nation of Thracians, who inhabited 
Lemnos, when Vulcan fell there from heaven. 
Homer. 11. 1, v. 594. 

SixL'EssA, '• the last to"«Ti of New Latium, 
a Roman colony of some note, situated close 
to the sea, and founded, as it is said, on the 
ruins of Sinope, an ancient Greek city. Strabo 
tells us, that Sinuessa stood on the shore of the 
Sinus Vescinus, and derived its name from that 
circumstance. The same writer, as well as the 
Itineraries, informs us that it was traversed by 
the Appian Way ; Horace also confirms this. 
Sinuessa was colonized together with Minturnae 
A. U. C. 456, and ranked also among the mari- 
time cities of Italy. Its territory suffered con- 
siderable devastation from Hannibal's troops 
when opposed to Fabius. Caesar, in his pursuit 
of Pompey, halted for a few days at Sinuessa, 
and from thence wrote a very conciliatory letter 
to Cicero, which is to be found in the corres- 
pondence with Atticus. The epithet of tepens, 
which Silius Italicus applies to this citj^, has 
reference to some warm sources in its neigh- 
bourhood, now called Bagni; while Sinuessa 
itself answers to the rock of Monte Dragone. 
The Aquae Sinuessanae are noticed by Livy 
and other Writers of antiquity." Co-am. 

SioN, one of the hills on which Jerusalem 
"was built. 

SiPHNos, one of the Cyclades, " now Si- 
phanto, lies to the southeast of Seriphus, and 
northeast of Melos. Herodotus reports that it 
was colonized by the lonians, and elsewhere 
speaks of the Siphians as deriving considerable 
wealth from their gold and silver mines. In the 
age of Polycrates their revenue surpassed that 
of all the other islands, and enabled them to 
erect a treasury at Delphi equal to those of the 
most opulent cities ; and their own principal 
buildings were sumptuously decorated with Pa- 
rian marble. Herodotus stales, however, that 
they afterwards sustained a heavy loss from a 
descent of the Samians, who levied upon the 
island a contribution of 100 talents. In Strabo's 
time it was so poor and insignificant as to give 
rise to the proverbs, HhpvLov darpayaXuv and 
HifpvLog appaPow. Pliny States that it is twenty- 
eight miles in circuit." Cram. 

SiPONTUM, Sipcjs, or Sepus, a maritime town 
of Apulia in Italy, founded by Diomedes after 
his return from the Trojan war. Strab. 6. — 
Lmcan. 5, v. 377. — Mela, 2, c. 4. 

SiPYLUM, and Sipylus, atownof Lydia, with 
a mountain of the same name near the Mean- 
der, formerly called the Ceraunius. The town 
.was destroyed by an earthquake, with 12 others 
in the neighbourhood, in the reign of Tiberius, 
Sirab. 1. and 12.— Patis. 1, c. 20.—ApoUod. 3, 
c. 5. — Hovier. 11. 24. — Hygin. fab. 9. — Tacit. 
Ann. 2, c. 47. 

SiRENus.aE, three small rock}' islands near the 
coasts of Campania where the Sirens were 
supposed to reside. 

Part L— 2 O 



SiRis, a town of Magna Grascia, founded by 
a Grecian colony after the Trojan war, at the 
mouth of a river of the same name. There was 
a battle fought near it between Pyrrhus and 

the Romans. Dionys. Perieg. v. 221. The 

Ethiopians gave that name to the Nile be- 
fore its divided streams united into one cur- 
rent. Plin. 5, c. 9. A town of Pseonia in 

Thrace. 

^ SiRAHo, now Sermione, a peninsula in the lake 

Benacus, where Catullus had a villa. Cram. 29. 

SiRmuM, the capital of Pannonia, at the con- 
fluence of the Savus and Bacuntius, Yery cele- 
brated during the reign of the Roman emperors. 

SisAPo, a towTi of Spain, " which may be 
presumed to have been comprised in the limits 
of Beturia, and noted for its mines of minium^ 
or vermilion. The position of this place is suf- 
ficiently obvious in the modern name of Alma,- 
den, which it received from the Maures ; Maad- 
en in the Arabic language being the appellative 
term for mines." D'Anville. 

SISI^^Tm^.ffi, a fortified place of Baclriana, 
15 stadia high, 80 in circumference, and plam 
at the top. Alexander married Roxana there. 
Strab. 11. 

SiTHONiA. " That portion of Chalcidice con- 
taining Ohmthus and its territory as well as 
the adjoining peninsula, bore anciently the 
name of Sithonia, as we are told by Herodotus. 
The Sithonians are mentioned by mpre than 
one writer as a people of Thrace. L}^cophron 
alludes obscurely to a people of Italy, descend- 
ed from the Sithonian giants." Cram. 

SiTONEs, a nation of Germany, or modern 
Norway, according to some. Tacit, de Germ. 45. 

Smaragdus, I. a town of Egypt on the Ara- 
bian gulf, where emeralds (s7/iarao-(^i) were dug. 
11. Mons, " The Smaragdus Mons ap- 



pears to be but little distant from the sea, being 
that called by the Arabs Maaden Uzzumurud, 
or the " Mine of Emeralds.^' D'Anville. — 
;itrab. 16. 

Smenus, a river of Laconia, rising in mount 
Taygetes, and falling into the sea about five 
stadia from Las. Pans. 3, c. 24. 

Smyrna, a celebrated seaport tovm of Ionia 
m Asia Minor, built, as some suppose, by Tan- 
talus, or, according to others, by the iEolians. 
It has been subject to many revolutions, and 
been severally in the possession of the MoVmios, 
lonians, Lydians, and Macedonians. Alexan- 
der, or, according to Strabo, Lysimachus, rebuilt 
it 400 years after it had been destroyed by the 
Lydians. It was one of the richest and most 
powerful cities of Asia, and became one of the 
twelve cities of the Ionian confederacy. The in- 
habitants were given much to luxury and indo- 
lence, but they were universally esteemed for 
their valor ancl intrepidity when called to action. 
Marcus Aurelius repaired it after it had been de- 
stroj^ed by an earthquake, about the 180th year 
of the Christian era. Smyrna still continues to 
be a very commercial toAvn. The river Meles 
flows near its walls. The inhabitants of Smyr- 
na believe that Homer was born among them, 
and to confirm this opinion, they not only paid 
him divine honours, but showed a place which 
bore the poet's name, and also had a brass coin 
in circulation which was called Homerium. 
Some suppose that it was called Smyrna from 
an Amazon of the same name who tookposses- 
289 



so 



GEOaRAPHY, 



SP 



sion of it. " Smyrna, the queen of the cities of 
Anatolia, and extolled by the ancients under 
the title of ' the lovely, the crown of Ionia, the 
ornament of Asia,' braves the reiterated efforts 
of conflagrations and earthquakes. Ten times 
destroyed, she has ten times risen from her ruins 
with new splendour. According to a very com- 
mon Grecian system, the principal buildings 
were erected on the face of a hill fronting the 
sea. The hill supplied marble, while its slope 
afforded a place for the seats rising gradually 
above each other in the stadium, or great theatre 
for the exhibition of games. Almost every trace 
of the ancient city, however, has been obliterat- 
ed during the contests between the Greek em- 
pire and the Ottomans, and afterwards by the 
ravages of Timur in 1402. The foundation of 
the stadium remains, but the area is sown with 
grain. There are only a few vestiges of the 
theatre, and the castle which crowns the hill is 
chiefly a patchwork executed by John Comne- 
nus on the ruins of the old one, the walls of 
which, of immense strength and thickness, may 
still be discovered. Smyrna, in the course of 
its revolutions, has slid down, as it were, from 
the hill to the sea. It has, under the Turks, 
completely regained its populousness. Smyrna, 
in short, is the greatest emporium of the Levant. 
The city contains 120,000 inhabitants, though 
frequently and severely visited by the plague." 
Malte-Brun. — Herodot. 1, c. 16, &c. — Strab. 12 
and \i.—ltal. 8, v. 565.— Pa%5. 5, c. 8.— Mela, 
1, c. 17. 

SoANES, a people of Colchis, near Caucasus, 
in whose territories the rivers abound with gold- 
en sands, which the inhabitants gather in wool 
skins, whence, perhaps, arose the fable of the 
golden fleece. Strab. 11. — Plin. 33, c. 3. 

SoGDiANA, a country of Asia, bounded on the 
north by Scythia, east by the Sacae, south by 
Bactriana, and west by Margiana ; and now 
known by the name of Zagaiay, or Usbec. The 
people are called Sogdiani. The capital was 
called Marcanda. Herodot. 3, c. 93. — Curt. 7, 
c. 10. 

SoLiciNiuM, a town of Germany, now Sultz, 
on the JVeckar. 

SoLis FONs, a celebrated fountain in Libya. 
Vid. Ammon. 

SoLOE, or Soli, I. a town of Cyprus, built on 
the borders of the Clarius by an Athenian co- 
lony. It was originally called JEpeia, till So- 
lon visited Cyprus, and advised Philocyprus, 
one of the princes of the island, to change the 
situation of his capital. His advice was follow- 
ed, and a new town was raised in a beautiful 
plain, and called after the name of the Athe- 
nian philosopher. Strab. 14. — Plut. in Sol. 

II. A town of Cilicia, on the seacoast, 

built by the Greeks and Rhodians. It was after- 
wards called Pompeiopolis, from Pompey, who 
settled a colony of pirates there. Plin. 5, c. 
27. — Dionys. Some suppose that the Greeks 
who settled in either of these two towns, forgot 
the purity of their native language, and thence 
arose the term Solecismus, applied to an inele- 
gant or improper expression, 

SoLOiis, or SoLOENTiA, I, a promontory of 
Libya at the extremity of mount Atlas, now 

Cape Cantin. II. A town of Sicily, between 

Panormus and Himera, now Solanto. Cic. 
Ver.3,c.i3.— T/iucyd.6. 
290 



Solus, (untis,) a maritime town ol Sicily.* 
Vid. Solaris. Strab. 14. 

SoLYMi, a people of Lycia, who finally occu- 
pied the territory called Milyas. Vid. L/ycia. 

SoPHENE, a country of Armenia, on the bor- 
ders of Mesopotamia, now Zoph. The Eu- 
phrates forms its boundary on the west and 
northwest. It is watered by the Arsanias, now 
Arsen. D'Anville. — Lnican. 2, v. 593. 

SoRACTEs, and Soracte, a mountain of Etru 
ria, near the Tiber, seen from Rome at the 
distance of 26 miles. It was sacred to Apollo, 
who is from thence surnamed Soractis ; and it 
is said that the priests of the god could walk 
over burning coals without hurting themselves. 
There was, as some report, a fountain on mount 
Soracte, whose waters boiled at sunrise and in- 
stantly killed all such birds as drank of them. 
StraA 5.— Plin. 2, c. 93, 1. 7, c. 2.—Horat. 1, 
Od.9.— Virg. Mn. 11, v. 185.— Ital. 5. 

SoTiATEs, a people of Aquitania, of some 
note in the time of Caesar. Their chief town 
Sotiacum, called in the middle ages Sotia or 
Solium, is now Sos. D^Anville — Lemaire. — 
Cas. Bell. G. 3, c. 2.0 and 21. 

Sparta. Vid. Lacedce.mon. 

Sperchius, a river of Thessaly, rising on 
mount OEta, and falling into the sea in the bay 
of Malia, near Anticyra. The name is sup- 
posed to he derived from its rapidity {ampj^eiv 
festinare). Peleus vowed to the god of this 
river the hair of his son Achilles, if ever he re- 
turned safe from the Trojan war. Herodot. 7, 
c. I'd8.— Strab. 9.— Homer. II. 23, v. 144.— 
Apollod. 3, c. Vi.—Mela, 2, c. Z.—Ovid. Met. 
1, V. 557, 1. 2, V. 250, 1. 7, v. 230. 

Spermatophagi a people who lived in the 
extremest parts of Egypt. They fed upon the 
fruits that fell from the trees. ■ 

Sphacteria. " The island of Sphacteria, so 
celebrated in Grecian history from the defeat 
and capture of a Lacedaemonian detachment in 
the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, was 
also known by the name of Sphagia, which it 
still retains. Pliny says the Sphagise were 
three in number ; Xenophen likewise speaks of 
some islands so called on the Laconian coast, 
meaning, doubtless, that of Messenia. Two of 
these must have been mere rocks." Cram. 

Sphagia insulje. Vid. Sphacteria. 

Sphragidium, a retired cave on mount Ci- 
thaeron in Boeotia. The nymphs of the place, 
called S'phragitides, were early honoured with 
a sacrifice by the Athenians, by order of the 
oracle of Delphi, because they had lost few men 
at the battle of Plataca. Plin. 35, c, 6. — Pans, 
9, c. 3. — Plut. in Arist. 

Spina, an ancient city of Cisalpine Gaul, of 
Greek origin, situated on the most southern 
branch of the Po, called from the city Spineti- 
cum Ostium. " If we are to believe Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus, who derives his information 
apparently from Hellanicus of Lesbos, Spina 
was founded by a numerous band of Pelasgi, 
who arrived on this coast from Epirus long be- 
fore the Trojan war. The same writer goes on 
to state, that in process of time this colony be- 
came very flourishing, and held for many years 
the dominion of the sea, from the fruits of which 
It was enabled to present to the temple of Del- 
phi tithe-offerings more closely than those of any 
other city. Afterwards, however, being attack- 



BP 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ST 



ed by an overwhelming force of the surrounding 
barbarians, the Pelasgi were forced to quit their 
settlements, and finally to abandon Italy. It ap- 
pears that no doubt can be entertained of the 
existence of a Greek city of this name near one 
of the mouths of the Po, since it is noticed in 
the Periplus of Scylax, and by the geographers 
Eudoxus and. Artemidorus, as cited by Steph. 
Byz. Strabo also speaks of it as having once 
been a celebrated city, and possessed of a trea- 
suiy at Delphi ; the inscription recording that 
fact being still extant in his time. The same 
geographer adds besides, that Spina was yet in 
existence when he wrote, though reduced to the 
condition of a mere village. It is not easy to 
discover when the Pelasgi abandoned Spain, 
and who were the barbarians that forced them 
to quit the shores of the Adriatic. By the lat- 
ter, 1 apprehend w^e must understand the Tus- 
cans. The Tuscans themselves were in their 
turn dispossessed by the Gauls ; and if the cor- 
rection of Cluverius in the text of Pliny be ad- 
mitted, it appears from that author, that Spina 
was taken and destroyed by the latter people the 
same year that Camillus took Veii, that is, 393 ' 
years B. C. : but to this it is objected, that Scy- 
lax, who is supposed to have written in the time 
of Philip, mentions Spina as then existing, which 
would be about thirty or forty j'-ears laier than 
the date above mentioned. No trace now re- 
mains of this once flourishing city, by which its 
ancient site may be identified. Scylax' says it 
stood about twent)'- stadia, or between three and 
four miles from the sea. But Strabo reports, 
that in his time the small place which preserved 
the name of Spina was situated upwards of ele- 
ven miles inland. We must therefore conclude 
that a considerable deposite of alluvialsoil must 
have been made by the Po during the time 
which intervened between these two periods, or 
that the former site of the city had been re- 
moved to a greater distance from the sea. The 
first supposition is however the most probable, 
nor is it unlikely that the whole of the extensive 
marshes of Coviachio were once washed by the 
Adriatic. I am for this reason inclined to adopt 
the opinion of those topographers who seek for 
the spot on which Spina stood, on the left bank 
of the Po di Primaro, the ancient Spineticum 
Ostium, and not far from the village of Argen- 
ta." Cram. 

Spineticum ostium. Vid. Spina. 
Spoletium, now Spoleto, a town of Umbria, 
" colonized A. U. C. 512. Twenty-five )'-ears 
afterwards it withstood, according to Livy, the 
attack of Hannibal, who was on his march 
through Umbria, after the battle of the Trasy- 
mene. This resistance had the effect of check- 
ing the advance of the Carthaginian general to- 
wards Rome, and compelled him to draw off" 
his forces into Picenum. It should be observed, 
however, that Polybius makes no mention of 
this attack upon Spoleto ; but expressly states, 
that it was not Hannibal's intention to approach 
Rome at that time, but to lead his army to the 
seacoast. Spoletium appears to have ranked 
high among the municipal towns of Italy, but 
it suffered severely from proscription in the 
civil wars of Marius and Sylla." Cram. 

Sporades, a number of islands in the iEgean 
Sea. They received their name a (rircipw, spargo, 
" and included the numerous islands which lie 



scattered around the Cyclades, and which, in 
fact, several of them are intermixed, and those 
also which lay towards Crete and the coast of 
Asia Minor." Cram. 

STABiiE, a maritime town of Campania, on 
the bay of Puteoli, destroyed by Sylla, and con- 
verted into a villa, whither Plina endeavoured 
to escape from the eruption of Vesuvius in 
which he perished. Plin. 3, c. 5, ep. 6, c. 16. 
^ Stagira, a town on the borders of Macedo- 
nia, on the bay into which the Strymon dis- 
charges itself, at the south of Amphipolis, found- 
ed 665 years before Christ. Aristotle was born 
there, from which circumstance he is called 
Stagirites. Thucyd. 4. — Pans. 6, c. 4. — Laert. 
in Sol. — jElian. V. H. 3, c. 46. 

Stellatis, a field remarkable for its fertility, 
in Campania. Cic. Aug. 1, c. 70. — Suet. Cces. 20. 
Stobi, a city of Macedonia, near the junc- 
tion of the rivers Axius and Erigonus. It was 
" an ancient city of some note, as we learn from 
Liv}', who reports, that Philip wished to found 
a new city in its vicinity, to be called Perseis, 
after his eldest son. The same monarch ob- 
tained a victory over the Dardani in the envi- 
rons of Stobi, and it was from thence that he 
set out on his expedition to mount Hamus. 
On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 
it was made the depot of the salt with which the 
Dardani were supplied from that country. Sto- 
bi, at a later period, became not only a Roman 
colony, but a Roman municipium, a privilege 
rarely conferred beyond the limits of Italy. In 
the reign of Constantine, Stobi was considered 
as the chief town of Macedonia Secunda, or 
Salutaris, as it was then called. Steph. Byz. 
writes the name erroneously ErpiJ/So j. Stobi was 
the birthplace of Jo, Stobaeus, the author of the 
valuable Greek Florilegium which bears his 
name." Cram. 

Stcechades, five small islands in the Medi- 
terranean, on the coast of Gaul, now the Hicre.<;, 
near Marseilles. They were called Ligustides 
by some, but Pliny speaks of them as only three 
in number. Steph. Byzant. — iMcan. 3, v. 516. 
—StroJ). 4. 

Stratonis turris, a city of Judea, after- 
wards called Caesarea by Herod in honour of 
Augustus, 
Stratos, I. a citv of JEolia. Liv. 36, c. 11, 

1. 38, c. 4. II. Of Acarnania. 

Strongyle, now Strombolo,one of the islands 
called bolides in the Tyrrhene Sea, near the 
coast of Sicily. It has a volcano, 10 miles in 
circumference, which throws up flames contin- 
ually, and of which the crater is on the side of 
the mountain, Mela, 2, c, 7. — Strab. 6. — Patis. 
10, c. U. 

Strophades, two islands in the Ionian Sea, 
on the western coast of the Peloponnesus. They 
were anciently called Plotce, and received the 
name of Strophades from rp^^w, verto, because 
Zethes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, returned 
from thence by order of Jupiter, after they had 
driven the Harpies there from the tables of 
Phineus. The fleet of Mneas stopped near the 
Strophades. The largest of these two islands 
is not above five miles in circumference. Hy- 
sin. fab. \^.—Mela, 2, c. l.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 
im.— Virg. JEn. 3, v. 'illO.— Strab. 8. 

Stryma, a town of Thrace, founded by a 
Theban colony, Herodot. 7, c, 109. 
291 



su 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SU 



Strymon, a river which separates Thrace 
from Macedonia, and falls inio a part of the 
^gean Sea, which has been called Strynionicus 
sinus. A number of cranes, as the poets say, 
resorted on its banks in the summer lime. Its 
eels were excellent, Mela, 2, c. 2. — Apollod. 
2, c. b.— Virg. G. 1, v. 120, 1. 4, v. 508. Mn. 
10, V. '2Qb.— 0vid. Met. 2, v. 251. 

Stymphalus, a town, river, lake, and foun- 
tain of Arcadia, which receives its name from 
king Stymphalus. The neighbourhood of the 
lake Stymphalus was infested with a number of 
voracious birds, like cranes or storks, which fed 
upon human flesh, and which were called Stym- 
fhalides. They were at last destroyed by Her- 
cules, with the assistance of Minerva. Some 
have confounded them with the Harpies, while 
others pretend that they never existed but in the 
imagination of the poets. Pausanias, however, 
supports, that there were carnivorous birds like 
the Stymphalides, in Arabia. Paus. 8, c. 4. — 
Stat. Theb. 4, v. 298. 

Styx, a celebrated river of hell, round which 
it flows nine times. According to some writers 
the Styx was a small river of Nonacris in Arca- 
dia, whose waters Avere so cold and venomous, 
that they proved fatal to such as tasted them. 
Among others Alexander the Great is mention- 
ed as a victim to their fatal poison, in conse- 
quence of drinking them. They even consum- 
ed iron, and broke all vessels. The wonderful 
properties of this water suggested the idea that 
it was a river of hell, especially when it disap- 
peared in the earth a little below its fountain 
head. The gods held the waters of the Styx in 
such veneration, that they always swore by 
them; an oath which was inviolable. If any 
of the gods had perjured themselves, Jupiter 
obliged them to drink the waters of the Styx, 
which lulled them for one whole year into a 
senseless stupidity ; for the nine following years 
they were deprived of the ambrosia and the nec- 
tar of the gods, and after the expiration of tfee 
years of their punishment, they were restored to 
the assembly of the deities, and to all their ori- 
ginal privileges. It is said that this veneration 
was shown to the Styx, because it received its 
name from the nymph Styx, who, with her three 
daughters, assisted Jupiter in his war against the 
Titans. Hesiod. Theog. v. 384, 775. — Homer. 
Od. 10, V. bVi.—Herodot. 6, c. ^.— Virg. Mn. 
6, V. 323, 439, &,c.—Afollod. 1, c. 2.— Ovid. 
Met. 3, V. 29, &c.—LMcan. 6, v. 378, &c.— 
Paus. 8, c. 17 and 18.— Ctirt. 10, c. 10. 

SuBLicius, the first bridge erected at Rome 
over the Tiber. Vid. Pons. 

SuBURRA, a street in Rome, where all the li- 
centious, dissolute, and lascivious Romans and 
courtesans resorted. It Avas situate beiween 
mount Viminalis and Quirinalis, and was re- 
markable as having been the residence of the 
obscurer years of J. Csesar. Suet, in Cccs. — 
Varro. de. L. L. 4, c. 8. — Martial. 6, ep. &Q. — 
Juv. 3, V. 5. 

SucRO, now Xucar, a river of Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, celebrated for a battle fought there 
between Sertorius and Pompey, in which the 
former obtained the victory. Plut. 

SuEssA, a town of Campania, called also 

Aurunca, to distinguish it from Suessa Po- 

metia, the capital of the Volsci. Strab. 5. — 

Plin, 3, c. 5, — Dionys. Hal. 4. — Liv. 1 and 2. 

292 



-Virg. JEn. 6, v. 775. Cic Phil 3, c. 4, 1. 
4, c, 2. 

SuEssoNEs, a people of Belgic Gaul, whose 
territory was enclosed by those of the Veroman- 
dui, Remi, Senones, Parisii, and Bellovaci. 
Their capital was Noviodunum, now Soissons, 
dip. de VAisne ; although it has been identified 
by some geographers with Noyon, dep. de I'Oise. 
Cess. B. G. Lem. ed. 

SuEvi, a people of Germany, between the 
Elbe and the Vistula, who made frequent ex- 
cursions upon the territories of Rome under the 
emperors. D'Anville thus speaks of this peo- 
ple. " A nation superior in power were the 
Catti, whom Caesar, as before observed, calls 
Suevi. They occupied Hesse to the Sala in 
Tkuringia,3.nd Weteravia to the Maine. Among 
other circumstances which enhanced the merit 
of this people, was that of their skill in the mili- 
tary art; which, according to Tacitus, the Cat- 
tians superadded to the quality of bravery com- 
mon to the Germanic nations. A place which is 
mentioned under the name of Castellum con- 
tinues this name in that of Cassel. Mattiuvi 
is spoken of as the capital of the Cattians, and 
it is believed that this city is Marpurg. The 
internal part of this continent may be con- 
sidered under the general name of Suevia ; 
whence many Germanic nations have borrowed 
ihe denomination under which they appear. 
Suevia was divided among a number of distinct 
people. The Semnones, who were reputed the 
noblest and most ancient of the Suevian nations, 
extended from the Elbe beyond the Oder.'' 
Ptolemy represents the Suevi as consisting of 
three nations, the Angli, Longobardi, and Sem- 
nones : to these Pliny adds the Hermiones, whom 
Strabo calls Hermanduri. Lucan. 2, v. 51. 

SmoNEs, a nation of Germany, supposed the 
modern Sioedes. Tacit, de Germ. c. 44. 

SuLGA, now Sorgue, a small river of Gaul, 
falling into the Rhone. Strab. 4. 

SuLMo, now Sulmona, an ancient town of the 
Peligni, at the distance of about 90 miles from 
Rome, founded by Solymus, one of the follow- 
ers of ^neas. Ovid was born there. Ovid, 
passim. — Ital. 8, v. 511. — Strab. 5. 

SuNiuM, " one of the most celebrated sites in 
Attica, forms the extreme point of that province 
towards the south. Near the promontory stood 
the town of the same name with a harbour, 
Sunium was held especially sacred to Minerva 
as early as the time of Homer. Neptune was 
also worshipped there, as we learn from Aristo- 
phanes. Regattas were held here in the minor 
Panathenaic festivals. The promontory of Su- 
nium is frequently mentioned in Grecian histo- 
ry. Herodotus in one place calls it the Suniac 
angle. Thucydides reports that it was fortified 
by the Athenians after the Sicilian expedition, 
to protect their vessels which conveyed corn 
from Euboea, and were consequently obliged to 
double the promontory. It is now called Capo 
Colonna, from the ruins of the temple of Mi- 
nerva, which are still to be seen on its summit. 
Travellers who have visited Snnium inform us, 
that this edifice was originally decorated with 
six columns in front, and probably thirteen on 
each side. Spon reports that in his time nine- 
teen columns were still standing. At present 
there are only fourteen. Sir "W. Gell observes 
' that nothing can exceed the beauty of this spot, 



BY 



GEOGRAPHY. 



SY 



commanding from a portico of while marble, 
erected in the happiest period of Grecian art, 
and elevated 300 feet above the sea. a prospect 
of the gulf of iEgina on one side, and of the 
JSgeean on the other.' Dodwell states, ' that 
the temple is supported on its northern side by 
a regularly constructed terrace wall, of which 
seventeen layers of stone still remain. The 
fallen columns are scattered about below the 
temple, to which they form the richest fore- 
ground. The walls of the town, of which there 
are few remains, may be traced nearly down to 
the port on the southern side ; but the greater 
part of the opposite side, upon the edge of the 
precipice, was undefended, except by the natural 
strength of the place and the steepness of the 
rock; the walls were fortified with square 
towers." Cram. 

SuPERUM MARE, a name of the Adriatic Sea, 
because it was situate above Italy. The name 
of Ma.re Inferuvi was applied for the opposite 
reasons to the sea below Italy. Cic. pro Cluent., 
&c. 

SuRRENTUM, a towu of Campania, on the bay 
of Naples, famous for the wine which was made 
in the neighbourhood. Mela, 2, c. 4. — Strab. 5. 
—Horat. 1, ep. 17, v. b2 — 0vid. Met. 15, v. 
IIQ.—Mart. 13, ep. 110. 

SusA, {orum,) now Suster, a celebrated city 
of Asia,' the chief town of Susiana, and the 
capital of the Persian empire, built by Tithonus 
the father of Memnon. Cyrus took it. The 
walls of Susa were above 120 stadia in circmn- 
ference. The treasures of the kin2:s of Persia 
were generally kept there, and the royal palace 
was built with white marble, and its pillars 
were covered with gold and precious stones. It 
was usual with the kings of Persia to spend the 
summer at Ecbatana and the winter at Susa, 
because the climate was more warm there than 
at any other royal residence. It had been called 
Memnonia, or the palace of Memnon, because 
that prince reigned there. Plin. 6, c. 26, &c. 
— Lucan. 2, v. 49. — Strab. 15. — Xenoph. Cyr. — 
Propert. 2, el. 13. — Claudian. 

Susiana, or Susis, a country of Asia, of which 
the capital was called Susa, situate at the east 
of Assyria. Lilies grow in great abundance in 
Susiana, and it is from that plant that the pro- 
vince received its name, according to some, as 
Susan is the name of a lily in Hebrew. 

SUSID.E PYLffi, narrow passes over mountains 
from Susiana into Persia. Curt. 5, c. 3. 

SuTHUL, a town of Numidia, where the king's 
treasures were kept. Sail. Jug. 37. 

SuTRnjM, a town of Etruria, about twenty- 
four miles northwest of Rome, Some suppose 
that the phrase Ire Sutrium, to act with despatch, 
arises from the celerity with which Camillus 
recovered the place ; but Festus explains it dif- 
ferently. Plaut. Cas. 3, 1, v. 10.— Liv. 26, c. 
M.—Paterc. 1, c. U.—Liv. 9, c. 32. 

Sybaris, a river of Lucania in Italy, whose 
waters were said to render men more strong 
and robust. Strab. 6. Plin. 3, c. 11, 1. 31, c. 
2. — There was a town of the same name on its 
banks, on the bay of Tarentum, which had been 
founded by a colony of Achaeans. Sybaris be- 
came very powerful, and in its most flourishing 
situation it had the command of four neighbour- 
ing nations of 25 towns, and could send an ar- 
my of 300,000 men into the field. The walls of 



the city were said to extend six miles and a half 
in circumference, and the suburbs covered the 
banks of the Crathis for the space of seven miles. 
It made a long and vigorous resistance against 
the neighbouring town of Crotona, till it was at 
last totally reduced by the disciples of Pythago- 
ras, B. C. 508. Sybaris was destroyed no less 
than five times, and always repaired. In a more 
recent age the inhabitants became so elfeminate, 
that the word Sybarite became proverbial to in- 
timate a man devoted to pleasure. There was 
a small town built in the neighbourhood about 
444 years before the Christian era, and called 
Thurium, from a small fountain called Thuria, 
where it was built. Diod. 12. — Strab. 6. — 
jElian, V. H. 9, c. ^A.— Martial. 12, ep. 96.— 
Plut. in Pelop. &c. — Plin. 3, c. 10, &c. 

Syene, now Assuan, a town of Thebais, on 
the extremities of Eg}^t. Juvenal the poet 
was banished there on pretence of commanding 
a prsetorian cohort stationed in the neighbour- 
hood. " Near Assooan are found the remains 
of the ancient Syene, consisting of some granite 
columns, and an old square building, with open- 
ings at top. The researches made here have 
not confirmed the conjecture of Savary, who 
conceived it to be the ancient observatory of the 
Ee:}^iians, where, with some digging, the an- 
cient well may be formd, at the bottom of which 
the image of the sun was reflected entire on the 
day of the summer solstice. The observations 
of the French astronomers place Assooan inlat. 
24° 5' 23" of north latitude. If this place was 
formerly situated under the tropic, the position 
of the earth must be a little altered, and the ob- 
liquity of the ecliptic diminished. But we should 
be aware of the vagueness of the observations 
made by the ancients, which have conferred so 
much celebrity on these places. The phenome- 
non of the extinction of the shadow, whether 
within a deep pit, or round a perpendicular gno- 
mon, is not confined to one exact mathematical 
position of the sun, but is common to a certain 
extent of latitude corresponding to the visible 
diameter of that luminary, which is more than 
half a degree. It would be sufficient, therefore, 
that the northern margin of the sun's disk should 
reach the zenith of Syene on the day of the sum* 
mer solstice, to abolish all lateral shadow of a 
perpendicular object. Now, in the second cen- 
tury, the obliquity of the ecliptic, reckoned from 
the observations of Hipparchus, was 23° 49' 25''. 
If we add the semi-diameter of the sun, which 
is 15' 57", we find for the northern margin 24° 
5' 22", which is within a second of the actual 
latitude of Syene. At present, when the obli- 
quity of the ecliptic is 23° 28' the'northern limb 
of the Sim comes no nearer the latitude of 
Syene than 21' 3", yet the shadow is scarcely 
perceptible. We have, therefore, no imperious 
reason for admitting a greater diminution in the 
obliquity of the ecliptic than that which is shown 
by real astronomical observations of the most 
exact and authentic kind. That of the well of 
Syene is not among the number of these last, 
and can give us no assistance in ascertaining 
the position of the tropic thirty centuries ago, as 
some respectable men of science seem to have 
believed. Syene, which, under so many different 
masters has been the southern frontier of Egypt, 
presents in a greater degree than any other 
spot on the surface of the globe, that confused 
^93 



sir 



GEOGRAPHY, 



BY 



mixture of monuments which, even in the des- 
tinies of the most potent nations, remind us of 
human instability. Here the Pharaohs and the 
Ptolemies raised the temples and the palaces 
■which are found half buried under the drifting 
sand. Here are forts and walls built by the 
Romans and the Arabians, and on the remains 
of all these buildings French inscriptions are 
found, attesting that the warriors and the learn- 
ed men of modern Europe pitched their tents, 
and erected their observatories on this spot. 
But the eternal power of nature presents a still 
more magnificent spectacle. Here are the ter- 
races of reddish granite of a particular charac- 
ter, hence called Syenite, a term applied to 
those rocks which differ from granite in con- 
taining particles of hornblende. These mighty 
terraces, shaped like peaks, cross the bed of the 
Nile ; and over them the river rolls majestically 
his impetuous foaming waves. Here are the 
quarries from which the obelisks and colossal 
statues of the Egyptian temples were dug. An 
obelisk, partially formed and still remaining 
attached to the native rock, bears testimony to 
the laborious and patient efforts of human art. 
On the polished surfaces of these rocks hiero- 
glyphic sculptures represent the Egyptian dei- 
ties, together with the sacrifices and offerings 
of this nation, which, more than any other, has 
identified iiself with the country which it in- 
habited, and has in the most literal sense en- 
graved the records of its glory on the terrestrial 
globe. In the midst of this valley, generally 
skirted with arid rocks, a series of sweet deli- 
cious islands, covered with palms, date-trees, 
mulberries, acacias, and napecas, has merited 
the appellation of the ' Tropical Gardens.' " 
Mdlte-Brun. 

Symplegades, Vid. Cyanea. 

Synnas, {adis,) or Synnada, {plur.) a town 
of Phrygia, famous for its marble quarries. 
Strab. 12. — Claudian. in Eutr. 2. — Martial. 9. 
ep. 11.— Stat. 1, Sylv. 5, v. 41. 

Syracuse, a celebrated city of Sicily, found- 
ed about 732 years before the Christian era, by 
Archias, a Corinthian, and one of the Heracli- 
das. In its flourishing state it extended 22 1-2 
English miles in circumference, and was divi- 
ded into 4 districts, Ortygia, Acradina, Tycha, 
and Neapolis, to which some add a fifth divi- 
sion, Epipote, a district little inhabited. These 
were of themselves separate cities, and were 
fortified with three citadels, and three-folded 
walls. Syracuse had two capacious harbours, 
separated from one another by the island of 
Ortygia. The greatest harbour was above 5000 
paces in circumference, and its entrance 500 
paces wide. The people of Sj^acuse were very 
opulent and powerful ; and, though subject to 
tyrants, they were masters of vast possessions 
and dependant states. The city of Syracuse 
was well built, its houses were stately and mag- 
nificent ; and it has been said that it produced 
the best and most excellent of men when they 
were virtuous, but the most wicked and de- 
praved when addicted to vicious pursuits. The 
women of Syracuse were not permitted to adorn 
themselves with gold, or wear costly garments, 
except such as prostituted themselves. Syra- 
cuse gave birth to Theocritus and Archimedes. 
It was under different governments, and, after 
being freed from the tyranny of Thrasybulus, 
294 



B. C. 446, it enjoyed security for 61 years, till 
the usurpation of the Dionysii, who were ex- 
pelled by Timoleon, B. C. 343. In the age of 
the elder Dionysius, an army of 100,000 foot 
and 10,000 horse, and 400 ships, were kept in 
constant pay. It fell into the hands of the Ro- 
mans, under the consul Marcellus, after a siege 
of three years, B. C. 212. Cic. in Verr. 4, c. 
52 and b3.—Strab. 1 and 8.— C. Nep.—Mela, 
2, c. l.—Liv. 23, &LC.—Plut. in Marcell., &c. 
—Flor. 2, c. &.—ltal. 14, v. 278. 

Syria, a large country of Asia, whose boun- 
daries are not accurately ascertained by the an- 
cients. Syria, generally speaking, was bound- 
ed on the east by the Euphrates, north by 
mount Taurus, west by the Mediterranean, and 
south by Arabia. It was divided into several 
districts and provinces, among which were PhcE- 
nicia, Seleucis, Judea or Palestine, Mesopota- 
mia, Babylon, and Assyria. It was also called 
Assyria ; and the words Syria and Assyria, 
though distinguished and defined by some au- 
thors, were often used indifferently. Syria was 
subjected to the monarchs of Persia ; but after 
the death of Alexander the Great, Seleucus, 
surnamed Nicator, who had received this pro- 
vince as his lot in the division of the Macedo- 
nian dominions, raised it into an empire, known 
in history by the name of the kingdom of Sy- 
ria or Babylon, B. C. 312. Seleucus died after 
a reign of 32 years, and his successors, surnamed 
the ScleucidcB, ascended the throne in the fol- 
lowing order: Antiochus, surnamed Soter, 280 
B. C ; Antiochus Theos, 261 ; Seleucus Cal- 
linicus, 246 ; Seleucus Ceraunus, 226 ; Antio- 
chus the Great, 223 ; Seleucus Philopator, 187; 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 175; Antiochus Eupa- 
tor, 164 ; Demetrius Soter, 162 ; Alex. Balas, 
150; Demetrius Nicator, 146; Antiochus the 
Sixth, 144; Diodotus Tryphon, 143 ; Antio- 
chus Sidetes, 139 ; Demetrius Nicator restored, 
130; Alexander Zebina, 127, who was dethron- 
ed by Antiochus Grypus, 123 ; Antiochus Cy- 
zicenus, 142, who takes part of Syria, which 
he calls Coelesyria ; Philip and Demetrius Eu- 
cerus 93, and in Coelesyria, Antiochus Pius; 
Aretas was king of Coelesyria, 85; Tigranes, 
king of Armenia, 83 ; and Antiochus Asiaticus, 
69, who was dethroned by Pompey, B. C. 65 ; 
in consequence of which Syria became a Ro- 
man province. " A situation bordering upon 
the Parthian empire, and also upon the second 
empire of the Persians, must have made the 
defence of this province an object of the great- 
est importance. Syria constituted by much the 
greatest part of that Dicecese (for so the great 
departments established before the end of the 
fourth century were named) called Oriens ; 
comprising Palestine, a district of Mesopotamia, 
the province of Cilicia, and the isle of Cyprus. 
By a division of primitive provinces, there ap- 
pear five in the limits of Syria: two Syrias, 
Prima and Secunda or Salutaris; two Phoe- 
nicias, one properly so called, and the other 
surnamed Libani, by the extension of the ante- 
rior limits of PhcRfiice ; and finally, the Eupkra- 
tensis. In the sacred writings Syria is called 
Aram. The Arabs now give it the name of 
Sham, which in their language signifies the left, 
its situation being such on facing the east." 
D'Anville.—Herodot. 2, 3, and l.—ApoUod. 1, 
Arg.— Strab. 12 and 16.— C. Ncp. in Dat.— 



TA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TA 



Mela, 1, c. 2. — Ptol. 5, c. 6. — Curt. 6. — Dionys. 

Perieg, 

Syriacum mare, that part of the Mediterra- 
nean Sea which is on the coast of Phcenicia 
and Syria. 

Syros, I. one of the Cyclades in the iEgean 
Sea, about 20 miles in circumference, " situated 
between Cythnos and Rhenea, was celebrated 
for having given birth to Pherecydes the philo- 
sopher, a disciple of Pittacus. It is singular 
that Strabo should affirm that the first syllable 
of the word Syros is pronounced long, whereas 
Homer, in the passage which he quotes, has 
made it short." Cram. — Homer. Od. 15, v. 

bOi.—Strah. 10— Mela, 2, c. 7. 11. A town 

of Caria. Paus. 3, c. 26. 

Syrtis. " Among the ancients the name of 
Syrtis, (from avpoj, traJio,) was common to two 
gulfs on the coast of Africa, distinguished into 
Major and Minor ; which, from the rocks and 
quicksands, and a remarkable inequality in 
the motion of the waters, were deemed of peril- 
ous navigation. Mariners, corrupting the name, 
have called the great Syrtis the Gulf of Sidra. 
A promontory named heretofore Cephalas, or 
The Heads, and now Canan, or Cape Mesrata, 
terminates the Syrtis. The little Syrtis is now 
called the Gulf of Gabes, from the ancient city 
of Tacape, situated at its head, and preserving 
its name in this altered form." D'Anville. 
From the dangers attending the navigation of 
the Syrtis, the word has been used to- denote 
any part of the sea of which the navigation was 
attended with danger either from whirlpools or 
hidden rocks. Mela, 1, c. 7, 1. 2, c. l.— Virg. 
JEn. 4, V. 41. — LMcan. 9, 303. — Sallust. in J. 

T. 

TABERN.E NovjE, 1. a Street in Rome, where 

shops were built. Liv. 3, c. 48. II. Rhena- 

nse, a town of Germany, on the confluence of 
the Felbach and the Rhine, now Rhin-Zabern. 
III. Rigu«, now Bem-Castel, on the Mo- 
selle. IV. Triboccorum, a town of Alsace in 

France, now Saverne. 

Tabor, a mountain of Palestine. It is thus 
described by Russell : " In pursuing this route 
(from Tiberias to Nazareth) we have Mount 
Tor, or Tabor, on the left hand, rising in soli- 
tary majesty from the plain of Esdraelon. Its 
appearance has been described by some authors 
as that of a half-sphere, while to others it sug- 
gests the idea of a cone with its point struck off. 
According to Mr. Maundrell, the height is such 
as to require the labour of an hour to reach the 
summit ; where is seen a level area of an oval 
figure, extending abouc two furlongs in length 
and one in breadth. It is enclosed with trees 
on all sides except the south, and is most fertile 
and delicious. Having been anciently sur- 
rounded with walls and trenches, there are re- 
mains of considerable fortifications at the pre- 
sent day. Burckhardt says, a thick wall con- 
structed of large stones, may be traced quite 
round the summit close to the edge of the preci- 
pice ; on several parts of which are relics of bas- 
tions. The area too is overspread with the ruins 
of private dwellings, built of stone with great 
solidity. Pococke assures us that it is one of the 
finest hills he ever beheld, being a rich soil that 
produces excellent herbage, and most beauti- 



fully adorned with groves and clumps of trees. 
The height he calculates to be about two miles, 
making allowance for the winding ascent ; but 
he adds, that others have imagined the same 
path to be not less than four miles. Hasselquist 
conjectures that it is a league to the top, the 
whole of which may be accomplished without 
dismounting, — a statement amply confirmed by 
the experience of Van Egmoni and Heyman. 
But this mountain derives the largest share of 
its celebrity from the opinion entertained among 
Christians since the days of Jerome, that it was 
the scene of a memorable event in the history 
of our Lord. .On the eastern part of the hill 
are the remains of a strong castle ; and within 
the precincts of it is the grotto in which are three 
altars in memory of the three tabernacles that 
St. Peter proposed to baild, and where the Latin 
friars always perform mass on the anniversary 
of the Transfiguration. It is said there was a 
magnificent church built there byHelena,which 
was a cathedral when this town was made a 
bishop's see. On the side of the hill they show 
a church in the grot, where they say Christ 
charged his disciples not to tell what things they 
had seen till he should be glorified. It is very 
doubtful , however, wheth er this tradition be well 
founded, or whether it has not as Mr.MaundreU 
and other writers suspect, originated in the mis- 
interpretation of a very common Greek phrase. 
Our Saviour is said to have taken with Jiim Pe- 
ter, James, and John, and brought them into a 
high mountain ' apart;' from which it has been 
rather hastily inferred that the description must 
apply to Tabor, the only insulated and solitary 
hill in the neighbourhood. We may remark, 
with the traveller just named, that the conclu- 
sion may possibly be true, but that the argument 
used to prove it seems incompetent; because 
the term 'apart' most likely relates to the with- 
drawing and retirement of the persons here 
spoken of, and not to the situation of the moun- 
tain. In fact, it means nothing more than that 
our Lord and his three disciples betook them- 
selves to a private place for the purpose of devo- 
tion. The view from Mount Tabor is extolled 
by every traveller. 'It is impossible,' says Maun- 
drell, ' for man's eyes to behold a higher grati- 
fication of this nature.' On the northwest you 
discern in the distance the noble expanse of the 
Mediterranean, while all around you see the spa- 
cious and beautiful plains of Esdraelon and 
Galilee. Turning a little southward, you have 
in view the high mountains of Gilboa, so fatal 
to Saul and his sons. Due east you discover 
the sea of Tiberias, distant about one day's 
journey, A few points to the north appears 
the mount of .Beatitudes, the place where 
Christ delivered his sermon to his disciples 
and the multitude. Not far from this little hill 
is the city of Saphet, or Szaffad, standing upon 
elevated and very conspicuous ground. Still 
farther in the same direction, is seen a lofty 
peak covered with snow, a part of the chain of 
Anti-Libanus, To the southwest is Carmel, 
and in the south the hills of Samaria." 

Tabraca, a maritime town of Africa, near 
Hippo, made a Roman colony. The neigh- 
bouring forests abounded with monkeys. Juv. 
40, V. 194.— PZw. 5, c. 2.— Mela, \, c. l.—ltal. 
3, V. 256. 

Taburnus, a mountain of Campania, which 
295 



TA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TA 



aooimded with olives. Virg. G. 2, v. 38. jEn. 
12, V. 715. 

Tacape, a town of Africa, now GaOes, situ- 
ated at the head of the Syrtis Minor. It gave 
its name to the Aquae Tacapinse, now called El- 
Hainma, which in the language of the couniry 
signifies " medicinal waters." D'Anville. 

Tader, a river of Spain, near New Carthage. 

T.ENARUM, " the southernmost promontory 
of Peloponnesus. Ancient geographers reck- 
oned from thence to C. Phycas in Africa 3000 
stadia, 4600 or 4000 to C. Pachynus in Sicily, 
and 670 to the promontory of Malea. Here was 
a famous temple to Neptune, the sanctuary of 
which was accounted an inviolable asylum. 

''\ep65 T adpavcTTOs Taivdpov jievei Xijirju 

Ma\eas t ah-poi Kevdixwvcs — EURIP. CyclO. 291. 

Near it was a cave said to be the entrance to 
Orcus, by which Hercules dragged Cerberus to 
the upper regions. It was here that Arion was 
landed by the dolphin, as Herodotus relates, and 
the statue which he dedicated on that occasion 
still existed in the temple when it was visited by 
Pausanias. Tsenarus became latterly celebrated 
for the beautiful marble of its quarries, which 
the Romans held in the highest esteem. The 
Tsenarian promontory, now called C Matapan, 
serves to divide the Messenian from the Laco- 
nian gulf." Cram. About five miles from the 
extreme point of this cape stood the town of the 
same name. 

Tagus, a river of Hispania, belonging prin- 
cipally to Lusitania. It rose in the Idubeda 
mons in Tarraconensis, and emptied into the 
Atlantic at Olisipo, now Lisbon. 

Tamasea, a beautiful plain of C3^prus, sacred 
to the goddess of beauty. It was in this place 
that Venus gathered the golden apples with 
which Hippomanes was enabled to overtake 
. Atalanta. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 6ii.—Plin. 5.— 
Strab. 14. 

Tamesis, a river of Britain, now the Thames. 
Cas. G. 5, c. 11. 

Tamos, a promontory of India, near the 
Ganges. 

Tanagra, " a considerable town, situated in 
a rich and fertile country on the left bank of the 
Asopus. Its most ancient appellation was said 
to be Graea, though Stephanus asserts that 
some writers considered them as two distinct 
cities, and Strabo also appears to be of this 
opinion. Aristotle affirmed that Oropus ought 
to be identified with Graea. Herodotus informs 
ns, that at an early period the district of Tana- 
gra was occupied by the Gephyraei, Phoenicians 
who had followed Cadmns, and from thence af- 
terwards migrated to Athens. The following 
description of this city is to be found in Dicasar- 
chus. ' The town itself is situated on a lofty 
and rugged eminence; it is white and chalky 
in appearance, but the houses are beautifully 
adorned with handsome porticoes, painted in the 
encaustic style. The surrounding country does 
not produce much corn, but it grows the best 
wine in Boeotia. The inhabitants are wealthy, 
but frugal, being for the most part landholders, 
not manufacturers ; they are observers of jus- 
tice, good faith, and hospitality, giving freely to 
such of their fellow-citizens as are in want, and 
also to necessitous travellers; in short, they 
seem to shun every thing which looks like 
296 



meanness and avarice. There is no city in all 
BcEotia where strangers can reside so securely ; 
for there is no exclusive and over-rigid pride ex- 
hibited towards those who have been unfortu- 
nate, owing to the independent and industrious 
habits of the citizens. I never saw in any town 
so little appearance of any inclination to profli- 
gacy, which is the most frequent source of crime 
amongst men. For where there is a sufiiciency, 
the love of gain is not harboured^ and vice is 
consequently excluded.' Tanagra, as Pausa- 
nias further reports, was famed for its breed of 
fighting cocks. The ruins of this town were 
at first discovered, I believe, by Mr. Cockerell, 
at Gramada, or Grimathi, near the village of 
SkoimoAidari ; he found there vestiges of its 
walls and theatre. Mr. Hawkins, in a letter 
to Dr. Clarke, gives the following accurate ac- 
count of its topography. ' The Asopus is in 
winter a muddy torrent, and for eight months 
of the year wholly dry. Journeying from Parne.<5 
towards Thebes, soon after leaving the banks 
of this river the plain ceases, and you reach a 
gently undulating territory, in which is situ- 
ated the Albanian village of Skoimatari, in- 
habited by forty families. The ruins of Tana- 
gra are at a spot called Grimatka, about three 
miles to the southwest, at the end of a ridge of 
hills which extend from thence several miles 
towards Thebes. The ground too has a gra- 
dual ascent from these ruins towards the Aso- 
pus, and the great plain beyond it, which it 
proudly overlooks, and which I have no doubt it 
formerly commanded. There are no well pre- 
served remains of public edifices or walls at 
Gramathi.' Tanagra possessed a considerable 
extent of territory, and had several smaller 
towns in its dependance." Cram. 

Tanagrus, or Tanager, now Negro, a river 
of Lucaniain Italy, remarkable for its cascades, 
and the beautiful meanders of its streams, 
through a fine picturesque country. Virg. G. 
3, V. 151. 

Tanais, a river of Scythia, now the Don, 
which divides Europe from Asia, and falls into 
the Palus Maeotis, after a rapid course, and after 
it has received the additional streams of many 
small rivulets. A town at its mouth bore the 
same name. Mela, 1, c. 19. — Strab. 11 and 
16.— Curt. 6, c. 2.—lAtcan. 3, 8, &c. " The 
Don issues from the lake hoanow, and waters a 
hilly and fruitful country until it reaches Woro- 
nesch. It is enclosed on the left, from that town 
to the confluence of the Donetz, by steep banks 
of chalk, but as it proceeds in its course, it en- 
ters an immense and unvaried plain, its streams 
are not confined by rocks, nor broken by cata- 
racts. Its depth even in these plains is not less 
in winter than six or seven feet, but the water 
does not rise in summer to the height of two 
feet above its sandy bed. Navigation is thus 
prevented, and the water of the Don, like that of 
its feeders, is so bad, that the inhabitants them- 
selves can hardly drink it. Much advantage, it 
is thought, might result if the river were united 
to the Wolga iDy means of the Medweditza, or 
rather the ^Jlawla, but few boats could sail by 
such a passage from the want of water in the 
Don, and from the ditferencein the level, which 
is fifty feet higher on the side of the same river 
than on that of the Wolga. The former re- 
ceives from the Caspian steppes the ManytscA 



TA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TA 



of which the almost stagnant waters seem to 
mark the position of an ancient strait between 
the Caspian and the sea oiAzof." Malte-Brun. 
Vid. laxartes. 

Tanis, a city of Egypt, on one of the east- 
em mouths of the Nile, called thence the 
Tanitic. 

Taphiassus, a mountain of jEtolia, near the 
sea, " where Nessus was said to have died, and 
to have thus communicated a fetid odour to the 
waters which issued from it. Sir W. Gell, de- 
scribing the route from the Evenus to Naupac- 
tus, says, ' After ihe valley of Halicyrna the 
road mounts a dangerous precipice, now called 
Kakucala, the ancient mount Taphiassus, 
where there is at the base a number of springs 
of fetid water.' " Cram. 

TAPHn, ihe inhabitants of the islands called 
TaphiusBB and Echinades. 

TAPHR.E, a iovm on the Isthmus of the Tau- 
rica Chersonesus, now Precop. Mela, 2, c. 1. — 
Pli7i. 4, c. 12. 

Taphros, the strait between Corsica and Sar- 
dinia, now Bonifacio. 

Taprobana, an island in the Indian ocean, 
now called Ceylon. The Greeks only became 
acquainted with these distant regions after the 
arms of the Macedonians had established a 
Greek empire on the ruins of the Persian. This 
place was then " deemed the commencement of 
another world, inhabited by Antichthones, or 
men in a position opposite to those in the known 
hemisphere. The name of Salicc, which we 
learn from Ptolemy to be the native denomina- 
tion for this island, is preserved in that of Selen- 
dive, compounded of the proper name Selen, 
and the appellative for an island in the Indian 
language ; and it is apparent that the name of 
Ceilan, or Ceylon, according to the European 
usage, is only an alteration in orthography. The 
islands which Ptolemy places off Taprobana to 
the number of thirteen hundred and seventy, 
can be no other than the Mal-dives, although 
known to be much more numerous." D'An- 
ville. 

Tapsds, I. a maritime town of Africa. Sil. 
It. 3. II. A small and lowly situated penin- 
sula on the eastern coast of Sicilv. Virg. jEn. 
3, V. 689. 

Tarasco, a tovim of Gaul, now Taras,con in 
Provence. 

Tarbelli, a people of Gaul, at the foot of the 
Pyrenees, which from thence are sometimes 
called Tarbellce. Tibull. 1, el. 7, v. 13.— Im- 
can. 4, V. 121.— Cces. G. 3, c. 27. 

Tarentum, Tarentus, or Taras, a town of 
Apulia, situate on a bay of the same name, near 
the mouth of the river Galesus. " The Spar- 
tans, it is said, being engaged in a long and ar- 
duous war with the Messenians, whose territory 
they had invaded, began to apprehend lest their 
protracted absence should be attended with the 
failure of that increase in their population at 
home, which was so necessary to supply the 
losses produced by the lapse of time and the 
sword of the enemy. To remedy this evil, it 
was determined therefore to send to Laconia a 
select body of youths, from whom in due time 
would arise a supply of recruits for the war. 
The children, who were the fruit of the inter- 
course between these warriors and the Spartan 
maids, received the name of Parthenii ; but on 
Part L— 2 P 



their arriving at the age of manhood they found 
the Messenian war concluded, and being re- 
garded as the offspring of illicit love, and in 
other respects treated with indignity, they form- 
ed the design of subvejting the government, in 
conjimction with the Helots. The plot how- 
ever, was discovered ; but so dangerous did the 
conspiracy appear, and so formidable was their 
number, that it was thought more prudent to 
remove them out of the country by persuasion 
than to use severity or to employ force. A 
treaty was therefore agreed upon, by which the 
Parthenians bound themselves to quit Sparta 
forever, provid-ed they could acquire possessions 
in a foreign land. They accordingly sailed to 
Italy, under the conomand of Phalanthus ; and 
finding the Cretans, and, as Ephorus states, the 
Achseans, already settled in that countr)', and 
engaged in a war with the natives, they joined 
their forces to those of the Greeks, and possess- 
ed themselves of Tarentum, which Pausanias 
affirms to have been already a very considerable 
and opulent town. According to the best chro- 
nologists, these events may be supposed to have 
happened about 700 years A. C. when Numa 
Pompilius was king of Rome. Possessed of a 
noble haven place in the centre of its widely 
extended bay, and having at command those 
resources which the salubrity of climate and 
fertility of soil in every variety of production 
afforded, it seemed destined to become Jhe seat 
of commerce and wealth, if not that of empire. 
The prozimity of the ports of Istria and Illyria, 
of Greece and Sicily,favoured commercial inter- 
course, while the vessels of these several states 
were naturally induced to profit by the only 
spacious and secure haven which the eastern 
coast of Italy presented. It is probable that the 
constitution of the Tarentines, in the first in- 
stance, was modelled after that of the parent 
state ; at least Herodotus has certified^ that in 
his time they were governed by a king. Ac- 
cording to Strabo, however, that constitution 
afterwards assumed the form of a democracy, in 
consequence of a revolution which seems to have 
taken place. It was then, as Strabo adds, that 
this cit)'- reached its highest point of elevation. 
At this most prosperous period of the republic, 
which may be supposed to date about 400 XTars 
before Christ, when Rome was engaged in the 
siege of Veii, and Greece enjoyed some tran- 
quillity after the long struggle of the Pelopon- 
nesian war terminated by the fall of Athens, 
Archytas, a distinguished philosopher of the 
school of Pythagoras, and an able statesman, 
presided over her councils as strategos. Her 
navy was far superior to that of any other Ita- 
lian colony. Nor were her military establish- 
ments less formidable and efficient ; since she 
could bring into the field a force of 30.000 foot 
and 5,000 horse, exclusive of a select body of 
cavalry, called Hipparchi. The Tarentines 
were long held in great estimation as auxiliary 
troops, and were frequently emploj^ed In the 
armies of foreign princes and states. Nor was 
the cultivation of the arts and of literature for- 
gotten in this advancement of political strength 
and civilization. The Pythagorean sect, which 
in other parts of Magna Graecia had been so 
barbarously oppressed, here found encourage- 
ment and refuge through the influence of Ar- 
chytas, who was said to have entertained Plato 
297 



TA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TA 



during his residence in this city. But this 
grandeur weis not of long duration ; for wealth 
and abundance soon engendered a love of ease 
and luxury, the consequences of which proved 
fatal to the interests of Tarentuin, by sapping 
the vigour of her institutions, enervating the 
minds and corrupting the morals of her inha- 
bitants. Enfeebled and degraded by this sys- 
tem of demoralization and corruption, the Ta- 
rentines soon found themselves unable as here- 
tofore to overawe and keep in subjection the 
neighbouring barbarians of lapygia, who had 
always hated and feared, but now learned to de- 
spise them. These, leagued with the still more 
warlike Lucanians, who had already become 
the terror of Magna Graecia, now made constant 
inroads on their territory, and even threatened 
the safely of their city. But a more formidable 
enemy now appeared in the lists, to cope with 
whom singly appeared out of the question : and 
the Tarentines again had recourse in this emer- 
gency to foreign aid and counsels. The valour 
and forces of Pyrrhus for a time averted the 
storm, and checked the victorious progress of 
the Roman armies ; but when that prince with- 
drew from Italy, Tarentum could no longer 
resist her powerful enemies, and soon after fell 
into their hands ; the surrender of the town be- 
ing hastened by the treachery of the Epirot 
force which Pyrrhus had left there. The in- 
dependence of Tarentum may be said to termi- 
nate here, though the conquerors pretended 
still to recognise the liberty of her citizens. 
From this period the prosperity and political ex- 
istence of Tarentum may date its decline, which 
was further accelerated by the preference shown 
by the Romans to the port of Brundusium for 
the fitting out of their naval armaments, as well 
as for commercial purposes. The salubrity of 
its climate, the singular fertility of its territory, 
and its advantageous situation on the sea, as 
well as on the Appian Way, still rendered it, 
however, a city of consequence in the Augus- 
tan age. Strabo reports, that though a great 
portion of its extent was deserted in his time, 
the inhabited part still constituted a large town. 
That geographer describes the ' inner harbour, 
as being 100 stadia, or twelve miles and a half, 
in circuit. This port, in the part of its basin 
which recedes the furthest inland, forms, with 
the exterior sea, an isthmus connecting the 
peninsula on which the town is built with the 
land. This isthmus is so completely level, that 
it is easy to carry vessels over it from one side 
to the other. The site of the town is very 
low ; the ground rises, however, a little towards 
the citadel. The circumference of the old 
walls is great ; but a considerable portion of the 
town, seated on the isthmus, is now deserted. 
That part of it, however, situated near the mouth 
of the harbour, where the citadel stands, is yet 
occupied. It possesses a noble gymnasium, and 
a spacious forum, in which is placed a colossal 
image of Jove, yielding only in size to that of 
Rhodes. The citadel is situated between the 
forum and the entrance of the harbour.' It is 
remarked as an unusual circumstance by Poly- 
bius, that in this city the dead were buried with- 
in the walls, which custom he ascribed to a su- 
perstitious motive." Cram. Tarentum, now 
called Tarento, is inhabited by about 18,000 
souls, who still maintain the character of their 
298 



forefathers, and live chiefly by fishing. Flor. L 
c. 18.— FaZ. Max. 2, c.^ir—Plut. in Pyr.— 
Plin. 8, c. 6, 1. 15, c. 10, 1. 34, c. l.—Liv. 12, 
c. 13, &c.— MeZa, 2, c. 4.—Strad. 6.—Hprat. 1, 
ep, 7, V. ¥o.—JElian. V. H. 5, c. 20. 

TARICH.EUM, a fortified town of Judaea. Cic. 

ad Div. 12, c. 11. Several towns also on 

the coast of Egypt bore this name from their 
pickling fish. Herodot. 2, c, 15, &c. 

Tarpeius mons, a hill at Rome, about 80 feet 
in perpendicular height, from whence the Ro- 
mans threw down their condemned criminals. 
It received its name from Tarpeia, who was 
buried there, and is the same as the Capitoline 
hill. Liv. 6, c. 20. — iMcan. 7, v. 758. — Virg. 
Mn. 8, V. 347 and 652. 

TARauiNH, now Turchina, a town of Etru- 
ria, built by Tarchon, who assisted ^neas 
against Turnus. Tarquinius Priscus was born 
or educated there, and he made it a Roman 
colony when he ascended the throne. Strab. 5. 
—Plin. 2, c. 95.— Liv. 1, c. 34, 1. 27, c. 4. 

Tarracina, a town of Latium, in the court- 
try of the Volsci and the vicinity of the Pontiue 
marshes. Its early name, perhaps, when it was 
yet a Volscian town, was Anxur, and "we learn 
from Horace that this city stood on the lofty 
rock at the foot of which the modern Terra- 
cina is situated. According lo Strabo, it was 
first named Trachina, a Greek appellation in- 
dicative of the ruggedness of its situation. Ovid 
calls it Trachas. The first intimation we have 
of the existence of this city is from Polybius ; 
who, in his account of the first treaty which was 
concluded between the Romans and Carthagin- 
ians, enumerates Tarracina among the Latin 
cities in the alliance of the former. Tarracina 
subsequently became of consequence as a naval 
station ; its port is noticed by Livy, and it is 
classed by that historian with those colonies 
which were required to furnish sailors and 
stores for the Roman fleet. The garrison of 
Tarracina joined Csssar in his march to Brun- 
dusium. From Tacitus we learn that it was a 
municipium; and the efforts made by theparties 
of Vitellius and Vespasian to obtain possession 
of this town, sufficiently prove that it was then 
looked upon as a very important post. The 
poets invariably call it Anxur." Cram. 

Tarraco, now Tarragona^ a city of Spain, 
situate on the shores of the Mediterranean, 
founded by the two Scipios, who planted a Ro- 
man colony there. The province of which it 
was the capital was called Tarraconensis, and 
was famous for its wines. Hispania Tarra- 
conensis^ which was also called by the Romans 
Hispania Citerior, was bounded on the east by 
the Mediterranean, the ocean on the west, the 
Pyrenean mountains and the sea of thcCantabra 
on the north, and Lusitania and Bsetica on the 
south. Martial. 10, ep. 104, 1. 13, ep. 118.— 
Mela, 2, c. 6. Sil. 3, v. 369, 1. 15, v. 177. 

Tarraconensis, a principal provincial divi- 
sion of Hispania, after its subjugation to Rome. 
Vid. Hispania. 

Tarsids, a river of Troas. Strab. 

Tarsus, now Tarasso, a town of Cilicia, on 
the Cydnus, founded by Triptolemus and a colo- 
ny of Argives, or, as others say, by Sardanapa- 
lus, or by Perseus. Tarsus was celebrated for 
the great men it produced. It was once the rival 
of Alexandria and Athens in literature and the 



TA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TA 



study of the polite arts. The people of Tarsus 
wished to ingratiate themselves into the favour 
of J. Caesar by giving the name of Juliopolis to 
their city, but it was soon lost. Lnican. 3, v. 
2^0.— Mela, 1, c. Vi.StroJ). 14. 

Tartessus, a place in Hispania, the site of 
which is a matter of so much dispute, that it is 
not clearly known whether it was a town or a 
district. It is probable that the ports to which 
the Phoenicians first were accustomed to trade 
upon the southern coast received this name, and 
the jealous care with which they concealed the 
sources of their commercial profit, encouraged 
the discordant conjectures of those who repre- 
sented it now as an island m the farthest west, 
and now as a river, a town, and a province. Ac- 
cording to the opinion of Bossi and Depping, 
which we embrace, and which assigns to all the 
Phoenician colonies in Spain the epithet of Tar- 
tessus, we may suppose that the whole extent of 
coast from Calpe, perhaps to the mouth of the 
Anas, and each of the principal towns by which 
it was distingaished for a time, were known by 
this name so long as they were known by name 
alone. This w^ould reconcile all difierence of 
opinion, and conciliate the reasons which are 
brought to prove that the appellation of Tartes- 
sus belonged to Carteia, with those, equally 
strong, which make it clear that the island of 
Gadir and the city of Gades were frequently 
designated by that term. The Romans like- 
wise mistook it for the island of Erythea ; and 
many supposed, which is not improbable, that 
a town to which this name peculiarly belonged 
was situate upon the mouth of the Bastis, oppo- 
site the more famous city of Gades. In the time 
of Strabo it was found impossible to determine 
this point; and, if there had been once a town, 
that bore this title, to indicate its site. Mannert 
supposes that it was the same as Hispalis, the 
modern Seville. Bossi. St. Spagna. 

Taruana, a town of Gaul, now Terromn in 
Artois. 

Tarvisium, a town of Italy, now Treviso in 
the Venetian states. 

Tatta, a large lake of Phrygia, on the con- 
fines of Galatia. 

Taunus, a mountain in Germany, now Hey- 
rich or Hoche, opposite Mentz. Tacit. 1, Ann. 
c. 56. 

Taurt, a people of European Sarmatia, who 
inhabited Taurica Chersonesus, and sacrificed 
all strangers to Diana. The statue of this god- 
dess, which they believed to have fallen down 
from heaven, was carried away to Sparta by 
Iphigenia and Orestes. Strab. 12. — Herodot. 
4, c. 99. (kG.—Mela, 2, c. I.— Pans. 3, c. 16.— 
Eurip. Iphig. — Ovid, ex Pont. 1, el, 2, v. 80. 
~Sil. 14, V. 260.— Jwr. 15, v. 116. 

Taurica chersonesus. Vid. Tauri and 
Chersonesus. 

Taurini, ihe inhabitants of Taurinum, a 
town of Cisalpine Gaul, now called Turin, in 
Piedmont. Sil. 3, v. 646. " The Taurini prob- 
ably occupied both banks of the Po, but espe- 
cially the country situated bet^veen that river 
and the Alps, as far as the river Orcus, Orca, 
to the east, while the position of Fines, Avilia- 
na, given by the Itineraries, fixed their limit to 
the west. The Taurini are first mentioned in 
history as having opposed Hannibal soon after 
his descent from the Alps j and their capital, 



which Appian calls Taurasia, was taken and 
plundered by that general, after an ineffectual 
resistance of three days. As a Roman colony, 
it subsequently received the name of Augusta 
Taurinorum, which is easily recognised in that 
of Torino, the present capital of Piedmont.'" 
Cram. 

Taurominium, a town of Sicily, between. 
Messana and Catania, built by the Zancleans, 
Sicilians, and Hybleans, in the age of Diony- 
sius the tyrant of Syracuse. The hills in the 
neighbourhood were famous for the fine grapes 
which they produced, and they surpassed almost 
the whole world for the extent and beauty of 
their prospects. There is a small river near 
it called Taurominius. Diod. 16. 

Taurus, the largest mountain of Asia, as to 
extent. " The mountains of Taurus, accord- 
ing to all the descriptions of the ancients, ex- 
tended from the frontiers of India to the Mgean 
Sea. Their principal chain, as it shot out from 
mount Imaus towards the soarces of the Indus, 
winded, like an immense serpent, between the 
Caspian Sea, and the Pontus Euxinus on one 
side, and the sources of the Euphrates on the 
other. Caucasus seems to have formed part of 
this line according to Pliny ; but Strabo, who 
was better informed, traced the principal chain 
of Taurus between the basins of the Euphra- 
tes and the Auraxes, observing that a detached 
chain of Caucasus, that of the MoscUn moun- 
tains, runs in a southern direction and joins 
the Taurus. Modern accounts represent this 
junction as not very marked. Strabo, who was 
born on the spot, and who had travelled as far 
as Armenia, considers the entire centre of Asia 
Minor, together with all Armenia, Media, and 
Gordvene, or Koordistan, as a very elevated 
country, croAvned with several chains of moun- 
tains, all of which are so closely joined together 
that they may be regarded a? one. ' Armenia 
and Media,' says he, ' are situated upon Tau- 
rus.' This plateau seems also to comprehend 
Koordistan, and the branches which it sends out 
extend into Persia, as far as the great desert of 
Kerman on one side, and towards the sources 
of the GiAoTiandthe Indus on the other. By 
thus considering the vast Taurus of the ancients 
as an upland plain, and not as a chain, the tes- 
timonies of Strabo and Pliny may be reconcil- 
ed with the accounts of modern travellers. Two 
chains of mountains are detached from the pla- 
teau of Armenia to enter the peninsula of Asia; 
the one first confines and then crosses the chan- 
nel of the Euphrates near Samosata ; the other 
borders the Pontus Euxinus, leaving only nar- 
row plains between it and that sea. These two 
chains, one of which is in part the Anti-Tau- 
rus, and the other the Paryades of the ancients, 
or the mountain Tcheldir or Keldir of the mo- 
derns, are united to the west of the Euphrates, 
between the towns of Siioas, Tocat, and Kai- 
saria, by means of the chain of the Argasus, 
now named Argis-Dag, whose summit is cover- 
ed with perpetual snows, a circumstance which, 
under so low a latitude, shows an elevation of 
from 9 to 10,000 feet. The centre of Asia re- 
sembles a terrace supported on all sides by chains 
of mountains. Here we find salt marshes, and 
rivers which have no outlets. It contains a 
number of small plateaus, one of which Strabo 
has described under the name of the plam of 



TA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TE 



Bagaudcne. ' The cold there,' says he, ' pre- 
vents the fruit trees from thriving, whilst olive- 
trees grow near Sinope, which is 3000 stadia 
more to the north.' Modern travellers have also 
found very extensive elevated plains through- 
out the interior of Asia Minor, either in the 
south, towards Konieh^ or in the north, towards 
Angora. But all the borders of this plateau 
constitute so many chains of mountains, which 
sometimes encircle the plateau, and sometimes 
extend across the lower plains. The chain 
which, breaking off at once from mount Argse- 
us and from Anti-Taurus, bounds the ancient 
Cilicia to the north, is more particularly known 
by the name of Taurus, a name which in seve- 
ral languages appears to have one common root, 
and simply signilies mountain. The elevation 
of this chain must be considerable, since Cicero 
affirms that it was impassable to armies before 
the month of June on account of the snow. 
Diodorus details the frightful ravines and preci- 
pices which it is necessary to cross in going from 
Cilicia into Cappadocia. Modern travellers, 
who have crossed more to the west of the chain 
now called Ala-Dagh, represent it as similar to 
that of the Apennines and mount Hemus. It 
sends off to the west several branches, some of 
which terminate on the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean, as the Cragus, and the Masicysies of 
the ancients, in Lycia ; the others, greatly in- 
ferior in elevation, extend to the coast of the 
Archipelago, opposite the islands of Cos and 
Rhodes. To the east, mount Amanus, now 
the Almadagh, a detached branch of the Tau- 
rus, separates Cilicia from Syria, having only 
two narrow passes, the one towards the Eu- 
phrates, the other close by the sea ; the first an- 
swers to the Amanian defiles (Pylae Amanias) 
of the ancients, the other to the defiles of Sy- 
ria. The latter, with their perpendicular and 
peaked rocks, are the only ones that have been 
visited by modern travellers. Two other chains 
of mountains are sent off from the western part 
of the central plateau. The one is the Baba- 
Dagh of the moderns, which formed the T'mo- 
lus, the Messogis, and the Sipylus of the an- 
cients, and which terminates towards the isl- 
ands of Samos and Chios ; the other, extending 
in a northwest direction, presents more elevat- 
ed summits, among which are the celebrated 
Ida and Olympus (of Mysia). Lastly, the north- 
ern side of the plateau is propelled towards the 
Black Sea, and gives rise to the chain of the 
Olgassijs, now Elkas-Dagh, a chain which fills 
with its branches all the space between the San- 
garius and the Halys. The summits retain 
their snow until August. The ancients highly 
extol the marbles of Asia Minor, but from the 
Sangarins to the Halys we meet with nothing 
but granite rocks." Malte-Brun. 

Taxila, (plur.) a large country in ][ndia, be- 
tween the Indus and the Hydaspes. Strab. 15. 

Taygetus, or Taygeta, (orum,) a mountain 
of Laconia, in Peloponnesus. " It forms part 
of a lofty ridge, which traversing the whole of 
Laconia from the Arcadian frontier terminates 
in the sea at Cape Taenarum. Its elevation 
was said to be so great as to command a view 
of the whole of Peloponnesus, as may be seen 
from a fragment of the Cyprian verses preserv- 
ed by the scholiast of Pindar. This great 
mountain abounded with various kinds of beasts 
300 



for the chase, and supplied also the celebrated 
race of hounds, so much valued by the ancients 
on account of their sagacity and keenness of 
scent. It also furnished a beautiful green mar- 
ble, much esteemed by the Romans. In the 
terrible earthquake which desolated Laconia, 
before the Peloponnesian war, it is related thai 
immense masses of rock, detaching themselves 
from the mountain, caused dreadful devasta- 
tion in their fall, which is said to have been 
foretold by Anaximander of Miletus. The 
principal summit of Taygetus, named Tale- 
tum,- rose above Bryseae. It was dedicated to 
the sun, and sacrifices of horses were there of- 
fered to that planet. This point is probably the 
same now called St. Ellas. Two other parts of 
the mountain were called Evoras and Theras. 
Mr. Dodwell says, ' Taygetus runs in a direc- 
tion nearly north and south, uniting to the north 
with the chain of Lycaeum, and terminating 
its opposite point at the Tsenarian promontory. 
Its western side rises from the Messenian gulf, 
and its eastern foot bounds the level plain of 
Amyclae, from which it rises abruptly, add- 
ing considerably to its apparent height, which 
is probably inferior only to Pindus and Olym- 
pus. It is visible from Zacynthus, which, in a 
straight line, is distant from it at least eighty- 
four miles. The northern crevices are cover- 
ed with snow during the whole year. Its out- 
line, particularly as seen from the north, is of a 
more serrated form than the other Grecian 
mountains. It has five principal summits, 
whence it derives the modern name of Pente- 
dactylos.^'\ Cram. 

Teanum, a town of Campania, on the Appian 
road, at the east of the Liris, called also Sldici- 
oium, to be distinguished from another town of 
the same name at the west of Apulia, at a small 
distance from the coast of the Adriatic. The 
rights of citizenship were extended to it under 
Augustus. Cic. Cluent. 9 and 69, PJiil. 12, c. 
l\.—Horat. 1, ep. l.—Plin. 31, c. '2.—Liv. 22, 
C.27. 

Tearus, a river of Thrace, rising in the same 
rock from 38 different sources, some of which 
are hot and others cold. " At the head of this 
river, Darius, in his Scythian expedition, erect- 
ed a pillar, with an inscription pronouncing 
the waters of the Tearus to be the purest and 
best in the universe, as he himself was the fair- 
est of men." Cram. 

Teches, a mountain of Pontus, from which 
the 10,000 Greeks had first a view of the sea. 
Xenoph. Anab. 4. 

Tectosages, or Tectosag^, a people of 
Gallia Narbonensis, whose capital Avas the mo- 
dern Toulouse. They received the name of 
Tectosag33 quod sagis tegerentur. Some of them 
passed into Germany, where they settled near 
the Hercynian forest, and another colony pass- 
ed into Asia. ( Vid. Galatia.) The Tectosa- 
gse were among those Gauls who pillaged Rome 
under Brennus, and who attempted some time 
after, to plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 
At their return home from Greece they were 
visited by a pestilence, and ordered, to stop it, 
to throw "into the river all the riches and plun- 
der they had obtained in their distant excur- 
sions. Cas. Bell. G. 6. c. 23.— Strab. 4.— Cic. 
de Nat. D. 3.—Liv. 38, c. l6.—Flor. 2, c. 11.— 
Justin. 32. 



TE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TE 



Tegea, or Tegjea, now Moklia, a town of 
Arcadia in the Peloponnesus, founded by Te- 
geates, a son of Lycaon, or, according to 
others, by Altus. The gigantic bones of Ores- 
tes were found buried there, and removed to 
Sparta. Apollo and Pan were worshipped there ; 
and there also Ceres, Proserpine, and Venus, 
had each a temple. The inhabitants were call- 
ed Tegeates; and the epithet Teg<£a is given to 
Atalanta, as a native of the place. Ovid. Met. 
8, fab. l.—Fast. -6, v. b?>\.— Virg. jEn. 5, v. 
2'J'3.—Strab. 8.— Pans. 8, c. 45, &c. 

Telchines, a people of Rhodes, said to have 
been originally from Crete. They were the 
inventors of many useful arts, and, accord- 
ing to Diodorus, passed for the sons of the sea. 
They were the fii'st who raised statues to the 
gods. The Telchinians insulted Venus, for 
which the goddess inspired them with a sudden 
fury, and Jupiter destroyed them all by a del- 
uge. Diod.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 365, &c. 

TELEBOiE, or Teleboes, a people of Greece. 
" The Teleboae, or Taphii, as they are likewise 
called, are more particularly spoken of as in- 
habiting the western coast of Acarnania, the 
islands called Taphiusse, and the Echinades. 
They are generally mentioned as a maritime 
people, addicted to piracy. They were con- 
quered by Amphitryon, as the inscription re- 
corded by Herodotus attests : — 

'AjJ(piTpvo}v [X dviOriKe vewv di:d TrfKe^oauiv.^ Cram. 

Telmessus, or Telmissds, a town of Lycia, 
whose inhabitants were skilled in augury and 
the interpretation of dreams. Cic. de div. 1. — 
Strab. U.-rLiv. 37, c. 16. — -Another in Ca- 

ria. A third in Pisidia. 

Telo martius, a town at the south of Gaul, 
now Toulon. 

Temenium, a place in Argolis, where Teme- 
nus was buried. 

Temenos, a place of Syracuse, where Apollo, 
. called Temenites, had a statue. Cic. in Verr. 
4, c.53.—Suet. Tib. 74. 

Temesa, I. a town of Cyprus.-^ — II. Ano- 
ther in Calabria in Italy, famous for its mines 
of copper, which were exhausted in the age of 
Strabo. Cic. Verr. 5, c. Ib.—Liv. 34, c. 35.— 
HoTner. Od. 1, v. 184.— Ow^. Fast. 5, v. 441. 
Met. 7. V. 201.— Mela, 2, c. A.—Stra^. 6. 

Temnos, a towTi of iEolia, at the mouth of 
the Hermus. Herodot. 1, c. 49.— Cic. Flacc. 18. 
Tempe, (plur.) a valley in Thessaly, between 
mount Olympus at the north, and Ossa at the 
south, through which the river Peneus flows 
into the ^gean. " ' It is a defile,' says Livy, 
' of difficult access, even though not guarded by 
an enemy ; for, besides the narrowness of the 
pass for five miles, where there is scarcely room 
for a beast of burden, the rocks on both sides 
are so perpendicular as to cause giddiness both 
in the mind and eyes of those who look down 
the precipice. Their terror is also increased by 
the depth and roar of the Peneus rushing through 
the midst of the gorge.' ' The vale of Tempe,' 
says Mr. Hawkins, 'is generally known in Thes- 
saly by the name of Bogaz. In the middle 
ages it was called Ln/costomo. The Turkish 
word Bogaz, which signifies a pass or strait, 
is limited to that part of the course of the 
Peneus where the vale is reduced to very nar- 
row dmaensions. This part answers to our idea 



of a rocky dell, and is in length about two miles. 
The breadth of the Peneus is generally about 
fifty yards. The road through the Bogaz is 
chiefly the work of art, nature having left only 
sufficient room for the channel of the river. 
This scenery, of which every reader of classical 
literature has formed so lively a picture in his 
imagination, consists of a dell or deep glen, the 
opposite sides of which rise very steeply from 
the bed of the river. The towering height of 
these rocky and well-wooded acclivities above 
the spectator, the contrast of lines exhibited by 
their folding successively over one another, and 
the winding of the Peneus between them, pro- 
duce a very striking effect. The scenery itselt 
by no means corresponds with the idea which 
has been generally conceived of it ; and the 
eloquence of iElian has given rise to expecta- 
tions which the traveller will not find realized. 
In the fine description which that writer has 
given us of Tempe, he seems to have failed 
chiefly in the general character of its scenery, 
which is distinguished by an air of savage gran- 
deur, rather than by its beauty and amenity.' 
It may be doubted, however, whether we should 
not consider the vale of Tempe as distinct from 
the narrow defile which the Peneus traverses be- 
tween mount Olympus and mount Ossa, near its 
entrance into the sea. ' After riding nearly an 
hour close to the bay in which the Peneus dis- 
charges itself, we turned,' says Professor Palm- 
er, ' south, through a delightful plain, which after 
a quarter of an hour brought us to an opening, 
between Ossa and Olympus ; the entrance to a 
vale, which, in situation, extent, and beauty, 
amply satisfies whatever the poets have said of 
Tempe. The country being serene, we were able 
to view the scene from various situations. The 
best view is from a small hill, about one mile 
south from the chasm. Looking east, you have 
then Ossa on your right hand : on your left, a 
circling ridge of Olympus, clothed with wood 
and rich herbage, terminates in several eleva- 
tions, which diminish as they approach the 
opening before mentioned. In the front is the 
vale, intersected by the Peneus, and adorned 
with a profusion of beauties, so concentrated as 
to present under one view a scene of incompa- 
rable effect. The length of the vale, measured 
from the station to the opening by which we 
entered, I estimate at three miles ; its greatest 
breadth at two miles and a half It appears 
to have been a generally received notion among 
the ancients, that the gorge of Tempe was 
caused by some great convulsion in nature, 
which, bursting asunder the great mountain- 
barrier by which the waters of Thessaly were 
pent up, afforded them an egress to the sea ; 
' This important pass,' says the historian, ' was 
guarded by four different fortresses. The first 
was Gonnus, placed at the very entrance of the 
defile. The next Condylon, which was deemed 
impregnable. The third, named Charax, stood 
near the town of Lapathus. The fourth was 
in the midst of the route, where the gorge is 
narrowest, and could easily be defended by ten 
armed men.' These strong posts were unac- 
countably abandoned by Perseus, after the Ro- 
mans had penetrated into Pieriaby a pass ui the 
chain of Olympus." Cram. 

Tenedos, a small and fertile island of the 
^gean Sea, opposite Troy, at the distance of 
301 



TE 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TH 



about 12 miles from Sigasum, and 56 miles north 
from Lesbos. It was anciently called Leuco- 
phrys. It became famous during the Trojan 
war, as it was there that the Greeks concealed 
themselves the more effectually to make the 
Trojans believe that they were returned home 
without finishing the siege. Homer. Od. 3, v. 
b^.—Diod. b.—Strab. li.— Virg. ^n. 2, v. 21. 
— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 540, 1. 12, v. 109.— Mela, 2, 
C.7. 

Tenos, a small island in the JEgean, near 
Andros, called OpMussa, and also Hydrussa, 
from the number of its fountains. It was very 
mountainous, but it produced excellent wines, 
universally esteemed by the ancients. Tenos 
was about 15 miles in extent. The capital was 
also called Tenos. Strab. 10. — Mela, 2, c. 7. 
-Ovid. Met. 7, v. 469. 

Tbntyra, (plur.) and Tentyris, a town of 
Egypt, on the Nile, considerably south of 
Thebes. " It is a place of little consequence in 
itself, but travellers visit it with great interest on 
account of a great quantity of magnificent ruins 
found three miles to the west of it. Bruce, 
Norden, and Savary, agree in identifying it with 
the modern Bender ah. The remains of three 
temples still exist. The largest is in a singu- 
larly good state of preservation, and the enor- 
mous masses of stone employed in it, are so dis- 
posed as to exhibit every where the most just 
proportions. It is the first and most magni- 
ficent Egyptian temple to be seen in ascending 
the Nile, and is considered by Mr. Belzoni as of 
a much later date than any of the others. From 
the superiority of the workmanship, he inclines 
to attribute it to the first Ptolemy, the same 
who laid the foundation of the Alexandrian 
library, and instituted the philosophical so- 
ciety of the Museum. As for the 2odiacs or ce- 
lestial planispheres found here, and their high 
antiquity so much boasted, an able antiquary 
has shown that they could not have been 
prior to the conquest of Alexander," Malte- 
Brun. '-' ' 

,Tentyra, {melius Tempyra), a place of 
Thrace, opposite Samothrace. Ovid. Trist. I, 
el. 9, V. 21. 

Teos, or Teios, now Sigagik, a maritime 
town on the coast of Ionia in Asia Minor, oppo- 
site Samos. It was one of the 12 cities of the 
Ionian confederacy, and gave birth to Anacreon 
and Hecatgeus, who is by some deemed a native 
of Miletus. According to Pliny, Teos was an 
island. Stral). H.—Mela, 1, c. ll.—Paus. 7, 
c. 3.—JElian. V. H. 8, c. b.-Horat. 1. Od. 17, 
V. 18. 

Tarentus, a place in the Campus Martius, 
near the capitol, where the infernal deities had 
an altar. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 504. 

Tergeste, and Tergestum, now Ti-ieste, 
a town of Venetia, belonging to the Carni, on 
the bay called from this town the Sinus Terges- 
ticus. Paterc. 2, c. 110.— PZm. 3, c. 18. 

Terioli, a small town of Rhoetia, in the 
valley of Venosca, towards the springs of the 
Adige in Tyrol, which derives its name from 
this inconsiderable place. 

Terracina. Vid. Tarracina. 

Tetrapolis, a name given to the city of 
Antioch, the capital of Syria, because it was di- 
vided into four separate districts, each of which 
resembled a city. Some apply the word to 
3p2 



Seleucis, which contained the four large cities 
of Antioch near Daphne, Laodicea, Apamea, 

and Seleucia in Pieria.- The name of four 

towns in the north of Attica. Strab. Vid. Do- 
ris. 

Tetrica, a mountain of the Sabines, near the 
river Fabaris, It was very rugged and diflicult 
of access, whence the epithet Tetricus was ap- 
plied to persons of a morose and melancholy 
disposition. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 713. 

Teucri, a name given to the Trojans, from 
Teucer their king. The Teucri appear to 
have been of the earliest race of Phrygians, who 
were all, as is most probable, of Thracian origin; 
nor was the connexion perhaps entirely lost at 
the era of the Trojan war. But if the Asiatics 
received from Thrace an early colony, we have 
reason to believe that they soon repaid the debt, 
and that the Teucri from the Troad extended 
themselves widely over the countries of Thrace, 
occasioning the most radical changes, and es- 
tablishing the most enduring characteristics 
among the people with whom they were iden- 
tified. Virg. JSn. I, v. 42 and 239. 

Teucteri, a people of Germany, at the east 
of the Rhine. To.cit. de Germ. c. 22. 

Teumessus, a mountain of Boeotia, with a 
village of the same name, where Hercules, 
when young, killed an enormous lion. Stat. 
Theb. 1. V. 331. 

Teutoburgiensis saltus, a forest of Ger- 
many, between the Ems and Li'ppa,yfh&xe Va- 
rus and his legions were cut to pieces. Tacit. 
An. 1, c. 60. 

Teutoni, and Teutones, a people of Ger- 
many, who with the Cimbri made incursions 
upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. 
They were at last defeated by the consul Ma- 
rius, aud an infinite number, made prisoners. 
Vid. Cimbri. Cic. pro Manil. Flor. 3, c. 3. — • 
Phut, in Mar. — Martial. 14, ep. 26. Plin. 4, c, 
14. In the limited sense of a tribe or a nation, 
the Teutones may be described as above ; but 
as one of the great original stocks from which 
springs the population of Europe, they claim an 
extent of country overspreading a large portion 
of Germany in the widest extent to which that 
name has ever been applied, while they stretch 
beyond the era of history in their influence 
on the formation of nations and of languages. 
Vid. Europa. 

Thalame, a town of Messenia, famous for a 
temple and oracle of Pasiphae. Plut. in Agid. 

Thapsacus, a city on the Euphrates. 

Thapsus, I. a town of Africa Propria, where 
Scipio and Juba were defeated by Csesar. Sil. 

3, V. 2&\.—Liv. 29, c. 30, 1, 33, c. 48. II. A 

town at the north of Syracuse in Sicily. 

Thasos, or Thasus, a small island in the 
jEgean, on the coast of Thrace, opposite the 
mouth of the Nestus, anciently known by the 
name of JEria, Odonis, JEthria, Acte, Ogygia, 
Ch'-yse, and Cerms. It received that of Tha- 
sos from Thasus the son of Agenor, who settled 
there when he despaired of finding his sister 
Europa. It was about 40 miles in circumfer- 
ence, and so uncommonly fruitful, that the fer- 
tility of Thasos became proverbial. Its wine 
was universally esteemed, and its marble quar- 
ries were also in great repute, as well as its 
mines of gold and silver. The capital of the 
island was also called Thasos. Liv. 33, c. 30. 



TH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TH 



and 55. — Herodot. % c. 44. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — 
Pans. 5, c. 25.— JElian. V. H. 4, &c.— Virg. 
G. 2, V. 91.— C. iVei?. Cm. 2. 

Thauauci, a town of Thessaly, on the Ma- 
liac gulf. Liv. 32, c. 4. 

Theb^, {arum,) I. a celebrated city, the capi- 
tal of Boeotia, situate on the banks of the river 
Ismenus. " It was one of the most ancient 
and celebrated of the Grecian cities, and capital 
of Boeotia, and it is said to have been originally 
founded by Cadmus, who gave it the name of 
Cadmeia, which in aftertimes was confined to 
the citadel only. L3''cophron, however, who 
terms it the city of Calydnus, from one of its an- 
cient kings, lead us to suppose that it already 
existed before the time of Cadmus. Nonnus 
affirms that Cadmus called his city Thebes af- 
ter the Egj^ptian town of the same name. He 
also reports that it was at first destitute of walls 
and ramparts, and this is in unison with the 
account transmitted to us by Homer and other 
writers, who all agree in ascribmg the erection 
of the walls of the city to Amphion and Zethus. 
Besieged by the Argive chiefs, the allies of Po- 
lynices, the Thebans successfully resisted their 
attacks, and finally obtained a signal victory; 
but the Epigoni, or descendants of the seven 
warriors, having raised an army to avenge the 
defeat and death of their fathers, the city was 
on this occasion taken by assault, and sacked. 
It was invested a third time by the Grecian 
army under Pausanias after the battle of Platsea ; 
but on the surrender of those w-ho had proved 
themselves most zealous partisans of the Per- 
sians, the siege was raised, and the confederates 
withdrew from the Theban territory. Many 
years after, the Cadmeia was surprised, and 
held by a division of Lacedaemonian troops, 
until they were compelled to evacuate the place 
by Pelopidas and his associates. Philip, hav- 
ing defeated the Thebans at Chsronea, placed 
a garrison in their citadel ; but on the accession 
of Alexander they revolted against that prince, 
who stormed their city, and razed it to the 
ground, in the second year of the 111th Olym- 
piad, or 335 B. C. Twenty years afterwards 
it was restored by Cassander, when the Athe- 
nians are said to have generously contributed 
their aid in rebuilding the walls, an example 
which was followed by other towns. Dicsear- 
chus hgLS given us a very detailed and interest- 
ing account of the flourishing state of this great 
city about this period. ' Thebes,' says he, ' is 
situated in the centre of Boeotia, and is about 
seventy stadia in circuit ; its shape is nearly cir- 
cular, and its appearance somewhat gloomy. 
This city is of great antiquity ; but it has been 
lately reconstructed, and the streets laid out 
afresh, having been three times overthrown, as 
history relates, on account of the pride and stub- 
bornness of its inhabitants. It possesses great 
advantages for the breeding of horses, since it is 
plentifully provided with water, and abounds in 
green pastures and hills; it contains also better 
gardens than any other city of Greece. Two 
rivers flow through the town, and irrie^ate the 
"whole surrounding plain. Water is also con- 
veyed by pipes, said to be the work of Cadmus, 
from the Cadmeian citadel. Such is the city. 
The inhabitants are noble-minded and wonder- 
fully sanguine in all the concerns of life ; but 
tbey are bold, insolent, proud, and hasty in com- 



ing to blows, either with foreigners or their fel- 
low-townsmen. They turn their backs upon 
every thing which is connected with justice, and 
never think of settling disputes, which may 
arise in the business of lite, by argument, but 
by audaciousness and violence. If any injury 
has been sustained by athletes in the games, 
they put oif any inquiry into the business until 
the regular time of their trials, which occurs 
only every thirty years at most. If any one was 
tD make public mention of such a circumstance, 
and did not immediately afterwards take his de- 
parture, but were to remain the .shortest space 
of time in the city, those who opposed the trial 
would soon find means of assailing him at night, 
and despatching him by violent means. As- 
sassinations indeed take place amongst them on 
the least pretence. Such is the general charac- 
ter of the Theban people. There are, however, 
amongst them worthy and high-minded men, 
who deserve the warmest regard. The women 
are the handsomest and most elegant of all 
Greece, from the stateliness of their forms and 
the graceful air with whieh they move. That 
part of their apparel which covers the head ap- 
pears to hide the face as a mask, for the eyes on- 
ly are visible, and the rest of the countenance is 
entirely concealed by the veil, which is always 
white. Their hair is fair, and tied on the top of 
the head. They wear a sandal, called by the 
natives lampadium ; it is a light shoe, not deep, 
but low, and of a purple colour, and fastened 
with thongs, so that the feet appear almost na- 
ked. In society they resemble more the women 
of Sicyon than what you would expect of those 
of Boeotia. The sound of their voice is extreme- 
ly soft and pleasing to the ear, whilst that of the 
men is harsh and grating. Thebes is a most 
agreeable city to pass the summer in, for it has 
abundance of water, and that very cool and 
fresh, and large gardens. It is besides well situ- 
ated with respect to the w^inds ; has a most ver- 
dant appearance, and abounds in summer and 
autumnal fruits. In the winter, however, it is 
a most disagreeable place to live in, from being 
destitute of fuel, and constantly exposed to 
floods and winds. It is also then much visited 
by snow, and Yevy muddy. The population of 
the city may have been between 50 and 60,000 
souls. At a later period Thebes was greatly 
reduced and empoverished by the rapacious 
Sylla. Strabo affirms, that in his time it was 
little more than a village. When Pausanias 
visited Thebes, the lower part of the town was 
destroyed, with the exception of the temples, 
the acropolis being alone inhabited. The walls 
however remained standing, as well as the seven 
gates, which were the Electrides, Prostides, 
Neitides, Crensege, Hypsistge, Ogygise, and Ho- 
moloides. Apollodorus, instead of the Neitides, 
names the Oncaides, but .^schylus has both 
the Neitides and Oncaides. The latter are 
therefore more probably the Og}'gi3e. Those 
which he calls Boreee, or the northern gates, are 
probably the same as the Homoloian, which led 
towards Thessaly, and took their name from 
mount Homole in that country. The Elec- 
trides looked towards Platoea, the Neitides to 
Thespiae, and the Praetides to Euboea. Near 
the Homoloian gates was a hill and temple con- 
secrated to Apollo Ismenius, and noticed by 
several writers. Thebes, though n early desert- 
303 



TH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TH 



ed towards the decline of the Roman empire, 
appears to have been of some note in the middle 
ages, and it is still one of the most populous 
towns of northern Greece. The natives call it 
Thiva. ' It retains, however,' as Dodwell as- 
sures us, 'scarcely any traces of its former mag- 
nificence, for the sacred and public edifices, 
mentioned by Pausanias and others, have disap- 
peared. Of the walls of the Cadmeia, a few frag- 
ments remain, which are regularly constructed. 
These were probably erected by the Athenians 
when Cassander restored the town.' " Cram. 

II. A town at the south of Troas, built by 

Hercules, and also called Placia and Hypopla- 
cia. It fell into the hands of the Cilicians, who 
occupied it during the Trojan war. Curt. 3, c. 
4:.—Liv. 37, c. 19.—Strab. 11. III. An an- 
cient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, call- 
ed also Hecaiompylos^ on account of its hundred 
gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. 
In the time of its splendour it extended above 23 
miles, and upon any emergency could send into 
the field by each of its hundred gates 20,000 
fighting men and 200 chariots. " The an- 
cient city extended from the ridge of mountains 
which skirl the Arabian desert to the similar 
elevation which bounds the valley of the Nile on 
the west, being in circumference not less than 
twenty-seven miles. The grandeur of Thebes 
must now be traced in four small towns or ham- 
lets, — Luxor, Karnac, Medinet Abou, and Gor- 
noo. In approaching the temple of lAixor from 
the north, the first object is a magnificent gate- 
way, which is two hundred feet in length, and 
the top of it fifty-seven feet above the present 
level of the soil. Karnac, which is about a mile 
and a half lower down, is regarded as the prin- 
cipal site of Diospolis, the portion of the ancient 
capital which remained most entire in the days 
of Sirabo. The temple at the latter place has 
been pronounced, in respect to its magnitude 
and the beauty of its several parts, as unique in 
the whole world. But iMxor and Karnac rep- 
resent only one half of ancient Thebes. On 
the western side of the river there are several 
structures, which, although they may be less 
extensive, are equal, if not superior, in their 
style of architecture. The Memnonium, the 
ruins of which give a melancholy celebrity to 
northern Dair, is perhaps one of the most an- 
cient in Thebes. There is a circumstance men- 
tioned by a recent visiter, which is too important 
to be overlooked in detailing the unrivalled 
grandeur of ancient Thebes. The temple at 
Medinet Abou was so placed as to be exactly 
opposite to that of Lmxot, on the other side of 
the Nile; while the magnificent structure at 
Karnac was fronted by the Memnonium or 
temple of Dair. Julia Romilla, Cecilia Tre- 
boulla, Pulitha Balbima, and many others, at- 
test that they heard the voice of the Memnon, 
when along with the emperor Hadrian and his 
royal consort Sabina, whom they seem to have 
accompanied in their tour throughout the coun- 
try'. One person writes, — I hear (audio) the 
Memnon ; and another person, — I hear the 
Memnon sitting in Thebes opposite to Diospo- 
lis. The neighbourhood of Thebes presents 
another subject worthy of attention, and quite 
characteristic of an Egyptian capital, — the Ne- 
cropolis, or City of the Dead. The mountains 
on the western side of Thebes have been nearly 
304 



hollowed out, in order to supply tombs for the 
inhabitants; while an adjoining valley, re- 
markable for its solitary and gloomy aspect, 
appears to have been selected by persons of 
rank, as the receptacle of their mortal remains. 
Every traveller, from Bruce down to the latest 
tourist who has trodden in his steps, luxuriates 
in tlie description of Gornoo, with its excavated 
mountains, and dwells with minute anxiety on 
the ornaments which at once decorate the si;- 
perb mausoleums of the Beban el Melouk, and 
record the early progress of Egyptian science." 
Russell's Egypt. 

Thebais, a coimtry in the southern parts of 
Egypt, of which Thebes was the capital. This 
was one of the three great divisions of Egypt. 
Vid. JEgyplus. 

Themisgyra, a town of Cappadocia, at the 
mouth of the Thermodon, belonging to the 
Amazons. The territories round it bore the 
same name. 

Theodonis, a town of Germany, now Thion- 
ville, on the Moselle. 

Theodosia, now Caffa, a town in the Cim- 
merian Bosphorus. Mela, 2, c. 1. 

Theodosiopolis, I. a town of Armenia, built 
by Theodosius, &c. II. Another in Meso- 
potamia. Vid. Rescena. 

Theopolis, a name given to Antioch, be- 
cause Christians first received their name there. 

Thera, I. one of the Sporades in the jEgean 
Sea, anciently called Callista, now Santorin. It 
was called Thera by Theras, the son of Aute- 
sion, who settled there with a colony from La- 
cedaemon. Paus. 3, c. 1. — Herodot.4. — Strab. 8. 
•11. A town of Caria. 



Therapne, or Terapnb, a town of Laconia, 
at the west of the Eurotas, where Apollo had a 
temple called Phoebeum. It was at a very short 
distance from Lacedaemon, and indeed some au- 
thors have confounded it with the capital of La- 
conia. It received its name from Therapne, a 
daughter of Lelex. Castor and Pollux were 
born there, and on that account they are some- 
times called Tkerapncaifratres. Paus. 3, c. 14. 
— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 223.— Sil. 6, v. 203, 1. 8, v. 
414, 1. 13, V. i3.—Liv. 2, c. 16.—Dionys. Hal. 
2, c. 4:9.— Stat. 7, Theb. v. 793. 

Therma. Vid. Thessalonica. The bay in 
the neighbourhood of Therma is called Ther- 
mccus, or Thermaicus Sinus, and advances far in- 
to the country, so much so that Pliny has named 
it Macedonicus Sinus, by way of eminence, to 
intimate its extent. Strab. — Tacit. Ann. 5, c. 
10.— Herodot. 

Therms, (baths,) I. a town of Sicily, where 

were the baths of Selinus, now Sciacca. II. 

Another, near Panormus, now Thermini. Sil. 
14, V. 23.— Cic. Verr. 2, c. 35. 

Thermodon, now Termali, a famous river of 
Cappadocia, in the ancient country of the Ama- 
zons, falling into the Euxine Sea near Themis- 

cyra. There was also a small river of the 

same name in Boeotia, near Tanagra, which 
was afterwards called Hcemon. Strab. 11. — 
Herodot. 9, c. 21.— Mela, 1, c. 19.— Paus. 1, c. 
1, 1. 9, c. \9.—Plut. in Dem.— Virg. Mn. 11, v. 
%m.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 249, &c. 

Thermopyl;e, a small pass leading from 
Thessaly into Locris and Phocis. It has a large 
ridge of mountains on the west, and the sea on 
the east, with deep and dangerous marshes, be- 



TH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TH 



ing in the narrowest part only 25 feet in breadth. 
Thermopylse receives its name from the hotbaths 
which are in the neighbourhood. It is celebra- 
ted for a battle which was fought there B. C. 
480, on the 7ih of August, between Xerxes and 
the Greeks, in which 300 Spartans resisted for 
three successive days repeatedly the attacks of 
the most brave and courageous of the Persian 
army, which, according to some historians, 
amounted to five millions. There was also an- 
other battle fought there between the Romans 
and Antiochus king of Syria. " To the west 
of Thermopylae," says Herodotus, " is a lofty 
mountain, so steep as to be inaccessible. To 
the east are the sea and some marshes. In this 
defile is a warm spring, called Chytri by the in- 
habitants, where stands an altar dedicated to 
Hercules. A wall has been constructed by the 
Phocians to defend the pass against the Thes- 
salians, who came from Thesprotia to take pos- 
session of Thessaly, then named ^Eolis. Near 
Trachis the defile is not broader than half a 
plethrum, or fifty feet ; but it is narrower still, 
both before and after Thermopylae, at the river 
Phoenix, near Anthele, and at the village of 
Alpeni." Herodot. 7, c. 176, &.c.—Strab. 9.— 
Liv. 3G, c. 15.— Mela, 2, c. 3.—Plut. in Cat., 
&c. — Pans. 7, c. 15. 

Thermos, a town of iEtolia, the capital of 
the country. 

THESPiiE, now Neocorio, a towTi of Bceotia, 
" forty Stadia from Ascra, and near the foot of 
Helicon, looking towards the south and the 
Crissaean gulf Its antiquity is attested by Ho- 
mer, who names it in the catalogue of Boeotian 
towns. The Thespians are worthy of a place 
in history for their brave and generous conduct 
during the Persian war. When the rest of 
Boeotia basely submitted to Xerxes, they alone 
refused to tender earth and water to his depu- 
ties. The troops also under Leonidas, whond 
they sent to aixi the Spartans at Thermopylae, 
chose rather to die at their post than desert their 
commander and his heroic followers. Their 
city was in consequence burnt by the Persians 
after it had been evacuated by the inhabitants, 
who retired to the Peloponnesus. Strabo re- 
ports that Thespiae was one of the few Boeotian 
towns of note in his time. It is now pretty 
well ascertained by the researches of recent 
travellers that the ruins of Thespiae are occu- 
pied by the modern Eremo Castro. Sir W. Gell 
remarks, that the ' plan of the city is distinctly 
visible. It seems a regular hexagon, and the 
mound occasioned by the fall of the wall, is per- 
fect. A great part of the plan might possibly 
be discovered.' Dodwell says, ' the walls, which 
are almost entirely ruined, enclose a small cir- 
cular space, a little elevaied above the plain, 
which probably comprehended the acropolis. 
There are the remains of some temples in the 
plain: their- site is marked by some churches 
that are composed of ancient fragments,'" 
Cram. 

Thesprotia, a country of Epirus. It is wa- 
tered by the rivers Acheron and Cocj^tus, 
which the poets, after Homer, have called the 
streams of hell. " It were needless to attempt 
to define the limits of ancient Thesprotia ; we 
must therefore be content with ascertaining that 
it was mainly situated between the river Thy- 
amis and Acheron, distinguished in modem ge- 
Part I.— 2 Q 



ography by the names of Calama and Souli ; 
while inland it extended beyond the source of 
the former to the banks of the Aous. Of all 
the Epirotic nations, that of the Thesproti may 
be considered as the most ancient. I'his is evi- 
dent from the circumstance of their being alone 
noticed by Homer, while he omits all mention 
of the Molossians and Chaonians, Herodotus 
also afiirms that they were the parent stock from 
whence descended the Thessalians, who ex- 
pelled the jiEolians from the country afterwards 
known by the name of Thessaly. Thesprotia 
indeed appears to have been, in remote times, 
the great seat of the Pelasgic nation, whence 
they disseminated themselves over several parts 
of Greece, and sent colonies to Italy. Even 
after the Pelasgic name had become extinct in 
these two countries, the oracle and temple of 
Dodona, which they had established in Thes- 
protia, still remained to attest their former ex- 
istence in that district. We must infer from the 
passage of Homer above cited, that the govern- 
ment of Thesprotia was at first monarchical. 
How long this continued is not apparent. Some 
change must have taken place prior to the time 
of Thucydides, who assures us that neither the 
Thesproti nor the Chaones were subject to 
kings. Subsequently we may, however, sup- 
pose them to have been included under the do- 
minion of the Molossian princes." Cram. — 
Homer. Od. 14, v. Zlb.—Strab. 7, &c.—Paus. 
1, c. ll.—Lucan. 3, v. 179. 

Thessalia, a country of Greece, whose boun- 
daries have been different at different periods. 
Properly speaking, " it bordered towards the 
north on Macedonia, from which it was sepa- 
rated by the Cambunian chain, extending from 
Pindus to mount Olympus. This latter moun- 
tain served to divide the northeastern angle of 
that province from Pieria, which, as was observ- 
ed in the former section, formed the extremity' 
of Macedonia to the southeast, and was parted 
from Thessaly by the mouth of the Peneus, 
The chain of Pindus formed the great western 
barrier of Thessaly towards Epirus, Athama- 
nia, and Aperantia. On the south, mount (Eta 
served to separate the Thessalian Dolopes and 
uEnianes from the northern districts of iEtolia, 
as far as the straits of Thermopylae and the 
borders of Locris. The eastern side was clos- 
ed by the JEgean Sea, from the mouth of the 
Peneus to the southern shore of the Maliac 
gulf Early traditions, preserved by the Greek 
poets and other writers, ascribe to Thessaly the 
more ancient names of Pyrrha, ^monia, and 
tEoUs ; the latter referring to that remote pe- 
riod when the plains of Thessaly were occupied 
by the iEolian Pelasgi. This people originally 
came, as Herodotus informs us, from Thespro- 
tia, but how long they remained in possession 
of the country, and at what precise period it 
assumed the name of Thessaly, cannot perhaps 
now be determined. In the poems of Homer it 
never occurs, although the several principalities 
and kingdoms of which it was composed are 
there distinctly enumerated and described, to- 
gether with the different chiefs to whom they 
were subject : thus Hellas and Phthia are as- 
signed to Achilles ; the Melian and Pagasaean 
territories to Protesilaus and Eumelus ; Mag- 
nesia to Philoctetes and Eurypylus ; Estiaeotig 
and Pelasgia to Medon, and the sons of JEscu- 
305 



TH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TH 



lapius, with other petty leaders. It is from Ho- 
mer therefore that we derive the earliest infor- 
mation relative to the history of this fairest por- 
tion of Greece. This state of things, however, 
was not of long continuance ; and anew consti- 
tution, dating probably from the period of the 
Trojan expedition, seems to have been adopted 
by the common consent of the Thessalian states. 
They agreed to unite themselves into one con- 
federate body, under the direction of a supreme 
magistrate, or chief, distinguished by the title of 
Tagus, {raydi) and elected by the consent of the 
whole republic. The details of this federal sys- 
tem are little known ; but Strabo assures us that 
the Thessalian confederacy was the most con- 
siderable as well as the earliest society of the 
kind established in Greece. How far its consti- 
tution was connected with the celebrated Am- 
phictyonic council it seems impossible to deter- 
mine, since we are so little acquainted with the 
origin and history of that ancient assembly. 
There can be little doubt, however, that this 
singular coalition, which embraced matters of a 
political as well as religious nature, first arose 
among the states of Thessaly, as we find that 
the majority of the nations who had votes in the 
council were either actuallyThessalians, or con- 
nected in some way with that part of Greece, 
while Sparta was struggling to make head 
against the formidable coalition, of which Boeo- 
tiahad taken the lead, Thessaly was acquiring 
a degree of importance and weight among the 
states of Greece, which it had never possessed 
in any former period of its history. This was 
eifected, apparently, solely by the energy and 
ability of Jason, who, from being chief or tyrant 
of Pherae, had risen to the rank of Tagos, or 
commander of the Thessalian states. By his 
influence and talents the confederacy received 
the accession of several important cities ; and 
an imposing military force, amounting to eight 
thousand cavalry, more than twenty thousand 
heavy armed infantry, and light troops sufficient 
to oppose the world, had been raised and fitted 
by him for the service of the commonwealth. 
His other resources being equally effective, 
Thessaly seemed destined, under his direction 
to become the leading power of Greece. This 
brilliant period of political influence and power 
was, however, of short duration, as Jason, not 
long after, losr his life by the hand of an assas- 
sin during the celebration of some games he 
had instituted; and Thessaly, on his death, 
relapsed into that state of weakiiess and insig- 
nificance from which it had so lately emerged. 
On the death of Philip, the state of Thessaly, 
in order to testify their veneration for his me- 
mory, issued a decree, by which they confirmed 
to his son Alexander the supreme station which 
he had held in their councils. Thessaly was 
preserved to the Macedonian crown, until the 
reign of Philip, son of Demetrius, from whom 
it was wrested by the Romans after the victory 
of Cynoscephalae. It was then declared free 
by a decree of the senate and people, but from 
that time it may be fairly considered as having 
passed under the dominion of Rome, though its 
possession was still disputed by Antiochus, and 
again by Perseus the son of Philip. Thessaly 
was already a Roman province, when the fate 
of the empire of the universe was decided in 
the plains of Pharsalus. With the exception, 
306 



perhaps, of Boeotia, this seems to have been the 
most fertile and productive part of Greece, in 
wine, oil, and corn, but more especially the lat- 
ter, of which it exported a considerable quantity 
to foreign countries." Cram. The mountains 
of Pindus, Olympus, Ossa, and Pelion, and the 
river Peneus, distinguish this part of Greece 
no less geographically than by the poetic 
and classic recollections connected with those 
names." Cram. 

Tessaliotis, a part of Thessaly, at the south 
of the river Peneus. 

Thessalonica, a town of Macedonia, east of 
the mouth of the Axius, on the Thermaic gulf. 
It was " at first an inconsiderable place under 
the name of Therme, by which it was known in 
the time of Herodotus, Thucydides, ^schines, 
and Scylax. The latter speaks also of the 
Thermaean gulf. Cassander changed the name 
of Therme to Thessalonica in honour of his 
wife, who was daughter of Philip. But Steph. 
Byz. asserts that the former name of Thessa- 
lonica was Halia. It surrendered to the Ro- 
mans after the battle of Pydna, and was made 
the capital of the se.cond region of Macedonia. 
Situated on the great Egnatian Way, two hun- 
dred and twenty-seven miles from D'yrrhachi- 
um, and possessed of an excellent harbour well 
placed for commercial intercourse with the Hel- 
lespont and Asia Minor, it could not fail of be- 
coming a very populous and flourishing city. 
The Christian will dwell with peculiar interest 
on the circumstances which connect the history 
of Thessalonica with the name of St. Paul. 
Pliny describes Thessalonica as a free city, and 
Lucian as the largest of the Macedonian towns. 
Later historians name it as the residence and 
capital of the praefect of Illyricum." Cram. 

Thestia, a town of iEtolia, between the 
Evenus and Achelous. Polyb. 5. 

Thirmida, a town of Numidia, where Hiemp- 
sal was slain. Sal. Jug. 2. 

Thorax, a mountain nearMagnesia in Ionia, 
where the grammarian Daphitas was suspended 
on a cross for his abusive language against kings 
and absolute princes, whence the proverb cave 
a Thorace. Strab. 14. 

Thornax, a mountain of Argolis. It received 
its name from Thornax, a nymph who became 
mother of Buphagus, by Japetus, The moun- 
tain was afterwards called Coccygia, because 
Jupiter changed himself there into a cuckoo. 
Pans. 8, c. 27. 

Thraces, the inhabitants of Thrace. Vid. 
Thracia. 

Thracia. " The ancients appear to have 
comprehended under the name of Thrace all 
that large tract of country which lay between 
the Strymon and the Danube from west to east, 
and between the chain of mount Hsemus and 
the shores of the JEgean, Propontis, and Eux- 
ine, from north to south. That the Thracians, 
however, were at one period much more widely 
disseminated than the confines here assigned to 
them would lead us to infer, is evident from the 
facts recorded in the earliest annals of Grecian 
history relative to their migrations to the south- 
ern provinces of that country. We have the 
authority of Thucydides for their establishment 
in Phocis. Strabo certifies their occupation of 
Boeotia. And numerous writers attest their set- 
tlement in Eleusis of Attica under Eumolpus, 



TH 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TH 



whose early wars with Erechtheus are related 
by Thucydides. Nor were their colonies con- 
fined to the European continent alone ; for, al- 
lured by the richness and beauty of the Asiatic 
soil and clime, they crossed in numerous bodies 
the narrow strait which parted them from Asia 
Minor, and occupied the shores of Bithynia, and 
the fertile plains of Mysia, and Phrygia. On 
the other hemd, a great revolution seems to 
have been subsequently effected in Thrace by a 
vast migration of the Teucri and Mysi from the 
opposite shores of the Euxine and Propontis, 
who, as Herodotus asserts, conquered the whole 
of Thrace, and penetrated as far as the Adriatic 
to the west, and to the river Peneus towards 
the south, before the Trojan war. The state 
of civilization to which the Thracians had at- 
tained at a very early period is the more remark- 
able, as all trace of it was lost in afterages. 
Linus and Orpheus were justly held to be the 
fathers of Grecian poetry ; and the names of 
Libethra, Pimplea, and Pieria remained to at- 
test the abode of the Pierian Thracians in the 
vales of Helicon. Eumolpus is stated to have 
founded the Mysteries of Eleusis ; the origin of 
which is probably coeval with that of the Cory- 
bantes of Phrygia and the Cabiric rites of Sa- 
mothrace, countries alike occupied by colonies 
from Thrace. Whence and at what period 
the name of Thracians was first applied to the 
numerous hordes which inhabited this portion 
of the European continent, is left open to con- 
jecture. Herodotus afiirms. that the Thracians 
were, next to the Indians, the most numerous 
and powerful people of the world ; and that if 
all the tribes had been united under one monarch 
or under the same government, they would have 
been invincible ; but from their subdivision into 
petty clans, distinct from each other, they were 
rendered insignificant. They are said by the 
same historian to have been first subjugated by 
Sesostris, and, after the lapse of many centuries, 
they were reduced under the subjection of the 
Persian monarch by Megabazus, general of Da- 
rius. But on the failure of the several expedi- 
lions undertaken by that sovereign and his son 
Xerxes against the Greeks, the Thracians ap- 
parently recovered their independence, and a 
new empire was formed in that extensive coun- 
try under the dominion of Sitalces king of the 
Odiysse, one of the most numerous and warlike 
of their tribes. Thucydides, who has entered 
into considerable detail on this subject, observes, 
that of all the empires situated between the 
Ionian gulf and the Euxine, this was the most 
considerable, both in revenue and opulence : 
its military force was however very inferior to 
that of Scythia, both in strength and numbers. 
The empire of Sitalces extended along the coast 
from Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, a 
distance of four days and nights' sail ; and in 
the interior, from the sources of the Strymon to 
Byzantium, a journey of thirteen days. The 
founder of this empire appears to have been Te- 
res. The splendour of this monarchy was how- 
ever of short duration ; and we learn from Xe- 
nophon, that on the arrival of the ten thousand 
in Thrace, the power of Medocus,orAmadocus, 
the reigning prince of the Odrysse, was very 
inconsiderable. When Philip, the son of Amyn- 
tas ascended the throne of Macedon, the Thra- 
dans were governed by Cotys, a weak prince, 



whose territories became an easy prey to his 
artful and enterprising neighbour. The whole 
of that part of Thrace situated between the Stiy- 
mon and the Nestus was thus added to Mace- 
donia : whence some geographical writers term 
it Macedonia Adjecta. Cotys, having been as- 
sassinated not long after, was succeeded by his 
son Chersobleptes, whose possessions were 
limited to the Thracian Chersonnese ; and even 
of this he was eventually stripped by the Athe- 
nians, while Philip seized on all the maritime 
towns between the INeslus and that peninsula. 
On Alexander's accession to the throne, the 
Triballi were by far the most numerous and 
powerful people of Thrace; and as they border- 
ed on the Pseonians, and extended to the Dan- 
ube, they were formidable neighbours on this the 
most accessible frontier of Macedonia. Alexan- 
der commenced his reign by an invasion of their 
territory ; and having defeated them in a gen- 
eral engagement, pursued them across the Dan- 
ube, whither they had retreated, and compelled 
them to sue for peace. After his death, Thrace 
fell to the portion of Lysimachus, one of his 
generals, by whom it was erected into a mon- 
archy. On his decease, however, it revolted to 
Macedonia, and remained under the dominion, 
of its sovereign, until the conquest of that coun- 
try by the Romans. Livy speaks of a Cotys, 
chief of the Odrysse, in the reign of Perseus, 
from whence it M^ould appear that this people 
still restrained their ancient monarchical form 
of government, though probably tributary to 
the sovereigns of Macedonia. Thrace consti- 
tutes at present the Turkish province of Rou- 
melia." Cramer's Greece. 

Thrasymenus, a lake of Italy, near Perusi- 
um, celebrated for a battle fought there between 
Annibal and the Romans, under Flaminius, B. 
C. 217. No less than 15,000 Romans, were left 
dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken 
prisoners, or according to Livy 6,000, or Poly- 
bius 15,000. The loss of Annibal was about 
1,500 men. About 10,000 Romans made their 
escape, all covered with wounds. This lake is 
now called the lake of Perugia. Strab. 5. — 
Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 165.—Plut. 

Thronium, a town of Phocis, " noticed by 
Homer as being near the river Boagrius, was 
30 stadia from Scarphea, and at some distance 
from the coast, as appears from Strabo. Thro- 
nium was taken by the Athenians during the 
Peloponnesian war, and several years after, it 
fell into the hands of Onomarchus the Phocian 
general, who enslaved the inhabitants. Dr. 
Clarke conjectured that Thronium was situated 
at Bondoniiza, a small town on the chain of 
mount CEta ; but Sir W. Gell is of opinion that 
this point is too far distant from the sea, and 
that it accords rather with an ancient ruin above 
LongacM ; and this is in unison also with the 
statement of Meletias the Greek geographer, 
who cites an inscription discovered there, in 
which the mime of Thronium occurs." Cram. 

Thule, an island in the most northern parts 
of the German ocean, to which, on account of 
its great distance from the continent, the an- 
cients gave the epithet of ultima. Its situation 
wasnever accurately ascertained, hence its pres- 
ent name is unknox^oi to modern historians. 
Some suppose that it is the island now called 
Iceland, or part of Greenland, whilst others 
307 



TI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TI 



imagine it to be the Shetland Isles. Stat. 3, 
Sil. 5, V. 20.—Strab. l.—Mela, 3, c. 6.— Tacit. 
Agric. 10.— Plin. 2, c. 75, 1. 4, c. IQ.— Virg. G. 

I, V. ZQ.—Jiiv. 15, V. 112. 

TnuRLiE, (ii, or ium,) I. a town of Lucania in 
Italy, built by a colony of Athenians, near the 
ruins of Sybaris, B. C. 444. In the number of 
this Athenian colony were Lysias and Herodo- 
tus. Strab. 6.— Plin. 12, c. i.—Mela, 2, c. 4. 

II. A town of Messenia. Paus. 4, c. 31, 

—Strab. 8. 

Thuscia. Vid. Etruria. 

Thyamis, a river of Epirus, falling into the 
Ionian Sea. Paus. 1, c. 11. — Cic. 7, Att. 2. 

Thyatira, a town of Lydia, now Akisar. 
Liv. 37, c. 8 and 44. 

Thymbra, I. A small town in Lydia, near 
Sardes, celebrated for a battle which was fought 
there between Cyrus and Croesus, in which the 
latter was defeated. The troops of Cyrus 
amounted to 196,000 men, besides chariots, and 
those of Croesus were twice as numerous. 

II. A plain in Troas, through which a small 
river, called Thymbrius, falls in its course to 
the Scamander, Apollo had there a temple, and 
from thence he is called Thymbrans,. Achil- 
les was killed there by Paris, according to some. 
StraJb. 13.— Stat. 4, Sylv. 7, v. 2%—Diciys Cret. 
2, c. 52, 1. 2, c. 1. 

Thyni, or BiTHYNi, a people of Bithynia ; 
hence the word Thyna trier x applied to their 
commodities. Horat. 3, od. 7, v. 3. — Plin. 4, 
c. 11. 

Thyre, a town of the Messenians, famous 
for a battle fought there between the Argives 
and the Lacedasmonians. Herodot. 1, c. 82. — 
Stat. Theb. 4, v. 48. 

Thyrea, an island on the coast of Pelopon- 
nesus, near Hermione. Herodot. 6, c. 76. 

Thyrium. " North of Medeon we must 
place Thyrium, an Acarnanian city of some 
strength and importance, but of which mention 
occurs more frequently towards the close of the 
Grecian history, where it begins to be intermix- 
ed with the affairs of Rome. Its ruins proba- 
bly exist to the northeast of Leucas, in the 
district of Cechrophyla, where, according to 
Meletius, considerable vestiges of an ancient 
town are to be seen." Cram. 

Thyrsaget^, a people of Sarmatia, who live 
upon hunting. Pliti. 4, c. 12. 

Thyrsus, a river of Sardinia, now Oristagni. 

Tiberias, a town of Galilee, near a lake of 
the same name. " Tiberias is the only place 
on the Sea of Galilee which retains any marks 
of its ancient importance. It is understood to 
cover the ground formerly occupied by a town 
of a much remoter age, and of which some tra- 
ces can still be distinguished on the beach, a 
little to the southward of the present walls. His- 
tory relates that it was built by Herod the Te- 
trarch, and dedicated to the emperor Tiberius, 
his patron, although there prevails, at the same 
time, an obscure tradition, that the new city 
owed its foundation entirely to the imperial 
pleasure, and was named by him who com- 
manded it to be erected. Josephus notices the 
additional circumstance, which of itself gives 
great probability to the opinion of its being es- 
tablished on the ruins of an old tower, that as 
many sepulchres were removed in order to 
make room for the Roman structures, the Jews 
308 



could hardly be induced to occupy houses which, 
according to their notions, were legally impure. 
Adrichomius considers Tiberias to be ihe Chin- 
neroth of the Hebrews, and says, that it was 
captured by Benhadad, king of Syria, who de- 
stroyed it, and was in afterages restored by 
HerodjWho surrounded il with walls, and adorn- 
ed it with magnificent buildings. The old Jew- 
ish city, whatever was its name, probably owed 
its existence to the fame of its hot baths, — ai 
origin to which many temples and even the 
cities belonging to them, may be traced. The 
present town of Tabaria^ as it is now called, is 
in the form of an irregular crescent, and is 
enclosed towards the land by a wall flanked 
with circular towers. It lies nearly north and 
south along the edges of the lake, and has its 
eastern front so close to the water, on the brink 
of which it stands, that some of the houses are 
washed by the sea. The whole does not appear 
more than a mile in circuit, and cannot, from 
the manner in which they are placed, contain 
above 500 separate dwellings. There are two 
gates visible from without, one near the south- 
ern and the other in the western wall ; there are 
appearances also of the town having been sur- 
rounded by a ditch, but this is now filled up 
and used for gardens. The interior presents 
but few subjects of interest, among which are 
a mosque with a dome and minaret, and two 
Jewish synagogues. There is a Christian place 
of worship called the House of Peter, which is 
thought by some to be the oldest building used 
for that purpose in any part of Palestine. It is 
a vaulted room, thirty feet long by fifteen broad, 
and perhaps fifteen in height, standing nearly 
east and west, with its door of entrance at the 
western front, and its altar immediately opposite 
in a shallow recess. Over the door is one small 
window, and on each side four others, all arched 
and open. The structure is of a very ordinary 
kind, both in workmanship and material ; the 
pavement within is similar to that used for 
streets in this country ; and the walls are entirely 
devoid of sculpture or any other architectural 
ornament. But it derives no small interest from 
the popular belief that it is the very house which 
Peter inhabited at the time of his being called 
from his boat to follow the Messias. It is mani- 
fest, notwithstanding, that it must have been 
originally constructed for a place of divine wor- 
ship, and probably at a period much later than 
the days of the apostle whose name it bears, al- 
though there is no good ground for questioning 
the tradition which places it on the very spot 
long venerated as the site of his more humble 
habitation. Here too it was, say the dwellers 
in Tiberias, that he pushed off his boat into the 
lake when about to have his faith rewarded by 
the miraculous draught of fishes. Tiberias 
makes a conspicuous figure in the Jewish an- 
nals, and was the scene of some of the most re- 
markable events which are recorded by Jose- 
phus. After the downfall of Jerusalem, it con- 
tinued until the fifth century to be the residence 
of Jewish patriarchs, rabbles, and learned men. 
A university was established within its bounda- 
ries ; and as the patriarchate was allowed to be 
hereditary, the remnant of the Hebrew people 
eujoyed a certain degree of weight and conse- 
quence during the greater part of four centuries. 
In the sixth age, if we may confide in the ac- 



TI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TI 



curacy of Procopius, the emperor Justinian re- 
built the walls ; but in the following century, 
the seventh of the Christian era, the city was 
taken by the Saracens, under Calif Omar, who 
stripped it of its privileges, and demolished 
some of its finest edifices." RussclVs PalestiTie. 

TiBERis, Tyberis, Tiber, or Tibris, a river 
of Italy on whose banks the city of Rome was 
built. It was originally called Alhula, from the 
whiteness of its waters, and afterwards Tibe- 
rus, when Tiberinas, king of Alba, had been 
drowned there. It was also named Tyrrhenus, 
because it watered Etruria, and I/ijdius, because 
the inhabitants of the neighbourhood were sup- 
posed to be of Lydian origin. The Tiber rises 
in ,the Apennines, and falls into the Tyrrhene 
Sea 16 miles below Rome, after dividing La- 
tium from Etruria. Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 47, 329, 
&c. 1. 5, V. 641, in lb. 514. — lAican. 1, v. 381, 
&c. — Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 5. — Virg. Mn. 7, v. 30. 
—Horat. 1, Od. 2, v. \Z.—Mela, 2, c. 4..—Liv. 
1, c. 3. 

TiBiscus, now Teisse, a river of Dacia, with 
a town of the same name, now Temeswar. It 
falls into the Danube. 

TiBULA, a town of Sardinia, now Lango 
Sardo. 

TiBUR, an ancient town of the Sabines, about 
20 miles north of Rome, built, as some say, by 
Tibur the son of Amphiaraus. It was watered 
by the Anio, and Hercules was the chief deity 
of the place ; from which circumstance it has 
been called Herculei muri. In the neighbour- 
hood, the Romans, on account of the salubrity 
of the air, had their several villas where they 
retired ; and there also Horace had his favourite 
country-seat, though some place it nine miles 
higher. Strab. 5. — Cic. 2, Orat. 65. — Suet. 
Cal. 21.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. mQ.— Horat. 3, od. 
4, &c. — Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 61, &c. 

TicHis, now Tech, a river of Spain, falling 
into the Mediterranean. 

TiciNUM, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, " situ- 
ated on the river from which it took its name, 
was founded, as Pliny reports, by the Lsevi and 
Marici ; but being placed on the left bank of the 
Ticinus, it would of course belong to the Insu- 
bres ; and in fact, Ptolemy ascribes it to that 
people. Tacitus is the first author who makes 
mention of it. According to that historian, 
Augustus advanced as far as Ticinum to meet 
the corpse of Drusus, father of Germanicus, in 
the depth of winter, and from thence escorted 
it to Rome. It is also frequently noticed in his 
Histories. Ancient inscriptions give it the 
title of municipium. Under the Lombard kings, 
Ticinum assumed the name of Papia, which in 
process of time has been changed to PaviaP 
Cram. 

Ticinus, now Tesino, a river of Gallia Cis- 
alpina : " it rises on the St. Gothard, and passes 
through the Verbanus Lacus, Lago Maggiore. 
The waters of the Ticinus are celebrated by 
poets for their clearness and beautiful colour. 
Great diversity of opinion seems to exist among 
modern critics and military antiquaries, on the 
subject of the celebrated action which was 
fought by Scipio and Hannibal near this river, 
from whence it is commonly called the battle of 
the Ticinus. Some of these writers have placed 
the field of battle on the right, and others on the 
left bank of this stream: and of the latter again, 



some fix the action in the vicinity of Pavia, 
others as high as Soma, a little south of Sesto 
Calende." Vid. this question fully discussed in 
Cramer's Italy, 1, 54, et. seqq. 

TiFATA, a mountain of Campania, near Ca- 
pua. Stat. Sylv. 4. 

TiFERNUM, a name common to three towns 
of Italy. One of them, for distinction's sake, is 
called Metaurense, near the Metaurus in Um- 
bria ; the other Tiberinum, on the Tiber ; and 
the third, Samniticum, in the country of the 
Sabines. Liv. 10, c. 14. — Plin. 3, c. 14. Plin. 
sec. 4, ep. 1, 

TiFERNus, a mountain and river in the coun- 
try of the Samnites. Plin. 3, c. 11. — Liv. 10, 
c. iO.—Mela, 3, c. 4. 

TiGRANOCERTA, now Scred, the capital of 
Armenia, built by Tigranes, during the Mithri- 
datic war, on a hill between the springs of the 
Tigris and mount Taurus. Lucullus, during 
the Mithridalic war, took it with difiiculty, and 
found in it immense riches, and no less than 
8000 talents in ready money. Tacit. Ann. 15, 
c. 4. — Plin. 6, c. 9. 

Tigris. "This river, the rival and com- 
panion of the Euphrates, has its most consider- 
able source in the mountains of the country of 
Zoph, the ancient Zophene, apart of Armenia. 
The Euphrates, already of great size, receives 
all the streams of that country ; but, by a sin- 
gular exception, this, the smallest among them, 
escapes the destination of its neighbours. A 
rising ground prevents it from proceeding to the 
Euphrates. A deep ravine in the mountains 
above Diarbekir opens a passage for it, and it 
takes its speedy course across a territory which 
is very unequal, and has a powerful declivity. 
Its extreme rapidity, the natural effect of local 
circumstances, has procured for it the name of 
Tigr in the Median language, Diglito in Ara- 
bic, and Hiddekol in Hebrew; all of which 
terms denote the flight of an arrow. Besides 
this branch, which is best known to the moderns, 
Pliny has described to us in detail another, 
which issues from the mountains of Koordistan 
to the west of the lake Van. It passes by the 
lake Arethusa. Its course being checked by a 
part of the mountain of Taurus, it falls into the 
subterranean cavern called Zoroander, and ap- 
pears again at the bottom of the mountain. The 
identity of its waters is shown by the reappear- 
ance of light bodies at its issue that have been 
thrown into it above the place where it enters 
the mountain. It passes also by the lake Thos- 
pitis, near the town of Erzin, buries itself again 
in subterranean caverns, and reappears at a dis- 
tance of 25 miles below, near the modern Nym- 
phaeum. This branch joins the western Tigris 
below the city of Diarbekir." Vid. Euphrates. 
Malte-Brun. 

TiGURiNi, a warlike people among the Hel- 
vetii, now forming the modern cantons of Switz, 
Zurich, Scha.ffhausen, and St. Gall. Their 
capital was Tigurum. Cces. Bell. G. 

TiLAVEMPTUs, a river of Italy, falling into 
the Adriatic at the west of Aquileia. 

TiLiuM, a town of Sardinia, now Argentara. i 

TiMAcus, a river of Moesia, falling into the; 
Danube. The-neighbouring people were call-, 
ed Timachi. Plin. 3, c. 26. 

TiMAVus, a river of Venetia. " Few streams 
have been more celebrated in antiquity, or more. 
309 



TI 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TR 



sung by the poets, than the Timavus, to which 
we have now arrived. Its numerous sources, 
its lake and subterraneous passage, which have 
been the theme of the Latin muse from Virgil 
to Claudian and Ausonius, are now so little 
known, that their existence has ever been ques- 
tioned, and ascribed to poetical invention. It 
has been however well ascertained, that the 
name of Timao is still preserved by some 
springs which rise near /S. Giovanni di Car so 
and the castle ofDuino, and form a river, which, 
after a course of little more than a mile, falls 
into the Adriatic. The number of these 
sources seems to vary according to the diiferen ce 
of seasons, which circumstance will account 
for the various statements which ancient wri- 
ters have made respecting them. Strabo, who 
appears to derive his information from Polybi- 
us, reckoned seven, all of which, with the excep- 
tion of one, were salt. According to Posido- 
nius, the river really rose in the mountains at 
some distance from the sea, and disappeared 
under ground for the space of fourteen miles, 
when it issued forth again near the sea at the 
springs above mentioned. This accoimt seems 
also verified by actual observation. The Ti- 
mavus is indebted to the poetry of Virgil for 
the greater part of its fame. Ausonius, when ce- 
lebrating a fountain near Bourdeaux,his native 
city, compares its waters to the Timavus. The 
lake of the Timavus, mentioned by Livy in his 
account of the Histrian war, is now called 
Lago delta Pietra Rossa. Pliny speaks of some 
warm springs near the mouth of the river, now 
Bagni di Monte Fdtcone. The temple and 
grove of Diomed, noticed by Strabo under the 
name of Timavum, may be supposed to have 
stood on the site of S. Giov. del Carso. Cram. 

TiNGis, now Tangier^ a maritime town of 
Africa in Mauritania. " The position of the 
ancient city was on the right, or opposite side 
of the creek to the modern, and also more in- 
land." Plut. in Sert.—Mela, 1, c. b.—Plin. 5, 
c. I— Sit. 3, V. 258. 

TiNiA, a river of Umbria, now Topino, fall- 
ing into the Clitumnus. Strab: 5. — Sit. 8, v. 
454. 

TiRiDA, a town of Thrace, where Diomedes 
lived. Plin. 4, c. 11. 

TiRYNTHus, a town of Argolis in the Pelo- 
ponnesus, founded by Tirynx, son of Argos. 
Hercules generally resided there, whence he is 
called Tirynthius heros. Pans. 2, c. 16, 15 and 
49.— Hr^. jEn. 7, v. 662.— ^-zl 8, v. 217. 

TissA, now Randazzo^ a town of Sicily. Sil. 
14, V. 268.— Cic. Verr. 3, c. 38. 

TiTAREsus, a river in Thessaly, called also 
Eurotas, flowing into the Peneus, but without 
mingling its thick and turbid waters with the 
transparent stream. From the unwholesome- 
ness of its water, it was considered as deriving 
its source from the Styx. Lnican. 6, v. 376. — 
Homer. 11. 2, en. 258.—Sirab. Q.—Paus. 8. c. 18. 

TiTHOREA, one of the tops of Parnassus, on 
which was the town of Tithorea or Neon. 
" The ruins of Tithorea were first observed by 
Dr. Clarke,near the modern village of Velitza. 
'We arrived,' says that traveller,' at the walls 
of Tithorea, extending in a surprising manner 
up the prodigious precipice of Parnassus, which 
rises behind the village of Velitza. These re- 
mains are visible to a considerable height upon 
310 



the rocks. We found what we should have 
least expected to find remaining, namely, the 
forum mentioned by Pausanius. It is a square 
structure, built in the Cyclopean style, with 
large masses of stone, laid together with great 
evenness and regularity, but without any ce- 
ment.' " Cram. — Herodot.8, c. 32. 

Tmarus, a mountain of Thesprotia, called 
Tomarus by Pliny. 

Tmolus, I. a town of Asia Minor, destroyed 

by an earthquake. II. A mountain of Lydia, 

now Boiczdag, on which the river Pactolus 
rises. The air was so wholesome near Tmolus, 
that the inhabitants generally lived to their 
150th year. The neighbouring country was very 
fertile, and produced plenty of vines, saffron, 
and odoriferous flowers. Strah. 13, &c. — He- 
rodot. 1, c. 84, &c.— Ovid. Met. 2, &.c.—Sil. 7, 
V. 210.— Virg. G. 1, v. 56, 1. 2, v. 98. 

T OGATA, an epithet applied to a certain part 
of Gaul. Vid. Gallia. 

ToLENUs, a river of Latium, now Salto, fal- 
ling into the Velinus. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 561. 

ToLETUM, now Toledo, a town of Spain, on 
the Tagus, 

ToLisTOBOii, a people of Galatia, in Asia, de- 
scended from the Boii of Gaul. Plin. 5, c. 32. 
— Liv. 58, c. 15 and 16. 

ToLOSA, now Toulouse, the capital of Lan- 
guedoc, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, which 
became a Roman colony under Augustus, and 
was afterwards celebrated for the cultivation of 
the sciences. Minerva had there a rich temple, 
which Csepio the consul plundered, and as he 
was never after fortunate, the words aurum 
Tolosanum became proverbial. Ccbs. Bell. G. 
—Mela, 2, c. b.—Cic. de Nat. D.S, c. 20. 

ToMos, or ToMis, a town situate on the west- 
ern shores of the Euxine Sea, about 36 miles 
from the mouth of the Danube. The word is 
derived from rt^ivw, seco, because Medea, as it 
is said, cut to pieces the body of her brother Ab- 
syrtus there. It is celebrated as being the place 
where Ovid was banished by Augustus. To- 
mos was the capital of lower Moesia, founded 
by a Milesian colony, B. C. 633. Strab. 7. — 
Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Mela, 2, c. 2. — Ovid, ex Pont. 
4, el. 14, V. 59. Trist. 3, el. 9, v. 33, &c. 

ToPAZos, an island in the Arabian gulf, an- 
ciently called Ophiodes, from the quantity of 
serpents that were there. The valuable stone 
called topaz is found there, Plin. 6, c. 20. 

ToRoNE. " Torone which gave its name to 
the gulf on which it stood, was situated towards 
the southern extremity of the Sithonian penin- 
sula. It was probably founded by the Euboe- 
ans. From Herodotus we learn that it suppli- 
ed both men and ships for the Persian armament 
against Greece. When Artabazus obtained 
possession of Olynthus, he appointed Critobu- 
lus commander of the town. Torone was situ- 
ated on a hill, as we learn from Thucydides, 
and near a marsh of some extent, in which the 
Egyptian bean grew naturally. It was famous 
also for a particular kind of fish. The gulf of 
Torone, Toronicus, or Toronaicus Sinus, is 
known in modem geography as the Bay of 
Cassandria." Cram. 

Torus, a mountain of Sicily, near Agrigen- 
tum. 

Trachinia, a district of Thessaly, which 
" is included by Thucydides in the Melian 



TR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TR 



territory. It was so named from the town of 
Trachin or Trechin, known to Homer, and 
assigned by him to Achilles, together with ihe 
whole of the Melian country. It was here 
that Hercules retired, after having committed 
an iavolmitary murder, as we learn from So- 
phocles, who has made it the scene of one of his 
deepest tragedies. Trachis,so called, according 
to Herodotus, from the mountainous character 
of the country, forms the approach to Thermo- 
pyte on the side of Thessaly, Thucydides 
states, that in the sixth year of the Peloponne- 
sian war, 426 B. C. the Lacedaemonians, at the 
request of the Trachinians, who were harassed 
by the mountaineers of OEta, sent a colony into 
their coimtrj'. These, jointly with the Trachi- 
nians, built a town to which the name of Hera- 
clea was given." Vid. HeracUa. Cram. 

Trachonitis, a part of Judsea, on the other 
side of the Jordan. Plin. 5, c. 14. 

Tragurium, a town of Dalmatia on the sea. 

Trajanopolis, I. a town of Thrace. II. 

A name giventoSelinusof Cilicia, where Tra- 
jan died. 

Trajectus rheni, now Utrecht, the capital 
of one of the provinces of Holland. 

Tralles, I. a town of Lydia, now Sulian- 

hisar. Juv. 3, v. 70. — Liv. 37, c. 45. II. A 

people of Dlyricum. 

Transtiberina, a part of the city of Rome, 
on the side of the Tiber. Mount Vatican was 
in that part of the city. Mart. 1, ep. 109. 

Trapezus, I. a city of Pontus, built by the 
people of Sinope, now called Trebizond. It 
had a celebrated harbour on the Euxine sea, 
and became famous under the emperors of the 
eastern empire, of which it was for some time 
the magnificent capital. T'acit. Hist. 3, c. 47. 

— Plin. 6, c. 4. II. A town of Arcadia, near 

the Alpheus. It received its name from a son 
of Lycaon. A'pollod. 3, c. 8. 

TRASiMENtJs. Vid. Thrasymenus. 

Treba, a town of the ^qui. Plin. 3, c. 12. 

Trebia, I. a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising 
in the Apennine, and falling into the Po at the 
^west of Placentia. It is celebrated for the vic- 
tory which Annibal obtained there over the 
forces of L. Sempronius, the Roman consul, 
\Sil. 4, V. ^^.—iMcan. 2, v. 46.— Liv. 21, c. 54 

'and 56. II. A town of Latium. Liv. 2. c. 

39. III. Of Campania. Id. 23, c. 14. 

ilV. Of Umbria. Plin. 3, c. 14. 

Trebula, I. a town of the Sabines celebrated 
Ifor cheese. The inhabitants were called Tre- 

jbulani. Cic. in Agr. 2, c. 25. Liv. 23. — 

^Plin. 3, c. 5 and 12.— Martial. 5, ep. 72. 

II. Another in Campania. Liv. 23, c. 39. 

Tres TABERN.E, a place on the Appian road, 
where travellers took refreshment, Cic. A. 1, 
ep. 13, 1. 2, ep. 10 and 11. 

Treveri, a people of Belgic Gaul, upon the 
Rhine. " The capital of the Treveri, after 
having borne the name of Augusta, took that 
of the people, and became the metropolis of 
Belgica Prima. It also became a Roman co- 
lony, and served as the residence of several em- 
perors, whom the care of superintending the de- 
fence of this frontier retained in Gaul, It was 
an object of vanity with this people to be es- 
teemed of Germanic origin." D Anville. 

TRiBALr, a people of Thrace; or, according 
to some, of Lower Moesia. They were con- 



quered by Philip, the father of Alexander j and 
some ages after they maintained a long war 
against the Roman emperors. Plin. 

Triboci, a people of Alsace in Gaul. " Three 
Germanic people, the Triboci, Nemetes, and 
Vangiones, having passed the Rhine, establish- 
ed themselves between this river and the Vosge, 
in the lands which were believed to compose 
part of the territory of the Leuci and Medioma- 
i/rici. Argentoratum, Strasbourgh, was the res- 
idence of a particular commander or prefect of 
this frontier ; although another city, Brocoma- 
gus, now Brumt, be mentioned as the capital of 
the Tribocians." D'' Anville. — Tacit, in Germ. 
28. 

Tricala, a fortified place at the south of Si- 
cily, between Selinus and Agrigentum, Sil. 
14, V. 271. 

Tricasses, a people of Champagne, in Gaul. 

Tricce, a town of Thessaly, where iEscu- 
lapius had a temple. The inhabitants went to 
the Trojan war. Liv. 32, c. 13. — Homer. 11. 
—Plin. 4, c. 8. 

Tricoru, a people of Gaul, now Dauphine. 
Liv. 21, c. 31. 

Tricrena, a place of Arcadia, where, ac- 
cording to some, Mercury was born. Paus. 8, 
c. 16. 

Tridentum, a town of Cisalpine Gaul, now 
called Trent, and famous in history for the ec- 
clesiastical council which sat there IS'yearsto 
regulate the afiairs of the church, A. D. 1545. 

Trifolinus, a mountain of Campania, fa- 
mous for wine. Mart. 13, ep. 104. — Plin. 14, 
c. 7. 

Trigemina, one of the Roman gates, so call- 
ed because the three Horatii went through it 
against the Curiatii. Liv. 4, c. 16, 1. 35, c. 41, 
1. 40, c. 51. 

Trinacru, or Trinacris, one of the ancient 
names of Sicily, from its triangular form. Virg. 
^n. 3, V. 384, &c. 

Trinobantes, a people of Britain in modern 
Essex and Middlesex. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 31. 
—CcBS. G. 5, c. 20. 

Trifhylu, one of the ancient names of Elis, 

Liv. 28, c. 8. A mountain where Jupiter 

had a temple in the island Panchaia, whence 
he is called Triphylius. 

Triopilt^i, a town of Caria. 

Tripolis, I. an ancient town of Phoenicia, 
built by the liberal contributions of Tyre, Sidon, 

and Aradus, w-hence the name. II. A town 

of Pontus. III. A district of Arcadia. 

IV. Of Laconia. Liv. 35, c. 27. V, Of 

Thessaly, ib. 42, c. 53. VI. A town of Ly- 
dia or Caria. VII. A district of Africa be- 
tween the Syrtes. 

Triquetra, a name given to Sicily by the 
Latins, for its triangular form. Lnicret. 1, v. 78. 

Tritonis, a lake and river of Africa, near 
which Minerva had atemple, whence she is sur- 
named Tritonis, or Tritonia. Herodot. 4, c. 
riQ.—Paus. 9, c. 33.— Fir^. Mn. 2, v. 171.— 
Mela, 1, c. 7. Athens is also called Tritonis, 
because dedicated to Minerva. Ovid. Met. 5." 

Trivia: antrum, a place in the valley oi 
Aricia, where the nymph Egeria resided. Mart. 
6, ep. 47. 

TR1VI.E Lucus, a place of Campania, in the 
bay of Cumas. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 13. 

TRiuMviRORtiM INSULA, a place on the Rhine 
311 



TR 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TR 



■which falls into the Po, where the triumvirs 
Antony, Lepidus, and Augustus, met to divide 
the Roman empire after the battle of Mutina. 
Dio. 46, c. 55. — Appian. Cic. 4. 

Troades, the iniiabitants of Troas. 

Troas, a country of Phrygia in Asia Minor, 
of which Troy was the capital. When Troas 
is taken for the whole kingdom of Priam, it may 
be said to contain Mysia and Phrygia Minor ; 
but if only applied to that part of the country 
where Troy was situate, its extent is confined 
within very narrow limits. Troas was ancient- 
ly called Dardania. Vid. Troja. 

Trochois, a lake in the island of Delos, near 
which Apollo and Diana were born. 

Trogmi, a people of Galatia. Liv. 38, c. 16. 

Trcezene, I. a town of Argolis, in Pelopon- 
nesus, near the Saronicus Sinus, which receiv- 
ed its name from TroBzen, the son of Pelops, 
who reigned there for some time. It is often 
called T/ieseis, because Theseus wasborn there; 
and Posidonia, because Neptune was worship- 
ped there. Stat. Theb. 4, v. 81. — Paus. 2, c. 
bO.—PltU. in Thes.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 566, 1. 

15, V. 296. II. Another town at the south 

of the Peloponnesus. 

Trogil^s, three small islands near Samos. 

Trogilium, a part of mount Mycale, project- 
ing into the sea. Sti-ab. 14. 

TROGLODYT.E, a pcoplc of Ethiopia, who 
dwelt in caves (-pwyX>7 specus, Svjxi s,vheo). 
They were all shepherds, and had their wives 
in common. Strah. 1. — iVfeZa, 1, c. 4 and 8. — 
Plin. 5, c. 8, 1. 37, c. 10. 

Troja, a city, the capital of Troas, or, ac- 
cording to others, a country of which Ilium was 
the capital. It was built on a small eminence 
near mount Ida, and the promontory of Sagaeum, 
at the distance of about four miles from the sea- 
shore. Dardanus, the first king of the country, 
built it, and called it Dardania., and from Tros, 
one of its successors, it was called Troja., and 
from Ilus, llion. Neptune is also said to have 
built, or more properly repaired, its walls, in the 
age of king Laomedon. This city has been ce- 
lebrated by the poems of Homer and Virgil ; and 
of all the wars which were carried on among 
the ancients, that of Troy is the most famous. 
The Trojan war was undertakenby the Greeks, 
to recover Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, 
king of Troy, had carried away from the house 
of Menelaus. All Greece united to avenge the 
cause of Menelaus. and every prince furnished 
a certain number of ships and soldiers. Ac- 
cording 'to Euripides, Virgil, and Lycophron, 
the armament of the Greeks amounted to 1000 
ships. Homer mentions them as being 1186, and 
Thucydides supposes that they were 1200 in 
number. The number of men which these 
ships carried is unknown ; yet as the largest con- 
tained about 120 men each, and the smallest 50, 
it may be supposed that no less than 100,000 
men were engaged in this celebrated expedition. 
Agamemnon was chosen general of all these 
forces; but the princes and kings of Greece 
were admitted among his counsellors, and by 
them all the operations of the war were directed. 
The most celebrated of the Grecian princes 
that distinguished themselves in this war, were 
Achilles, Ajax, Menelaus, Ulysses, Diomedes, 
Protesilaus, Patroclus, Agamemnon, Nestor, 
Neoptoleraus,&c. The Grecian army was oppos- 
312 



ed by a more numerous force. The king of Troy 
received assistance from the neighbouring prin- 
ces inAsiaMinor, and reckoned among his most 
active generals. Rhesus, king of Thrace, and 
Memnon, who entered the field with 20,000 As- 
syrians and Ethiopians. After the siege had 
been carried on for ten years, some of the Tro- 
jans, among whom were Eneas and Antenor, 
betrayed the city into the hands of the enemy, 
and Troy was reduced to ashes. The poets, 
however, support, that the Greeks made them- 
selves masters of the place by artifice. They 
secretly filled a large wooden horse with armed 
men, and led away their army from the plains 
as if to return home. The Trojans brought 
the wooden horse into their city, and in the 
night the Greeks that were confined within the 
sides of the animal, rushed out and opened the 
gates to their companions, who had returned 
from the place of their concealment. The great- 
est part of the inhabitants were put to the sword , 
and the others carried away by the conquerors. 
This happened, according to the Arundelian 
marbles, about 1184 years before the Christian 
era, in the 3530th year of the Julian period, on 
the night between the 11th and 12th of June, 
408 years before the first Olympiad.' Some time 
after a new city was raised, about 30 stadia 
from the rums of old Troy : but though it bore 
the ancient name, and received ample donations 
from Alexander the great, when he visited it in 
his Asiatic expedition, yet it continued to be 
small, and in the age of Strabo it was nearly in 
ruins. It is said that J. Caesar, who wished to 
pass for one of the descendants of Eneas, and 
consequently to be related to the Trojans, in- 
tended to make it the capital of the Roman em- 
pire, and to transport there the senate and the 
Roman people. The same apprehensions were 
entertained in the reign of Augustus, and ac- 
cording to some, an ode of Horace, Justum <^ 
tenacem propositi virum, was written purposely 
to dissuade the emperor from putting into exe- 
cution so wild a project. " The little peninsula 
which forms the ancient kingdom of Priam, has 
been minutely explored by various learned tra- 
vellers ; but they have not agreed in fixing the 
localities of the individual places celebrated in 
the immortal work of Homer. Chevalier and 
others have supposed that Troy must have oc- 
cupied the site of a village called Roonanbashi, 
and there he thought he found the sources of 
the Scamander. Dr. Clarke found in that place 
not two fountains merely, one hot and one cold, 
as has been said, but numerous fountains all 
warm, raising the thermometer to 60° of Fah- 
renheit. They do not form the source of the 
Scamander, which lies forty miles in the inte- 
rior. He also discovered, on entering the plain 
of Troy, first the Mender, which its name and 
every other circumstance clearly fixed as the 
Scamander. He found also the Thymbrius, 
under the modern appellation of Thymbroek, 
though other inquirers conceive it to be the Si- 
mois. This last he thought he recognised in 
the Calliphat Osmak, which runs into the Sca- 
mander by a sluggish stream across an exten- 
sive plain, and the plain thus becomes that of 
Simois, on which were fought the great battles 
recorded in the Iliad. The Ilium of the age of 
Strabo, we know was situated near the sea, 
and he says that it was four miles in a certain 



TU 



GEOGRAPHY. 



TY 



direction from the original city. In this distance 
and direction, Dr. Clarke discovered two spots 
marked by ruins, which from diiferent circum- 
stances, seem very likely to have been old and 
new Troy. The grandeur of the scenery, view- 
ed from this plain, is almost indescribable ; Sa- 
mothrace, on one side, rearing behind Imbrus 
its snow-clad summit, shining bright, and gene- 
rally on a cloudless sky ; while, on the other 
side, Garganus, the highest of the chain of Ida, 
rises to an equal elevation. These scenes are 
well fitted to impart the most feeling interest to 
the descriptions of Homer, when read or re- 
membered on the spot. Whatever difficulty 
may exist as to the minutise, all the prominent 
features of Homer's picture are incontestably 
visible ; the Hellespont, the isle of Tenedos, the 
plain, the river, still inundating its banks, and 
the mountain whence it issues. A fertile plain, 
and a mountain abruptly rising from it, are two 
features which are usually combined in the sites 
of ancient cities. From the one, the citizens 
drew part of their subsistence, while the other 
became the citadel to which they retired on the 
approach of danger. The ruins of Abydos, on 
the shore of the Hellespont, lie farther to the 
north than the Castle of Asia, a fortress of small 
strength. Lamsaki is only a suburb of the an- 
cient Lampsacus, the ruins of which have been 
lately discovered at Tchardak.''^ — Malte-Brun. 
Vid. Paris^ ^iieas, Antenor, Agarmmnon, Ili- 
um, Lo.oinedon, Men^laus, &c. Virg: jEn. — 
Homer. — Ovid. — Diod, &c, 

Trojani, and Trojugenje, the inhabitants of 
Troy. 

TROPiEA, I. a town of the Bnitii. II. A 

stone monument on the Pyrenees, erected by 

Pompey. III. Drusi, a town of Germany, 

where Drusus died, and Tiberius was saluted 
emperor by the army. 

Trossulum, a town of Etruria, which gave 
the name of Trossuli to the Roman knights 
who had taken it without the assistance of foot- 
soldiers. Plin. 32, c. 2. — Senec. ep. 86 and 87. 
—Pers. 1, V. 82. 

Truentum, or Truentinum, a river of Pice- 
num, falling into the Adriatic. There is also a 
town of the same name in the neighbourhood. 
Sil. 8, v. 454:.— Mela, 2.— Plin. 3, c. 13. 

Tueurbo, two towns of Africa, called Major 
and Minor. 

TtJLLiANUM, a subterraneous prison in Rome, 
built by Servius Tullius, and added to the 
other called Robur, where criminals were con- 
fined. Sallust. in B. Catil. 

TuNETA, or Tunis, a town of Africa, near 
which Regulus was defeated and taken by 
Xanthippus. Liv. 30, c. 9. 

TuNGRi. a name given to some of the Ger- 
mans, supposed to live on the banks of the 
Maese, whose chief city, called Atuatuca, is 
now Tongeren. The river of the country is 
now the Spaio. Tacit, de Germ. 2. 

TuRDETANi, or TuRDUTf, a pcoplc of Spain, 
inhabiting both sides of the Baetis. Liv. 21, c. 
6, 1. 28, c. 39, 1. 34, c. 17. 

TuRiAs, a river of Spain, falling into the 
Mediterranean, now Guadalaviar. 

TuRicuM, a town of Gaul, now Zurich^ in 
Switzerland. 

TuRONEs, a people of Gaul, whose capital, 
Caesarodunum. is the modern Tours. 

Part L— 2 R 



TuRUNTus, a river of Sarmatia, supposed to 
be the Dwina, or Duna. 

TuscANiA, and Tuscia. Vid. Hetruria. 

Tusci, the inhabitants of Etruria. 

TuscuLANTM, a cotmtry-house of Cicero, near 
Tusculum, where he composed his queestiones 
concerning the contempt of death, &c. 

TuscijLUM, a town of Latium, on the declivi- 
ty of a hill, about 12 miles from Rome, foimded 
by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses and Circe. 
It is now called Frescati, and is famous for the 
magnificent villas in its neighbourhood. Cic. 
ad Attic— Strad. b.—Horat. 3, od. 23, v. 8, &c. 

Tuscus, belonging to Etruria. The Tiber 
is called Tuscus amnis, from its situation. Virg. 
jEn. 10, V. 199. 

Tuscus vicus, a small village near Rome. 
It received this name from the Etrurians of 
Porsenna's army that settled there. Liv. 2, c. 14. 

TuscuM MARE, a pait of the Mediterranean 
on the coast of Etruria. Vid. Tyrrhenum. 

TuTiA, a small river six miles from Rome, 
where Annibal pitched his camp when he re- 
treated from the city. Liv. 26, c. 11. 

TuTicuM, a town of the Hirpini. 

Tyana, a town at the foot of mount Taurus 
in Cappadocia, where Apollonius was born, 
whence he is called Tyaneus. Ovid. Met. 8, 
V. lld.—Strab. 12. 

Tyanitis, a province of Asia Minor, near 
Cappadocia. 

Tybris, Vid. Tiberis. 

Tyche, a part of the town of Syracuse. Cic. 
in Verr. 4, c. 53. 

Tylos, a town of Peloponnesus, near Tsena- 
rus, now Bahrain. 

Tymph^;!, a people between Epirus and 
Thessaly. 

Tyras, or Tyra, a river of European Sar- 
matia, falling into the Euxine Sea, between the 
DanulDe and the Borysthenes, now called the 
Neister. Ovid. Pont, 4. el. 10, v. 50. 

Tyrrheni, the inhabitants of Etruria. Vid. 
Etruria. 

Tyrrhenum mare, that part of the Mediter- 
ranean which lies on the coast of Etruria. It 
is also called Inferum, as being at the bottom 
or south of Italy. 

Tyrus, or Tyros, a very ancient city of 
Phoenicia, built by the Sidonians, on a small 
island at the south of Sidon, about 200 stadia 
from the shore, and now called Siir. There 
were, properly speaking, two places of that 
name, the old Tyros, called Palcetyros, on the 
seashore, and the other in the island. It was 
about 19 miles in circumference, including Pa- 
laetyros, but without it about four miles. Tyre 
was destroyed by the princes of Assyria, and 
afterwards rebuilt. It maintained its indepen 
dence till the age of Alexander, who took it with 
much difficulty, and only after he had joined the 
island to the continent by a mole, after a siege 
of seven months, on the 20th of August, B. C, 
332. The Tyrians were naturally industrious ; 
their city was the emporium of commerce, and 
they were deemed the inventors of scarlet and 
purple colours. They founded many cities in 
different parts of the world, such as Carthage, 
Gades, Leptis, Utica, &c. which on that ac- 
count are often distinguished by the epithet Ty- 
ria. The buildings of Tyre were very splendid 
and magnificent: the walls were 150 feet high, 
313 



VA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



VE 



with a proportionable breadth. Hercules was 
the chief deity of the place. It had two large 
and capacious harbours, and a powerful fleet ; 
and was built, according to some writers, about 
2760 years before the Christian era. " A fate 
still more desolating has overtaken Tyre, the 
queen of the seas, the birthplace of commerce, 
by which early civilization was diffnsed. Her 
palaces are supplanted by miserable hovels. 
The poor fisherman inhabits those vaulted cel- 
lars where the treasures of the world were in 
ancient times stored. A column, still standing 
in the midst of the ruins, points out the site of 
the choir of the cathedral consecrated by Euse- 
bius. The sea, which usually destroys artificial 
structures, has not only spared, but has enlarg- 
ed, and converted into a solid isthmus, the 
mound by which Alexander joined the isle of 
Tyre to the continent," Malte-Brun. — Strab. 
IQ.—Herodot. 2, c. U.—Mela, 1, c. V^.—Curt. 
4, c. 4: — Virg. jEn. 1, v. 6, 339, &c.— Ovid. 
Fast. I, &c. — Met. 5 and 10. — iMcan. 3, &c. 

V. 

Vacca, I. a town of Numidia. Sallust. Jug. 
II. A river of Spain. 

Vaccjei, a people at the north of Spain. 
Liv. 21, c. 5, 1. 35, c. 7, 1. 46, c. 47. 

Vadimonis lacus, now Bassano, a lake of 
Etruria, whose waters were sulphureous. The 
Etrurians were defeated there by the Romans, 
and the Gauls by Dolabella. Liv. 9, c. 39. — 
Flor. 1, c. 13.—Plin. 8, ep. 20. 

Vagedrusa, a river of Sicily, between the 
towns of Camarina and Gela. Sil. 14, v. 229. 

Vageni, or Vagibnni, a people of Ligaria, at 
the sources of the Po, whose capital was called 
Augusta Vagiennorum. Sil. 8, v. 606. 

Vahalis, a river of modern Holland, now 
called the Waal. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 6. 

Valentia, I. one of the ancient names of 

Rome. II. A town of Spain, a little below 

Saguntum, founded by J. Brutus, and for some 

time known by the name of Julia Colonia. 

III. A town of Italy. IV. Another in Sar- 
dinia. 

Vandalii, a people of Germany. Tacit, de 
Germ. c. 3. 

Vandali, a barbarous people of the north- 
ern parts of Germany, connected in the remo- 
test ages with the Goths, but early separated 
from them, and divided into the principal hordes 
of Heruli and Burgundians. The Vandalic 
tribes, on the invasion of the empire by the 
Goths, reunited with those barbarians, and took 
part in all the ravages committed by them in the 
civilized countries of Europe. They fixed them- 
selves, for a time in Spain, and, crossing over 
into Africa, were among the first of the Ger- 
mans who effected the establishment of an em- 
pire within the limits of provinces claimed by 
the emperors of Rome. 

Vangiones, a people of Germany. Their 
capital, Borbetomagus is now called Worms. 
iMcan. 1, V. 431. — Cas. G. l,c. 51. 

Vannia, a town of Italy, north of the Po, 
now called Civita. 

Vardanius, otherwise Hypanis, now the 

Kuban. The course of this river, which rose in 

the line of the Caucasus mons, and belonged to 

Asiatic Sarmatia, now forms the limits of the 

314 



Russian empire in Asia, on the side of Asiatic 
Turkey. On the Turkish side is the province 
of Circassia, and on that of Russia the govern- 
ment of Astrachan. 

Varini, a people of Germany. Tacit, de Ger. 
40. 

Vasgones, a people of Spain, on the Pyre- 
nees. They were so reduced by a famine by 
Metellus, that they fed on human flesh. Plin. 
3, c. 3. They occupied that part of Spain which 
is now comprehended in the name of Navarre, 
and were among the most powerful of the Span- 
ish tribes. They afterwards effected settle- 
ments in Gaul. Vid. Aquitania. 

Vaticanus, a hill at Rome, near the Tiber 
and the Janiculum, which produced wine of no 
great esteem. It was disregarded by the Ro- 
mans on account of the unwholesomeness of the 
air, and the continual stench of the filth that 
was there, and of stagnated waters. Heliogaba- 
lus was the first who cleared it of all disagree- 
able nuisances. It is now admired for ancient 
monuments and pillars, for a celebrated public 
library, and for the palace of the pope. Horat. 
1, od. 20. 

Vatienus, now Saterno, a river rising in the 
Alps, and falling into the Po. Martial. 3, ep. 
61.— Plin. 3, c. 16. 

Ubii, a people of Germany, near the Rhine, 
transported across the river by Agrippa, who 
gave them the name of Agrippinenses, from his 
daughter Agrippina, who had been born in the 
country. Their chief town, Ubiorum Oppidum, 
is now Cologne. Tacit. G. 28, Ann. 12, c. 27. 
— Pli7i. 4, c. 17. — CcEs. 4, c. 30. 

Udina, or Vedinum, now Udino, a town of 
Italy. 

Vectis, the Isle of Wight, south of Britain. 
Suet. CI. 4. 

Veientes, the inhabitants of Veii. They 
were carried to Rome, where the tribes they 
composed were called Veientina. Vid. Veii. 

Veh, a powerful city of Etruria, at the dis- 
tance of about 12 miles from Rome, It sustained 
many long wars against the Romans, and was 
at last taken and destroyed by Camillus after a 
siege of ten years. At the time of its destruc- 
tion, Veii was larger and far more magnificent 
than the city of Rome. Its situation was so 
eligible, that the Romans, after the burning of 
the city by the Gauls, were long inclined to 
migrate there, and totally abandon their native 
home, and this would have been carried into 
execution if not opposed by the authority and 
eloquence of Camillus. Ovid. 2, Fast. v. 195. 

— Cic. de Div. 1, c. U.— Horat. 2, Sat. 3, v. 143. 
— Liv. 5, c. 21, &c. 

Velabrum, a marshy piece of ground on the 
side of the Tiber, between the Aventine, Pala- 
tine, and Capitoline hills, which Augustus 
drained, and where he built houses. The place 
was frequented as a market, where oil, cheese, 
and other commodities were exposed to sale, 
Horat. 2, Sat. 3, v. 229.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 401. 

— Tibull. 2, el. 5, v. 33.— Plant. 3, cap. 1, v. 29. 
Velta, T. a maritime town of Lucania, found- 
ed by a colony of Phoceans, about 600 years 
after the coming of JEneas into Italy. The 
port in its neighbourhood was called Vclinus 
partus. Strab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. 4. Cic. Phil. 10, 

c. 4.— Virg. .■En. 6, v. 366. II. An eminence 

near the Roman forum, where Poplicola built 



YE 



GEOGRAPHY, 



YE 



himself a house. Liv. 2, c. 6.—Cic. 7, Att. 15. 

Velina, apart of the city of Rome, adjoining 
mount Palatine. It was also one of the Roman 
tribes. Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 52. — Cic. 4, ad. Attic. 
ep. 15. 

Velinus, Vid. Reate. 

Veliterna, or Velitr^, an ancient town of 
Latium on the Appian road, 20 miles at the 
east of Rome. The inhabitants were called 
Veliterni. It became a Roman colony. Liv. 
8, c. 12, &c. — Sueton. in Aug. — Ital. 8, v. 378, &c. 

Venedi, a people of Germany. " They ex- 
tended along the shores of the Baltic^ to a con- 
siderable distance in the interior country ; and 
if their name be remarked subsisting in that of 
Wenden, in a district of Livonia, it is only in a 
partial manner, and holding but a small propor- 
tion to the extent which that nation occupied. 
Passing the Vistula, the Venedians took pos- 
session of the lands betAveen that river and the 
Elbe, that had been evacuated about the close 
of the fourth century by the Vandals, whose 
name is seen sometimes erroneously confound- 
ed with that of the Venedians. But the differ- 
ence is definitively marked by the language. 
The country that the Venedians occupied in the 
tenth century was that of the Pruzzi, whose 
name present use has changed into Borussi. 
We find this name indeed in Ptolemy ; but it 
appears there very far distant, on another fron- 
tier of Sarmatia, towards the situation which he 
gives to the Riphean mountains." lyAnville. 
It may be observed, that whatever affinitj'^ real- 
ly existed between the Vandals and the Vene- 
dians, the former being a Gothic people, can on- 
ly be connected with the latter, either on the re- 
turn of the Gothifrom Scandinavia, where the 
Vandalic stem may have been detached, or at a 
very late era, when the more northern tribes be- 
gan their last inroads on the frontiers of the 
empire. The purer Venedi dwelt by the Vis- 
tula, and those which mingled more with the 
latter Scandinavians may be called Goth o- Ve- 
nedi. 

Veneti, Vid. Venetia. 

Venetia, " the northeast angle of Italy, form- 
ed by the Alps and the head of the Adriatic 
gulf; to which the name of Venetia, was assign- 
ed, from the Heneti, or Veneti, an ancient 
people respecting whose origin considerable un- 
certainty seems to have existed even among the 
best informed writers of antiquity. The poeti- 
cal as well as popular opinion identified them 
with the Heneto-Paphlagones, enumerated by 
Homer in the catalogue of the allies of Priam. 
This people having crossed over into Europe 
under the command of Antenor, expelled the 
Euganei, the original inhabitants of the coun- 
try. Strabo was inclined to believe the Veneti 
to be Gauls, as there was a tribe of the same 
name in that country; but this opinion is at va- 
riance with the testimony of Polybius. Hero- 
dotus, who was well acquainted with the Veneti, 
designates them by the generic appellation of 
Illyrians. They were the last people who pene- 
trated into Italy by that frontier. This fact is 
sufficiently evident from the extreme position 
which they took up, and from their having re- 
tained possession of it undisturbed, as far as his- 
tory informs us, till they became subject to the 
Roman power. The history of the Veneti con- 
tains little that is worthy of notice, if we except 



the remarkable feature of their being the sole 
people of Italy, who not only ofiered no resist- 
ance to the ambitious projects of Rome, but even, 
at a very early period, rendered that power an 
essential service. According to an old geogra- 
pher, they counted within their territory fifty 
cities, and a population of a million and a half. 
The soil and climate were excellent, and their 
cattle were reported to breed twice in the year. 
Their horses were especially noted for their fleet- 
iiess, and are known to have often gained prizes 
in the games of Greece. When the Gauls had 
been subjugated, and their country had been 
reduced to a state of dependance, the Veneti do 
not appear to have manifested any unwilling- 
ness to constitute part of the new province. 
Their territory from that time was included un- 
der the general denomination of Cisalpine 
Gaul, and they were admitted to all the privi- 
leges which that province successively obtained. 
In the reign of Augustus, Venetia was consider- 
ed as a separate district, constituting the tenth re- 
gion in the division made by that emperor. Its 
boundaries, if v/e include within them the Tri- 
dentini, Meduaci, Garni, and other smaller na- 
tions, may be considered to be the Athesis, and 
a line drawn from that river to the Po, to the 
west : the Alps to the north : the Adriatic as far 
as the river Formio, Risano, to the east : and 
the main branch of the Po to the south." Cram. 

Venta (Belgarum), I. a town of Britain, now 

Winchester. II. Silurum, a town of Britain, 

now Caerwent in Monmouthshire. III. Ice- 

norum, now Norwich. 

Veragri, a Gallic people among those who 
inhabited the Vallis Penina. Their capital was 
Oclodurus. 

Verbanus LAcas, now Mdggiore, a lake of 
Italy, from which the Ticinus flows. It is in 
the modern dutchy of Milan, and extends fifty 
miles in length from south to north, and five or 
six in breadth. Strab. 4. 

Vercellje, a town on the borders of Insu- 
bria, where Marius defeated the Cimbri. Plin. 
3, c. 11.— Cic. Favi. 11, ep. l^.—Sil. 8, v. 598. 

Veromandui, a people of Gaul, the modern 
Vermandois. The capital is now St. Quintin. 
C(ES. G. B. 2. 

Verona, a town of Venetia, on the Athesis, 
in Italy, founded, as some suppose, by Brennus, 
the leader of the Gauls. C. Nepos, Catullus, 
and Pliny the elder, were born there. It was 
adorned with a circus and an amphitheatre by 
the Roman emperors, which still exist, and it 
still preserves its ancient name. Plin. 9, c. 22. 
—Strab. 5.— Ovid. Am. 'ii, el. 15, v. 7. 

Vestini, a people of Italy near the Sabines, 
famous for the making of cheese. Plin. 3, c. 
5. — Martial. 13. ep. 31. — Strab. 5. 

Vesulus, now Monte Viso, an elevation 
among the Alps of Liguria, where the Po fakes 
its rise. Virg. JEn. 10, v. 108.— Plin. 3, c. 19. 

Vesuvius, a mountain of Campania, about 
six miles at the east of Naples, celebrated for iis 
volcano. The ancients, particularly the writers 
of the Augustan age, spoke of Vesuvius as a 
place covered with orchards and vineyards, of 
which the middle was dry and barren. The 
first eruption of this volcano was in the 79th 
year of the Christian era under Titus. It was 
accompanied by an earthqnake,which overturn- 
ed several cities of Campania , particularly Pom- 
315 



VI 



GEOGRAPHY 



UL 



peii and Herculaneum : and the burning ashes 
which it threw up, were carried not only over 
the neighbouring country, but as far as the 
shores of Egypt, Libya, and Syria. This erup- 
tion proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. From 
that lime the eruptions have been frequent, and 
there now exists an account of twenty-nine of 
these. Vesuvius continually throws up asmoke, 
and sometimes ashes and flames. The perpen- 
dicular height of this mountain is 3780 feet. 
Dio. Cass. 4G.— Varro. de R. 1, c. Q>.—Liv. 23, 
c. 2d.— Strab.b.— Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 2.— Mela, 2, 
c. i.—Plin. 6, ep. 16.—ltaL 12, v. 152, &c.— 
Virg. G. 2, V. ^2^.— Mart. 4, ep. 43 and 44. 
" It appears to have been at first known under 
the name of Vesevus ; but the appellation of 
Vesvius and Vesbius is no less frequently ap- 
plied to it. Strabo describes this mountain as 
extremely fertile at its base, but entirely barren 
towards the summit, which Avas mostly level, 
and full of apertures and cracks, seemingly pro- 
duced by the action of fire ; whence Strabo was 
led to conclude, that the volcano, though once 
in a state of activity, had been extinguished 
from want of fuel. The volcano was likewise 
apparently extinct, when, as Plutarch and Flo- 
rus relate, Spartacus with some of his followers 
sought refuge m the cavities of the mountain 
from the pursuit of their enemies, and succeed- 
ed in eluding their search." Cram. 

Vetera castra, a Roman encampment in 
Germany, which became a town, now Santen, 
near Cleves. Tacit. H. 4, c. 18. An. 1, c. 45. 

Vettones, Vetones, or Vectones, an an- 
cient nation of Spain. Sil. 3, v, 378. — Plin. 
25, c. 8. 

Vetulonia, one of the chief cities of Etruria, 
whose hot waters were famous. The Romans 
were said to derive the badges of their magis- 
terial offices from thence, Plin. 2, c. 103, 1. 3, 
c. 3.—Ital. 8, V. 484. 

Ufens, I. a river of Italy, near Tarracina. 

Virg. ^n. 7, v. 892, 11. Another river of 

Picenum. — Liv. 5, c. 35, 

Via tEmylia, I. a celebrated road made by 
the consul M. ^mylius Lepidus, A. U. C. 567. 
It led with the Flaminian road to Aquileia. 
There was also another of the same name in 
Etruria, which led from Pisas to Dertona. 



II. Appia, was made by the censor Appius, and 
led from Rome to Capua, and from Capua to 
Brundusiura, at the distance of 350 miles, which 
the Romans call a five days' journey. It passed 
successively through the towns and stages of 
Aricia, Forum Appii, Tarracina, Fundi, Min- 
turnae, Sinuessa, Capua, Caudium, Beneven- 
tum, Equotuticum, Herdonia, Canusium, Ba- 
rium, Egnatia, to Brundusium. It was called, 
by way of eminence, regina viarum, made so 
strong, and the stones so well cemented to- 
gether, that it remained entire for many hun- 
dred years. Some parts of it are still to be 
seen in the neighbourhood of Naples. Appius 
carried it only 130 miles, as far as Capua, A. 
U. C. 442, and it was finished as far as Brun- 
dusium by Augustus. III. There was also 

another road, called Minucia or Numicia, 
which led to Brundusium, but by what places 

is now uncertain. IV. Flnminia, was made 

by the censor Flaminius, A. U. C. 533. It led 

from the Campus Martins to the modern town 

of Rimini on the Adriatic, through the country 

316 



of the Osci and Etrurians, at the distance of 
about 360 miles. V. Lata, one of the an- 
cient streets of Rome. VI. Valeria, led from 

Rome to the country of the Marsi, through the 
territories of the Sabines. There were, besides, 
many streets and roads of inferior note, such as 
the Aurelia, Cassia, Campania, Ardetina, La- 
bicana, Domiliana. Ostiensis, Proenestina, &c. ; 
all of which were made and constantly kept in 
repair at the public expense. 

ViADRUs, the classical name of the Oder, 
which rises in Moravia, and falls by three 
mouths into the Baltic. Ptol. 

ViCENTiA, or ViCETiA, a town of Cisalpine 
Gaul, at the northwest of ihe Adriatic. TaciL 
Hist. 3. 

Vienna, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, on 
the Rhone, below Lnjons. Vid. Viemiensis. 
Strab. l.—C(ES. Bell. G. 7, c. 9. 

ViENNENsis, a district in Narbonensis, *' on 
the left bank of the Rhone, from its issue out of 
the lake Lcmanus, or of Geneva, to its mouth. 
Vienna, from which it derived its name, was 
distinguished as the capital of a great people, 
before its elevation to the rank of a metropolis 
of a province : the most considerable of the 
Allobroges, quitting their villages, had formed 
this city of Vienne, and occupied the principal 
part of what from the dauphins of Viennois is 
called Dauphine. They extended in Savoy as 
far as the position of Geneva; which was one 
of their cities." D^Anville. 

ViMiNALis, one of the seven hills on which 
Rome was built, so called from the number of 
oziers {viniines) which grew there. Servius 
TuUiuSj first made it part of the city. Jupiter 
had a temple there, whence he was called Vi- 
mmalis. Liv. 1, c. 44. — Varro. L. L. 4, c, 8. 

ViNDELici, an ancient people of Germany, 
between the heads of the Rhine and the Da- 
nube. Their country, which was called Vindeli- 
cia, forms now part of Swabia and Bavo.ria, 
and their chief town, Augusta "Vmdelicorum, 
is now Augsburg. Horat. 4, od. 4, v. 18. 

ViNDiLi,"an extensive people of Germany, 
stretching from the Vistula, to the Elbe. They 
comprehended a great number of powerful 
tribes, and it is probable that a great many races 
of very different origin may have been included 
by the Romans in the vast population which, 
without observing their affinities or their differ- 
ences, the Romans classed under the name of 
Vindili. The Vandalic blood, no doubt, greatly 
predominated among these extensive tribes. 

ViNDONissA, now Wendisli, a town of the 
Helvetii, on the Aa,r, in the territory of Berne. 
Tacit. 4, Hist. 61 and 70. 

VisuRGis, a river of Germany, now called 
the Weser, and falling into the German ocean. 
Varus and his legions were cut to pieces there 
by the Germans. Veil. 2, c. \Qb.— Tacit. An. 
1, c. 70, 1. 2, c. 9. 

ViscELL^, now Weltz, a town of Noricum, 
between the Ens, and Mure. Cic. Am. 11. 

Vistula, a river falling into the Baltic, the 
eastern boundary of ancient Germany. 

Ulpia Trajana. " The capital city of all the 
countrv, which, under the name Sarmizegethu- 
sa, in that partof Dacia which is now Transyl- 
vania, having served for the residence of Dece- 
balus, vanquished by Trajan, received from this 
prince that of Ulpia Trajana, with which the 



UM 



GEOGRAPHY. 



VO 



primitive name was also asspciated. Ruins pre- 
serve the memory of its ancient magnificence 
to the place, which is inhabited only by a few 
herdsmen, and called Warhel, which signifies 
the site or position of a city ; or otherwise Gra- 
disca, denoting the same thing." D'Anville. 

UlubrjE, a small town of Latium, on the ri- 
ver Astura, where Augustus was educated. 
Juv. 10, V. 102.— Horat. 1, ep. 11. 

Umbria, a district of Italy, " considered un- , 
der the limits which were assigned to it in the 
reign of Augustus. It was bounded to the north 
by the Rubicon, which separated it from Cisal- 
pine Gaul. The Appenines and Tiber formed 
its limits to the west ; the Adriatic to the east. 
To the south it was divided from the Sabine 
country by the chain of mountains in which the 
Nar takes its rise, and by that river as far as 
Terni ; from this point a line drawn south of 
OiricoU, till it meets the Tiber, will complete 
the demarcation of the two territories. The 
river ^sis to the southeast marked the frontier 
on the side of Picenum, The Latin writers 
were evidently acquainted with no people of 
Italy more ancient than the Umbri ; and Dio- 
nysius of Halicarnassus assures us, they were 
one of the oldest and most numerous nations. 
The Umbri were already settled in that country 
longbefore the arrival of the Tyrrhenian colony. 
To the Greeks they were known under the 
name of 'OuPpiKin, a word which they.supposed 
to be derived from on^pog, under the idea that 
they were people saved from a universal de- 
luge. Dionysius has farther acquainted us with 
some particulars respecting the Umbri, which he 
derived from Zenodotus, a Greek of Tra?zene, 
who had written a history of this people. This 
author appears to have considered the Umbri as 
an indigenous race, whose primary seat was the 
country around Rieti, a district which, accord- 
ing to Dionysius, was formerly occupied by the 
Aborigines. Zenodotus was also of opinion 
that the Sabines were descended from the Um- 
bri ; and though it is customary to regard them 
as belonging lo the Oscan race, we see no rea- 
son why the latter people, who are very indis- 
tinctly classed and defined, should not be con- 
sidered as descended from the same indigenous 
stock : nay rather, when we consider the ana- 
logy which is allowed to exist between the seve- 
ral ancient dialects of Italy, and the uniformity 
of topographical nomenclature, which may be 
traced througjhout a great part of the peninsula, 
there seems to be a strong argument in favour of 
such an hypothesis. Considering therefore the 
Umbri as confessedly the most ancient people of 
Italy, we may safely ascribe to them the popu- 
lation of the central and mountainous parts of 
that country, as also the primitive form of its 
language, until the several communities of the 
Etruscans, Sabines, and Latins, successively de- 
tached themselves from the parent nation, and 
from a combination of different elements, adopt- 
ed also different modifications of the same pri- 
meval tongue. Connected with the origin of 
the ancient Umbri, there still remains a ques- 
tion which ou2:ht not to be entirely disregaided. 
It was confidently stated by Cornelius Boc- 
chus, a Roman writer quoted by Solinus and 
Isidorus, that the Umbri, were of the same race 
with the ancient Gauls. This opinion has been 
rejected on the one hand by Cluverius and Maf- 



fei, while it has served on the other as a founda- 
tion for the systems of Freret and Bardetti, who 
contend for the Celtic origin of the Umbri. 
Taken in a certain sense, we should consider 
this ancient authority certainly as carious, and 
not undeserving of attention; that is, if we re- 
fer it to that most distant period, when the name 
of Gomari, immediately derived from Gomer the 
son of Japhet, is said to have been applied to 
the descendants of that patriarch, and especially 
to that numerous family which was afterwards 
classed under the denomination of Celts. As 
the Etruscan name began to assume the ascen- 
dency, the Umbrian nation, on the contrary, de- 
clined. They were forced to withdraw from the 
right bank of the Tiber, while nearly the whole 
of Northern Italy fell under the power of their 
more enterprising and warlike neighbours: 
though an ancient Greek historian makes ho- 
nourable mention of the valour of the Umbri. 
It was then, probably, that the Tuscans, as we 
are told, possessed themselves of 300 towns pre- 
viously occupied by the Umbri. A spirit of ri- 
valry was still kept up however between the two 
nations ; as we are assured by Strabo, that 
when either made an expedition into a neigh- 
bouring dis-trict, the other immediately directed 
its efforts to the same quarter. Both people had, 
however, soon to contend with a formidable foe 
in the Gauls who invaded Italy ; and after van- 
quishing and expelling the Tuscans' from the 
Po, penetrated still farther, and drove the Um- 
bri from the shores of the Adriatic into the 
mountains. These were the Sen ones, who af- 
terwards defeated the Romans on the banks of 
Allia, and sacked their city. The Umbri, thus 
reduced, appear to have offered but liule resist- 
ance to the Romans ; nor is it improbable thai 
this polite people took advantage of their dif- 
ferences with the Etruscans to induce them at 
least to remain neuter, while they were contend- 
ing with the latter power. The submission of 
southern Umbria appears to have taken place A. 
U. C. 446. The northern and maritime parts 
were reduced after the total extirpation of the 
Senones, about twenty-five years afterM'ards," 
Cram. 

VoGEsus MONS, a mountain ridge in Gallia, 
stretching from the country of the Treverito that 
of the Lingones, branching off among the Me- 
diomatrici, Leuci, Sequani; and giving rise to 
the Matrona, Mosa, Mosella, and Arar. The 
modern name is Vosges, though the whole chain 
does not retain this appellation, which belongs 
to the portion separating Lotharingia from Alsa- 
tia. I/iican. 1, v. 397.— C-ss. G. 4, c. 10. 

Vor-ATERRA, a town of Etruria, some dis- 
tance inland, on the right bank of the river Cee- 
cena. " Its Etruscan name, as it appears on 
numerous coins, was Velathri. From the monu- 
ments alone which have been discovered within 
its walls and in the immediate vicinity, no small 
idea is raised ofthe power, civilization,and taste, 
of the ancient Etruscans. Its walls were form- 
ed, as may yet be seen, of huge massive stones, 
piled on each other without cement; and their 
circuit, which is still distinctly marked, em- 
braced a circumference of between three and 
four miles ; and it is supposed that the Tyrrhe- 
nian city, of which Aristotle, or the author ed 
Mirab. (p. 1158) speaks, under the name of 
CEnarea, is VoUerra. In the second Punic war, 
317 



us 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ZA 



we fmdVolaterrae among the other cities of Etru- 
ria that were zealous in their offers of naval stores 
to the Romans. Many years afterwards, Vola- 
terrae sustained a siege which lasted two years 
against Sylla ; the besieged consisting chiefly 
of persons whom that dictator had proscribed. 
On its surrender, Italy is said to have enjoyed 
peace for the first time after so much bloodshed. 
In one of his letters, Cicero expresses himself 
in terms of the warmest regard and interest for 
this city. Finally, we hear of Volaterrse as a 
colony, somewhat prior to the reign of Augus- 
tus." Cram. 

VoLCJB, or VoLGiE. Two people of Gallia 
Provincia bore this name. The one surnamed 
Arecomici, inhabited the part of Narbonensis 
between the Rhone and the Aude, and the other, 
called Tectosages,extended from the latter river 
to ihe borders of Novem Populana. The cap- 
ital of the Arecomici was Nemausus, Nimes, 
and that of the latter was Tolosa, Toulouse, a 
still more famous city on the Garonne. 

VoLsci, or VoLci, a people of Latium. " No 
noti(;e appears to be taken by any Latin writer 
of the origin of this people. According to Cato, 
they occupied the country of the Aborigines, 
and were at one time subject to the Etruscans. 
The Volsci had a peculiar idiom, distinct from 
the Oscan and Latin dialects. They used the 
Latin characters, however, both in their inscrip- 
tions and coins. Notwithstanding the small 
extent of country which they occupied, reach- 
ing only from Antium to Tarracina, a line of 
coast of about fifty miles, and little more than 
half that distance from the sea to the mountains, 
it swarmed with cities filled with a hardy race, 
destined, says the Roman historian, as it were 
by fortune, to train the Roman soldier to arms, 
by their perpetual hostility. The Volsci were 
first attacked by the second Tarquin, and war 
was carried on afterwards between the two na- 
tions, with short intervals, for upwards of two 
hundred years ; and though this account is no 
doubt greatly exaggerated by Livy, and the num- 
bers much overrated, enough will remain to 
prove that this part of Italy was at that time far 
more populous and better cultivated than it is at 
present." Cram. Their chief cities were An- 
tium, Circea, Anxur, Corioli, Fregellae, Arpi- 
num, &c. Ancus, king of Rome, made war 
against them, and in the time of the republic 
they became formidable enemies, till they were 
at last conquered with the rest of the Latins. 
Liv. 3 and 4.— Virg. G. % v. 168. JEn. 9, v. 505, 
I. 11, V. 546, &c.—Strab. 5.— Mela, 2, c. 4 and 5. 

VoLUBiLis, a town of Africa, supposed Fez, 
the capital of Morocco. Plin. 5, c. 1. 

VoLUMN^ FANUM, a temple in Etruria, sa- 
cred to the goddess Volumna, who presided over 
the will and over complaisance, where the states 
of the country used to assemble. Viterbo now 
stands on the spot. Liv. 4, c. 23, 1. 5, c. 17, 1. 
6, c. 2. 

Urba, now Orhe, a town of the Helvetii, on 
a river of the same name. 

Urbinum, now Urbino, a town of Umbria. 
Plin. 3, c. 14. 

Urgo, now Gorgona, an island in the bay of 
Pisa, 25 miles west of Leghorn, famous for an- 
chovies. Plin. 3, c. 6. 

UsiPETES, or Usipn, a people of Germany. 
CcES. Bell. G. 4, c. 1, &c. 
318 



Utens, a river of Gaul, now Monione, falling 
into the Adriatic by Ravenna. Liv. 5, c. 35. 

Utica, now Satcor, a celebrated city of Af- 
rica, on the coast of the Mediterranean, on the 
same bay as Carthage, founded by a Tyrian col- 
ony above 287 years before Carthage. It had 
a large and commodious harbour, and it became 
the metropolis of Africa after the destruction of 
Carthage in the third Punic war, and the Ro- 
mans granted it all the lands situate between 
Hippo and Carthage. It is celebrated for the 
death of Cato, who from thence is called Uti- 
censis, or of Utica. Strab. 17. — Lucan. 6, v. 306. 
— Justin. 18, c. 4. — Plin. 16, c. 40. — Liv. 25, c. 
3l.—Sil. 3, V. 2i2.—Horat. 1, ep. 20, v. 513. 

VuLCANi INSULA, or VuLCANiA, a name given 
to the islands between Sicily and Italy, now 
called Lipari. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 422. They re- 
ceived it because there were the subterraneous 
fires supposed to be excited by Vulcan, the god 
of fire. 

VuLTURNUM, a town of Campania, near the 
mouth of the Vulturnus. Liv. 25, c. 20. — Plin. 

3, c. 5. Also an ancient name of Capua. 

Liv. 4, c. 37. 

Vulturnus, a river of Campania, rising in 
the Appenines, and falling into the "Tyrrhene 
Sea after passing by the town of Capua. L/iicret. 

5, mL—Virg. uEn. 7, v. 729. The god of 

the Tiber was also known by that name. Var- 

ro. de L. L. 4, c. 5. The wind which received 

the name of Vulturnus when it blew from the 
side of the Vulturnus, highly incommoded the 
Romans ac the battle of Cannae. Liv. 22, c. 
43 and 46. 

VuLsiNUM, a town of Etruria, where Sejanus 
was born. 

UxANTis, now Ushant, an island on the coast 
of Britany. 

UxELLODUNUM, a town of Gaul, defended by 
steep rocks, now Puech d'Issolu. Cces. B. G. 
8, c. 33. 

UxENTUM, a town of Calabria, now Ugento. 

Uxii, mountains of Armenia, with a nation 
of the same name, conquered by Alexander. 
The Tigris rises in their country. Strab. — 
Diod. 

UziTA, an inland town of Africa, destroyed 
by Caesar. Hist, de Afric. 41, &c. 

X 

XANTm, I. a people of Thrace. II, The 

inhabitants of Xanthus in Asia. Vid. Xanthus. 

Xera, a town of Spain, now Xerex, where 
the Moors gained a battle over Roderic, king of 
the Goths. 

XiPHONiA, a promontory of Sicily, at the 

north of Syracuse, now Cruce. Strab. 6. 

Also a town near it, now Augusta. 

Xois, an island formed by the mouths of the 
Nile. Strab. 17. 

XuTmA, the ancient name of the plains of 
Leontium in Sicily. Diod. 5. 

Xylenopolis, a town at the mouth of the In- 
dus, built bv Alexander, supposed to be Laheri. 
Plin. 6, c. 23. 

Z 

Zabatus, a river of Media, falling into the 
Tigris, near which the ten thousand Greeks 
stopped in tlieir return. Xenophon. 



ZA 



GEOGRAPHY. 



ZU 



Zacynthus. The island of Zacynthus, now 
called Zante, is situate at the south of Cepha- 
lenia, and at the west of the Peloponnesus. It 
is about 60 miles in circumference. Liv. 26, c. 
24.— PZm. 4. c. V^.—Strab. 2 and %.—Me]u. 2, 
c. 1— Homer. Od. 1, v. 246, 1. 9, v. 2i.— 0vid. 
deArt. Am. 2 v. 432.— Pa^s. 4, e. 23.— Fir^. 
^n. 3, V. 270. 

Zagrus, a mountain on the confines of Me- 
dia and Babylonia. StroJ). 11. 

Zaru, or Zagma, I, a town of Numidia, 300l 
miles from Carthage, celebrated for the victory 
which Scipio obtained there over the great An- 
nibal, B. C. 202. Metellus besieged it, and 
was obliged to retire with great loss. After 
Juba's death it was destroyed by the Romans. 
Hirt. Af. 91. — C. Nep. in Annib. — Liv. 30, c. 
29.—Sallust. de Jug.—Flor. 3, c. l.—Ital. 3, 

V. 261.— Strab. 17. II. A town of Cappado- 

cia. III. Of Mesopotamia. 

Zancle, a town of Sicily, or the straits which 
separate that island from Italy. It received its 
name from its appearing like a scythe which 
was called ^avK^ov in the language of the coun- 
try, or, as others say, because the scathe Avith 
which Saturn mutilated his father fell there, or 
because, as Diodorus reports, a person named 
Zanclus had either built or exercised its sove- 
reignt}'. Zancle fell into the hands of the Sa- 
mians, 497 years before the Christian era, and 
three years after it was recovered b}-- Anaxilaus, 
the Messenian tyrant of Rhegium, who gave it 
the name of his native country, and called it 
Messana. It was founded, as most chronolo- 
gists support, about 1058 years before the Chris- 
tian era,- by the pirates of Cumse in Italy, and 
peopled by Samians, lonians, and Chalcidians. 
Strab. 6.—Diod. ^.—Ital 1, v. 662.— Ovi^. 



Fast. 4, V. 499. Met. 14, v. 6, 1. 15, V. 290.- 
Paus. 4, c. 23. 

Zela, or Zelia, I. a town of Pontus, near 
the river Lycus, where Csesar defeated Phama- 
ces, son of Mithridates. In expressing this 
victory, the general used the words f mi, vidi^ 

vici. Suet. Cces. 37. — Hirt. Alex. 72. II. 

A town of Troas, at the foot of Ida. III. 

Another of Lycia. 

Zephyrium, I. a promontory of Magna Grae- 
cia towards the Ionian Sea, whence, according 
to some, the Locrians are called Epizephirii. 

II. A town of Cilicia. Liv. 33, c. 20. 

III. A cape of Crete, now Sa.n Zumi£, 

IV. Of Pontus, &c. 

Zephyruj.1, a promontory in the island of Cy- 
prus, where Venus had a temple built by Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus, whence she was called Ze- 
phyria. It was in this temple that Arsinoe made 
an ofieringof her hair to the goddess of beauty, 

Zerynthus, a town of Samothrace, with a 
cave sacred to Hecate. The epithet of Zeryn- 
thius is applied to Apollo, and also to Venus. 
Ovid. Trist. 1, el. 9, v. 19.— Liv. 38, c. 41. 

ZiRURA, a town of Armenia Minor, 12 miles 
from the sources of the Euphrates. Plin. 5, 
c. 24. 

ZiNGis, a promontory of Ethiopia, near the 
entrance of the Red Sea, now Cape Orfui. 

Zona, a town of Thrace, on the iEgean Sea, 
where the woods are said to have followed the 
strains of Orpheus. Mela, 2, c. 2. — ^Herodot. 

Zoroanda, a part of Taurus, between Meso- 
potamia and Armenia, near which the Tigris 
flows. Plin. 6, c. 27. 

ZucHis, a lake to the east of the Syrtis Mi- 
nor, with a town of the same name, famous for 
a purple dye and salt fish. Strab. 17. 
319 



PART n. 



HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES, &c. 



AB 

Abantes, a warlike people of Peloponnesus, 
who built a town in Phocis, called Aba, after 
their leader Abas, whence also their name ori- 
ginated ; they afterwards went to Euboea. Vid. 
Abantis. Herodot. 1, c. 146. 

Abantias, and Abantiades, a patronymic 
given to the descendants of Abas, king of Argos, 
such as Acrisius, Danae, Perseus, Atalanta, 
&c. Ovid. 

Abantidas, made himself master of Sicyon, 
after he had murdered Clinias, the father of 
Aratus. He was himself soon after assassinat- 
ed, B. C. 251. Plut in Aral. 

Aearis. Vid. Part III. 

ABARUs,an Arabian prince, who perfidiously 
deserted Crassus in his expedition against Par- 
thia. Appian. in Parth. He is called Meze- 
resby Flor. 3, c. 11, and Aiiamnes by Plut. in 
Crass. 

Abas, I. the 11th king of Argos, son of Be- 
lus, some say of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, 
was famous for his genius and valour. He was 
father to Proetus and Acrisius, by Ocalea, and 
built Abae. He reigned 23 years, B. C. 1384. 
Pans. 2, c. 16, 1. 10, c. ^b.—Hygin. 170, &c. 

Apollod. 2, c. 2. II. A soothsayer, to whom 

the Spartans erected a statue in the temple of 
Apollo for his services to Lysander. Paii^s 
10, c. 9. III. A sophist who wrote two trea- 
tises, one on history, the other on rhetoric: the 

time in which he lived is unknown. IV. A 

man who wrote an account of Troy, He is 
quoted by Servius in Virg. jEn. 9. 

Abdalonimds, one of the descendants of the 
kings of Sidon, so poor, that to maintain him- 
self he worked in a garden. When Alexander 
took Sidon, he made him king in the room of 
Strato, the deposed monarch, and enlarged his 
possessions on account of the great disinterest- 
edness of his conduct. Justin. 11, c. 10. — 
Curt. 4, c. l.—Diod. 17. 

Abelux, a noble of Saguntum, who favour- 
ed the party of the Romans against Carthage. 
Liv. 22, c. 22. 

Abii, a nation between Scythia and Thrace. 
They lived upon milk, were fond of celibacy, 
and enemies to war. Homer. 11. 13, v. 6. Ac- 
cording to Curt. 7, c. 6, they surrendered to 
Alexander, after they had been independent 
since the reign of Cyrus. 

Abcecritus, a Boeotian general, killed with 
a thousand men, in a battle at Chgeronea against 
the jEtolians. Plut. in Arat. 

Aborigines, the original inhabitants of Italy; 
or, according to others, a nation conducted by 
320 



AC 

Saturn into Latium where they taught the use 
of letters to Evander, the king of the country. 
Their posterity was called Latini, from Latuius, 
one of their kings. They assisted jiEneas 
against Turnus. Rome was built in their coun- 
try. The word signifies without origin^ or 
whose origin is not knoion, and is generally ap- 
plied to the original inhabitants of any country. 
Liv. 1, c. 1, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 10. — Jus- 
tin. 43, c. l.—Plin. 3, c". b.—Strab. 5.. 

Abradates, a king of Susa, who, when his 
wife Panthea had been taken prisoner by Cy- 
rus, and humanely treated, surrendered hirnself 
and his troops lo the conqueror. He was killed 
in the first battle which he undertook in the 
cause of Cyrus, and his wife stabbed herself on 
his corpse. Cyrus raised a monument on their 
tomb. Xenoph. Cyrop. 5, 6, &c. 

Abrentiu."?, was made governor of Taren- 
tum by Annibal. He betrayed his trust to the 
enemy to gain the favours of a beautiful wo- 
man, whose brother was in the Roman army. 
Polyisn. 8. 

Abrocomas, son of Darius, was in the army 
of Xerxes when he invaded Greece. He was 
killed at Thermopylae. Herodot. 7, c. 224.—- 
Plut. in Cleom. 

ABRODI.ETUS, a name given to Parrhasius 
the painter, on account of the sumptuous man- 
ner of his living. Vid. Parrhasius. 

Abron, I. an Athenian, who wrote some trea- 
tises on the religious festivals and sacrifices of 
the Greeks. Only the titles of his works are 

preserved. Suid'as. II. A grammarian of 

Rhodes, who taught rhetoric at Rome. III. 

Another, who wrote a treatise on Theocritus. 
IV. A Spartan, son of Lycurgus the ora- 
tor. Plat, in 10. Orat. V. A native of Ar- 
gos, famous for his debauchery. 

Abrontfcus, an Athenian very serviceable to 
Themistocles in his embassy to Sparta. Thu- 
cyd. 1, c. ^\.— Herodot. 8, c. 21. 

Abronius, Silo, a Latin poet in the Augus- 
tan age. He wrote some fables. Senec. 

Abrotonum, the mother of Themistocles. 
Plut. in Them. 

Abrypolis, an allv of Rome, driven from 
his possessions by Perseus, the last king of 
Macedonia. Liv. 42, c. 13 and 41. 

Abulites, governor of Susa, betrayed his 
trust to Alexander, and was rewarded with a 
province. Curt. 5, c. 2. — Diod. 17. 

AcAcius, a rhetorician in the age of the em- 
peror Julian. 

ilcAMAS. Vid. Part III. 



AC 



HISTORY, &c. 



AC 



AccA Laurentia, I, The Romans yearly- 
celebrated certain festivals, vid. Laurentalia in 
honour of another prostitute of the same name, 
which arose from this circumstance : the keep- 
er of the temple of Hercules, one day playing at 
dice, made the god one of the number, on con- 
dition that if Hercules was defeated he should 
make him a present, but if he conquered, he 
should be entenained with an elegant feast, and 
share his bed with a beautiful female. Her- 
cules was victorious, and accordingly Acca was 
conducted to the bed of Hercules, who in reality 
came to see her, and told her in the morning to 
go into the streets, and salute with a kiss the 
first man she met. This was Tarrutius, an old 
unmarried man, who, not displeased with Acca's 
liberty, loved her, and made her the heiress of 
all his possessions. These, at her death, she 
gave to the Roman people, whence the honours 
paid to her memory. Plut. Quccst. Rom. tf* 

in JRomul. II. A companion of Camilla. 

Virg. JSn. 11, v. 820. Vid. Part III. 

AcciA, or Atia, I. a daughter of Julia and M. 
Alius Balbus, was the mother of Augustus, and 
died about 40 years B. C. Dio. — Stcet. in Aug. 

4. II. Variola, an illustrious female, whose 

cause was elegantly pleaded by PlinJ^ Plin. 
6, ep. 33. 

Accius, (L.) I. a Roman tragic poet, whose 
roughness of style Gluintilian has imputed to the 
unpolished age in which he lived. He trans- 
lated some of the tragedies of Sophocles ; but of 
his numerous pieces only some of the names are 
known ; and among these, his Nuptiae, Merca- 
tor, Neoptolemus, Phoenice, Medea, Atreus, 
&c. The great marks of honour which he re- 
ceived at Rome, may be collected from this cir- 
cumstance, that a man was severely reprimand- 
ed by a magistrate for mentioning his name 
without reverence. Some few of his verses are 
preserved in Cicero and other writers. He died 
about 180 years B. C. Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 56. — 
Ovid. Am. l,el. 15, v. 19. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — 

Cic. ad Alt. d^ in Br. de Or at. 3, c. 16. II. 

A famous orator of Pisaurum in Cicero's age. 

III. Labeo, a foolish poet mentioned Pers. 

1, V. 50. IV. Tullius, a prince of the Vol- 

sci, very inimical to the Romans. Coriolanus, 
when banished by his countrymen, fled to him, 
and led his armies against Rome. Liv. 2, c. 
37. — Plut. in Coriol. 

Acco, a general of the Sen ones in Gaul. 
Cccs. Bell. Gall. 6, c. 4 and 44. 

AcERATus, a soothsayer, who remained alone 
at Delphi when the approach of Xerxes fright- 
ened away the inhabitants. Herodot. 8, c. 37. 

AcERBAs, a priesL of Hercules at Tyre, who 
married Dido. Vid. Sichmis. Justin. 18, c. 4. 

AcESTES, son of Crinisus and Egesta, was 
king of the country near Drepanum in Sicily. 
He assisted Priam in the Trojan war, and kind- 
ly entertained ^Eneas during his voyage, and 
helped him to bury his father on mount Eryx. 
In commemoration of this, .^neas built a city 
there, called Acesta, from Acestes. Virg. jEn. 
5, V. 746. 

AcESTODORUs, a Greek historian, who men- 
tions the review which Xerxes made of his 
forces before the battle of Salamis. Plut. in 
Them. 

AcHJEi, I, the descendants of Achasus, at first 
inhabited the country near Argos, but, being 

Part IT.— 2 S 



driven out by the Heraclidae 80 years after the 
Trojan war, they retired among the lonians, 
whose twelve cities they seized and kept. The 
names of these cities are Pelena, -S^gira, .^ges, 
Bura, Tritaea, ^gion, Rhypae, Olenos, Helice, 
Patras, Dyme, and Pharse. The inhabitants 
of these three last began a famous confederacy, 
284 years B. C. which continued formidable 
upwards of 130 years, under the name of the 
Achcean league, and was most illustrious whilst 
supported by the splendid virtues and abilities of 
Aratus and Philopcemen. Their arms were di- 
rected against the jEtolians for three years, with 
the assistance of Philip of Macedon ; and they 
grew powerful by the accession of neighbour- 
ing states, and freed their country from foreign 
slavery, till at last they were attacked by the 
Romans, and, after one year's hostilities, the 
Achaean league was totally destroyed, B. C. 147. 
The Achseans extended the borders of their 
country by conquest, and even planted colonies 

in Magna Graecia. The name of Achcei is 

generally applied to all the Greeks indiscrim- 
inately by the poets. Vid.Achaia. Herodot. 1^ 
c. 145, 1. 8, c.^&.—Stat.Theb. 2, v. lei.—Polyb. 
— Liv. 1, 27, 32, &c. — Plut. in Philop. — Plin. 
4, c. b.— Ovid. Met A,Y.&(ib.—Paus.l, c. 1, &c. 

II. Also a people of Asia, on the borders of 

the Euxine. Ovid. de. Pont. 4, el. 10, v. 27. 

AcHiEMENEs, I. a king of Persia, among the 
progenitors of Cyrus the Great, whose de- 
scendants were called AchasmeniUes, and 
formed a separate tribe in Persia, of which 
the kings were members. Cambyses, son of 
Cyrus, on his death-bed charged his nobles, 
and particularly the Achaemenides, not to 
suffer the Medes to recover their former power, 
and abolish the empire of Persia. Herodot. 1, 
c. 125, 1. 3, c. 65, 1. 7, c. W.— Horat. 2, od. 12, 

V. 21. II. A Persian, made governor of 

Egypt by Xerxes, B. C. 484. 

AcHiETJs, I. a king of Lydia, hung by his 

subjects for his extortion. Ovid, in lb. II. 

A son of Xuthus of Thessaly. He fled, after 
the accidental murder of a man, to Pelopon- 
nesus ; where the inhabitants were called from 
him AchsBi. He afterwards returned to Thes- 
saly. StraJ). 8. — Pans. 7, c. 1. III. A tragic 

poet of Eretria, who wrote 43 tragedies, of 
which some of the titles are preserved, such as 
Adrastus, Linus, Cycnus, Eumenides, Philoe- 
tetes, Pirithous, Theseus, CEdipus, &c.; of these 
only one obtained the prize. He lived some 
time after Sophocles. IV. Another of Syra- 
cuse, author often tragedies. V. A relation 

of Antiochus the Great, appointed governor of 
all the king's provinces beyond Taurus. He 
aspired to sovereign power, which he disputed 
for 8 years with Antiochus, and was at last be- 
trayed by a Cretan. His limbs were cut ofi", 
and his body, sewed in the skin of an ass, was 
exposed on a gibbet. Polyb. 8. 

AcHAicuM BELLUM. Vid. Achcd. 

Achates, a friend of ^neas, whose fidelity 
was so exemplary, that Fidus Achates became 
a proverb. Virg. JEn. 1, v. 316; 

AcmLLAS, a general of Ptolemy, who mur- 
dered Pompey the Great. Plut. in Pomp. — 
Lucan. 8, v. 538. 

AcfflLLEDs, or AauiLEus, a Roman general 
in Egjrpt, in the reign of Dioclesian, who re- 
belled, and for five years maintained the impe- 
321 



AC 



HISTORY, &c. 



AC 



rial dignity at Alexandria. Dioclesian at last 
inarched against him ; and because he had sup- 
ported a long siege, the emperor ordered him 
to be devoured by lions. 

AcHiLLEis, a poem of Statius, in which he 
describes the education and memorable actions 
of Achilles. This composition is imperfect. 
The poet's immature death deprived the world 
of a valuable history of the life and exploits of 
this famous hero. Vid. Statius. 

Achilles, L the son of Peleus and Thetis, 
was the bravest of all the Greeks in the Trojan 
war. During his infancy, Thetis plunged him 
in the Styx, and made every part of his body 
invulnerable, except the heel by which she held 
him. His education was intrusted to the cen- 
taur Chiron, who taught him the art of war, 
and made him master of music ; and by feeding 
him with the marrow of wild beasts, rendered 
him vigorous and active. He was taught elo- 
quence by Phoenix, whom he ever after loved 
and respected. Thetis to prevent him from 
going to the Trojan war, where she knew he 
was to perish, privately sent him to the court of 
Lycomedes, where he was disguised in a female 
dress, and, by his familiarity with the king's 
daughters made Deidamia mother of Neoptole- 
mus. As Troy could not be taken without the 
aid of Achilles, Ulysses went to the court of 
Lycomedes in the habit of a merchant, and ex- 
posed jewels and arms to sale. Achilles, choos- 
ing the arms, discovered his sex and went to 
the war. Vulcan, at the entreaties of Thetis, 
made him a strong suit of armour, which was 
proof against all weapons. He was deprived by 
Agamemnon of his favourite mistress, Briseis, 
who had fallen to his lot at the division of the 
booty of Lyrnessus. For this affront he refus- 
ed to appear in the field till the death of his 
friend Patroclus recalled him to action and to 
revenge. Vid. Patroclus. He slew Hector, 
the bulwark of Troy, tied the corpse by the heels 
to his chariot, and dragged it three times round 
the walls of Troy. After thus appeasing the 
shades of his friend, he yielded to the tears and 
entreaties of Priam, and permitted the aged 
father to ransom and carry away Hector's body. 
In the 10th year of the v/ar, Achilles, was charm- 
ed with Polyexena ; and as he solicited her hand 
in the temple of Minerva, it is said that Paris 
aimed an arrow at his vulnerable heel, of which 
wound he died. His body was buried at Si- 
gaeum, and divine honours were paid to him. and 
temples raised to his memory. The Thessalians 
yearly sacrificed a black and a white bull on his 
tomb. It is reported that he married Helen af- 
ter the siege of Troy ; but others maintain that 
this marriage happened after his death, in the 
island of Leuce, where many of the ancient 
heroes lived as in a separate elysium. Vid. 
Leuce. "When Achilles was young, his mother 
asked him whether he preferred a long life, 
spent in obscurity and retirement, or a few years 
of military fame and glory: and that to his 
honour, he made choice of the latter. Xenoph. 
de venat. — Plut. in Alex. — De facie in Orbe 
Law,. De music. De amic. mult. QucEst. Grac. 
Paus. 3, c. 18, &.c.—Diod. 11.— Stat. Achil.— 
Ovid. Met. 12, fab. 3, &c. Trist. 3, el. 5, v. 
37, &c.— Virg. ^n. 1, v. 472, 488, 1. 2, v. 275, 
1. 6, v. 58, &.c.—Apollod. 3, c. 13.—Hygin. fab. 
96 and llO.—St^ab. U.—Plin. 35, c. 15.— 
322 



3Iax. Tyr. Oral. 21.--Horat. 8, 1. od. 1. 2, od. 
4 and 16, 1. 4, od. 6, 2. ep. 2, v. 42.— Horn. 11. 
(^ Od.—Dictys Cret. 1, 2, 3, &.C.— Dares 
Phryg. — Juv. 7, v. 210. — Apollon. 4. — Argmt,. 

V. 869. II. A man who instituted ostracism 

at Athens. III. Tatius, a native of Alexan- 
dria, in the age of the emperor Claudius, but 
originally a Pagan converted to Christianity, 
and made a bishop. He wrote a mixed history 
of great men, a treatise on the sphere, tactics, a 
romance on the loves of Clitophon and Leu- 
cippe, &c. Some manuscripts of his works are 
preserved in the Vatican and Palatinate libra- 
ries. The best edition of his works is that in 
12mo. L. Bat. 1640. 

AcHivi, the name of the inhabitants of Ar- 
gos and Lacedasmon before the return of the 
Heraclidse, by whom they were expelled from 
their possessions 80 years after the 1'rojan war. 
Being without a home, they drove the lonians 
from .^gialus, seized their twelve cities, and 
called the country Achaia. The lonians were 
received by the Athenians. The appellation 
of Achivi is indiscriminately applied by the an- 
cient poets to all the Greeks. Paus. 7, c. 1, 
&c. Vid. Achaia.' 

AcHLADiEus, a Corinthian general, -killed by 
Aristomenes. Paus. 4, c. 19. 

AcicHORius, a general with Brennus, in the 
expedition which the Gauls undertook against 
Paeonia. Paus. 10, c. 10. 

AciLiA, I. a plebeian family at Rome, which 

traced its pedigree up to the Trojans. 11. 

The mother of Lucan. 

AciLiA Lex, was enacted A.U.C. 556, by Acil- 
ius the tribune for the plantation of five colonies 

in Italy. Liv. 32, c. 29. Another, called also 

Calpurnia, A. U. C. 684, concerning such as 
were guilty of extortion in the provinces, 

AciLius Balbus, (M.) I. was consul with 

Portius Cato, A. U. C. 640. Plin. 2, c. 56. 

II. Glabrio, a tribune of the people, who with a 
legion quelled the insurgent slaves in Etruria. 
Being consul with P. Corn. Scipio Nasica, A. 
U. C. 563, he conquered Antiochus at Ther- 
mopyte, for which he obtained a triumph, and 
three days were appointed for public thanks- 
giving. He stood for the censorship against 
Cato, but desisted on account of the false mea- 
sures used by his competitor. Justin. 31, c. 6. 
—Liv. 30, c. 40, 1. 31, c. 50, 1. 35, c. 10, &c. 
III. The son of the preceding erected a tem- 



ple to Piety, which his father had vowed to this 
goddess when fighting against Antiochus. He 
raised a golden statue to his father, the first that 
appeared in Italy. The temple of Piety was built 
on the spot where once a woman had fed with 
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had 
imprisoned and excluded from all aliment. Val. 
Max. 2, c. 5. IV. A man accused of extor- 
tion, and twice defended by Cicero. He was 
proconsul of Sicily, and lieutenant to Cassar in 
the civil wars. Cas. Bell. Civ. 3, c. 15. — ;-^V. 
A consul, whose son was killed by Domitian 
because he fought with wild beasts. The true 
cause of this murder was, that young Glabrio 
was stronger than the emperor and therefore 
envied. Juv. 4, v. 94. 

AcoNTius. Vid. Part III. 

AcRAGALLiDiE, a dishoucst nation living an- 
ciently near Athens. jEsch. contra Ctesiph. 

AcRATUs, a freedraan of Nero, sent into Asia 



AD 



HISTORY, &c. 



AD 



to plunder the temples of the gods. Tac. An. 
15, c. 45, 1. 16, c. 23. 

AcRiDOPHAGi, an ^Ethiopian nation, who fed 
upon locusts, and lived not beyond their 40th 
year. Diod. 3.—Plin. 11, c. 29.—Strab. 16. 

AcRioN, a Pythagorean philosopher of Lo- 
cris. Cic. defin. 5, c. 29. 

AcRisioNEUS, a patronymic applied to the 
Argives, from Acrisius, or from a daughter of 
Acrisius of the same n ame. Virg. jEn. 7, v. 410. 

Acrisius. Vid. Part III. 

AcRON, I. a king of Cenina, killed by Rom- 
ulus in single combat, after the rape of the Sa- 
bines. His spoils were dedicated to Jupiter. 
Feretrius. Plut. in Romul. II. A physi- 
cian of Agrigentum, B. C. 439, educated at 
Athens with Empedocles. He wrote physical 
treatises in the Doric dialect, and cured the 
Athenians of a plague, by lighting fire near the 
houses of the infected. Plin. 29, c. 1. — Plut. in 
Isid. 

AcROPATos, one of Alexander's officers, who 
obtained part of Media after the king's death. 
Justin. 13, c. 4. 

AcROTATQs, I. a son of Cleomenes, king of 
Sparta, died before his father, leaving a son 

called Areus. Pans. 1, c. 13, 1. 3, c. 6. II. 

A son of Areus, who was greatly loved by Che- 
lidonis,.wife of Cleonymus. This amour dis- 
pleased her husband, who called Pyrrhus the 
Epirot to avenge his wrongs. When Sparta 
was besieged by Pyrrhus, Acrotatus was seen 
bravely fighting in the middle of the enemy, 
and commended by the multitude, who congrat- 
ulated Chelidonis on being mistress to such a 
warlike lover. Plut. in Pyrrh. 

AcTiA, I. the mother of Augustus. II. 

Games sacred to Apollo, in commemoration of 
the victory of Augustus over M. Antony at Ac- 
tium. They were celebrated every third, some- 
times fifth year, with great pomp, and the Lace • 
dsemonians had the care of them. Plut in An- 
ton.— Strab. l.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 280, 1. 8, v. 675. 
III. A sister of Julius Caesar, Plut. in Cic. 

AcTisANEs, a king of ^Ethiopia, who conquer- 
ed Egypt and expelled king Amasis. Diod. 1. 

AcTius N^vios, I. an augur, who cut a load- 
stone in two with a razor, before Tarquin and 
the Roman people, to convince them of his skill 

as an augur. Flor. 1. c. 5. — Liv. 1, c. 36. 

II. Labeo. Vid. Labeo. 

AcTORius Naso, M. a Roman historian, Sue- 
ton, in Jul. 9. 

AcuLEO, C. a Roman lawyer, celebrated as 
much for the extent of his understanding as for 
his knowledge of law. He was uncle to Cicero, 
Cic. in Orat. 1, c. 43. 

AcusiLAUs, I. an historian of Argos, often 
quoted by Josephus. He wrote on genealogies 
in a style simple and destitute of all ornament. 
Cic. de Orat. 2, c. 29. — Suidas. — II. An Athen- 
ian who taught rhetoric at Rome under Galba. 

AcuTicus, M. an ancient comic writer, whose 
plays were known under the name of Leones, 
Gemini, Anus, Boeotia, &c. 

Ada, a sister of queen Artemisia, who mar- 
ried Hidricus. After her husband's death she 
succeeded to the throne of C aria ; but being ex- 
pelled by her younger brother, she retired to 
Alindse, which she delivered to Alexander after 
adopting him as her son. Curt. 2, c. 8. — 
Strab. 14, 



AD.EUS, a native of Mitylene, who wrote a 
Greek treatise on statuaries, Athen. 13. 

ADELPmus, a friend of M, Antonius, whom 
he accompanied in his expedition into Parthia, 
of which he wrote the history, Strab. 11. 

Adgandestrius, a prince of Gaul, who sent 
to Rome for poison to destroy Arminius, and 
was answered by the senate, that the Romans 
fought their enemies openly, and never used 
perfidious measures. Tac. An. 2, c. 88. 

Adherbal, a son of Micipsa, and grandson 
of Masinissa, was besieged at Cirta, and 
put to death by Jugurtha, after vainly implor- 
ing the aid of Rome, B. C. 112. Sallust. in 
Jug. 

Adiatorix, a governor of Galatia, who, to 
gain Antony's favour, slaughtered, in one night, 
all the inhabitants of the Roman colony of He- 
raclea in Pontus. He was taken at Aciium, 
led in triumph by Augustus, and strangled in 
prison. Strab. 12. 

Adimantus, I. a commander of the Athenian 
fleet, taken by the Spartans. All the men of 
the fleet were put to death, except Adimantus, 
because he had opposed the designs of his coun- 
trymen, who intended to mutilate all the Spar- 
tans. Xenoph. Hist. Grac. Pausanias says, 
4, c. 17, 1, 10, c. 9, that the Spartans had bribed 

him, II. A brother of Plato. Laert. 3. 

III. A Corinthian general, who reproached 
Themistocles with his exile. 

Admetus. Vid. Part, III, 

Adrastus, I. son of Talaus and Lysimache, 
was king of Argos. Polynices, being banished 
from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, fled to Ar- 
gos, where he married Argia, daughter of Ad- 
rastus, The king assisted his son-in-law, and 
marched against Thebes with an army headed 
by seven of his most famous generals. All pe- 
rished in the war except Adrastus, who, with a 
few men saved from slaughter, fled to Athens, 
and implored the aid of Theseus against the 
Thebans, who opposed the burying of the Ar- 
gives slain in battle. Theseus went to his as- 
sistance, and was victorious. Adrastus, after a 
long reign, died through grief, occasioned by the 
death of his son iEgialeus. A Temple was rais- 
ed to his memory at Sicyon, where a solemn 
festival was annually celebrated. Homer. Jl. 5. 
— Virg. JEn. 6, v. ^80.— Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, 
c. l.—Stat. Theb. 4 and b.—Hygin. fab. 68, 69 
and 10.— Pans. 1, c. 39, 1. 8, c. 25, 1. 10, c. 90. 

— Herodot. 5, c. 67, &c. II. A peripatetic 

philosopher, disciple to Aristotle. It is supposed 
that a copy of his treatise on harmonics is pre- 
served in the Vatican III. A Phrygian 

prince, who, having inadvertently killed his 
brother, fled to -Croesus, where he was humane- 
ly received, and intrusted with the care of his 
son Atys. In hunting a wild boar, Adrastus 
slew the young prince, and in his despair kill- 
ed himself on his grave. Herodot. 1, c. 35, 
&c. 

Adrianijs, or Hadrianus, I. the 15th empe- 
ror of Rome. He is represented as an active, 
learned, warlike, and austere general. He came 
to Britain, where he built a wall between the 
modern towns of Carlisle and Newcastle, 80 
miles long to protect the Britons from the in- 
cursions of the Caledonians. He killed in bat- 
tle 500,000 Jews who had rebelled, and built a 
city on the ruins of Jerusalem, which he called 
333 



JED 



HISTORY, &c. 



JEG 



MMd.. His memory was so retentive, that he 
remembered every incident of his life, and 
knew all the soldiers of his army by name. 
He was the first emperor who wore a long 
beard, and this he did to hide the warts on his 
face. His successors followed his example, 
not through necessity, but for ornament, Adri- 
an went always bareheaded, and in long 
marches generally travelled on foot. In the 
beginning of his reign he followed the virtues 
of hiis adopted father and predecessor Trajan ; 
he remitted all arrears due to his treasury for 
16 years, and publicly burnt the account-books, 
that his word might not be suspected. His 
peace with the Parthians proceeded from a 
wish of punishing the other enemies of Rome, 
more than from the effects of fear. The trav- 
els of Adrian were not for the display of impe- 
rial pride, bat to see whether justice was distri- 
buted impartially; and public favour was court- 
ed by condescending behaviour, and the meaner 
familiarity of bathing with the common people. 
It is stated that he wished to enrol Christ among 
the gods of Rome ; but his apparent lenity to- 
wards the Christians was disproved, by the erec- 
tion of a statue to Jupiter on the spot where Jesus 
rose from the dead, and one to Venus on mount 
Calvary. The weight of diseases became in- 
tolerable. Adrian attempted to destroy himself, 
and when prevented, he exclaimed, that the 
lives of others were in his hands, but not his 
own. He wrote an account of his life, and pub- 
lished it under the name of one of his domes- 
tics. He died of a dysentery at Baise, July 10, 
A. D. 138, in the 72d year of his age, after a 

reign of 21 years. Dio. II. A rhetorician 

of Tyre in the age of M. Antonius, who wrote 
seven books of metamorphoses, besides other 
treatises now lost. 

./Eacidas, a king of Epirus, son of Neoptole- 
mus, and brother to Olympias. He was ex- 
pelled by his subjects for his continual wars 
with Macedonia. He left a son, Pyrrhus, only 
two years old, whom Chaucus, king of Illyri- 
cum, educated. Paus. 1, c. 11. 

Macvs. Vid. Part III. 

iEANTiDES, I. a tyrant of Lampsacus, intimate 
with Darius. He married a daughter of Hip- 

pias, tyrant of Athens. Thucyd. 6, c. 59. 

II. One of the 7 poets called Pleiades. 

^ATus, son of Philip, and brother of Poly- 
clea. was descended from Hercules. An oracle 
having said that whoever of the two touched 
the land after crossing the Achelous should ob- 
tain the kingdom. Polyclea pretended to be lame, 
and prevailed upon her brother to carry her 
across on his shoulders. When they came near 
the opposite side, Polyclea leaped ashore from 
her brother's back, exclaiming that the kingdom 
was her own. JEatus joined her in her excla- 
mation, and afterwards married her, and reign- 
ed conjointly with her. Their son Thessalus 
gave his name to Thessaly. Polycsn. 8. 

iEDictJLA RiDicuLi, a temple raised to the god 
of mirth from the following circumstance: after 
the battle ofCann8e,Hannibal marched to Rome, 
whence he was driven back by the inclemency 
of the weather ; which caused so much joy in 
Rome, that the Romans raised a temple to the 
god of mirth. This deity was worshipped at 
Sparta. Plut. in L/ijc. Agid. <^ Cleom. Pausa- 
nias also mentions a Jeof ytXoiroq. 
324 



iEniLEs, Roman magistrates that had the 
care of all buildings, baths, and aqueducts, and 
examined the weights and measures, that noth- 
ing might be sold without its due value. There 
were three different sorts : the -^diles Plebeii^ 
or Minores ; the Majores ^diles, and the 
jEdiles Cereales. The plebeian ediles were 
two, first created with the tribunes ; they pre- 
sided over the more minute affairs of the state, 
good order and the reparation of the streets. 
They procured all the provisions of the city, and 
executed the decrees of the people. The Ma- 
joreS andC ereales had greater privileges, though 
they at first shared in the labour of the plebeian 
ediles; they appeared with more pomp, and 
were allowed to sit publicly in ivory chairs. 
The ofi&ce of an edile was honourable, and was 
always the primary step to greater honours in 
the republic. The ediles were chosen from the 
plebeians for 127 years, till A. U. C. 338. Var- 
ro de L. L. 4, c. 14. — Cic. Legib. 3. 

jEdituus, Val., a Roman poet before the age 
of Cicero, successful in amorous poetry and 
epigrams. 

jEdui, or Hedui, a powerful nation of Celtic 
Gaul, known for their valour in the wars of 
Cgesar. When their country was invaded by 
this celebrated general, ihey were at the head of 
a faction in opposition to the Sequani and their 
partisans, and they had established their supe- 
riority in frequent battles. To support their 
cause, however, the Sequani obtained the assis- 
tance of Ariovistus, king of Germany, and soon 
defeated their opponents. The arrival of Caesar 
changed the face of affairs, the ^dui were re- 
stored to the sovereignty of the country, and the 
artful Roman, by employing one faction against 
the other, was enabled to conquer them all, 
though the insurrection of Ahabiorix, and that 
more powerfully supported by Vercingetorix, 
shook for a while the dominion of Rome in 
Gaul, and checked the career of the conqueror. 
C<zs. in Bell. G. 

^GEus. Vid. Part III. 

jEgiale, a daughter of Adrastus and wife of 
Diomedes, 

iEoiALEUs. Vid. Part III. 

^GiALUS, I. son of Phoroneus, was intrust- 
ed Math the kingdom of Achaia by king Apis 
going to Egypt. Peloponnesus was called -lEgia- 

lea from him. II. A man who founded the 

kingdom of Sicy on, 2091 years before the Chris- 
tian era, and reigned 52 years. 

jEgineta Paulus, a physician born in iEgi- 
na. He flourished in the 3d, or, according to 
others, the 7th century, and first deserved to be 
called man-midwife. He wrote De Re Medica, 
in seven books. 

^GiNETEs, a king of Arcadia, in whose age 
Lycurgus instituted his famous laws. Paus. 
1, c.5. 

jEgisthus, king of Argos, was son of Thy- 
estes by his daughter Pelopea. Thyestes being 
at variance with his brother Atreus, was told by 
the oracle, that his wrongs could be revenged 
only by a son born of himself and his daughter. 
To avoid such an incest, Pelopea had been con- 
secrated to the service of Minerva by her father, 
who, some time after, met her in a wood, and ra- 
vished her without knowing who she was. Pe- 
lopea kept the sword of her ravisher, and find- 
ing it to be her father's, exposed the child she 



JEL 



HISTORY, &c. 



ML 



had brought forth. The child was preserved^ 
and, when grown up, presented with the sword 
of his mother's ravisher, Pelopea, soon after 
this melancholy adventure, had married her un- 
cle Atreus, who received into his house her na- 
tural son. As Thyestes had debauched the first 
wife of Atreus, Atreus sent ^gisthus to put 
him to death ; but Thyestes, knowing the assas- 
sin's sword, discovered that he was his own son, 
and, fully to revenge his wrongs, sent him back 
to murder Atreus. After this murder, Thyestes 
ascended the throne, and banished Agamemnon 
and Menelaus, the sons, or as others say, the 
grandsons of Atreus. These children fled to 
Polyphidus of Sicyon ; but as he dreaded the 
power of their persecutors, he remitted the pro- 
tection of them to CEneus, king of iEtolia. By 
their marriage with the daughters of Tyndarus, 
king ofSparta,they were empowered to recover 
the kingdom of Argos, to which Agamemnon 
succeeded , whil e Menelaus reigned in his father- 
in-law's place, ^gisthus had been reconciled 
to the sons of Atreus ; and when they went to 
the Trojan war, he was left guardian of Aga- 
memnon's kingdoms, and of his wife Clytem- 
nestra. ^gisthus fell in love with Clytemnes- 
tra, and lived with her. On Agamemnon's re- 
turn, these two adulterers murdered him, and 
by a public marriage strengthened themselves 
on the throne of Argos. Orestes, Agamem- 
non's son, would have shared his father's fate, 
had not his sister Electra privately sent him to 
his uncle Strophius, king of Phocis, where he 
contracted the most intimate friendship with 
his cousin Pylades. Some time after Orestes 
came to Mycenae, the residence of ^gisthus, 
and resolved to punish the murderers of his fa- 
ther, in conjunction with Electra, who lived in 
disguise in the tyrant's family, To effect this 
more effectually, Electra publicly declared that 
her brother Orestes was dead : upon which 
jEgisthus and Clytemnestra went to the tem- 
ple of Apollo to return thanks to the god for his 
death. Orestes, who had secretly concealed 
himself in the temple, attacked them, and put 
them both to death, after a reign of seven years. 
They were buried without the city walls. Vid. 
Agamemnon, Thyestes, Orestes, Clytemnestra, 
Pylades, and Electra. Ovid, de Rem. Am. 
161. Trist. 2, V. 396.—Hi/gin. fab. 87 and 88. 
—.mian. V. H. 12, c. 42.— Pa%s. 2, c. 16, &c. 
— Sophocl. in Electra. — ^Eschyl. tf- Senec. in 
Agam. — Homer. Od. 3 and U.—Lactant. in 
Theb. I, V. 684. Pompey used to call J. Cae- 
sar -^gisthus, on account of his aduUery with 
his wife Mutia, whom he repudiated after she 
had borne him three children. Stiet. in Cces. 50. 

u(Egles, a Samian wrestler, born dumb, see- 
ing some unlawful measures pursued in a con- 
test, he broke the string which held his tongue, 
through the desire of speaking, and ever after 
spoke with ease. Val. Max. 1, c. 8. 

^LiA Lex, enacted by tEUus Tubero the 
tribune, A. U. C. 559, to send two colonies into 

the country of the Brutii. Liv. 34, c. 53. 

Another, A. XJ. C. 568, ordaining, that, in pub- 
lic affairs, the augurs should observe the appear- 
ance of the sky, and the magistrates be empower- 
ed to postpone the business. Another, called 

MUa. Sexta, by JElius Sextos, A. U. C. 756, 
which enacted that all slaves who bore any 
marks of punishment received from their mas- 



ters, or who had been imprisoned, should be 
set at liberty, but not rank as Roman citizens. 

^Elia Petina, of the family of Tubero, mar- 
ried Claudius Caesar, by whom she had a son. 
The emperor divorced her, to marry Messalina. 
Sueton. in Claud. 26. 

tElianus Claudus, a Roman sophist of Prae- 
neste, in the reign of Adrian. He first taught 
rhetoric at Rome ; but being disgusted with his 
profession, he became author, and published 
treatises on animals in 17 books, on various his- 
tory in 14 books, &c. in Greek, a language 
which he preferred to Latin. In his writings 
he shows himself very fond of the marvellous, 
and relates many stories which are often devoid 
of elegance and purity of style ; though Philos- 
tratus has commended his language as superior 
to what could be expected from a person who 
was neither born nor educated in Greece. M\\- 
an died in the 60th year of his age, A. D. 140. 
The best editions of his works collected together 
are that of Conrad Gesner, folio, printed Tiguri, 
1556, though now seldom to be met with, and 
that of Kuenius, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1789. Some 
attribute the treatise on the tactics of the Greeks 
to another iElian. 

^Lros, and ^lia, a family in Rome, so poor 
that 16 lived in a small house, and were main- 
tained by the produce of a little field. Their 
poverty continued till Paulus conquered Perseus 
king of Macedonia, and gave his son-in-law M\. 
Tubero five pounds of gold from the booty. 
Val. Max. 4, c. 4. 

^Lius Adrianus, I. an African, grandfather 
to the emperor Adrian. II. Gallus, a Ro- 
man knight, the first who invaded Arabia Fe- 
lix. He was very intimate with Strabo the 
geographer, Eind sailed on the Nile with him to 
take a view of the country. Plin. 6, c. 28. 

III. Publius, one of the first questors chosen 
from the plebeians at Rome. Liv. 4, c. 54. 

IV. CI. M. Psetus, son of Sextus or Publius. 
As he sat in the senate-house, a woodpecker 
perched upon his head ; upon which a soothsay- 
er exclaimed, that if he preserved the bird his 
house would flourish and Rome decay ; and if 
he killed it, the contrary must happen. Hear- 
ing this, ^lius, in the presence of the senate, 
bit off the head of the bird. All the youths of 
his family were killed at Cannae, and the Ro- 
man arms were soon attended with success 

Val. Max. 5, c. 6. V. Saturninus, a satirist, 

thrown down from the Tarpeian rock for wri- 
ting verses against Tiberius. VI. Sejanus. 

( Vid. Sejanus.) VII. Sextus Catus, censor 

with M. Cethegus. He separated the senators 
from the people in the public spectacles. Du- 
ring his consulship the ambassadors of the ^to- 
lians found him feasting in earthen dishes, and 
offered him silver vessels, which he refused, sat- 
isfied wjth the earthen cups, &c. which, for his 
virtues, he had received from his father-in-law, 
L. Paulus, after the conquest of Macedonia. 

Plin. 33, c. 11.— Cic. de Oral. 1. VIII. 

Spartianas, wrote the lives of the emperors Adri- 
an, Antoninus Pius, and M. Aurelius. He 
flourished A. D. 240. IX. Tubero, grand- 
son of L. Paulus, was austere in his morals, 
and a formidable enemy to the Gracchi. His 
grandson was accused before Caesar, and ably 

defended by Cicero. Cic. ep. ad Brut. X. 

Verus Caesar, the name of L. C. Comraodus 

325 



iEM 



HISTORY, &c. 



^N 



Verus after Adrian had adopted him. He was 
made praetor and consul by the emperor, who 
wa.s soon convinced of his incapacity in the 
discharge of public duty. He killed himself by 
drinking an antidote, and Antoninus, surnamed 
Pius, was adopted in his place, ^lius was 
father to Antoninus Verus, whom Pius adopt- 
ed. XI. A physician mentioned by Galen. 

XII. L. Gallus, a lawyer, who wrote 12 

books concerning the signification of all law 
words. XIII. Sextus Psetus, a lawyer, con- 
sul at Rome A. U. C. 566. He is greatly com- 
mended by Cicero for his learning, and called 
cordatus homo by Ennius for his knowledge of 
law. Cic. de Or at. 1, c. 48, in Brut. 20. 



XIV. Stilo, a native of Lanuvium, master to 
N. Ter. Varro, and author of some treatises, 
XV. Lamia. Vid. Lamia. 

^Emilia Lex, was enacted by the dictator 
iEmilius, A. U. C. 309. It ordained that the 
censorship, which was before quinquennial, 
should be limited to one year and a half Liv. 

9, c. 33. Another, in the second consulship 

of -^miiius Mamercus, A. U. C. 391. It gave 
power to the eldest praetor to drive a nail in the 
capitol on the ides of September. Liv. 7, c, 3. 
— The driving of a nail was a superstitious cere- 
mony, by which the Romans supposed that a 
pestilence could be stopped, or an impending 
calamity averted. 

jEmilianus, (C. Julius,) I. a native of Mau- 
retania, proclaimed emperor after the death of 
Decius. He marched against Gallus and Va- 
lerian, but was informed they had been murder- 
ed by their own troops. He soon after shared 

their fate. II. one of the thirty tyrants who 

rebelled in the reign of Gallienus. 

iEMYLiA, I. a noble family in Rome, descend- 
ed from Mamercus, son of Pythagoras, who 
for his humanity was called AtjuvXof blandus. 

II. a vestal, who rekindled the fire of Vesta, 

which was extinguished by putting her veil 
over it. Val. Max. 1, c. 1. — Dionys. Hal. 2. 
III. The wife of Africanus the elder, fa- 
mous for her behaviour to her husband when 
suspected of infidelity. Val. Max. 6, c. 7. 



IV. Lepida, daughter of Lepidus, married Dru- 
sus the younger, whom she disgraced by her 
wantonness. She killed herself when accused 
of adultery with a slave. Tacit. 6, c. 40. 

JEmylianus, a name of Africanus the 
younger, son of P. TEmylius. In him the fa- 
milies of the Scipios and ^Emylii were united. 
Many of that family bore the same name. Juv. 
8, V. 2. 

^MYLii, a noble family in Rome, descended 
from ^mylius the son of Ascanius. Plutarch 
says that they are descended from Mamercus, 
the son of Pythagoras, surnamed iEmylius from 
the sweetness of his voice, in Num. and JEmyl. 
—The family was distinguished in the various 
branches of the Lepidi, Mamerci, Mamercini, 
Barbulae, Pauli, and Scauri. 

^MYLius, I. (Censor nus,) a cruel tyrant of 
Sicily ,who liberally rewarded those who invent- 
ed new ways of torturing. Paterculus gave him 
a brazen horse for this purpose, and the tyrant 
made the first experiment upon the donor. 

Pint, de Fort. Rom. II. A triumvir with 

Octavius. Vid. Lepidus. III. Macer, a poet 

of Verona in the Augustan age. He wrote 

some poems upon serpents, birds, and, as some 

326 



suppose, on bees. Vid. Macer. IV. Mar- 
cus Scaurus, a Roman who flourished about 100 
years B.C. and wrote three books concerning 

his own life. Cic. in Brut. V. A poet in 

the age of Tiberias, who wrote a tragedy called 

Athens, and destroyed himself VI. Sura, 

another writer on the Roman year. VII. 

Mamercus, three times dictator, conquered the 
Fidenates and took their city. He limited to 
one year and a half the censorship, which be- 
fore his time was exercised during five years. 

Liv. 4, c. 17, 19, &c. VIII. Papinianus, son 

of Hostilius Papinianus, was in favour with the 
emperor Severus, and was made governor to his 
sons Geta and Caracalla. Geta was killed by 
his brother, and Papinianus for upbraiding 
him, was murdered by his soldiers. From his 
school the Romans have had many able law- 
yers, who were called Papinianists. IX. 

Pappus, a censor, who banished from the senate 
P. Corn. Ruffinus, who had been twice consul, 
because he had at his table ten pounds of silver 

plate, A. U. C. 478. Liv. 14. X. Porcina, 

an elegant orator. Cic, in Brut. XI. Re- 

gillus, conquered the general of Antiochus at 
sea, and obtained'a naval triumph. Liv. 37, c. 

31. XII. Scaurus, a noble but poor citizen 

of Rome. His father, to maintain himself, was 
a coal-merchant. He was edile and afterwards 
praetor, and fought against Jugurtha. His son 
Marcus was son-in-law to Sylla, and in his 
edileship he built a very magnificent theatre. 
Plin. 36, c. 15. 

^NEAD^, a name given to the friends and 
companions of ^Eneas, by Virg. yEn. 1, v. 161. 

^NEAS, I. a Trojan prince, son of Anchises 
and the goddess Venus. The opinions of au- 
thors concerning his character are diflTerent. 
His infancy was intrusted to the care of a 
nymph, and at the age of 5 he was recalled to 
Troy. He afterwards improved himself in 
Thessaly under Chiron. Soon after his return 
home he married Creusa, Priam's daughter, by 
whom he had a son called Ascanius. During 
the Trojan war he behaved with great valour 
in defence of his country, and came to an en- 
gagement with Diomedes and Achilles. Yet 
Strabo, Dictys of Crete, Dionysius of Halicar- 
nassus, and Dares of Phrygia, accuse him of be- 
traying his country to the Greeks, with Ante- 
nor, and of preserving his life and fortune by 
this treacherous measure. He lived at variance 
with Priam, because he received not suflicient 
marks of distinction from the king and his 
family, as Homer, 11. 13 says. This might have 
provoKed him to seek revenge by perfidy. Au- 
thors of credit report, that when Troy was in 
flames he carried away, upon his shoulders, his 
father Anchises, and the statues of his house- 
hold gods, leading in his hand his son Ascanius, 
and leaving his wife to follow behind. Some 
say that he retired to mount Ida, where he built 
a fleet of 20 ships, and set sail in quest of a set- 
tlement. Strabo and others maintain that 
iEneas never left his country, but rebuilt Troy, 
where he reigned, and his posterity after him. 
Even Homer says, 11. 20, v. 30, &c. that the 
gods destined iEneas and his posterity to reign 
over the Trojans. This passage Dionys. Hal. 
explained, by saying that Homer meant the 
Trojans who had gone over to Italy with 
.^neas,andnotthe actual inhabitants of Troy. 



JEN 



HISTORY, &c. 



MN 



According to Virgil and other Latin authors, 
he with his fleet first came to the Thracian 
Chersonesus, where Polymnestor, one of his 
allies reigned. After visiting Delos, the Stro- 
phades, and Crete, he landed in Epirus and 
Drepanum, the court of king Acestes in Sicily, 
where he buried his father. From Sicily he 
sailed for Italy, but was driven on the coasts of 
Africa, and kindly received by Dido, queen of 
Carthagei. Dido, being enamoured of him,wish- 
ed to marry him ; but he left Carthage by order 
of the gods. In his voyage he was driven to Si- 
cily, and from thence he passed to Cumae, where 
the Sybil conducted him to hell, that be might 
hear from his father the fates which attended 
him and all his posterity. After a voyage of 
seven years, and the loss of 13 ships, he came 
to the Tiber : Latinus, the king of the country, 
received him with hospitality, and promised him 
his daughter Lavinia, who had been before be- 
trothed to king Turnus by her mother Amata. 
To prevent this marriage, Turnus made war 
against ^neas ; and after many battles the war 
was decided by a combat between the two rivals, 
in which Turnus was killed, ^neas married 
Lavinia, in whose honour he built the town of 
Lavinium, and succeeded his father-in-law. Af- 
ter a short reign, ^neas was killed in a battle 
against the Eirurians. Some say that he was 
drowned in the Numicus, and his body weighed 
down by his armour; upon which the Latins, 
not finding their king, supposed that he had 
been taken up to heaven, and therefore offered 
him sacrifices as to a god. Dionys. Hal. fixes 
the arrival of .^neas in Italy in the 54th olymp. 
Some authors suppose that ./Eneas, after the 
siege of Troy, fell to the share of Neoptole- 
mus, together with Andromache, and that he 
was carried to Thessaly, whence he escaped to 
Italy. Others say that after he had come to 
Italy, he returned to Troy, leaving Ascanius 
king of Laiium. .^neas has been praised for 
his piety and submission to the will of the gods. 
Homer. II. 13 and 20. Hymn, in Vener. — Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 12.—Diod. 3.— Pans. 2, c. 33, 2, 3, 
c. 22, 1. 10, c. 25. — Plut. in Romul. and Corol. 
QucBst. Rom.— Vol. Max. 1, c. 8. — Flor. 1, c. 1. 
—Justin. 20, c. 1, 1. 31, c. 8, 1. 43, c. \.—Dic- 
tys Cret. 5. — Dares Phry. 6. — Dionys. Hal. 1, 
c. U.—Strab. 13.— Lw. 1, c. l.— Virg.^n.— 
Aur. Victor.— JElian. V. H. 8, c. 22.—Propert, 
4, el. 1, V. 42.— Ovid. Met. 14, fab. 3, &c.; 

Trist. 4, V. 799. II. A son of iEneas and 

Lavinia, called Sylvius, because his mother re- 
tired with him into the woods after his father's 
death. He succeeded Ascanius in Latium, 
though opposed by Julius, the son of his prede- 
cessor. Virg. Mn. 6, V. 110.— Liv. 1, c. 3.- 



III. An ancient author who wrote on tactics, 
besides other treatises, which, according to 
.(Elian, were epitomized by Cineas, the friend 

of Pyrrhus. ^IV., A native of Gaza, who, 

from a platonic philosopher became a Christian, 
A. D. 485, and wrote a dialogue, called Theo- 
phrastus, on the immortality of the soul and 
the resurrection. 

^NEis, a poem of Virgil, which has for its 
subject the settlement of iEneas in Italy. The 
great merit of this poem is well known. The 
author has imitated Homer, and, as some say. 
Homer is superior to him only because he is 
more ancient, and is an original. Virgil died 



before he had corrected it, and at his death de« 
sired it might be burnt. This was happily dis- 
obeyed, and Augustus saved from the flames a 
poem which proved his family to be descended 
from the kings of Troy. The vEneid had en- 
gaged the attention of the poet for 11 years, and 
in the first six books it seems that it was Virgil's 
design to imitate Homer's Odyssey, and in the 
last the Iliad, The action of the poet compre- 
hends eight years, one of which only, the last, 
is really taken up by action, as the seven first 
are merely episodes, such as Juno's attempts to 
destroy the Trojans, the loves of ^Eneas and 
Dido, the relation of the fall of Troy, &c. In 
the first book of the jEneid, the hero is introdu- 
ced, in the seventh year of his expedition, sail- 
ing in the Mediterranean, and shipwrecked on 
the African coast, where he is received by Dido. 
In the second, ^neas, at the desire of the Phoe- 
nician queen, relates the fall of Troy and his 
flight through the general conflagration to mount 
Ida. In the third, the hero continues his narra- 
tion, by a minute account of his voyage through 
the Cyclades, the places where he landed, and 
the dreadful storm, with the description of which 
the poem opened. Dido, in the fourth book, 
makes public her partiality to .(Eneas, which is 
slighted by the sailing of the Trojans from Car- 
thage, and the book closes with the suicide of the 
disappointed queen. In the fifth book, iEneas 
sails to Sicily, where he celebrates the anniver- 
sary of his father's death, and thence pursues 
his voyage to Italy, In the sixth, he visits the 
Elysian fields, and learns from his father the 
fate which attends him and his descendants the 
Romans. In the seventh book, the hero reaches 
the destined land of Latium, and concludes a 
treaty with the king of the country, which is 
soon broken by the interference of Juno, who 
stimulates Turnus to war. The auxiliaries of 
the enemy are enumerated ; and in the eighth 
book, iEneas is assisted by Evander, and re- 
ceives from Venus a shield wrought by Vulcan, 
on which are represented the future glory and 
triumphs of the Roman nation. The reader is 
pleased in the ninth book with the account of 
battles between the rival armies, and the immor- 
tal friendship of Nisus and Euryalus. Jupiter, 
in the tenth, attempts a reconciliation between 
Venus and Juno, who patronised the opposite 
parties ; the fight is renewed, Pallas killed, and 
Turnus saved fromtheavenginghand of ^neas 
by the interposition of Juno. The eleventh book 
gives an account of the funeral of Pallas, and 
of the meditated reconciliation between ^Eneas 
and Latinus, which the sudden appearance of 
the enemy defeats. Camilla is slain, and the 
combatants separated by the night. In the last 
book Juno prevents the single combat agreed 
upon by Turnus and ^Eneas. The Trojans 
are defeated in the absence of their king ; but, 
on the return of iEneas, the battle assumes a 
different turn, a single combat is fought by the 
rival leaders, and the poem is concluded by the 
death of king Turnus. Plin. 7, c. 30, &c. 

iENEsiDEMus, I. a brave general of Argos. 

Liv. 32, c. 25. II. A Cretan philosopher, 

who wrote 8 books on the doctrine of his master 
Pyrrho. Diog. in Pyr. 

^NOBARBUS, or Ahenobarbus, the surname 
of Domitius. When Castor and Pollux ac- 
quainted hira with a victory, he discredited 
327 



MS 



HISTORY, &c. 



JES 



them ; upon which they touched his chin and 
beard, which instantly became of a brazen co- 
lour whence the surname given to himself and 
his descendants. 

^PULO, a general of the Istrians, who drank 
to excess after he had stormed the camp of A. 
Manlius, the Roman general. Being attacked 
by a soldier, he fled to a neighbouring town 
which the Romans took, and killed himself for 
fear of being taken. F'lor. 2, c. 10. 

^PYTUs, I. a king of Mycenae, son of Chres- 
phontes and Merope, was educated in Arcadia 
with Cypseius, his mother's father. To reco- 
ver his kingdom, he killed Polyphontes, who 
had married his mother against her will, and 
usurped the crown. Apollod. 2, c. 6. — Paus. 4, 
c. 8. II. A son of Hyppothous, who forci- 
bly entered the temple of Neptune, near Man- 
tinea, and was struck blind by the sudden erup- 
tion of salt water from the altar. He was kill- 
ed by a serpent in hunting. Paus. 8, c. 4 
and 5. 

jErope, I. wife of Atreus.-^ II. A daugh- 
ter of Cepheus. 

iEscHiNEs, I. an Athenian orator, who flou- 
rished about 342 B. C. and distinguished him- 
self by his rivalship with Demosthenes. His 
father's name was Atrometus, and he boasted 
of his descent from a noble family, though De- 
mosthenes reproached him as being the son of 
acourtesan. The first open signs of enmity be- 
tween the rival orators appeared at the court of 
Philip, where they were sent as ambassadors ; 
but the character of ^Eschines was tarnished by 
the acceptance of a bribe from the Macedonian 
prince, whose tyranny had hitherto been the 
general subject of his declamation. When the 
Athenians wished to reward the patriotic la- 
bours of Demosthenes with a golden crown, 
^schines impeached Ctesiphon, who proposed 
it : and to their subsequent dispute we are in- 
debted for the two celebrated orations de corana. 
JEschines was defeated by his rival's superior 
eloquence, and banished to Rhodes ; but as he 
retired from Athens,Demosthenes ran after him, 
and nobly forced him to accept a present of sil- 
ver. In his banishment the orator repeated to 
the Rhodians what he had delivered against 
Demosthenes ; and after receiving much ap- 
plause, he was desired to read the answer of his 
antagonist. It was received with great marks 
of approbation ; but, exclaimed iEschines, how 
much more would your admiration have been 
raised, had you heard Demosthenes himself 
speak it ! JEschines died in the 75th year of 
his age, at Rhodes, or, as some suppose, at Sa- 
mos. He wrote three orations and nine epis- 
tles, v/hich, from their number, received the 
name, the first of the graces, and the last of the 
muses. The orations alone are extant, gene- 
rally found collected with those of Lysias. An 
oration, which bears the name of Deliaca lex, is 
said not to be his production, but that of iEs- 
chines, another orator of that age. Cic. de Oral. 
1, c. 24, 1. 2, c. 53, in Brut. c. ll.—Plut. in De- 
mosth. — Diog. 2 and 3. — Plin. 7, c. 30. Dio- 
genes mentions seven more of the same name. 

■ II. A philosopher, disciple of Socrates, 

who wrote several dialogues, some of which 
bore the following titles : Aspasia, Phaedon, Al- 
cibiades, Draco, Erycia, Polyoenus, Telauges, 
&c. The dialogue entitled Axiochus, and as- 
328 



cribed to Plato, is supposed to be his composi- 
tion. The best editions are that of Leovard, 
1718, with the notes of Horreeus, in 8vo. and 
that of Fischer, 8vo. Lips. 1766. 

.^scHRioN, I. a Mitylenean poet, intimate 
with Aristotle. He accompanied Alexander in 

his Asiatic expedition. II. An Iambic poet 

of Samos. Athen. III. A physician com- 
mended by Galen. A treatise of his on hus- 
bandry has been quoted by Pliny. 

^scHYLUs, I. the son of Euphorion, was born 
qf a noble family at Eleusis in Attica, Olymp. 
63d, 4, B; C. 525. Pausanias records a story 
of his boyhood, professedly on the authority of 
the poet himself, which, if true, shows that his 
mind at a very early period had been enthusias- 
tically struck with the exhibitions of the infant 
drama. An impression like this, acting upon 
his fervid imagination, would naturally produce 
such a dream as is described. ' ^schylus,' 
says Pausanias, ' used lo tell that, when still a 
stripling, he was once set to watch grapes in the 
country, and there fell asleep. In his slumbers 
Bacchus appeared and bade him turn his atten- 
tion to the tragic art. When day dawned and 
he awoke, the boy, anxious to obey the vision, 
made an attempt and found himself possessed of 
the utmost facility in dramatic composition. At 
the age of twenty-five he made his first public 
essay as a tragic author, Olymp. 70, B. C. 499. 
The next notice which we have of him is at 
Olymp. 72d, 3, B. C. 490; when, along with 
his two celebrated brothers, Cynsegeirus and 
Ameinias, he was graced at Marathon with the 
prize of pre-eminent bravery, being then in his 
thirty-fifth year. How dearly he valued the dis- 
tinction there acquired by his valour we learn 
from Pausanias ; where, apparently alluding to 
the epitaph which the exiled dramatists compos- 
ed for himself, the topographer tells us, that .Es- 
chylus, out of all the topics of his glory as a 
poet and a warrior, selected his exploits at Ma- 
rathon as his highest honour. Six years after 
that memorable battle, iEschylus gained his 
first tragic victory, Olymp. 74th, B. C. 484. 
Four years after this was fought the battle of 
Salamis, in which ^schylus took part along 
with his brother Ameinias ; to whose extraor- 
dinary valour the apiixTda were decreed. In the 
following year he served with the Athenian 
troops at Plataea. Eight years afterwards he 
gained th6 prize with a tetralogy, composed of 
the Persa, the Phineus, the Glaucus Polniensis, 
and the Prometlieus Ignifer, a satiric drama. 
The latter pan of the poet's life is involved in 
much obscurity. That he quitted Athens and 
died in Sicily is agreed on all hands ; but the 
time and the cause of his departure are points 
of doubt and conjecture. It seems that ^schy- 
lus had laid himself open to a charge of profa- 
nation, by too boldly introducing on the stage 
something connected with the Mysteries. He 
was tried and acquitted ; but the peril which 
he had run, the dread of a multitude ever mer- 
ciless in their superstitions, indignation at the 
treatment which he had received, joined, in all 
likeldhood, to feelings of vexation and jealousy 
at witnessing the preference occasionally given 
to young and aspiring rivals, were motives suf- 
ficiently powerful to induce his proud spirit to 
leave his native city, and seek a retreat in the 
court of the munificent and literary Hiero, prince 



^s 



HISTORY &c. 



iES 



of Syracuse : where he found, as fellow-guests, 
Simonides, Epicharmus, and Pindar. This 
must have been before Olymp. 78th, 2, B. C. 
467, for in that year Hiero died. In Sicily he 
composed a drama, entitled ^T^tna, to gratify his 
royal host, who had recently founded a city of 
that name. During the remainder of his life it 
is doubtful whether he ever returned to Athens. 
If he did not, those pieces of his, which were 
composed in the interval, might be exhibited on 
the Athenian stage under the care of some 
friend or relation, as was not unfrequently the 
case. Among these dramas was the Orestean 
tetralogy, which won the prize Olymp. 80th, 2. 
B C. 458, two years before his death. At any 
rate, his residence in Sicil}' must have been of 
considerable length, as it wassufficienr to affect 
the purity of his language. We are told by 
Athenseus that many Sicilian Avords are to be 
found in his later plays, ^schylus died at Gela 
in the sixty-ninth year of his age, Olymp. 81st, 
B. C. 456. His death, if the common account be 
true, was of a most singular nature. Sitting 
motionless, in silence and meditation, in the 
fields, his head, now bald from years, was mis- 
taken for a stone by an eagle, which happened 
to be flying over him with a tortoise in her bill. 
The bird dropped the tortoise to break the shell; 
and the poet w^as killed by the blow. The Ge- 
loans, to show their respect for so illustrious a 
sojourner, interred him with much pomp in 
the public cemeter)'', and engraved on his tomb 
the following epitaph, which had been com- 
posed by himself: — 

A.i(T')(i\ov ^iKpopiwvos 'A.Qrjvalov toSe KSvdeL 
^Ivrjjjia KaTa(pdin£voi> ■nvpo(p6poio PfAas 

'A:\kt\v 6' vo'cdKifiov ^lapaddviov aXcroi av eiiroij 
Kat 0adv^aiTfi£is MfjfJos t-marafjievos. 

iEschj^'lus is said to have composed seventy 
dramas, of which five were satiric, and to have 
been thirteen times victor. This great drama- 
tist was in reality the creator of tragedy. He 
added a second actor lo the locutor of Thespis 
and Phrynichus, and thus introduced the regu- 
lar dialogue. He abridged the immoderate 
length of the choral odes, making them subser- 
vient to the main interest of the plot, and ex- 
panded the short episodes into scenes of compe- 
tent extent. To these improvements in the 
economy of the drama he added the decorations 
of art in its exhibition. A regular stage, with 
appropriate scenery, was erected ; the perform- 
ers were furnished with becoming dresses, and 
raised to the stature of the heroes represented, 
by the thick-soled cothurnus ; whilst the face 
was brought to the heroic cast by a mask of pro- 
portionate size and strongly marked character ; 
which was also so contrived as to give power 
and distinctness to the voice. And the hero of 
Marathon and Salamis did not disdain to come 
forward in person as an actor, like his predeces- 
sor Thespis. He paid moreover great attention 
to the choral dances, and invented several figure 
dances himself: in which, declining the assist- 
ance of the regular ballet-masters, he carefully 
instructed his choristers : one of whom, Telestes, 
"was such a proficient in the art, as distinctly to 
express by dance alone the various occurrences 
of the play. Among his other improvements is 
mentioned the introduction of a practice, which 
subsequently became established as a fixed and 
Part II.— 2 T 



essential rule, the removal of all deeds of blood- 
shed and murder from public view. In short, 
so many and so important were the alterations 
and additions of ^Eschylus, that he was con- 
sidered by the Athenians as the Father of tra- 
gedy ; and, as a mark of distinguished honour 
paid to his merits, they passed a decree after 
his death, that a chorus should be allowed to 
any poet who chose to re-exhibit the dramas of 
^schylus. In philosophical sentiments, ^s- 
eliylus is said to have been a Pythagorean. In 
his extant dramas the tenets of this sect may 
occasionally be traced; as, deep veneration in 
what concerns the gods ; high regard for the 
sanctity of an oath and the nuptial bond ; the 
immortality of the soul ; the origin of names 
from imposition and not from nature ; the im- 
portance of numbers ; the science of physiog- 
nomy ; and the sacred character of suppliants. 
Aristophanes, in that invaluable comedy, the 
Frogs, has sketched a most lively character of 
^schylus ; and thus enabled us to ascertain the 
light in which he Avas regarded by his imme- 
diate posterity. His temper is there depicted 
as proud, stern, and impatient ; his sentiments 
pure, noble, and warlike ; his genius inventive, 
magnificent, and towering, even to occasional 
extravagance ; his st^^le bold, lofty, and impetu- 
ous, full of gorgeous imagery and ponderous ex- 
pressions ; whilst in the dramatic arrangement 
of his pieces there remained much of ancient 
simplicity and somewhat even of uncouth rude- 
ness. Yet still in the estimation of the right- 
minded and judicious, he ranked supreme in 
tragedy. Even the majestic dignity of Sopho- 
cles bows at once before the gigantic powers of 
jEschylus ; and nothing save ignorance and 
vitiated taste dare for a moment to set up a rival 
in the philosophic Euripides. With the portrait, 
thus drawn by Aristophanes, the opinions of 
the ancient critics in general coincide. Diony- 
sius lauds the splendour of his talents, the pro- 
priety of his characters, the originality of his 
ideas, the force, variety, and beauty of his lan- 
guage. Longinus speaks of the bold magni- 
ficence of his imagery; whilst he condemns 
some of his conceptions as rude and turgid, and 
his expressions as not unfrequently overstrain- 
ed, (iuinctilian again, among the Pcomans, 
assigns him the praise of dignity in sentiment, 
sublimity of idea, and loftiness in style ; al- 
though often overcharged in diction and irre- 
gular in composition. Such, in the eyes of an- 
tiquity, was the Shakspeare of the Grecian 
drama. Besides his tragedies, it is said that 
he wrote an account of the battle of Marathon 
in elegiac verses. The best editions of his 
Avorksare that of Stanley, fol. London, 1663; 
that of Glasg. 2Vols. in 12mo. 1746, and that of 
Schutz, 2 vols. 8vo. Halse, 1782. Horat. Art. 
Poet. 'ZlS.—Quintil. 10, c. l.—Plin. 10, c. 3.— 

Val. Max. 9, c. 12. II. The 12th perpetual 

archon of Athens. III. A Corinthian bro- 
ther-in-law to Timophanes, intimate Avith Tim- 

oleon, Plut. in Tijnol. -IV. A Rhodian set 

over Egypt with Peucestes of Macedonia. 

Curt. 4, c. 8. V. A native of Cnidus, teacher 

of rhetoric to Cicero. Cic in Brut. 

Msovvs, I. a Phrygian philosopher, who, 

though originally a slave, procured his liberty by 

the sallies of his genius. He travelled over the 

greatest part of Greece and Egj^pl, but chiefly 

329 



AG 



HISTORY, &c. 



AG 



resided at the court of CrcEsus, king of Lydia, 
by -whoni he was sent to consult the oracle of 
Delphi. In this commission, JEsop behaved 
with great severity, and satirically compared the 
Delphians to floating sticks, which appear large 
at a distance, but are nothing when brought 
near. The Delphians, offended with his sarcas- 
tic remarks, accused him of having secreted one 
of the sacred vessels of Apollo's temple, and 
threw him down from a rock, 561 B. C. Maxi- 
mus Planudes has written his life in Greek ; but 
no credit is to be given to the biographer who 
falsely asserts that the mythologist was short 
and deformed. jE sop dedicated his fables to his 
patron Croesus ; but what appears now under 
his name, is, no doubt, a compilation of all the 
fables and apologues of wits before and after the 
age of jEsop, conjointly with his own. Plut. 

in Solon.— PhcEd. 1, fab. 2, 1. 2, fab. 9. II. 

Claudus, an actor on the Roman stage, very in- 
timate with Cicero. He amassed an immense 
fortune. His son melted precious stones to 
drink at his entertainments. Horat. 2, Sat. 3. 
V. ^W.— Val. Max.—Plin. 

^THRA. Vid. Part III. 

Mtia, a poem of Callimachus, in which he 
speaks of sacrifices, and of the manner in which 
they were offered. Mart. 10, ep, 4. 

JEtion, or Eetion, a famous painter. He 
drew a painting of Alexander going to celebrate 
his nuptials with Roxane. This piece was 
much valued, and was exposed to public view 
at the Olympic games, where it gained so much 
applause that the president of the games gave 
the painter his daughter in marriage. Cic. Br. 
18. 

Afranius, I, (Luc.) a Latin comic poet in the 
age of Terence, often compared to Menander, 
whose style he imitated. He is blamed for the 
unnatural gratifications which he mentions in 
his writings, some fragments of which are to be 
found in the Corpus Poetarum. Quint. 10, c. 
1. — Sueton. Ner. 11. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 57. — 

Cic. de fin. 1, c. 3.—^. Gell. 13, c. 8. II. 

A general of Pompey, conquered by Caesar in 
Spain. Sueton. in Cess. 34. — Plut. in Pomp. 

III. Gl. a man who wrote a severe satire 

against Nero, for which h e was put to death in the 

Pisonian conspiracy. Tacit. IV. Potitus, a 

plebeian, who said before Caligula that he would 
willingly die if the emperor could recover from 
the distemper he laboured under. Caligula re- 
covered, and Afranius was put to death that he 
might not forfeit his word. Dio. 

Agalla, a woman of Corcyra, who wrote a 
treatise upon grammar. Athen. 1. 

Agamedes and Trophonius, two architects 
who made the entrance of the temple of Delphi, 
for which they demanded of the god whatever 
gift was most advantageous for a man to receive. 
Eight days after they were found dead in their 
bed. Plut. de cons. ad. Apol. — Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 
147. — Pans. 9, c. 11 and 37, gives a different 
account. 

Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and Argos, 
was brothel' to Menelaus, and son of Plisthenes 
the son of Atreus. Homer calls them sons of 
Atreus, which is false, upon the authority of He- 
siod, Apollodorus, &c. Vid. Plisthenes. When 
Atreus was dead, his brother Thyestes seized 
the kingdom of Argos, and removed Agamem- 
non and Menelaus, who fled to Polyphidus, king 
330 



of Sicyon, and hence to CEneus, king of JEtoiia, 
where they were educated. Agamemnon mar- 
ried Clytemnestra, and Menelaus Helen, both 
daughters of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, who as- 
sisted them to recover their father's kingdom. 
After the banishment of the usurper to Cythera, 
Agamemnon established himself at Mycenaj, 
whilst Menelaus succeeded his father-in-law at 
Sparta. When Helen was stolen by Paris, 
Agamemnon was elected commander in chief of 
the Grecian forces going against Troy ; and he 
showed his zeal in the cause by furnishing 100 
ships, and lending 60 more to the people of Ar- 
cadia. The fleet was detained at Aulis, where 
Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter to appease 
Diana. Vid. Iphigenia. During the Trojan 
war Agamemnon behaved with much valour ; 
but his quarrel with Achilles, whose mistress he 
took by force, was fatal to the Greeks. Vid. 
Briseis. After the ruin of Troy, Cassandra, 
fell to his share and foretold him that his wife 
would put him to death. He gave no credit to 
this, and returned to Argos with Cassandra, 
Clytemnestra, with her adulterer iEgisthus, 
prepared to murder him ; and as he came from 
the bath, to embarrass him, she gave him a tunic, 
whose sleeves were sewed together, -and while 
he attempted to put it on, she brought him to 
the ground with a stroke of a hatchet, and iEgis- 
thus seconded her blows. His death was re- 
venged by his son Orestes. Vid. Clytemnestra, 
Menelaus, and Orestes. Homer. 11. 1, 2, &c. 
Od. 4, &c. — Ovid, de Rem. Am. v. 777. Met. 
12, V. SO.—Hygin. fab. 88 and dl.—Strab. 8.— 
Thucyd. 1, c. 9.—JElian. V. H. 4, c. 26.— 
Dictys Cret. 1, 2, &c. — Dares Phryg. — So- 
phocl. in Elect. — Euripid. in Orest. — Senec. in 
Agam. — Paus. 2, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 40, &c. — Virg. 
Mn. 6, V. Sm.—Mela, 2, c. 3.- 

Agapenor, I. commander of Agamemnon's 

fleet. HoTTier. 11. 2. II. The son of Ancaeus, 

and grandson of Lycurgus, who, after the ruin 
of Troy, was carried by a storm into Cyprus, 
where he built Paphos. Paus. 8, c. 5. — Horn. 
11.2. 

Agarista, a daughter of Hippocrates, who 
married Xantippus. She dreamed that she had 
brought forth a lion, and sometime after became 
mother of Pericles. Plut. in Pericl. — Herodot. 
6, c. 131. 

Agasicles, king of Sparta, was son of Ar- 
chidamus, and one of the Proclidas. He used 
to say that a king ought to govern his subjects 
as a father governs his children. Paus. 3, c. 7. 
— Plut. in Apoph. 

Agatharchidas, I. a general of Corinth in 

the Peloponnesian war. Thucyd. 2, c 83. 

II. A Samian philosopher and historian, who 
wrote a treatise on stones, and a history of Per- 
sia and Phoenice, besides an account of the Red 
Sea, of Europe, and Asia. Some make him a 
native of Cnidus, and add that he flourished 
about 177 B. C. Joseph, cont. Ap. 

AcATmAS, a Greek historian of iEolia. A 
poet and historian in the age of Justinian, of 
whose reign he published the history in five 
books. Several of his epigrams are found in 
the Anthologia. His history is a sequel to that 
of Procopius. The best edition is that of Paris, 
fol. 1660. 

Agatho, I a Samian historian, who wrote 
an account of Scythia. II. A poet, who 



AG 



HISTORY, &c. 



AG 



-III. A learned and me- 



fiourished 406 B. C. 
lodious musician, who first introduced songs in 
tragedy. Aristot. in Poet. He was the con- 
temporary and friend of Euripides. At his 
house Plato lays the scene of his Symposium, 
given in honour of a tragic victory won by the 
poet, Agathon was no mean dramatist. Plato 
represents him as abounding in the most exqui- 
site ornaments and the most dazzling antitheses. 
Aristophanes pays a handsome tribute to his 
memory as a poet and a man, in the Bancs, 
where Bacchus calls him dyaOds Tzonirris Kal 
TToOcLvds Toig (piXots. In the ThesmophoriazuscB, 
v/hich was exhibited six years before the Ranee, 
Agathon, then alive, is introduced as the friend 
of Euripides, and ridiculed for his effeminacy. 
He is there brought on the stage in female at- 
tire, and described as 

VvvaiKofoivos, anaXds, EVTrpEnrjs iSeiv — 191. 

His poetry seems to have corresponded with his 
personal appearance: profuse in trope, inflection, 
and metaphor ; glittering with sparkling ideas, 
and flowing softly along, with harmonious words 
and nice construction, but deficient in manly 
thought and vigour. Agathon may, in some 
degree, be charged with having begun the de- 
cline of true tragedy. It was he who first com- 
menced the practice of inserting choruses be- 
twixt the acts of the drama, which had no ref- 
erence whatever to the circumstances of the 
piece : thus infringing the law by which the 
chorus was made one of the actors. Aristotle 
blames him also for want of judgment in select- 
ing too ex!tensive subjects. He ' occasionally 
wrote pieces with fictitious names, (a transition 
towards the New Comedy) one of which was 
called the Flower; and was probably, therefore, 
neither seriously affecting nor terrible, but in 
the style of the Idyl.' One of his tragic victo- 
ries is recorded, Olymp. 91st, 2, B. C. 416. He 
too, like Euripides, left Athens for the court of 
the Macedonian Archelaus. He died before 
the representation of the RancB.^' — Diog. LMert. 
3, c. 32. 

Agathocles, I. a youth, son of a potter, who 
made himself master of Syracuse. He reduced 
Sicily ; but, being defeated at Himera by the 
Carthaginians, he carried the war into Africa. 
He afterwards passed into Italy, and made him- 
self master of Crotona. He died in his 72d 
year, B. C. 289, after a reign of 28 years of 
mingled prosperity and adversity. Pint, in 
Apopth. — Justin. 23 and 23. — Polyb. 15. — Diod. 

18, &c. II. A son of Lysimachus, taken 

prisoner by the Getse. He w^as ransomed, and 
married Lysandra, daughter of Ptolemy Lagus. 
Agesander, a sculptor of Rhodes under Ves- 
pasian, who made a representation of Laocoon's 
. history, which now passes for the best relic of 
all ancient sculpture. 

Agesias, a Platonic philosopher, who taught 
the immortality of the soul. One of the Ptole- 
mies forbade him to continue his lectures, be- 
cause his doctrine was so prevalent that many 
of his auditors committed suicide. 

Agesilaus, I. king of Sparta, of the family 
of the Agidae, was son of Doryssus and father 
of Archelaus. During his reign Lycurgus in- 
stituted his famous laws. Herodot. 7, c. 204. — 
Pans. 3, c. 2. — -II. A son of Archidamus, of 



the family of the ProclidcE, made king in prefer- 
ence to his nephew Leotychides. He made 
war against Artaxerxes, king of Persia, with 
success ; but in the midst of his conquests in 
Asia, he v/as recalled home to oppose the Athe- 
nians and Boeotians, who desolated his country; 
and his return was so expeditious that he pass- 
ed, in thirty days, over that tract of country 
which had taken up a whole year of Xerxes' 
expedition. He defeated his enemies at Coro- 
nea ; but sickness prevented the progress of his 
conquests, and the Spartans were beat in every 
engagement, especially at Leuctra, till he ap- 
peared at their head. . Though deformed, small 
of stature, and lame, he w^as brave ; and a great- 
ness of soul compensated all the imperfections 
of nature. He was as fond of sobriety as of 
military discipline ; and when he went, in his 
80th year, to assist Tachus, king of Egypt, the 
servants of the monarch could hardly be per- 
suaded that the Lacedaemonian general was eat- 
ing with his soldiers on the ground barehead- 
ed, and without any covering to repose upon. 
Agesilaus died on his return from Egypt, after 
a reign of 36 years, 362 B. C, and his remains 
were embalmed and brought to Lacedsemon. 
Justin. 6, c. 1. — Plut. and C. Nep. in vit. — 

Pans. 3, c. 9. — Zenoph. Or at. pro Ages. 

III. A brother of Themistocles, who was sent 
as a spy into the Persian camp, where he stab- 
bed Mardonius instead of Xerxes. Plut. in 
Parall. 

Agesipolis, I. king of Lacedssmon, son of 
Pausanias, obtained a great victory over the 
Mantineans, He reigned 14 years, and was 
succeeded by his brother Cleombrotus, B. C. 
380. Pans. 3, c. 5, I. 8, c. ^.—Xenoph. 3, Hist. 
GfcEc. II. son of Cleombrotus, king of Spar- 
ta, was succeeded by Cleomenes 2d, B. C. 370. 
Pans. 1, c. 13, 1. 3, c. 5. 

Aggrammes, a cruel king of the Ganga- 
rides. His father was a hairdresser, of whom 
the queen became enamoured, and whom she 
made governor to the king's children, to gratify 
her passion. He killed them to raise Aggram- 
mes, his son by the queen, to the throne. Curt. 
9, c. 2. 

AgidjE, the descendants of Eurysthenes, who 
shared the throne of Sparta with the Proclidae ; 
the name is derived from Agis, son of Eurys- 
thenes. The family became extinct in the per- 
son of Cleomenes, son of Leonidas, Virg. 
Mn. 8, V. 682. 

Agis, I. king of Sparta, succeeded his father, 
Eurysthenes, and, after a reign of one year, was 
succeeded by his son Echestratus, B. C. 1058. 

Paus. 3, c. 2. II. Another king of Sparta, 

who waged bloody wars against Athens, and 
restored liberty to many Greek cities. He at- 
tempted to restore the laws of Lycurgus at 
Sparta, but in vain ; the perfidy of friends, who 
pretended to second his views, brought him to 
difficulties, and he was at last dragged from a 
temple, where he had taken refuge, to a prison, 
where he was strangled by order of the Ephori. 
Plut. in Agid. III. Another, son of Archi- 
damus, who signalized himself in the war which 
the Spartans waged against Epidaurus. He 
obtained a victory at Mantinea, and was suc- 
cessful in the Peloponnesian war. He reigned 
27 years. Thucyd. 3 and 4. — Paus. 3, c. 8 and 

10. IV. Another, son of Archidamus, king^ 

331 



AG 



HISTORY, &c. 



AG 



of Sparta, who endeavoured to deliver Greece 
from the empire of Macedonia, with the assist- 
ance of the Persians. He was conquered in 
the attempt, and slain by Antipater, Alexan- 
der's general, and 5300 Lacedsemonians perish- 
ed with him. Curt. 6, c. 1. — Diod. 17. — Jus- 
tin. 12, c. 1, &c. V. An Arcadian in the 

expedition of Cyrus against his brother Arta- 

xerxes. Polycsn. 7, c. 18. VI. A poet of 

Argos, who accompanied Alexander into Asia, 
and said that Bacchus and the sons of Leda 
would give way to his hero when a god. Curt. 
8, c. 5. 

Aglaophon, an excellent Greek painter. 
Plin. 35, c. 8. 

Aglaus, the poorest man of Arcadia, pro- 
nounced by the oracle more happy than Gyges, 
king of Lydia. Plin. 7, c. 46. — Val. Max. 7, c. 1. 

Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, who disguised 
her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by 
Hierophilus the art of midwifery, and when 
employed, always discovered her sex to her pa- 
tients. This brought her into so much prac- 
tice, that the males of hei profession, who were 
now out of employment, accused her before the 
Areopagus of corruption. She confessed her 
sex to the judges, and a law was immediately 
made to empower all freeborn women to learn 
midwifery. Hygin. fab, 274. 

Agnon, son of Nicias, was present at the 
taking of Samos by Pericles, In the Peloponne- 
sian war he went against Potidaea, but aban- 
doned his expedition through disease. He built 
Amphipolis, whose inhabitants rebelled to Bra- 
sidas, whom they regarded as their founder, for- 
getful of Agnon. Thucyd. 2, 3, &c. 

Agnonides, a rhetorician of Athens, who 
accused Phocion of betraying the Piraeus to Ni- 
canor. When the people recollected what ser- 
vices Phocion had rendered them, they raised 
him statues, and put to death his accuser. 
Plut. and Nep. in Phocion. 

Agonalia, and Agonia, festivals in Rome, 
celebrated three times a year, in honour of Ja- 
nus or Agonius. They were instituted by Nu- 
ma, and on the festive days the chief priest used 
to offer a ram, Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 317. — Varro. 
de L. L. 5. 

Agones Capitolini, games celebrated every 
fifth year upon the Capitoline hill. Prizes were 
proposed for agility and strength, as well as for 
poetical and literary compositions. The poet 
Statins publicly recited there hisThebaid, which 
was not received with much applause, 

Agoragritus, a sculptor of Pharos, who made 
a statue of Venus for the people of Athens, B. 
C. 150. 

Agoranoni, ten magistrates at Athens, who 
watched over the city and port, and inspected 
whatever was exposed to sale. 

Agraria Lex, was enacted to distribute 
among the Roman people all the lands which 
they had gained b}'- conqaest. It was first pro- 
posed A. U. C. 268, by the consul Sp. Cassius 
Vicellinus, and rejected by the senate. This 
produced dissensions between the senate and 
the people, and Cassius, upon seeing the ill 
success of the new regulations he pronosed, of- 
fered to distribute among the people the money 
which was produced from the corn of Sicily, 
after it had been brought and sold in Rome. 
This act of liberality the people refused, and 
332 



tranquillity was soon after re-established in the 
state. It was proposed a second time, A. U. 
C. 269, by the tribune Licinius Stolo; but with 
no better success : and so great were the tumults 
which followed, that one of the tribunes of the 
people was killed, and many of the senators 
fined for their opposition. Mutius Scsevola, A. 
U, C, 620, persuaded the tribune Tiberius Grac- 
chus to propose it a third time ; and although 
Octavius, his colleague in the tribuneship, op- 
posed it, yet Tiberius made it pass into a law 
after much altercation, and commissioners were 
authorized to make a division of the lands. 
This law at last proved fatal to the freedom of 
Rome under J. Caesar. Flor. 3, c. -3 and 13. — 
Cic. pro Leg. Agr. — Liv. 2, c. 41. 

Agricola, the father-in-law of the historian 
Tacitus, who wrote his life. He we^s eminent 
for his public and private virtues. He was gov- 
ernor of Britain, and first discovered it to be 
an island. Domitian envied his virtues ; he re- 
called him from the province he had governed 
with equity and moderation, and ordered him to 
enter Rome in the night, that no triumph might 
be granted to him.. Agricola obeyed, and with- 
out betraying any resentment, he retired to a 
peaceful solitude, and the enjoymeM of the so- 
ciety of a few friends. He died in his 56th 
year, A. D, 93. Tacit, in Agric. 

M, Agrippa Vipsanius, I. a celebrated Ro- 
man, who obtained a victory over S, Pompey, 
and favoured the cause of Augustus at the bat- 
tle of Actium and Philippi, where he behaved 
with great valour. He advised his imperial 
friend to re-establish the republican government 
at Rome, but he was overruled by Mecasnas, 
In his expeditions in Gaul and Germany be ob- 
tained several victories, but refused the honours 
of a triumph, and turned his liberality towards 
the embellishing of Rome, and the raising of 
magnificent buildings, one of which, the Pan- 
theon, still exists. After he had retired for two 
years to Mitylene, in consequence of a quarrel 
with Marcellus, Augustus recalled him, and, as 
aproofofhis regard, gave him his daughter Julia 
in marriage, and left him the care of the empire, 
during an absence of two years employed in 
visiting the Roman provinces of Greece and 
Asia, He died, universally lamented, at Rome, 
in the 51st year of his age, 12 B, C. and his 
body was placed in the tomb which Augustus 
had prepared for himself He had been married 
three times ; to Pomponia, daughter of Atticus, 
to Marcella, daughter of Octavia, and to Julia, 
by whom he had five children, Caius, and Lu- 
cius Caesares, Posthumus Agrippa, Agrippina, 
and Julia. His son, C. Cassar Agrippa, was 
adopted by Augustus, and made consul, by the 
flattery of the Roman people, at the age of four- 
teen or fifteen. This promising youth went to 
Armenia on an expedition against the Persians, 
where he received a fatal blow from the treach- 
erous hand of Lollius, the governor of one of 
the neighbouring cities. He languished for a 
little time, and died in Lycia. His younger 
brother, L. Caesar Agrippa, was likewise adopt- 
ed by nis grandfather Augustus; but he was 
soon after banished to Campania, for using se- 
ditious language against his benefactor. In the 
7th year of his exile, he would have been recall- 
ed, had not Livia and Tiberius, jealous of the 
partiality of Augustus for him, ordered him to 



AG 



HISTORY, &c. 



AL 



be assassinated in his 26th year. He has been 
called ferocious and savage ; and he gave him- 
self the name of Neptune, because he was fond 
of fishing. Virg. JEn. 8, v. 682. — Horat. 1, od. 

6. II. Sylvius, a son of Tiberinus Sylvius, 

king of Latium. He reigned 33 years, and was 
succeeded by his son Romalus Sylvius. Dionys. 

Hal. 1, c. 8. III. One of the servants of the 

murdered prince assumed his name, and raised 

commotions. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 37. IV, A 

consul, who conquered the jEqui. V. A 

philosopher. Diog. VI. Herodes, a son of 

Aristobulus. grandson of the great Herod, who 
became tutor to the grandchild of Tiberius, and 
was soon after imprisoned by the suspicious ty- 
rant. When Caligula ascended the throne, his 
favourite was released, presented with a chain 
of gold as heav}' as that which had lately con- 
fined him, and made king of Judea. He was 
a popular character with the Jews ; and it is 
said, that while they were flattering him with 
the appellation of god, an angel of God struck 
him with the lousy disease of which he died, A. 
D. 43. His son of the same name, was the last 
king of the Jews, deprived of his kingdom by 
Claudius, in exchange for other provinces. He 
was with Titus at the celebrated siege of Jeru- 
salem, and died A. D. 94. It was before him 
that St. Paul pleaded, and made mention of his 
incestuous commerce with his sister Berenice. 

Juv. 6, V. \bQ.~Tacit. 2, Hist. c. 81. VII. 

Menenius, a Roman general, who obtained a 
triumph over the Sabines, appeased the popu- 
lace of Rome by the well-known fable of the 
belly and the limbs, and erected the new office 
of tribunes -of the people, A. U. C. 261. He 
died poor, but universally regretted ; his fune- 
ral was at the expense of the public, from which 
also his daughters received dowries. Liv. 2, c. 

32. Flor. 1, c. 23. VIII. A mathematician 

in the reign of Domitian ; he was a native of 
Bithynia. 

Agrippina, I. a wife of Tiberius. The empe- 
ror repudiated her to marry Julia. Sueton. in 

Tib. 7. 11. a daughter of M. Agrippa, and 

grand-daughter to Augustus. She married Ger- 
manicus, whom she accompanied in Syria ; and 
when Piso poison~ed him, she carried his ashes 
to Italy, and accused his murderer, who stab- 
bed himself She fell under the displeasure of 
Tiberius, who exiled her in an island, where 
she died, A. D. 26, for want of bread. She left 
nine children, and was universally distinguish- 
ed for intrepidity and conjugal affection. Tacit. 

1, Ann. c. 2, &c. — Sueton. in Tib. 52. III. 

Julia, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina, 
married Domitius^nobarbus, by w^homshehad 
Nero. After her husband's death, she married 
her uncle, the emperor Claudius, whom she de- 
stroyed to make Nero succeed to the throne. 
After many cruelties and much licentiousness, 
she was assassinated by order of her son, A. D. 
59. She left memoirs which assisted Tacitus in 
the composition of his annals. The town, which 
she built, where she was born, on the borders of 
the Rhine, and called Agrippina. Colonia, is 
the modern Cologne. Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 75, 1, 
12, c. 7, 22. 

Agrotera, L an anniversary sacrifice of 
goats, offered to Diana at Athens. It was in- 
stituted by Callimachus the Polemarch, who 
vowed to sacrifice to the goddess so many goats 



as there might be enemies killed in a battle 
which he w^as going to fight against the troops 
of Darius, who had invaded Attica. The quan- 
tity ofythe slain was so great, that a sufficient 
nimiber of goats could not be procured ; there- 
fore they were limited to five hundred every 
year, till they equalled the number of Persians 

slain in battle. 11. A temple of ^gira in 

Peloponnesus, erected to the goddess under this 
name. Pans. 7, c. 26. 
" Ahala, the surname of the Servilii at Rome. 

Ajax, I. son of Telamon by Peribcea or Eri- 
boea, daughter of Alcathous, was, next to Achil- 
les, the bravest of all the Greeks in the Trojan 
war. He engaged Hector, with whom, at part- 
ing, he exchanged arms. After the death of 
Achilles, Ajax and Ulysses disputed iheir claim 
to the arms of the dead hero. When they were 
given to the latter, Ajax was so enraged that 
he slaughtered a whole flock of sheep, suppos- 
ing them to be the sons of Atreus, who had 
given the preference to Ulysses, and stabbed 
himself with his sword. The blood which ran 
to the ground from the wound was changed 
into the flower hyacinth. Some say that he 
was killed by Paris in battle ; others, that he was 
murde^red by Ulysses, His body was buried at 
Sigaeum, some say on mount Rhcetus, and his 
tomb was visited and honoured by Alexander. 
Hercules, according to some authors, prayed 
to the gods that his friend Telamon, who was 
childless, might have a son with a skid as im- 
penetrable as the skin of the Nemsean lion , which 
tie then wore. His prayers were heard. Jupiter, 
under the form of an eagle, promised to grant 
the petition ; and when Ajax was bom, Hercules 
wrapped him up in the lion's skin, which ren- 
dered his body invulnerable, except that part 
which was left uncovered by a hole m the skin, 
through which Hercules hung his quiver. This 
vulnerable part was in his breast, or, as some 
say, behind the neck. Q. Calab. 1 and 4. — 
Apollod. 3, c. 10 and 13. — Philostr. in Heroic, 
c. 12. — Pindar. Isthm. 6. — Homer. 11. 1, &c. 
Od. II.— Dictys Cret. 5.— Dares Phry. 9.— 
Ovid. Met. n.— Horat. 2, Sat. 3, v. l9Z—Hy- 
gin. fab. 107 and 242. — Pavs. 1, c. 35, 1. 5, c. 

19. II. The son of Oileus, king of Locris, 

was surnamed Locrian, in contradistinction to 
the son of Telamon. He went with forty ships 
to the Trojan war, as being one of Helen's suit- 
ors. The night that Troy was taken he offered 
violence to Cassandra, who fled into Minerva's 
temple; and for this offence, as he returned 
home, the goddess, who had okained the thun- 
ders of Jupiter and the power of tempests from 
Neptune, destroyed his ship in a storm. Ajax 
swam to a rock,, and said that he was safe, in 
spite of all the gods. Such impiety offended 
Neptune, who struck the rock with his trident, 
and Ajax tumbled into the sea wath part of the 
rock, and was drowned. His body was after- 
wards found by the Greeks, and black sheep 
offered on his tomb. Virg. ^n. 1, v. 43, &c. — 
Homer. II. 2, 13. &c. Od.i.—Hygin. fab. 116 
and 213.—Philo!itr. Ico. 2, c. \2.—Senec. in 
Agam. — Horat. epod. 10, v. 13. — Pans. 10, c. 26 
and 31. — The two Ajaces were, as some sup- 
pose, placed after death in the island of Leuce, 
a separate place, reserved only for the bravest 
heroes of antiquity. 

Alaricus, a famous king of the Goths, who 
333 



AL 



HISTORY, &c. 



AL 



plundered Rome in the reign of Honorius, He 
was greatly respected for his military valour, 
and during his reign he kept the Roman empire 
in continual alarms. He died, after a reign of 
13 years, A, D. 410. 

Alarodh, a nation near Pontus. Herodot. 
3, c. 94. 

Alba Sylvius, son of Latinus Sylvius, suc- 
ceeded his father in the kingdom of Latium, and 
reigned 36 years. 

Albia Terentia, the mother of Otho. Sv£t. 

Albici, a people of Gallia Aquitania. Cas. 
Bell. Civ. 1, c. 34. 

Albini, two Roman orators, of great merit, 
mentioned by Cicero in Brut. This name is 
common to many tribunes of the people. Liv. 
2, c. 33, 1. 6, c. 30.—Sallust. de Jug. Bell. 

Albinovanus Celsus, I. Vid. Celsus. 

II. Pedo, a poet, contemporary with Ovid. He 
wrote elegies, epigrams, and heroic poetry in a 
style so elegant that he merited the epithet of 
divine. Ovid. ex. Pont. 4, ep. 10.— Quintil. 10, 
C.5. 

Albinus, I. was born at Adrumetum in Afri- 
ca, and made governor of Britain by Commo- 
dus. After the murder of Pertinax, he was 
elected emperor by the soldiers in Britain. Se- 
verus had also been invested with the imperial 
dignity by his own army ; and these two rivals, 
with about 50,000 men each, came into Gaul to 
decide the fate of the empire. Severus was con- 
queror, and he ordered the head of Albinus to 
be cut off, and his body to be thrown into the 
Rhone, A. D. 198. Albinus, according to the 
exaggerated account of a certain writer, called 
Codrus, was famous for his voracious appetite, 
and sometimes eat for breakfast no less than 500 
figs, 100 peaches, 20 pounds of dry raisins, 10 

melons, and 400 oysters. II. A pretorian, 

sent to Sylla as ambassador from the senate 
during the civil wars. He was put to death by 
Sylla's soldiers. Plut. in Syll. III. A Ro- 
man plebeian, who received the vestals into his 
chariot in preference to his family, when they 
fled from Rome, which the Gauls had sacked. 
Val. Max. 1, c. 1. — Liv. 5, c. 40. — Flor. 1, c. 

13. IV. A. Posthumus, consul with Lucul- 

lus, A. U, C. 603, wrote a history of Rome in 
Greek. 

AlbutiuSj I. a prince of Celtiberia, to whom 

Scipio restored his wife. Arrian.- II. An 

ancient satirist. Cic. in Brut. III. Titus, 

an epicurean philosopher, born at Rome; so 
fond of Greece, and Grecian manners, that he 
wished not to pass for a Roman. He was m.ade 
governor of Sardinia ; but he grew offensive to 
the senate, and was banished. It is supposed 
that he died at Athens. 

Algous, I. a celebrated lyric poet of Mity- 
iene in Lesbos, about 600 years before the Chris- 
tian era. He fled from a battle, and his enemies 
hung up, in the temple of Minerva, the armour 
which he left in the field, as a monument of his 
disgrace. He is the inventor of Alcaic verses. 
He was contemporary with the famous Sappho, 
to whom he paid his addresses. Of all his 
works nothing but a few fragments remain, 
found m Athenagus. Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Hero- 
dot. 5, c. 95.— flbr. 4,od. 9.— Ctc. A.Tusc. c.33. 

II. A poet of Athens, said by Suidas to be 

the inventor of tragedy. III, A writer of 

epigrams. IV. A comic poet. 

334 



Algamenes, I. one of the Agidse, king of 
Sparta, known by his apophthegms. He suc- 
ceeded his father Teleclus, and reigned 37years. 
The Helots rebelled in his reign. Paus. 3, c. 

2, 1. 4, c. 4 and 5. II. A general of the Achse- 

ans, Paus. 7, c. 15. III. A statuary, who 

lived 448 B. C. and was distinguished for his 
statues of Venus and Vulcan. Paus. 5, c. 10. 

IV. The commander of a Spartan fleet, put 

to death by the Athenians. Thucyd. 4, c. 5, &c. 

Algander, I. a Lacedaemonian youth, who 
accidentally put out one of the eyes of Lycurgus, 
and was generously forgiven by the sage. Plut. 
in Lye. — Paus. 3, c. 18.- — II. "A Trojan, killed 
by Turnus. Virg. JEn. 9, v. 767. 

Algenor. Vid. Othryades. 

Algeste, or Algestis. Vid. Part III. 

Algetas, I. a king of the Molossi, descended 
from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. Paus. 1, c. 

11. II. A general of Alexander's army, 

brother to Perdiccas. III. The eighth king 

of Macedonia, who reigned 29 years. IV. 

An historian, who wrote an account of every 
thing that had been dedicated in the temple of 
Delphi. Athen. 

ALcmMACHUs, a celebrated painter. Plin, 
35, c. 11. 

Algibiades, an Athenian general, famous 
for his enterprising spirit, versatile genius, and 
natural foibles. He was disciple to Socrates. 
In the Peloponnesian war he encouraged the 
Athenians to make an expedition against Syra- 
cuse. He was chosen general in that war, and, 
in his absence, his enemies accused him of im- 
piety, and confiscated his goods. Upon this he 
fled, and stirred up the Spartans to make war 
against Athens ; and when this did not succeed, 
he retired to Tissaphernes, the Persian general. 
Being recalled by the Athenians, he obliged the 
Lacedaemonians to sue for peace, made several 
conquests in Asia, and was received in triumph 
at Athens. His popularity was of short dura- 
tion ; the failure of an expedition against Cyme 
exposed him again to the resentment of the peo- 
ple, and he fled to Pharnabazus, whom he al- 
most induced to make war upon Lacedsemon. 
This was lold to Lysander, the Spartan gene- 
ral, who prevailed upon Pharnabazus to murder 
Alcibiades. Two servants were sent for that 
purpose, and they set on fire the cottage where 
he was, and killed him with darts as he attempt- 
ed to make his escape. He died in the 46th 
year of his age, 404 B. C. after a life of per- 
petual difficulties. If the fickleness of his coun- 
trymen had known how to retain among them 
the talents of a man who distinguished himself, 
and was admired wherever he went, they might 
have risen to greater splendour, and to the sove- 
reignty of Greece. His character has been 
cleared from the aspersions of malevolence hy 
the writings of Thucydides,Tim8eus, and Theo- 
pompus ; and he is known to us as a hero, who, 
to the principles of the debauchee added the in- 
telligence and sagacity of a statesman, the cool 
intrepidity of the general, and the humanity of 
the philosopher. Plut. <^ C. Nep. in Alctb. — 
Thucyd. 5, 6 and 7. — Xenoph. Hist. Grac. 1, 
Sic.—Diod. 12. 

ALGiDAMiDAS, a general of the Messenians, 
who retired to Rhegium, after the taking of 
Ithome by the Spartans, B. C. 723. Strab. 6. 

Alcidamus, a philosopher and orator, who 



AL 



HISTORY, &c. 



AL 



wrote a treatise on death. He was pupil to 
GorgiaSj and flourished B. C. 424. Quint. 3, c. 1. 

Alcidas, a Lacedsemonian, sent with 23 gal- 
leys against Corcyra, in the Peloponnesian war, 
Tkucijd. 4, c. 16, &c. 

Alcimenes, I. a tragic poet of Megara. 

II. A comic writer of Athens, 

Alcinous, I. a man of Elis. Paus. II. A 

philosopher in the second century, who wrote a 
book, Jje doctrina Platonis, the best edition of 
which is the 12mo. printed Oxon. 1667. Vid. 
Part III. 

Alciphron, a philosopher of Magnesia in 
the age of Alexander. There are some epistles 
m Greek that bear his name, and contain a very 
perfect picture of the customs and manners of 
the Greeks. They are by some supposed to be 
the production of a writer of the 4th century. 

ALCMiEON, I. a philosopher, disciple to Py- 
thagoras, born in Crotona, He wrote on physic, 
and he was the first who dissected animals to 
examine into the structure of the haman frame. 

Cic. de Nat. D. 6, c. 27. II. A son of the 

poet jiEschylus, the 13th archon of Athens.- 



III. A son of Syllus, driven from Messenia,with 
the rest of Nestor's family, by the Heraclidee. 
He came to Athens, and from him the Alcmae- 
onidae are descended, Vid. Part III, Paus, 
1, c. 18. . 

ALCM^6NiD.E, a noble family of Athens, de- 
scended from Alcmseon. They undertook for 
300 talents to rebuild the temple of Delphi, 
which had been burnt, and they finished the 
work in a more splendid manner than was re- 
quired; in conseqaence of which they gained 
popularity, -and by their influence the Pythia 
prevailed upon the Lacedaemonians to deliver 
their country from the tyranny of the Pisistra- 
tidse. Herodot. 5 and 6, — Thucyd. 6, c. 59. — 
Pint, in Solon. 

Alcman, a very ancient lyric poet, born in 
Sardinia, and not at Lacedaemon, as some sup- 
pose. He wrote, in the Doric dialect, 6 books 
of verses, besides a play called Colymbosas. 
He flourished B. C. 670, and died of the lousy 
disease. Some of his verses are preserved by 
Athenaeus and others. Plin. 11, c. 33. — Paus. 
1, c. 41, 1. 3, c. 15. — Aristot. Hist. Anim. 5, c. 31. 

Algyoneus, a youth of exemplary virtue, son 
to Antigonus. Plut. in Pyrrh. — Diog. 4, Vid. 
Part III. 

Alemanni, certain tribes, originally of the 
Suevi, the most warlike of the Germans, Ap- 
proaching the banks of the Rhine they mingled 
with other people, among which were probably 
many Gallic families ; and then from their hete- 
rogeneous composition it is supposed they first 
assumed or received the designation of AUmans 
or Alemanni. The country which bore their 
name, from their having effecied in it a resi- 
dence, was that tract which, including the Ty- 
rol, the country of the Grisons, parts of Switzer- 
land, and all the western borders of the Rhine, 
extended also on the east as far as the Maine. 
After many conflicts with the Romans and the 
Franks, and various changes in their territorial 
limits, the Alemanni were overcome by Clovis, 
and obliged to retreat to their own country be- 
yond the river Rhine. From the narrow region 
to which they were then obliged to confine them- 
selves, they were subsequently enabled to give 
their name to modern Germany. 



Alemon, the father of Myscellus. He built 
Crotona in Magna GrjEcia, Myscellus is often 
called Alemonides, Ovid. Met. 15, v. 19 and 26. 

Alethes, the first of the Heraclidas, who was 
king of Corinth. He was son of Hippotas. 
Pa^is. 2, c. 4. 

Aletidas, (from oKao^ai, to ivander,) certain 
sacrifices at Athens, in remembrance of Eri- 
gone, who wandered with a dog after her father 
Icarus. 

' Aleuad^, a royal family of Larissa inThes- 
saly, descended from Aleuas, king of that coun- 
try. They betrayed their country to Xerxes. 
The name is often applied to the Thessalians 
without distinction, Diod. 16, — Herodot. 7, c. 
6, 112.— Paus. 3, c, 8, 1. 7, c, 10.— jElian. 
Anim. 8, c. 11. 

Alexamenus, an ^tolian, who killed Nabis, 
tyrant of Lacedaemon, and was soon after mur- 
dered by the people. Liv. 35, c. 34. 

Alexander 1st, son of Amyntas was the 
tenth king of Macedonia. He killed the Per- 
sian ambassadors for their immodest behaviour 
to the women of his father's court, and was the 
first who raised the reputation of the Macedo- 
nians. He reigned 43 years, and died 451 B. 
C. Justin. 7, c. 3. — Herodot. 5, 7, 8 and 9. 

Alexander 2d, son of Amyntas 2d, king of 
Macedonia, was treacherously murdered, B. C. 
370, by his younger brother Ptolemy, who held 
the kingdom for four years, and made way for 
Perdiccas and Philip. Justin. 7, c. 5, says, 
Eurydice, the wife of Amyntas, was the cause 
of his murder. 

Alexander 3d, surnamed the Great, was 
son of Philip and Olympias. He was born B. 
C. 355, that night on which the famous tTemple 
of Diana at Ephesus was burnt by Erostratus. 
Two eagles perched for some time on the house 
of Philip, as if foretelling that his son would 
become master of Europe and Asia. He was 
pupil to Aristotle during five years, and received 
his learned preceptor's instructions with becom- 
ing deference and pleasure, and ever respected 
his abilities. When Philip went to war, Alex- 
ander in his 15th year, was left governor of 
Macedonia, where he quelled a dangerous sedi- 
tion, and soon after followed his father to the 
field, and saved his life in a battle. He was 
highly offended when Philip divorced Olympias 
to marry Cleopatra ; and he even caused the 
death of Attains, the new queen's brother. Af- 
ter this he retired from court to his mother 
Olympias, but was recalled ; and when Philip 
was assassinated, he punished his murderers ; 
and by his prudence and moderation gained the 
affection of his subjects. He conquered Thrace 
and Illyricum, and destroyed Thebes ; and after 
he had been chosen chief commander of all the 
forces of Greece, he declared war against the 
Persians. With 32,000 foot and 5,000 horse 
he invaded Asia, and after the defeat of Darius 
at the Granicus, he conquered all the provinces 
of Asia Minor. He obtained two other cele- 
brated victories over Darius at Issus and Ar- 
bela, took Tyre, after an obstinate siege of seven 
months and the slaughter of 2000 of the inha- 
bitants in cool blood, and made himself master 
of Egypt, Media, Syria, and Persia. From 
Eg>T3t he visited the temple of Jupiter Amraon, 
and bribed the priests, who saluted him as the 
son of their god. and enjoined his army to pay 
335 



AL 



HISTORY, &c. 



AL 



him divine honours. He built a town, which he 
called Alexandria, on the western side of the 
Nile, near the coast of the Mediterranean, to 
become the future capital of his dominions, and 
to extend the commerce of his subjects from the 
Mediterranean to the Ganges. His conquests 
were spread over India, where he fought with 
Porus, a powerful king of the country ; and 
after he had invaded Scythia, and visited the 
Indian ocean, he retired to Babylon, loaded with 
the spoils of the east. He died at Babylon, the 
21st of April, in the 32d year of his age, after a 
reign of 12 years and 8 months of brilliant and 
continued success, 323 B. C, His death was 
so premature that some have attributed it to the 
effects of poison and excess of drinking. An- 
tipater has been accused of causing the fatal poi- 
son to be given him at a feast ; and perhaps the 
resentment of the Macedonians, whose services 
he seemed to forget by intrusting the guard of 
his body to the Persians, was the cause of his 
death. He was so universally regretted, that 
Babylon was filled with tears and lamentations ; 
and the Medes and Macedonians declared that 
no one was able or worthy to succeed him. 
Many conspiracies were formed against him by 
the othcers of his army, but they were all sea- 
sonably suppressed. His tender treatment of 
the wife and mother of king Darius, who were 
taken prisoners, has been greatly praised ; and 
the latter who survived the death of her son, 
killed herself when she heard that Alexander 
was dead. His great intrepidity more than once 
endangered his life ; he always fought as if sure 
of victory, and the terror of his name was often 
more powerfully effectual than his arms. He 
was always forward in every engagement, and 
bore the labours of the field as well as the mean- 
est of his soldiers. During his conquest in 
Asia, he founded many cities, which he called 
Alexandria after his own name. When he 
had conquered Darius, he ordered himself to be 
worshipped as a god ; and Callisthenes, who 
refused to do it, was put to death. He murder- 
ed, at a banquet, his friend Clitus, who had once 
saved his life in a battle, because he enlarged 
upon the virtues and exploits of Philip, and pre- 
ferred them to those of his son. His victories 
and success increased his pride ; he dressed him- 
self in the Persian manner, and gave himself up 
to pleasure and dissipation. He set on fire the 
town of Persepolis, in a fit of madness and in- 
toxication, encouraged by the courtesan Thais. 
Yet, among all his extravagances, he was fond 
of candour and of truth; and when one of his 
officers read to him, as he sailed on the Hydas- 
pes, a history which he had composed of the 
wars with Porus, and in which he had too li- 
berally panegyrized him, Alexander snatched 
the book from his hand, and threw it into the 
river, saying, " What need is there of such flat- 
tery 1 are not the exploits of Alexander suffi- 
ciently meritorious in themselves without the 
colouring of falsehood 1" He, in like manner, 
rejected a statuary, who offered to cut mount 
Athos like him, and represent him as holding a 
town in one hand and pouring a river from the 
other. He forbade any statuary to make his sta- 
tue except Lysippus, and any painter to draw 
his picture except Apelles. On his death-bed 
he gave his ring to Perdiccas, and it was sup- 
posed that by this singular present he wished to 
336 



make him his successor. Some time before his 
death, his officers asked him whom he appoint- 
ed to succeed him on the throne ^ and he an- 
swered. The worthiest among you ; but I am 
afraid, (added he,) my best friends will perform 
my funeral obsequies with bloody hands. Alex- 
ander, with all his pride, was humane and libe- 
ral, easy and familiar with his friends, a great 
patron of learning, as may be collected from his 
assisting Aristotle with a purse of money to ef- 
fect the completion of his natural history. He 
was brave often to rashness ; he frequently la- 
mented that his father conquered every thing, 
and left him nothing to do ; and exclaimed, in 
all the pride of regal dignity, Give me kings for 
competitors, and I will enter the lists at Olym- 
pia. All his family and infant children were 
put to death by Cassander. The first delibera- 
tion that was made after his decease, among his 
generals, was to appoint his brother Philip Ari- 
dasus successor, until Roxane, who was then 
pregnant by him, brought into the world a legi- 
timate heir. His empire was subsequently di- 
vided among his generals. Vid. Ptolemy, An- 
tigonus, &c. Curt. Arrian. and Plut. have 
written an account of Alexander's life. Diod. 
17 and 18. — Paus. 1, 7, 8, 9. — Justin.-ll and 12. 

— Val Max.—Strab. 1, &c. II. A son of 

Alexander the Great, by Roxane, put to death, 
with his mother, by Cassander. Justin. 15, c. 

2. III. A man, who, after the expulsion of 

Telestes, reigned m Corinth. Twenty-five 
years after, Telestes dispossessed him, and put 

him to death. IV. A son of Cassander, king 

of Macedonia, who reigned two years conjointly 
with his brother Antipater, and was prevented 
byLysimachus from revenging his motherThes- 
salonica, whom his brother had murdered. De- 
metrius, the son of Antigonus; put him to death. 
Justin. 16, c. 1. — Paus. 9, c. 7. — — V. A king 
of Epirus, brother to Ol5rmLpias, and successor to 
Arybas. He banished Timolaus to Peloponne- 
sus, and made war in Italy against the Romans, 
and observed that he fought with men, while his 
nephew, Alexander the Great, was fighting 
with an army of women (meaning the Persians). 
He was surnamed Molossus. Justin. 17, c. 3. 
—Diod. 16.—Liv. 8, c. 17 and ^l.—Strab. 16. 
VI. A son of Pyrrhus, was king of Epirus. 



He conquered Macedonia, from which he was 
expelled by Demetrius. He recovered it by the 
assistance of the Acarnanians. Justin. 26, c. 

3. — Plut. in Pijrrh. VII. A king of Syria, 

driven from his kingdom by Nicanor, son of De- 
metrius Soter, and his father-in-law Ptolemy 
Philometor. Justin. 35, c. 1 and 2. — Joseph. 13. 
Ant. Jud.—Strah. 17. VIII. A king of Sy- 
ria, first called Bala, was a merchant and suc- 
ceeded Demetrius. He conquered Nicanor by 
means of Ptolemy Physcon, and was afterwards 
killed by Antiochus Gryphus, son of Nicanor. 

Joseph. Ant. Jud. 13, c. 18. IX. Ptolemy 

was one of the Ptolemean kings in Egypt. His 
mother Cleopatra raised him to the throne, in 
preference to his brother Ptolemy Lathurus, and 
reigned conjointly Avith him. Cleopatra, how- 
ever, expelled him, and soon after recalled him ; 
and Alexander, to prevent being expelled a se- 
cond time, put her to death, and for this unna- 
tural action was himself murdered by one of his 
subjects. Joseph. 13, Ant. Jud. c. 20, &c.— 
Justin. ^9, c. 3 and 4.— Pa7is. I, c. 9. X. 



AL 



HISTORY, &c. 



AL 



Ptolemy 2d, king of Egypt, was son of the pre- 
ceding. He w£LS educated in the island of 
Cos, and falling into the hands of Mithridates, 
escaped to Sylla, who restored him to his king- 
dom. He was murdered by his subjects a few 
days after his restoration. Appian. 1. — Bell. 

Civ. XL Ptolemy 3d, was king of Egypt, 

after his brother Alexander the last mentioned. 
After a peaceful reign he was banished by his 
subjects, and died at Tyre, B. C. 65, leaving 
his kingdom to the Roman people. Vid. Egyp- 

ius d^ Ptolemceus. Cic. pro Hull. XII. A 

youth ordered by Alexander the Great to climb 
the rock Aornus, with 30 other youths. He 
was killed in the attempt. Curt. 8, c. 11. 



XIII, A name given to Paris, son of Priam. 

Vid. Paris. XIV. Jannseus, a king of Ju- 

dea, son of Hyrcanus, and brother of Aristobu- 
lus, who reigned as a tyrant, and died through 
excess of drinking, B. C. 79, after massacring 
800 of his subjects for the entertainment of 

his concubines. XV. A Paphlagonian, who 

gained divine honours by his magical tricks and 
impositions, and likewise procured the friend- 
ship of Marcus Aurelius. He died 70 years old. 

XVI. A native of Caria,inthe 3d century, 

who wrote a commentary on the writings of 

Aristotle, part of which is still extant. XVII. 

Trallianus, a physician and philosopher of the 
4th century, some of whose works in Greek 

are still extant. XVITI. A poet of ^itolia, 

in the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus.^ — XIX. 
A peripatetic philosopher, said to have been 

preceptor to Nero. XX. An historian, called 

also Polyhistor, who wrote five books on the 
Roman republic, in which he said that the Jews 
had received their laws, not from God, but from 
a woman he called Moso. He also wrote trea- 
tises on the Pythagorean philosophy, B. C. 88. 

XXI. A poet of Ephesus, who wrote a 

poem on astronomy and geography. XXII. 

A sophist of Seleucia, in the age of Antoninus. 

XXIII. A Thessalian, who, as he was 

going to engage in a naval battle, gave to his 
soldiers a great number of missile weapons, and 
ordered them to dart them continually upon the 
enemy, to render their numbers useless. Po- 

lyan. 6, c. 27. XXIV. A son of Lysima- 

chus. Poly an. 6, c. 12. XXV. A governor 

of Lycia, whobrought a reinforcement of troops 

to Alexander the Great. Curt. 7, c. 10. 

XXVI. A son of Polysperchon, killed in Asia 

by the Dymaeans. Diod. 18 and 19. XXVII. 

A poei of Pleuron, son of Satyrus and Strato- 
clea, who said that Theseus had a daughter 
called Iphigenia, by Helen. Paus. 2, c. 22. — — 
XXVIII. A Spartan, killed wdth two hundred 
of his soldiers by the Argives, when he endea- 
voured to prevent their passing through the coun- 

iry of Tegea. Diod. 15. XXIX. A cruel 

tyrant of Phara, in Thessaly, who made war 
against the Macedonians, and took Pelopidas 
prisoner. He was murdered, B. C. 357, by his 
wife called Thebe, whose room he carefully 
guarded by a Thracian sentinel, and searched 
every night, fearful of some dagger that might 
be concealed to take away his life. Cic. de Inv. 
2, c. 49, de Of. 2, c. 9.— Val. Max. 9, c. 13.— 
Plut. 4" C. Nep. in Pelop. — Paus. 6, c. 5. — 

Diod. 15 and 16.— Ovid, in lb. v. 321. XXX. 

Severus, a Roman emperor. Vid. Severus. 

Alexandra, I. the name of some queens of 

Part II.— 2 U 



Judaea, mentioned by Joseph. II. A nurse 

of Nero. Suet, hi Nero^ 50. 

Alexas, of Laodicea, was recommended to 
M. Antony by Timagenes. He was the cause 
that Antony repudiated Octavia to marry Cleo- 
patra. Augustus punished him severely after 
the defeat of Antony. Plut. in Anton. 

Alexinus, a disciple of Eubulides the Mile- 
sian, famous for the acuteness of his genius and 
judgment, and for his fondness for contention 
and argumentation. He died of a wound he had 
received from a sharp-pointed reed as he swam 
across the river Alplieus. Diog. m Euclid. 

Alexion, a physician intimate with Cicero. 
Cic. ad Att. 13, ep. 25. 

Alexis, I. a man of Samos, who endeavour- 
ed to ascertain, by his writings, the borders of 

his country. II. A comic poet, 336 B. C. of 

Thurium. He was either uncle or patron to 
Menander. Like Antiphanes, he was a very 
voluminous composer. Suidas siates the num- 
ber of his plays at 245 ; the titles of 113 are 
still upon record. Plato was occasionally the 
object of his satire also, as he was a mark for 

the wit of Anaxandrides. III. A statuary, 

disciple to Polycletes, 87th Olympiad. Plin. 
34, c. 8. 

P. Alfenijs Varus, a native of Cremona, 
who, by the force of his genius and his applica- 
tion, raised himself from his original profession 
of a cobbler, to ofiices of trust at Rome, and at 
last became consul. Horat. 1, Sat. 3,»v. 130. 

Alienus CiEciNA, a questor in Boeotia ap- 
pointed, for his services, commander of a legion 
in Germany, by Galba. The emperor dis- 
graced him for his bad conduct, for which he 
raised commotions in the empire. Tacit. 1, 
Hist. c. 52. 

Alimentus, C. an historian in the second 
Punic war, w^ho wrote in Greek an account of 
Annibal, besides a treatise on military affairs. 
Liv. 21 and 30. 

ALLUTros, or Albutius, a prince of the Cel- 
tiberi, to whom Scipio restored the beautiful 
princess whom he had taken in battle. 

Aloa, festivals at Athens in honour of Bac- 
chus and Ceres, by whose beneficence the hus- 
bandmen received the recompense of their la- 
bours. The oblations were the fruits of the 
earth. Ceres has been called, from this, Aloas 
and Alois. 

Alotia, festivals in Arcadia, in commemora- 
tion of a victory gained over Lacedaemonby the 
Arcadians, 

Alphius Avitus, a writer m the age of Se- 
verus, who gave an account of illustrious men, 
and a history of the Carthaginian war. 

Alpinus, I. (Cornelius,) a contemptible 
poet, whom Horace ridicules for an epic poem 
on the wars in Germany. Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 
36. II. Julius, one of the chiefs of the Hel- 
vetia Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 68. 

Alth^menes. Vid. Part III. 

Alyattes, I. a king of Lydia, descended from 

the Heraclidas. He reigned 57 years. II. 

King of Lydia, of the family of the Mermnadae, 
was father of Croesus. He drove the Cimme- 
rians from Asia, and made war against the 
Medes. He died when engaged in a war 
against Miletus, after a reign of 35 years. A 
monument was raised on his grave with the 
money which the women of Lydia had obtain- 
337 



AM 



HISTORY, &c. 



AM 



ed by prostitution. An eclipse of the sun ter- 
minated a battle between him and Cyaxares. 
Herodot. 1, e. 16, 17, &c.—Strab. 13. 

ALYCiBus, a son of Sciron, was killed by 
Theseus. A place in Megara received its name 
from him. Plut. in Thes. 

Amadocus, a king of Thrace, defeated by his 
antagonist Seuthes. Aristot. 5. Polit. 10. 

Amage, a queen of Sarmatia, remarkable for 
her justice and fortitude. Polyan. 8, c. 56. 

Amandus, Cn. Sal. a rebel general under 
Dioclesian, who assumed imperial honours, and 
was at last conquered by Dioclesian's colleague. 

Amarynceus, a king of the Epeans, buried 
at Buprasium. Strab. 8. — Pans. 8, c. 1. 

Amasis, I. a man who, from a common sol- 
dier, became king of Egypt. He made war 
against Arabia, and died before the invasion of 
his country by Cambyses king of Persia. He 
made a law, that every one of his subjects should 
yearly give an account to the public magistrates 
of the manner in which he supported himself. 
He refused to continue in alliance with Poly- 
crates the tyrant of Samos, on account of his 
uncommon prosperity. When Cambyses came 
into Egypt, he ordered the body of Amasis to 
be dug up, and to be insulted and burnt ; an ac- 
tion which was Yexj offensive to the religious 
notions of the Egyptians. Herodot. 1, 2, 3. 



II. A man who led the Persians against the 
inhabitants of Barce. Herodot. 4, c. 201, &c. 

Amastris, I. the wife of Dionysius the tyrant 
of Sicily, was sister to Darius whom Alexan- 
der conquered. Strab. II. Also the wife of 

Xerxes, king of Persia. Vid. Amestris. 

Amata, the wife of king Latinus. She had 
betrothed her daughter Lavinia to Turnus be- 
fore the arrival of jEneas in Italy. She zeal- 
ously favoured the interest of Turnus; and 
when her daughter was given in marriage to 
JEneas, she hung herself to avoid the sight of 
her son-in-law. Virg. jEn. 7, &c. 

Amazenes, or Mazenes, a prince of the isl- 
and Oaractus, who sailed for some time with 
the Macedonians and Nearchus in Alexander's 
expedition to the East. Arrian. m Indie. 

Ambarvalia, a joyful procession round the 
ploughed fields, in honour of Ceres, the goddess 
of corn. There were two festivals of that name 
celebrated by the Romans ; one about the month 
of April, the other in July. They went three 
times round their fields,crowned with oak leaves, 
singing hymns to Ceres, and entreating her to 
preserve their corn. The word is derived ah 
arwbiendis is arvis, going round the fields. A 
sow, a sheep, and a bull, called ambarvalitz 
kosticB^ were afterwards immolated, and the 
sacrifice has sometimes been called suovetauri- 
lia, from sus, ovis, and taurus. Virg. G. 1, v. 
339 and 345.— TiJ. 2, el. 1, v. l^.— Cato de R. R. 
c. 141. 

Ambigatus, a king of the Celtse in the time 
of Tarquinius Priscus. Seeing the great popu- 
lation of his country, he sent his two nephews, 
Sigovesus and Bellovesus, with two colonies, in 
quest of new settlements ; the former towards 
Italy. Liv. 5, c. 34, &c. 

Ambiorix, a king of a portion of the Ebu- 
rones, in Gaul. He was a great enemy to 
Rome, and was killed in a battle with J. Caesar, 
in which 60,000 of his countrymen were slain. 
Cas. Bell. G. 5, c. 11, 26, 1. 6,c. 30. 
338 



Ambrosia, I. festivals observed in honour of 
Bacchus in some cities of Greece. They were 

the same as the Brum alia of the Romans. 

II. The food of the gods was called ambrosia, 
and their drink nectar. The word signifies 
immortal. It had the power of giving immor- 
tality to all those who ate it ; and it is said that 
Berenice, the wife of Ptolemy Soter, was saved 
from death by eating ambrosia given her by Ve- 
nus. Homer. 11. 1, 14, 16, and 24. — LAician. de 
dea Syria. — Catull. ep. 100. — Theocrit. Id. 15. — 
Virg. Mn. 1, v. 407, 1. 12, v. 4:19.— Ovid. Met. 
2. — Pindar. 1, Olymp. 

Ambrosius, bishop of Milan, obliged the em- 
peror Theodosius to make penance for the mur- 
der of the people of Thessalonica, and distin- 
guished himself by his writings, especially 
against the Arrians. His three books de officiis 
are still extant, besides eight hymns on the crea- 
tion. His style is not inelegant, but his diction 
is sententious, his opinions eccentric, though 
his subject is diversified by copiousness of 
thought. He died A. D. 397. The best edition 
of his works is that of the Benedictines, 2 vols, 
fol. Paris, 1686. 

AMBUBAJiE, Syrian women of immoral lives, 
who, in the dissolute period of Rome,- attended 
festivals and assemblies as minstrels. The name 
is derived by some from Syrian words, which 
signify a flute. Horat. 1, Sat. 2. — Suet, in 
Ner. 27. 

Amenides, a secretary of Darius, the last 
king of Persia. Alexander set him over the 
Arimaspi. Curt. 7, c. 3. 

Amenocles, a Corinthian, said to be the first 
Grecian who built a three-oared galley at Sa- 
mos and Corinth. TJiucyd. 1, c. 13. 

Amestris, queen of Persia, was wife to Xer- 
xes. She cruelly treated the mother of Ar- 
tiante, her husband's mistress, and cut off her 
nose, ears, lips, breast, tongue, and eye-brows. 
She also buried alive fourteen noble Persian 
youths, to appease the deities under the earth. 
Herodot. 7, c. 61, 1. 9, c. 111. 

Amilcar, I. a Carthaginian general of great 
eloquence and cunning, surnamed Rhodanus. 
When the Athenians were afraid of Alexand er, 
Amilcar went to his camp, gained his confi- 
dence, and secretly transmitted an account of 
all his schemes to Athens. Tragus. 21, c. 6. 
II. A Carthaginian, whom the Syracusans 



called to their assistance against the tyrant 
Agathocles, who besieged their city. Amilcar 
soon after favoured the interest of Agathocles, 
for which he was accused at Carthage. He died 
in Syracuse, B. C. 309. Diod. 20.— Justi7i. 22, 

c. 2 and 3. III. A Carthaginian, surnamed 

Barcas, father to the celebrated Annibal. He 
was general in Sicily during the first Punic 
war ; and after a peace had been made with the 
Romans, he quelled a rebellion of slaves who 
had besieged Carthage, and taken many towns 
of Africa, and rendered themselves so formida- 
ble to the Carthaginians, that they begged and 
obtained assistance from Rome. After this, he 
passed into Spain, with his son Annibal, who 
was but nine vears of age, and laid the founda- 
tion of the town of Barcelona. He was killed 
in a battle against the Vettones, B. C. 237. He 
had formed the plan of an invasion of Italy, by 
crossing the Alps, which his son afterwards 
ca rried into execution. His great enmity to the 



AM 



HISTORY, &c. 



AM 



Romans was the cause of the second Punic war. 
He used to say of his three sons, that he kept 
three lions to devour the Roman power. Nep. 
in Vit.—Liv. 21, c. l.—Polyb. 2.—Plut. in 

Annib. IV. A Carthaginian general, who 

assisted the Insubres against Rome, and was 
taken by Cn. Cornelius. Liv. 32, c. 30, 1. 33, 

c. 8. V. A son of Hanno, defeated in Sicily 

by Gelon, the same day that Xerxes was de- 
feated at Salamis by Themistocles. He burnt 
himself that his body might not be found among 
the slain. Sacrifices were offered to him. He- 
rodot. 7, c. 165, &c. 

Amisias, a comic poet, whom Aristophanes 
ridiculed for his insipid verses. 

Ammianus. Vid. Marcellinus. 

Ammonkts, I. a Christian philosopher, who 
opened a school of Platonic philosophy at Alex- 
andria, 232, A. D. and had among his pupils 
Origen and Plotinus. His treatise lit^i O^oicov 
was published in 4to. by Valckenaer, L. Bat. 

1739. II. A writer who gave an account of 

sacrifices, as also a treatise on the harlots of 
Athens, Athen. 13. III. An Athenian gene- 
ral, surnamed Barcas. Polyb. 3. 

Amphiaraides, a patronymic of Alcmseon, as 
being son of Amphiaraus. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 43. 

Amphigtyon, the son of Hellen, who first 
established the celebrated council of the Am- 
phictyons, composed of the wisest and most vir- 
tuous men of some of the cities of Greece. This 
assembly was at first but inconsiderable ; nor 
did it arrive to its full strength and lustre but 
by gradual advances, and in a long series of 
years. Its first origin we are to ascribe to Am- 
phictyon, the son of Deucalion, an ancient king 
of Thessaly, as the authority of the Arundelian 
Marbles warrants us to determine. Their tes- 
timony is full and explicit, and, on account of 
the high antiquity of this monument, deserves 
particular attention. * Amphictyon, the son of 
Deucalion, reigned at Thermopyls, and collect- 
ed the people bordering on his territory, and 
called them Amphictyons, and the assembly Py- 
Isea, in the place where the Amphictyons sa- 
crifice to this day.' Androtion asserts, that the 
convention was at first held at Delphi, and com- 
posed only of those who lived in the neighbour- 
hood of this city, and who were called not from 
Amphictyon, but AuL(piKTiwveg, the neighbouring 
inhabitants ; but to this again we must oppose 
the high authority of the Marbles. The assem- 
bly, thus formed, was at first but small, being 
wholly composed of those people whom Deuca- 
lion had commanded, and who, from his son 
Hellen, where called 'EAAHES. As Greece 
improved, and the Hellenes increased in num- 
ber, new regulations became necessary; and 
accordingly we find, that, in some time after the 
original institution, Acrisius, king of Argos, 
when, through fear of Perseus, (who, as the 
oracle declared, was to kill him,) he retired into 
Thessaly, observed the defects of the Amphic- 
tyonic council, and undertook to new-model 
and regulate it; extended its privileges; aug- 
mented the number of its members ; enacted 
new laws, by which the collective body was to 
be governed; and assigned to each state one 
single deputy, and one single voice, to be en- 
joyed by some, in their own sole right : by oth- 
ers, in conjunction with one or more inferior 
states; and thus came to be considered as the 



foimder of this famous representative of the 
Hellenic body. From the time of Acrisius, the 
Amphictyons still continued to hold one of their 
annual councils at Thermopylae, that of autumn. 
But it was now made a part of their function 
to guard and protect the national region. The 
vernal assembly therefore was held at Delphi, 
the great seat of the Grecian religion ; the ob- 
ject of universal veneration ; whither all peo- 
ple, Greeks and Barbarians, resorted, to seek 
the advice and direction of the famous Pythian 
oracle. The time of assembling we have said 
were two in each year. The following history 
however afibrds an instance of the Amphictyons 
assuming a power of assembling oftener, on 
some extraordinary emergencies. But this 
seems to have been a corruption introduced by 
time, or the power of particular parties ; and, 
as such, was condemned and discountenanced. 
The alterations, made in the council of Am- 
phictyons at different times, seem to have oc- 
casioned the difference in historians as to the 
number and names of the people who had a 
right to send representatives to that assembly. 
Agreeably to the dispositions made by Acrisius, 
twelve cities only were invested with this right, 
according to Strabo. .^schines and Theo- 
pompus also confine it to twelve people, whom 
the orator calls, not no'Keis, cities, but edvri, a word 
denoting a collection of several particular com- 
munities. Pausanius also calls them yevrj, a 
term of like signification. The Amphictyonic 
people were, according to -S^schines, Thessali- 
ans, Bceotians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhcebeans, 
Magnetes, Locrians, (Eteans, Phthiotes, Male- 
ans, Phocians ; — to Theopompus : lonians, Do- 
rians, Perrhcebeans, Bceotians, Magnetes, Achcs- 
ans, Phthiotes, Maleans, Dolopes, ^nians, Del- 
phians, Phocians ; — to Pausanias : lonians^ 
Dolopes, Thessalians, Mnians, Magnetes, Ma- 
leans, Phthiotes, Dorians, Phocians, Locri Epic- 
nemides. .ffischines, we see, enumerates but 
eleven ; yet he asserts the number to be twelve. 
We see, then, how this famous council was 
formed. The whole nation of Greece was 
divided into twelve districts or provinces : each 
of these contained a certain number of Am- 
phictyonic states, or cities, each of which en- 
joyed an equal right in voting and determin- 
ing in all affairs relative to the general inte- 
rest. Other inferior cities were dependant on 
some of these, and, as members of their com- 
munity, were also represented by the same de- 
puties ; and thus the assembly of the Amphic- 
t^'-ons became really and properly the represen- 
tative of the whole Hellenic body : to koivovtwv 
'EXXrji/wi^ HvveSpiov. Each of those cities, which 
had a right to assist in the Amphictyonic coun- 
cil, was obliged to send its deputies to every 
meeting; and the number of these deputies was 
usually and regularly two: the one entitled 
hieromnemon, to whom was particularly in- 
trusted the care of religion and its rites. His 
office was annual, as appears from several de- 
crees, in which his name is joined with that of 
the Athenian archon cnoiwuoi ; and he was ap- 
pointed by lot. The other deputy was called 
by the general name pylagoras, and was chosen 
by election for each particular meeting. Each 
of these deputies, however differing in their 
functions, enjoyed an equal power of determin- 
ing all affairs relative to the general interest. 
339 



AIM 



HISTORY, &c. 



AM 



And thus the cities which they represented, 
without any distinction or subordination, each 
gave two voices in the council of the Amphic- 
tyons, a privilege known by the name of the 
double suffrage. When the deputies, thus ap- 
pointed, appeared to execute their commission, 
they in the first place offered up their solemn 
sacrifices to the gods ; to Ceres, when they as- 
sembled at Thermopylae ; when at Delphi, to 
Apollo, Diana, Latona, and Minerva : and be- 
fore they entered on their function, each deputy 
was obliged to take an oath, which ^schines 
hath preserved, or at least some part of it ; and 
which was conceived in these terms : ' I swear 
that I will never subvert any Amphictyonic 
city : I will never stop the courses of their wa- 
ters, neither in war or peace. If any such out- 
rages shall be attempted, I will oppose them by 
force of arms, and destroy those cities who may 
be guilty of such attempts. If any devasta- 
tions shall be committed in the territory of the 
god ; if any shall be privy to such ofience or 
entertain any design against the temple ; I will 
make use of my feet, my hands, my whole force, 
to bring the offending party to condign punish- 
ment. If any one shall violate any part of 
this solemn engagement, whether city, private 
person, or country, may such violators be ob- 
noxious to the vengeance of Apollo, Diana, La- 
tona, and Minerva the provident. May their 
lands never produce their fruits : may their 
women never bring forth children of the same 
nature with their parents, but offsprings of an 
unnatural and monstrous kind: may they be 
for ever defeated in war, in judicial controver- 
sies, and in all civil transactions ; and may 
they, their families, and their whole race, be 
utterly destroyed: may they never offer up an 
acceptable sacrifice to Apollo, Diana, Latona, 
and Minerva the provident ; but may all their 
sacred rights be for ever rejected.' It was the 
peculiar privilege of one of the hieromnemons 
to preside in the council. He collected the 
votes ; he reported the resolutions : he had the 
power of convening the Ex'KXrjo-ta, or general 
convention. His name was prefixed to every 
decree, together with his title, which was that 
of sovereign pontiff or priest of Apollo. While 
the generous principles, on which this illus- 
trious body was first formed, continued to pre- 
serve their due vigour, the Amphictyons of con- 
sequence were respectable, august and power- 



ful. 



When the nation itself began to degene- 



rate, its representative of course shared in the 
general corruption. The decline of this coun- 
cil we may therefore date from the time when 
Philip king of Macedon, began to practise with 
its members, and prevailed to have his kingdom 
annexed to the Hellenic body. It continued, 
however, for ages after the destruction of Gre- 
cian liberty, to assemble and to exercise some 
remains of its authority. In the time of Pau- 
sanias, who lived in the reign of Antoninus 
Pius, the Amphictyonic cities were thirty ; but 
of these the cities of Athens, Delphi, and Nico- 
polis, only sent their deputies constantly, the 
rest at particular times in rotation. But as 
their care was now entirely confined to the rites 
of their idolatrous worship, and as these came 
to be forbidden in the time of Constantine, this 
famous council of Amphictyons seems to have 
fallen, together with their temple and their re- 
340 



ligion. Paus, in Phocic. and Achaic. — Strab. 8. 
— Suidas. — Hcsych. — uEschin. 

AMPmDROMJA, a festival observed by private 
families at Athens, the fifth day after the birth 
of every child. It was customary to run round 
the fire with a child in their arms 5 whence the 
name of the festivals. 

Amphilytus, a soothsayer of Acarnania, who 
encouraged Pisistratus to seize the sovereign 
power of Athens. Herodot. 1, c. 62. 

Amphion, a painter and statuary, son of Aces- 
tor of Gnossus. Plin. 36, c. 10. Vid. Part III. 

AMPmpoLEs, magistrates appointed at Syra- 
cuse, by Timoleon, after the expulsion of Dio- 
nysius the younger. The office existed for 
above 300 years. Diod. 16 

Amphis, a comic poet of Athens, son of Am- 
phicrates, contemporary with Plato. Suidas. 

Amphitryoniades, a surname of Hercules. 

Ampia Labiena Lex, was enacted by T. Am- 
pins and A. Labienus, tribunes of the people, 
A. U. C. 693. It gave Pompey the great privi- 
lege of appearing in triumphal robes and with a 
golden crown at the Circensian games, and with 
a praetexta and golden crown at theatrical plays. 

Amulius, I. king of Alba, was son of Procas, 
and youngest brother to Numitor. The crown 
belonged to Numitor by right of birth, but 
Amulius dispossessed him of it. Romulus and 
Remus, when they had attained the years of 
manhood, put to death the usurper Amulius, 
and restored the crown to their grandfather. 
Ovid. Fast. 3, v. &1.—Liv. 1, c.,3 and 4.— PZtil 

in Romul. — Flor. 1, c. 1. — Dionys. Hal. II. 

A celebrated painter. Plin. 35, c. 10. 

Amyclas, the master of a ship in which 
Caesar embarked in disguise. When Amyclas 
wished to put back to avoid a violent storm, 
Caesar, unveiling his head, discovered himself, 
and bidding the pilot pursue his voyage, ex- 
claimed, Ccesarem vehis, Ccesarisque fortunam. 
Lmcan. 5, v. 520. 

Amyntas, I. was king of Macedonia after 
his father Alectas. His son Alexander mur- 
dered the ambassadors of Megabyzus for their 
wanton and insolent behaviour to the ladies of 
his father's court. Bubares, a Persian general, 
was sent with an army to revenge the death of 
the ambassadors ; but, instead of making war, 
he married the king's daughter, and defended 
his possessions. Justin. 7, c. 3. — Herodot. 5, 7 

and 8. The second of that name was son 

of Menelaus, and king of Macedonia after his 
murder of Pausanias. He was expelled by the 
Illyrians, and restored by the Thessalians and 
Spartans, He made war against the Illyrians 
and Olynthians, and lived to a great age. His 
wife Eurydice conspired against his life; but her 
snares were seasonably discovered by one of his 
daughters by a former wife. He had Alexander, 
Perdiccas, and Philip, Alexander the Great's 
father, by his first wife ; and by the other he had 
Archelaus, Aridaeus, and Menelaus. He reign- 
ed 24 years; and soon after his death, his son 
Philip murdered all his brothers and ascended 
the throne. Justin. 7, c. 4 and 9. — Diod. 14, 

&c— C. Nep. and Plut. in Pelopid. III. 

Another king of Macedonia, of the same name. 

IV. A man who succeeded Dejotarus in 

the kingdom of Gallograecia. After his death 
it became a Roman province under Augustus. 
Strab. 13. V- Another officer who deserted 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



to Darms, and was killed as he attempted to 

seize Egypt. Curt. 3, c. 9. VI. A son of 

Antiochus, who withdrew himself from Mace- 
donia, because he hated Alexander. VII. 

An officer m Alexander's cavalry. He was 
accused of conspiracy against the king, on ac- 
count of his great intimacy with Philotas, and 
acquitted. Curt. 4, c. 15, 1. 6, c. 9, 1. 8, c. 12. 
VIII. A Greek writer, who composed se- 
veral works quoted by Athenaeus 10 and 12. 

Amytianus, an historian in the age of An- 
toninus, who wrote a treatise in commendation 
of Philip, Olympias, and Alexander. 

Amyrius, a king by whom Cyrus was killed 
in a battle. Ctesias. 

Amytis, I. a daughter of Astyages, whom 

Cyrus married. Ctesias. II. A daughter of 

Xerxes, who married Megabyzus and disgraced 
herself by her debaucheries. 

Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, 592 B. 
C. who, on account of his wisdom, temperance, 
and extensive knowledge, has been called one of 
the seven wise men. Like his countrymen, he 
made use of a cart instead of a house. He weis 
wont to compare laws to cobwebs, which can 
stop only small flies, and are unable to resist the 
superior force of large insects. When he re- 
turned to Scythia from Athens, where he had 
spent some time in study, and in the friendship 
of Solon, he attempted to introduce there the 
laws of the Athenians, which so irritated his 
brother, who was then on the throne, that he 
killed him with an arrow. Anacharsis has ren- 
dered himself famous among the ancients by his 
writings, and his poems on war, the laws of 
Scythia, &c.- Two of his letters to Croesus and 
Hanno are still extant. Later authors have at- 
tributed to him the invention of tinder, of an- 
chors, and of the potter's wheel. The name of 
Anacharsis is become very familiar to modern 
ears, by that elegant, valuable, and truly clas- 
•sical work of Barthelemi, called the Travels 
of Anacharsis. Herodot. 4, c. 46, 47 and 48. — 
Plut. in Conviv. — Cic. Thisc.b, c. 32. — Strab. 7. 

Anacreon, a famous lyric poet of Teos, in 
Ionia, highly favoured by Polycrates and Hip- 
parchus, son of Pisistratus. He was of a las- 
civious and intemperate disposition, much given 
to drinking, and deeply enamoured of a youth 
called Bathylus. His odes are still extant, and 
the uncommon sweetness and elegance of his 
poetry have been the admiration of every age 
and country. He lived to his 85th year, and, 
after every excess of pleasure and debauchery^ 
choked himself with a grape-stone, and expired. 
Plato says that he was descended from an illus- 
trious family, and that Codras, the last king of 
Athens, was one of his progenitors. His statue 
was placed in the citadel of Athens, representing 
him as an old drunken man, singing, with every 
mark of dissipation and intemperance. Ana- 
creon flourished 532 B.C. All that he wrote is 
not extant; his odes were first published by H. 
Stephens, with an elegant translation. The 
best editions of Anacreon are, that of Maittaire, 
4to. London, 1725, of which only one hundred 
copies were printed, and the very correct one of 
Barnes, 12mo. Cantab. 1721, to which may be 
added that of Brunck, 12mo. Argentor. 1778. 
Paus. 1, c. 2, "lb.— Strab. \L—^lian. V. H. 
9, c. 4. — dc. in Tiisc. 4, c. 33. — Horat. epod. 
14, V. ^.—Plin. 1.— Herodot. 3. c. 121. 



Anadyomenk, a valuable painting of Venus 
represented as rising from the sea, by Apelles, 
Augustus bought it, and placed it in the temple 
of J. Cgesar. The lower part of it was a little 
defaced, and there were found no painters in 
Rome, able to repair it, Plin. 35, c. 10. 

Anagogia, a festival celebrated by the people 
of Eryx in Sicily, in honour of Venus. Mlian. 
V. H. 1, c. 15. H. A. 4, c. 2. 

Anaxagoras, I. succeeded his father, Mega- 
penthes, on the throne of Argos. He shared 
the sovereign power with Bias and Melampus, 
who had cured the women of Argos of madness, 
Paus. 2, c. 18. — —II. A Clazomenian philoso- 
pher, son of Hegesibulus, disciple to Anaxi- 
menes, and preceptor to Socrates and Euripi- 
des. He disregarded wealth and honours, to in- 
dulge his fondness for meditation and philoso- 
phy. He applied himself to astronomy, was ac- 
quainted with eclipses, and predicted that one 
day a stone would fall from the sun, which it 
is said really fell into the river ^gos. Anaxa- 
goras travelled into Eg5^t for improvement, and 
used to say that he preferred a grain of wisdom 
to heaps of gold. Pericles was in the number 
of his pupils, and often consulted him in matters 
of state ; and once dissuaded him from starving 
himself to death. The ideas of Anaxagoras 
concerning the heavens were wild and extrava- 
gant. He supposed that the sun was inflamma- 
ble matter, about the bigness of Peloponnesus : 
and that the moon was inhabited. The heavens 
he believed to be of stone, and the earth of simi- 
lar materials. He was accused of impiety, and 
condemned to die; but he ridiculed the sen- 
tence, and said it had long been pronounced 
upon him by nature; Being asked whether his 
body should be carried into his own country, he 
answered, no, as the road that led to the other 
side of the grave was as long from one place as 
the other; His scholar, Pericles, pleaded elo- 
quently and successfully for him, and the sen- 
tence of death was exchanged for banishment. 
In prison, the philosopher is said to have at- 
tempted to square the circle,or determine exactly 
the proportion of its diameter to the circumfe- 
rence. When the people of Lampsacus asked 
him before his death, whether he wished any 
thing to be done in commemoration of him, Yes, 
says he, let the boys be allowed to play on the 
anniversary of my death. This was carefully 
observed, and that time, dedicated to relaxation, 
was called Anaxagoreia. He died at Lampsa- 
cus in his seventy-second year, 428 B. C. His 
writings were not much esteemed by his pupil 
Socrates. Diog. in Vita. — Plut. in Nicia and 
Pericl.—Cic. Acad. Q. 4, c. 23.— T^/sc. 1, c. 

43 III. A statuary of iEgina. Paus. 5, c. 

23. IV. A grammarian, disciple to Zenodo- 

tus. Diog. V. An orator, disciple to So- 
crates. Diog. VI. A son of Echeanax, who, 

with his brothers Codrus and Diodorus, destroy- 
ed Hegesias, tyrant of Ephesus. 

Anaxander, of the family of the Heraclidae, 
was son of Eurycrates, and king of Sparta^ 
The second Messenian war began in his reign. 
Herodot. 7. c. 204. — Plut. in Apoph. — Paus. 3, 
c. 3, 1. 4, c. 15 and 16. 

Anaxandrides, I. son of Leon, and father to 
Cleomenes I. and Leonidas, was king of Spar- 
ta. By the order of the Ephori he divorced 
his wife, of whom he was extremely fond, on 
341 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



account of her barrenness; and he was the first 
Lacedaemonian who had two wives. Herodot. 
1, 5 and 7. — Plut. in Apoph. 1. — Pav.s. 3, c. 3, 
&c. — —II. A comicpoetofRhodes, in the age 
of Philip and Alexander. He was the first poet 
who introduced intrigues and rapes upon the 
stage. He was of such a passionate disposition 
that he tore to pieces all his compositions which 
met with no success. He composed about a 
hundred plays, of which ten obtained the prize; 
Some fragments of his poetry remain in Athe- 
nseus. He was starved to death, by order of 
the Athenians, for satirizing their government. 
Aristot. 3, Rhet. 

Anaxarchus, a philosopher of Abdera, one 
of the followers of Democritus, and the friend 
of Alexander. When the monarch had been 
wounded in a battle, the philosopher pointed to 
the place, adding, that is human blood and not 
the blood of a god. The freedom of Anaxar- 
chus offended Nicocreon, and after Alexander's 
death, l^e tyrant, in revenge, seized the philoso- 
pher, 8.1^ vl pounded him in a stone mortar with 
iron hainmers. He bore this with much resig- 
nation, and exclaimed, " Pound the body of 
Anaxarchus, for thou dost not pound his soul." 
Upon this Nicocreon threatened to cut his 
tongue, and Anaxarchus bit it off with his teeth, 
and spit it out into the tyrant's face. Ovid, in 
lb. V. 571. — Plut. in Symp. 7. — Diog. in Vita. 
— Cic. in l^usc. 2, c. 22. 

Anaxenor, a musician, whom Antony great- 
ly honoured, and presented with the tribute of 
four cities. Strab. 14. 

Anaxilas, and Anaxilaus, I. a Messeniaa, 
tyrant of Rhegium. He took Zancle, and was 
so mild and popular during his reign, that when 
he died, 476 B. C. he left his infant sons to the 
care of one of his servants, and the citizens 
chose rather to obey a slave than revolt from 
their benevolent sovereign's children. Justin. 
3, c. ^.—Paus. 4, c. 23, 1. 5, c. 21.— Thucyd. 

6, c. b.— Herodot. 6, c. 23, 1. 7, c. 167. II. A 

magician of Larissa, banished from Italy by Au- 
gustus. III. A Lacedaemonian. Plut. Al- 

cib. IV. A comic writer, about the 100th 

olympiad. 

Anaxilides, wrote some treatises concerning 

Ehilosophers, and mentioned that Plato's mother 
ecame pregnant by a phantom of the god Apol- 
lo, from which circumstance her son was called 
the prince of wisdom. Diog. in Plut. 

Anaximander, a Milesian philosopher, the 
companion and disciple of Thales. He was the 
first who constructed spheres, asserted that the 
earth was of a cylindrical form, and thought 
that men were born of earth and water mixed 
together, and heated by the beams of the sun ; 
that the earth moved, and that the moon receiv- 
ed light from the sun, which he considered as a 
circle of fire, like a wheel, about twenty-eight 
times bigger than the earth. He made the first 
geographical maps and sun-dials. He died in 
the 64th year of his age, B. C. 547. Cic. Acad. 
Quast. 4, c. 37. — Diog. in Vit. — Plin. 2, c. 
79. — Plut. Ph. He had a son who bore his 
name. Strab. 1. 

Anaxjmenes, I. a philosopher, son of Erasis- 
tratus, and disciple of Anaximander, whom he 
succeeded in his school. He said that the air 
was the cause of every created being, and a self- 
existent divinity, and that the sun, the moon, 
342 



and the stars, had been made from the earth. 
He considered the earth as a plain, and the 
heavens as a solid concave figure, on which the 
stars were fixed like nails, an opinion prevalent 
at that time, and from which originated the pro- 
verb, rt £i ovpavog eixTTscroi, if the heavens should 
fall ? to which Horace has alluded, 3 Od. 3, v. 
7. He died 504 years B. C. Cic. Acad.Quast. 
4, c. 37, de Nat. D. 1, c. 10.— Plut. Ph.— Plin. 

2, c. 76. II. A native of Lampsacus, son of 

Aristocles. He was pupil to Diogenes the Cy- 
ni.c, and preceptor to Alexander the Great, of 
whose life, and that of Philip, he wiote the his- 
tory. When Alexander, in a fit of anger, threat- 
ened to put to death all the inhabitants of Lamp- 
sacus, because they had maintained a long siege 
against him, Anaximenes was sent by his coun- 
trymen to appease the king, who, as soon as he 
saw him, swore he would not grant the favour 
he was going to ask. Upon this Anaximenes 
begged the king to destroy the city and enslave 
the inhabitants, and by this artful request the 
city of Lampsacus was saved from destruction. 
Besides the life of Philip and his son, he wrote 
a history of Greece in 12 books, all now lost. 
His nephew bore the same name, and wrote an 
account of ancient paintings. Paus. 6, c. 18. 
— Val. Max. 7, c. 3. — Diog. in Vit. 

Anaxipolis, I. a comic poet of Thasos. Plin. 
14, c. 14. II. A writer on agriculture, like- 
wise of Thasos. 

Anaxippus, a comic writer in the age of De- 
metrius. He used to say that philosophers were 
wise only in their speeches, but fools in their 
actions. Athens. 

Anaxis, a Boeotian historian, who wrote a 
history down to the age of Philip, son of Amyn- 
tas. Diod. 25. 

Ancharia, a family of Rome. The name 

of Octavia's mother. Plut. in Anton. 

Anchesites, a wind which blows from An- 
chisa, a harbour of Epirus. Cic. ad Attic. 7, ep. 
1. — Dionys. Hal. 

Anchimolius, I. a Spartan general sent 
against the Pisistratidffi, and killed in the expe- 
dition. Herodot. 5, c. 63. II. A son of RhcE- 

tus. Vid. Ancliemolus. 

Anghises, a son of Capys by Themis, daugh- 
ter of Ilus. He was of such a beautiful com- 
plexion, that Venus came down from heaven on 
mount Ida, in the form of a nymph, to enjoy 
his company. The child which Venus brought 
forth was called JEneas, and intrusted to the 
care of Chiron the Centaur. When Troy was 
taken, Anchises was become so infirm, that 
iEneas carried him through the flames upon his 
shoulders, and thus saved his life. He accom- 
panied his son in his voyage towards Italy, and 
died in Sicily in the 80th year of his age. He 
wasburiedonmountEryXjby JEneasand Aces- 
tes, king of the country ; and the anniversary of 
his death was afterwards celebrated by his son 
and the Trojans on his tomb. Some authors 
have maintained that Anchises had forgot the 
injunctions of Venus, and boasted at a feast 
that he enjoyed her favours on mount Ida, upon 
which he was killed with thunder. Others say 
that the wounds he received from the thunder 
were not mortal, and that they only weakened 
and disfigured his body. Virgil, in the sixth 
book of the JEneid, introduces him m the Ely- 
sian fields, relating to his son the fates that were 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



to attend him, and the fortune of his descend- 
ants the Romans. Vid. jErieas. Virg. Mn. 
1, 2, &.c.—Hygin. fab. 94, 254, 260, 210.— He- 
siod. Theog. v. 1010. — Apcllod. 3, — Quid. Fast. 
4, V. 34. — Homer. 11. 20, cf« Hymn, in Vener. — 
Xenoph. Cyneg. c. 1. — Dionys. Hal. 1, de An- 
tiq. Rom. — Pausanias, 8, e. 12, says, that An- 
chises was buried on a mountain in Arcadia, 
which from him has been called Anchisia. 

Ancile. Vid. Part III. 

Angus Martius, the 4th king of Rome, was 
grandson to Numa, by his daughter. He waged 
a successful war against the Latins, Veientes, 
Fidenates, Volsci, and Sabines, and joined 
mount Janiculum to the city by a bridge, and 
enclosed mount Martius and the Aventine with- 
in the walls of the city. He extended the con- 
fines of the Roman territories to the sea, where 
he built the town of Ostia, at the mouth of the 
Tiber. He inherited the valour of Romulus 
with the moderation of Numa. He died B. C. 
616, after a reign of 24 years, and was succeed- 
ed by Tarquin the elder. Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 9. 
—Liv. 1, c. 32, &.c.—Flor. 1, c. i.— Virg. jEn. 
6, V. 815. 

Andabat.se, certain gladiators who fought 
blindfolded ; whence the proverb, Andabatarum 
more, to denote rash and inconsiderate mea- 
sures. Cic. 6, ad Famil. ep. 10. 

Andogides, an Athenian orator, son of Leo- 
goras. He lived in the age of Socrates, the phi- 
losopher, and was intimate with the most illus- 
trious men of his age. He was often banished, 
but his dexterity always restored him to favour. 
Plut. has written his life in 10 orat. Four of 
his orations are extant. 

Andreas, I. a statuary of Argos. Pans. 6, 

c. 16. II. A man of Panormus, who wrote 

an account of all the remarkable events that had 
happened in Sicily. Allien. 

Andrisous, I. a man who wrote a history of 

Naxos. Athen. 1. II. A worthless person, 

called Pseudophilipp^is on account of the like- 
ness of his features to king Philip. He incited 
the Macedonians to revolt against Rome, and 
was conquered and led in triumph by Metellus, 
152 B. C. Flor. 2, c. 14. 

Androclides, I. a noble Theban who defend- 
ed the democratical against the encroachments 
of the oligarchical power. He was killed by 

one of his enemies. II. A sophist in the age 

of Aurelian, who gave an accomit of philoso- 
phers. 

Androclus, a son of Codrus, who reigned in 
Ionia, and took Ephesus and Samos. Paus. 7, 
c. 2. 

Androcydes, a physician, who wrote the fol- 
lowing letter to Alexander : — Vinum potaturus, 
ReZy memento, te bibere sanguinem terrce Sicii- 
ii venenum est homini cicuta, sic et vinum. Plin. 
14, c. 5. 

Androdamds. " Vid. Andromadas. 

Androdus, a slave known and protected in 
the Roman circus by a lion whose foot he had 
cured. Gell. 5, c. 15. 

Andromache, a daughter of Eetion, king of 
Thebes in Cilicia, married Hector son of Priam, 
king of Troy, by whom she had Astyanax. She 
was so fond of her husband, that she even fed 
his horses with her own hand. During the Tro- 
jan war she remained at home employed in her 
domestic concerns. Her parting with Hector, 



who was going to a battle, in which he perish- 
ed, has always been deemed the best, most ten- 
der, and pathetic of all the passages in Homer's 
Iliad. She received the news of her husband'-S 
death with extreme sorrow ; and after the tak- 
ing of Troy, she had the misfortune to see her 
only son Astyanax, after she had saved him from 
the flames, thrown headlong from the walls of 
the city, by the hands of the man whose father 
had killed her husband. {Senec. in Troad.) 
Andromache, in the division of the prisoners by 
the Greeks, fell to the share of Neoptolemus, 
who treated her as his wife and carried her to 
Epirus. He had by her three sons, Molossus, 
Piclus, and Pergamus, and afterwards repudi- 
ated her. After this divorce she married Hele- 
nus son of Priam, who, as herself, was a captive 
of Pyrrhus. She reigned with him over part of 
the country, and became mother by him of Ces- 
trinus. Some say that Astyanax was killed by 
Ulysses, and Euripides says that Menelaus put 
him to death. Homer. H. 6, 22 and 24.— Q. 
Calab. I.— Virg. JEn. 3, v. 486.— Hi ,;in. fab. 
123. — Dares Phryg. — Ovid. Am. 1, ef. 9, v. 35. 
Trist. 5, el. 6, v. 42.—Apollod. 3, c. Vii.—Paus. 
1, c. 11. 

Andromachus, I. an opulent person of Sici- 
ly, father to the historian Timseus. Diod. 16. 
He assisted Timoleon in recovering the liberty 
of the Syracusans. II. A general of Alex- 
ander, to whom Parmenio gavethegov^ernment 
of Syria. He was burnt alive by the Samari- 
tans. Curt. 4, c. 5 and 8. III. An officer 

of Seleucus the younger. Polycen. 4. 

Andromadas, or Androdamus, a native of 
Rhegium, who made laws for the Thracians 
concerning the punishment of homicide, &c. 
Aristot. 

Andron, I. a man set over the citadel of Sy- 
racuse by Dionysius. Hermocrates advised him 
to seize it and revolt from the tyrant, which he 
refused to do. The tyrant put him to death for 
not discovering that Hermocrates had incited 

him to rebellion. Polycen. 5, c. 2. II. A 

man of Halicarnassus who composed some his- 
torical works. Plut. in Thes. III. A na- 
tive of Ephesus, who wrote an account of the 
seven wise men of Greece. Diog. IV. Ano- 
ther of Alexandria, &c. Apollon. Hist. Mirab. 
c. 25. — Athe7i. 

Andronicus Livius. Vid. Livius. 

Andronigus, I. a peripatetic philosopher of 
Rhodes, who flourished 59 years B. C. He 
was the first who published and revised the 
works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. His 
periphrasis is extant, the best edition of which 
is that of Heinsius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1617. Plut. 

in Syll. II. "A Latin poet in the age of 

Caesar. III. A Latin grammarian, whose 

life Suetonius has written. IV. A king of 

Lydia, surnamed Alpyus. V. An astrono- 
mer of Athens, who built a marble octagonal 
tower in honour of the eight principal winds, 
on the top of which was placed a Triton with 
a stick in his hand, pointing always to the side 
whence the wind blew. 

Androsthenes, I. one of Alexander's gene- 
rals, sent with a ship on the coast of Arabia. 
Arrian. 7, c. \(i.—Strab. 16. II. A gover- 
nor of Thessaly, who favoured the interest of 
Pompey. He was conquered bv J. Caesar. 

Cess. 3' Bell. Civ. c. 80. III. A statuary of 

343 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



Thebes. Pans. 10, c. 19. IV. A geogra- 
pher in the age of Alexander. 

Androtrion, a Greek, who wrote a history 
of Attica and a treatise on agriculture. Pli7i. 
—Pans. 10, c. 8. ^ 

Angelion, a statuary, who made Apollo s 
statue at Delphi. Pans. 2, c. 32. 

Ania, a Roman widow, celebrated for her 
beauty. One of her friends advised her to mar- 
ry again. No, (said she,) if I marry a man as 
affectionate as my first husband, I shall be ap- 
prehensive for his death ; and if he is bad, why 
have him, after such a kind and indulgent one 1 
Anicetus, a freed man who directed the edu- 
cation of Nero, and became the instrument of 
his crimes. Suet, in Ner. 

Anicia, I. a family at Rome, which, m the 
flourishing limes of the republic, produced many 

brave and illustrious citizens. II. A relation 

of Atticus. C. Nepos. 

Anicius Gallus, I. triumphed over the Illy- 
rians and their kingGeniius, and was propr^tor 

of Rome, A. U. C. 585. II. A consul with 

Corn Cethegus, A. U. C. 594. III. Probus, 

a Roman consul in the fourth century, famous 
for his humanit5^ 

Anna Commena, a princess of Constantmo- 
ple, known to the world for the Greek history 
which she wrote of her father Alexius, emperor 
of the east. The character of this history is not 
very high for authenticity or beauty of compo- 
sition: the historian is lost in the daughter; 
and, instead of simplicity of style and narrative, 
as Gibbon says, an elaborate affectation of rhe- 
toric and science betrays in every page the van- 
ity of a female author. The best edition of 
Anna Commena is that of Paris, folio, 1651. 

Ann^us, a Roman family, which was subdi- 
vided into the Lucani, Senecae, Flori, &c. 

Annales, a chronological history, which 
gives an account of all the important events of 
every year in a state, without entering into the 
causes which produced them. The annals of 
Tacitus may be considered in this light. In 
the first ages of Rome, the writing of the annals 
was one of the duties and privileges of the high- 
priest ; whence they have been called Annales 
Maximi, from the priest Pontifex Maximus, 
who consecrated them, and gave them as truly 
genuine and authentic. 

Annalis Lex settled the age at which, among 
the Romans, a citizen could be admitted to ex- 
ercise the offices of the state. This law origi- 
nated in Athens, and was introduced in Rome. 
No man could be a knight before 18 years of 
age, nor be invested with the consular power 
before he had arrived to his 25th year. 
Annianus, a poet in the age of Trajan. 
Annibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general, 
son of Amilcar. He was educated in his fa- 
ther's camp, and inured from his early years to 
the labours of the field. He passed into Spain 
when nine years old, and at the request of his 
father, took "a solemn oath that he never would 
be at peace with the Romans. After his fa- 
ther's death he was appointed over the cavalry 
in Spain ; and, some time after, upon the death 
of Asdrubal, he was invested with the command 
of all the armies of Carthage, though not yet in 
the 25th year of his age. In three years of 
continual success he subdued all the nations of 
Spain which opposed the Carthaginian power, 
^ 344 



and took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. 
The city was in alliance with the Romans ; and 
its fall was the cause of the second Punic war, 
which Annibal prepared to support with all the 
courage and prudence of a consummate general. 
He levied three large armies, one of which he 
sent to Africa ; he left another in Spain ; and 
marched at the head of the third towards Italy. 
This army some have calculated at 20,000 foot 
and 6000 horse; others say that it consisted of 
100,000 fool, and 20,000 horse. Liv. 21, c. 38. 
He came to the Alps, and after much trouble 
gained the top in nine days. The passage of 
the Alps by this bold leader, which struck the 
utmost terror into the Romans, appeared to 
them so prodigious that the embellishments of 
fiction seemed to add nothing of wonder to the 
recital, and it soon began to be believed that this 
extraordinary passage had been effected by the 
use of vinegar, in which the Alpine rocks were 
dissolved. Modern writers, however, by the 
application of a just criticism, and being, more- 
over, less excited and less interested on this 
point, have generally assigned to the marvellous 
story its proper place among the inventions of 
fancy. An author, nevertheless, of great learn- 
ing and genius at the present day, seems, by the 
weight of his opinion to give the story of the 
older writers fresh currency and new authority; 
since he manifestly inclines to receive the tra- 
dition. He thinks, however, that there might 
have been one difficulty in the way, and inge- 
nuously allows that he cannot imagine how 
Annibal obtained a " sufficient supply for his 
purpose." (See Lemp. Did. 6th Am. Ed.) 
He was opposed by the Romans as soon as he 
entered Italy; and after he had defeated P. 
Corn. Scipio and Sempronius, near the Rhone, 
the Po, and the Trebia, he cirossedthe Apennines 
and invaded Etruria. He defeated the army of 
the consul Flaminius near the lake Trasimenus, 
and soon after met the two consuls, C. Terentius 
and L. ^Emilius at Cannae. His army consisted 
of 40,000 foot and 10,000 horse, when he engaged 
the Romans at the celebrated battle of Cannae. 
The slaughter was so great, that no less than 
40,000 Romans were killed, and the conqueror 
made a bridge with the dead carcasses ; and, as 
a sign of his victory, he sent to Carthage three 
bushels of gold rings, which had been taken from 
5630 Roman knights slain in the battle. Had 
Annibal, immediately after the battle, marched 
his army to the gates of Rome, it must have 
yielded amidst the general consternation, if we 
believe the opinions of some writers ; but his 
delay gave the enemy spirit and boldness, and 
when at last he approached the walls, he was 
informed that the piece of ground on which his 
army then stood, was selling at a high price in 
the Roman foruip. After hovering for some 
time round the city, he retired to Capua, where 
the Carthaginian soldiers soon forgot to conquer 
in the pleasures and riot of this luxurious city. 
From that circumstance it has been said that 
Capua was a Cannae to Annibal. After many 
important debates in the senate, it was decreed 
that war should be carried into Africa, to re- 
move Annibal from the gates of Rome: and 
Scipio, who was the first proposer of the 'plan, 
was empowered to put it into execution. When 
Carthage saw the enemy on her coasts, she re- 
called Annibal from Italy ; and that great gene- 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



ral is said to have left, with tears in his eyes, a 
country which, during sixteen years, he had 
kept under continual alarms, and which he 
could almost call his own. He and Scipio met 
near Carthage, and after a parley, in which 
neither would give the preference to his enemy, 
they determined to come to a general engage- 
ment. The battle was fought near Zama; 
Scipio made a great slaughter of the enemy, 
20,000 were killed, and the same number made 
prisoners. Annibal, after he had lost the day, 
fled to Adrumetum. Soon afterwards Annibal, 
who wasjealous and apprehensive of the Roman 

Eower, fled to Syria, to king Antiochus, whom 
e advised to make war against Rome, and lead 
an army into the heart of Italy. Antiochus 
distrusted the fidelity of Annibal, and was con- 
quered by ihe Romans, who granted him peace 
on the condition of his delivering their mortal 
enemy into their hands. Annibal, who was 
apprized of this, left the court of Antiochus, 
and fled to Prasias, king of Bithynia. He 
encouraged him to declare war against Rome, 
and even assisted him in weakening the power 
of Eumenes, king of Pergamus, who was in 
alliance with the Romans. The senate received 
intelligence that Annibal was in Bithynia, and 
immediately sent ambassadors, amongst whom 
was L. Q,. Flaminius, to demand him of Prusias. 
The king was unwilling to betray Annibal, and 
violate the laws of hospitality, but at the same 
time he dreaded the power of Rome. ' Annibal 
extricated him from his embarrassment ; and 
when he heard that his house was besieged on 
every side, and all means of escape fruitless, he 
took a dose of poison, which he always carried 
with him, in a ring on his finger ; and as he 
breathed his last, he exclaimed, Solvamus diu- 
turnd curd populum Romanum-^ quando mortem 
senis cxpeciare longum censet. He died in his 
70th year, according to some, about 182 years, 
B.C. That year was famous for the death of 
the three greatest generals of the age, Annibal, 
Scipio, and Philopeemen. The death of so for- 
midable a rival was the cause of great rejoicings 
in Rome ; he had always been a professed ene- 
my to the Roman name, and ever endeavoured 
to destroy its power. If he shone in the field, 
he also distinguished himself by his studies. 
He was taught Greek by Sosilus, a Lacedaemo- 
nian, and he even wrote some books in that 
language on different subjects. It is remark- 
able that the life of Annibal, whom the Romans 
wished so many times to destroy by perfidy, 
was never attempted by any of his soldiers or 
countrymen. He made himself as conspicuous 
in the government of the state as at the head 
of armies ; and though his enemies reproached 
him with the rudeness of laughing in the Car- 
thaginian senate, while every senator was bath- 
ed in tears for the misfortunes of the country, 
Annibal defended himself by saying, that he 
who had been bred all his life in a camp, ought 
to dispense with all the more polished feelings 
of a capital. He was so apprehensive for his 
safety, that when he was in Bithynia his house 
was fortified like a castle; and on every side 
there were secret doors, which could give im- 
mediate escape, if his life was ever attempted. 
"When he quitted Italy, and embarked on board 
a vessel for Africa, he strongly suspected the 
fidelity of his pilot, who told him that the lofly 
Part XL— 2 X 



mountain which appeared at a distance was a 
promontory of Sicily, that he killed him on the 
spot ; and when he was convinced of his fatal 
error, he gave a magnificent burial to the man 
whom he had so falsely murdered, and called the 
promontory by his name. The labours which 
he sustained, and the inclemency of the weather 
to which he exposed himself in crossing the 
Alps, so weakened one of his eyes that he ever 
after lost the use of it. The Romans have cele- 
iDraied the humanity of Annibal, who, after the 
battle of Cannse, sought the body of the fallen 
consul amidst the heaps of slain, and honoured 
it with a funeral becoming the dignity of Rome, 
He performed the same friendly offices to the 
remains of Marcellus and Tib. Gracchus, who 
had fallen in battle. Annibal, when in Spain, 
married a woman of Castulo. The Romans 
entertained such a high opinion of him, as a 
commander, that Scipio, who conquered him, 
calls him the greatest general that ever lived, 
and gives the second rank to Pyrrhus the Epirot, 
and places himself the next to these in merit and 
abilities. The failure of Annibal's expedition 
in Italy did not arise from his neglect, but from 
that of his countrymen, who gave him no assist- 
ance, Livy has painted the character of Anni- 
bal like an enemy ; and it is much to be lamented 
that this celebrated historian has withheld the 
tribute due to the merits and virtues of the great- 
est of generals. C. Nep. in vita. — Liv. 21, 22, 
&c. — Plut. in Flamin. &c. — Justin. 32, c. 4. — 
Sil. Ital. 1, &c. — Appian. — Florus, 2 and 3. — 
Polyb.—Diod.—Juv. 10, v. 159, &c.— Val. Max. 

—Horat. 4, Od. 4, Epod. 16. II. The son of 

the great Annibal, was sent by Himilco to Lily- 
bssum, which was besieged by the Romans, to 

keep the Sicilians in their duty. Pohjb. 1. 

III. A Carthaginian general, son of Asdrubal, 
commonly called of Rhodes, above 160 years 
before the birth of the great Annibal. Justin. 

19, c. 2. — Xenophon. Hist. Grcec. IV, A son 

of Giscon, and grandson of Amilcar, sent by the 
Carthaginians to the assistance of iEgista, a 
town of Sicily, He was overpowered by Her- 
mocrates, an exiled SyracQsan. Justin. 22 and 

23. V. A Carthaginian, surnamed Senior. 

He was conquered by the consul C. Sulpit. Pa- 
terculus, in Sardinia, and hung on a cross by 
his countrymen for his ill success, 

Anniceris, an excellent charioteer of Cyrene, 
who exhibited his skill in driving a chariot be- 
fore Plato and the academy. "When the philo- 
sopher was wantonly sold by Dionysius, Anni- 
ceris ransomed his friend ; and he showed fur- 
ther his respect for learning, by establishing a 
sect at Cyrene, called after his name, which 
supported that all good consisted in pleasure. 
Cic. de Off. 3. — Diog. in Plat. (^ Arist. — JEliau. 
V. H. 2, c. 27. 

Annon, and Hannon, I. a Carthaginian ge- 
neral, conquered in Spain by Scipio, and sent 
to Rome. He was son of Bomilcar, M^hom An- 
nibal sentprivately over to the Rhone to conquer 
the Gauls. Liv. 21, c. 27. II. A Cartha- 
ginian who taught birds to sing " Annon is a 
god," after which he restored them to their na- 
tive liberty; but the birds lost with their slavery 
what they had been taught. Milan. V. II. nit. 

lib. c. 30. III. A Carthaginian who wrote, 

in the Punic language, the account of a voyage 

he had made round Africa. This book was 

345 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



translated into Greek, and is still extant, Vos- 

sius de Hist. Gr. 4. IV. Another, banished 

from Carthage for taming a lion for his own 
amusement, which was interpreted as if he 
wished to aspire to sovereign power. Plin. 8, 
c. 16. — This name has been common to many 
Carthaginians who have signalized themselves 
among their countrymen during the Punic wars 
against Rome, and in their wars against the 
Sicilians. Liv. 26, 27, &c. 

Anser, a Roman poet, whom Ovid, lyist. 3, 
el. 1, V. 425, calls bold and impertinent. Virgil 
and Propertius are said to have played upon his 
name with some degree of severity, 

Ant^as, a king of Scythia, who said that the 
neighing of a horse was far preferable to the 
music of Ismenias, a famous musician who had 
been taken captive. Plut. 

Antagoras, a Rhodian poet much admired 
by Antigonus, Id. 1, c. 2. One day, as he was 
cooking some fish, the king asked him whether 
Homer ever dressed any meals when he was re- 
cording the actions of Agamemnon'? And do 
you think, replied the poet, that he ever inquired 
whether any individual dressed fish in his ar- 
my 1 Plut. Symp. (f* Apoph. 

Antalcidas, of Sparta, son of Leon, was 
sent into Persia, where he made a peace with 
Artaxerxes, very disadvantageous to his coun- 
try, by which B. C. 387, the Greek cities of 
Asia became tributary to the Persian monarch. 
Paus. 9, c. 1, &c. — Diod. 14. — Plut. in Artax. 

Anteius Publius, was appointed over Syria 
by Nero. He was accused of sedition and con- 
spiracy, and drank poison, which, operating 
slowlv, obliged him to open his veins. Tacit. 
An. 13, &c. 

Antenor, I. a Trojan prince related to Pri- 
am. It is said that during the Trojan war he 
alwa3''s kept a secret correspondence with the 
Greeks, and chiefly with Menelaus and Ulysses. 
In the council of Priam, Homer introduces him 
as advising the Trojans to restore Helen and 
conclude the war. He advised Ulysses to carry 
away the Trojan palladium, and encouraged the 
Greeks to make the wooden horse, which, at 
his persuasion, was brought into the city of Troy 
by a breach made in the walls, ^neas has been 
accused of being a partner of his guilt ; and the 
night that Troy was taken, they had a number 
of Greeks stationed at the doors of their houses, 
to protect them from harm. After the destruc- 
tion of his coU'ntry, Antenor migrated to Italy 
near the Adriatic, where he built the town of 
Padua. His children were also concerned in the 
Trojan war, and displayed much valour against 
the Greeks. Their names were Polybius, Aca- 
mas, Agenor, and, according to others, Polyda- 
mas and Helicaon. Liv. 1, c. 1. — Plin. 3, c. 
n.— Virg. JEn. 1, V. 2i2.— Tacit. 16, c. 21.— 
Homer. 11. 3, 7, 8, II.— Ovid. Met. Vi.—Dic- 
tys Cret. b.— Dares Phryg. 6. — Strab. 13. — 

Dionys. Hal. 1. — Paus. 10, c. 27. II. A 

statuary. Paus. III. A Cretan who wrote 

a history of his country. JElian. 

Anthermds, a Chian sculptor, son of Mic- 
ciades and grandson to Malas. He and his 
brot\ier Bupalas made a statue of the poet Hip- 
pons X, which caused universal laughter, on ac- 
couc-: of the deformity of its countenance. The 
po© was so incensed upon this, and inveighed 
wit: 30 much bitterness against the statuaries, 
346 



that they hung themselves, according to the 
opinion of some authors. Plin. 36, c. 5. 

Anthes, a native of Anthedon, who first in- 
vented hymns. Plut. de Mus. 

Anthesphoria, a festival celebrated in Sicily, 
in honour of Proserpine, who was carried away 
by Pluto as she was gathering flowers. Clau- 

dian. de Rapt. Pros. Festivals of the same 

name were also observed at Argos in honour 
of Juno, who was called Antheia. Paus. 
Corinth. — Pollux. Onom. 1, c. 1, 

Anthesteria, festivals in honour of Bacchus 
among the Greeks. They were celebrated in 
the month of February, called Anthesterion, 
whence the name is derived, and continued 
three days. The first was called ILiSoiyta ano 
Tov TTiSeg oiyeiv, because they tapped their barrels 
of liquor. The second day was called ^o^^, from 
the measure ;5;oa, because every individual drank 
of his own vessel, in commemoration of the ar- 
rival of Orestes, who, after the murder of his 
mother, came, without being purified, to Demo- 
phoon, or Pandion, king of Athens, and was 
obliged, with all the Athenians, to drink by him- 
self for fear of polluting the people by drinking 
with them before he was purified of the parri- 
cide. It was usual on that day to ride out in 
chariots, and ridicule those that passed b)^ 
The best drinker was rewarded with a crown 
of leaves, or rather of gold, and with a cask of 
wine. The third day was called yivrpoi, from 
Xvrpa, a vessel brought out full of all sorts of 
seed and herbs, deemed sacred to Mercury, and 
therefore not touched. The slaves had the per- 
mission of being merry and free during these 
festivals ; and at the end of the solemnity a he- 
rald proclaimed, Gvpa^c, Kajsej, ovk £t AvStaTrjpia 
i. e. Depart, ye Carian slaves, the festivals are 
at an end. JElian. V. H. 2, c; 41. 

Antia Lex was made for the suppression of 
luxury at Rome. The enactor was Antius 
Restio, who afterwards never supped abroad. 
Macrob. 3, c. 17. 

Anticlea, a daughter of Autolycus and Am- 
phithea. She was pregnant of Ulysses when 
she married Laertes, king of Ithaca. Laertes 
was, nevertheless, the reputed father of Ulysses. 
It is said that Anticlea killed herself when she 
heard a false report of her son's death. Homer. 
Od. 11, 19.— Hy gin. fab. 201, 243.— Paws. 10, 
c. 29. Vid. Part III. 

Anticlides, a Greek historian, whose works 
are now lost. They are often quoted by Athe- 
ncEUS and Plut. in Alex. 

Anticrates, a Spartan, who stabbed Epa- 
minondas, the Theban general, at the battle of 
Mantinea. Plut. in Ages. 

Antidotus, an excellent painter, pupil of 
Euphranor. Plin. 35, c. 11. 

Antigenes, one of Alexander's generals, 
publicly rewarded for his valour. Curt. 5, c. 14. 

Antigenidas, a famous musician of Thebes, 
disciple to Philoxenus. 

Antigona, daughter of Berenice, was wife 
to king Pyrrhus, Plut. in Pyrrh. 

Antigonus, I. one of Alexander's generals, 
universally supposed to be the illegitimate son 
of Philip, Alexander's father. In the division 
of the provinces, after the king's death, he re- 
ceived Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia. He 
united with Aiitipater'and Ptolemy, to destroy 
Perdiccas and Eumenes ; and after the death of 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



Perdiccas, he made continual war against Eu- 
menes, whom, alter three years of various for- 
tune, he took prisoner and ordered to be starved. 
He afterwards declared war against Cassander, 
whom he conquered, and had several engage- 
ments by his generals with Lysimachus. He 
obliged Selene Qs to retire from Syria, and fly for 
refuge and safety to Egypt. Ptolemy, who had 
established himself in Egypt, promised to de- 
fend Seleucus ; and from thai time all friendship 
ceased between Ptolemy and Antigonus, and a 
new war was begun, in which Demetrius, the 
son of Antigonus, conquered the fleet of Pto- 
lemy near the island of Cyprus, and took 16,000 
men prisoners, and sunk 200 ships. After this 
famous naval battle, which happened 26 years 
after Alexander's death, Antigonus and his son 
assumed the title of kings, and their example 
was followed by all the rest of Alexander's gen- 
erals. The power of Antigonus was now be- 
come so formidable, that Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
Cassander, and Lysimachus, combined together 
to destroy him ; yet Antigonus despised them, 
saying that he would disperse them as birds. 
He attempted to enter Egypt in vain, though 
he gained several victories over his opponents ; 
and he at last received so many wounds in a 
battle that he could not survive them, and died 
in the 80th year of his age, 301 B. C. During 
his life he was master of all Asia Minor as far 
as Syria. Antigonus was concerned in the 
different intrigues of the Greeks. He made a 
treaty of alliance with the -Etolians, and was 
highly respected by the Athenians, to whom 
he showed himself very liberal and indulgent. 
Antigonus discharged some of his officers be- 
cause they spent their time in taverns, and he 
gave their commissions to common soldiers, 
who performed their duty with punctuality. A 
certain poet called him divine; but the king 
despised his flattery, and bade him go and in- 
quire of his servants whether he was really 
what he supposed him. Strab. 13. — Diod. 17, 
&c. — Pans. 2, c. 6, &c. — Justin. 13, 14, and 
15. — C. Nep. in Eumen. — Plut. in Demetr. 
Eumen. <^ Arat. IT. Gonatas, son of De- 
metrius, and grandson to Antigonus, was king 
of Macedonia. He restored the Armenians to 
liberty, conquered the Gauls, and at last was 
expelled by Pyrrhus, who seized his kingdom. 
After the death of Pyrrhus, he recovered Mace- 
donia, and died after a reign of 34 years, leaving 
his son Demetrius to succeed, B. C. 243. Jus- 
tin. 21 and 25. — Polyh. — Plut. in Demetr. 

III. The guardian of his nephew Philip, the 
son of Demetrius, who married the widow of 
Demetrius, and usurped the kingdom. He was 
called Doson, from his promising much and giv- 
ing nothing. He conquered Cleomenes, king 
of Sparta, and obliged him to retire into Egypt, 
because he favoured the jEtolians against the 
Greeks. He died B. C. 221, after a reign of 11 
years, leaving his crown to the lawful possessor, 
Philip, who distinguished himself by his cruel- 
ties and the war he made against the Romans. 
Justin. 28 and 29.—Pohjb. 2.— Plut. in Cleom. 

IV. A son of Aristobulus, king of Judasa, 

who obtained an armv from the king of Parthia, 
by promising him 1000 talents and 500 women. 
With these foreign troops he attacked his coun- 
try, and cut the ears of Hyrcanus to make him 
unfit for the priesthood. " Herod, with the aid 



of the Romans, took him prisoner, and he was 
put to death by Antony. Joseph. 14. — Dion. 
and Plut. in Anton. V. Carystius, an his- 
torian in the age of Philadelphus, who wrote 
the lives of some of the ancient philosophers. 

Diog. — Athen. VI. A statuary who wrote 

on his profession. 

Antilochus, I. a king of Messenia. II. 

The eldest son of Nestor, by Eurydice. He 
went to the Trojan waj- with his father, and 
Vas killed. Homer. Od. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. says 

he was killed by Hector. III. A poet who 

wrote a panegyric upon Lysander, and received 
a hat filled with silver. Plut. in L/i/s. 

Antimachus, I. an historian. II. A Greek 

poet and musician of Ionia in the age of So- 
crates. He wrote a treatise on the age and ge- 
nealogy of Homer, and proved him to be a na- 
tive of Colophon. He repeated one of his com- 
positions before a large audience ; but his diction 
was so obscure and unintelligible, that all retired 
except Plato; upon which he said, Legam, ni- 
hil-ominuSj Plato enim mihi esi unus instar ovi- 
nium. He was reckoned the next to Homer in 
excellence, and the emperor Adrian was so fond 
of his poetry, that he preferred him to Homer. 
He wrote a poem upon the Theban war ; and 
before he had brought his heroes to the city of 
Thebes, he had filled twenty-four volumes. He 
was surnamed Clarius, from Claros, a moun- 
tain near Colophon, where he was born. Paus. 
9, c. 35. — Plut. in Lysand. ^ Timol.-^—Propert. 
2, el. 34, V. 45.— Quintil. 10, c. 1. III. An- 
other poet of the same name, surnamed Psecas, 

because he praised himself. Suidas. IV. 

A Trojan, whom Paris bribed to oppose the 
restoring of Helen to Menelaus and Ulysses, 
who had come as ambassadors to recover her. 
His sons, Hippolochus and Pisander, were kill- 
ed by Agamemnon. Homer. 11. 11, v. 123, 1. 

23, V. 188. V. A native of Heliopolis, who 

wrote a poem on the creation of the world in 
3780 verses. 

Antinoeia, annual sacrifices and quinquen- 
nial games, in honour of Antinous, instituted by 
the emporor Adrian, at Mantinea, where Anti- 
nous was worshipped as a divinity. 

Antinous, a youth of Bithynia, of whom the 
emperoi Adrian was so extremely fond, that at 
his death he erected a temple to him, and wish- 
ed it to be believed that he had been changed 
into a constellation. Some writers suppose that 
Antinous was drowned in the Nile, while oth- 
ers maintain that he offered himself at a sacri- 
fice as a victim in honour of the emperor. Vid. 
Part III. 

Antiochds, I. surnamed Soter, was son of 
Seleucus, and king of Syria and Asia. He 
made a treaty of alliance with Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, king of Egypt. He fell into a linger- 
ing disease, which none of his father's physi- 
cians could cure for some time, till it was dis- 
covered that his pulse was more irregular than 
usual when Stratonice, his step-mother, enter- 
ed his room, and that love for her was the cause 
of his illness. This was told to the father, who 
willingly gave Stratonice to his son, that his 
immoderate love might not cause his death. 
He died 291 B. C. after a reicfn of 19 years. 
Justin. 17, c. 2, &:c.— Val. Max. b.—Polyb. 4. 
— Afpian. The second of that name, sur- 
named Theos{God)\>Y i\\Q. Milesians, because 
347 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



he put to death their tyrant Timarchus, was i 
son and successor of Antiochus Soter. He 
put an end to the war which had been begun 
with Ptolemy ; and, to strengthen the peace, he 
married Berenice, the daughter of the Egyptian 
king. This so offended his former wife, Lao- 
dice, by whom he had two sons, that she poi- 
soned him, and suborned Artemon, whose fea- 
tures were similar to his, to represent him as 
king. Artemon, subservient to her will, pre- 
tended to be indisposed, and, as king, called all 
the ministers, and recommended to them Seleu- 
cus, surnamed Caliinicus, son of Laodice, as his 
successor. After this ridiculous imposture, it 
was made public that the king had died a natu- 
ral death, and Laodice placed her son on the 
throne,and despatched Berenice and her son, 246 

years before the Christian era. Appian. The 

third of that name, surnamed the Great, brother 
to Seleucus Ceraunus, was king of Syria and 
Asia, and reigned 36 years. He was defeated 
by Ptolemy Philopater, at Raphia, after which 
he made war against Persia, and took Sardes, 
After the death of Philopater, he endeavoured to 
crush his infant son. Epiphanes ; but his guar- 
dians solicited the aid of the Romans, and An- 
tiochus was compelled to resign his pretensions. 
He conquered the greatest part of Greece, of 
which some cities implored the aid of Rome ; 
and Annibal, who had taken refuge at his court, 
encouraged him to make war against Italy. He 
was glad to find himself supported by the abili- 
ties of such a general ; but his measures were 
dilatory, and not agreeable to the advice of An- 
nibal and he was conquered, and obliged to 
retire beyond mount Taurus, and pay a yearly 
fine of 2000 talents to the Romans. His reve- 
nues being unable to pay the fine, he attempted to 
plunder the temple of Belus, in Susiana, which 
so incensed the inhabitants that they killed him 
with his followers, 187 years before the Chris- 
tian era. In his character of king, Antiochus 
was humane and liberal, the patron of learning 
and the friend of merit ; and he published an 
edict, ordering his subjects never to obey except 
his commands were consistent v.dth the laws of 
the country. He had three sons, Seleucus Phi- 
lopater, Antiochus Epiphanes, and Demetrius. 
The first succeeded him, and the two others 
were kept as hostages by the Romans. Justin. 
31 and 32.—Strab. 16.—Liv. 34, c. 59.—Flor. 

2, c. 1. — Appian. Bell. Syr. The fourth 

Antiochus, surnamed Epiphanes, or Illustrious, 
was king of Syria after the death of his brother 
Seleucus, and reigned eleven years. He de- 
stroyed Jerusalem, and was so cruel to the Jews, 
that they called him Epimanes, or Furious, and 
not Epiphanes. He attempted to plunder Per- 
sepolis without etFect. He was of a voracious 
appetite, and fond of childish diversions ; he 
used, for his pleasure, to empty bags of money 
in the streets, to see the people's eagerness to 
gather it ; he bathed m the public baihs with the 
populace, and was fond of perfuming himself to 
excess. He invited all the Greeks he could at 
Antioch, and waited upon them as a servant, 
and danced with such indecency among the 
stage-players, that even the most dissipated and 
shameless blushed at the sight. Polybius. — Ms- 
tin. 34, c. 3, The fifth, surnamed Ewpator, 

succeeded his father Epiphanes on the throne 
of Syria, 164 B. C. He made a peace with the 
348 



Jews, and in the second year of his reign was 
assassinated by his uncle Demetrius, who said 
that the crown was lawfully his own, and that 
it had been seized from his father. Justin. 34. 

— Joseph. 12. The sixth, king of Syria, 

was surnamed Eutlicus or Noble. His father, 
Alexander Bala, intrusted him to the care of 
Malcus, an Arabian ; and he received the crown 
from Tryphon, in opposition to his brother De- 
metrius, whom the people hated. Before he had 
been a year on the throne, Tryphon murdered 
him, 143 B. C. and reigned in his place for 

three years. Joseph. 13. The seventh, cal- 

ed Sidetes, reigned nine years. In the begin- 
ning of his reign he was afraid of Tryphon, 
and concealed himself, but he soon obtained the 
means of destroying his enemy. He made war 
against Phraates, king of Parthia, and he fell 
in the battle which was soon after fought, about 
130 years before the Christian era. Justin. 36, 
c. 1. — Appian. Bell. Syr. The eighth, sur- 
named Grypus, from his aquiline nose, was son 
of Demetrius Nicanor, by Cleopatra. His bro- 
ther Seleucus was destroyed by Cleopatra ; and 
he himself would have shared the same fate, had 
he not discovered his mother's artifice, and com- 
pelled her to drink the poison which was pre- 
pared for himself He killed Alexander Zebi- 
na, whom Ptolemy had sent to oppose him on the 
throne of Syria, and was at last assassinated B. 
C. 112, after a reign of eleven years. Juslin. 
39, &c. — Joseph. — Appian. The ninth, sur- 
named Cyzenicus, from the city Cyzicus, where 
he received his education, was son of Anti- 
ochus Sidetes, by Cleopatra. He disputed the 
kingdom with his brother Grypus, who ceded to 
him Coelosyria, part of his patrimony. He was 
at last conquered by his nephew Seleucus, near 
Antioch, and rather than to continue longer in 
his hands, he killed himself, B. C. 92: While 
a private man he seemed worthy to reign ; but 
when on the throne he was dissolute and tyran- 
nical. He was fond of mechanics, and invent- 
ed some useful military engines. Appia7i. — Jo- 
seph. The tenth, was ironically surnamed 

Pi^ts, because he married Selena, the wife of 
his father and of his uncle. He was the son of 
Antiochus ninth, and he expelled Seleucus, the 
son of Grypus, from Syria, and was killed in a 
battle he fought against the Parthians, in the 

cause of the Galatians. Joseph. — Appian. • 

After his death, the kingdom of Syria Vv^as torn 
to pieces by the factions of the royal family, or 
usurpers, who, under a good or false title, un- 
der the name of Antiochus or his relations, es- 
tablished themselves for a little time as sove- 
reigns either of Syria or Damascus, or other 
dependent provinces. At last, Antiochus, sur- 
named Asiaticus, the son of Antiochus the 
ninth, was restored to his paternal throne by the 
influence of Lucullus, the Roman general, on the 
expulsion of Tigranes, king of Armenia, from 
the Syrian dominions; but, four years after, 
Pompey deposed him, and observed that he who 
had hid himself while an usurper sat upon, his 
throne, ought not to be a king. From that time, 
B. C. 65, Svria became a Roman province, and 
the race of Antiochus was extinguished. Jus- 
tin. 40. A philosopher of Ascalon, famous 

for his writings, and the respect withwhich he 
was treated by his pupils, Lucullus, Cicero, and 
Brutus. Plut. in ImcuU. An historian of 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



Syracuse, son of Xenophanes, who wrote, be- 
sides other works, a history of Sicily, in nine 
books, in which he began at the age of king Co- 
calus. Strab. — Diod. 12. A rich king, tri- 
butary to the Romans in the age of Vespasian. 

Tacit. Hist. 2, c. 81. A sophist, who refused 

to take upon himself the government of a state, 
on account of the vehemence of his passions. 

A king, conquered by Antony, &c. Ccbs. 

3, Bell. Civ. 4. A king of Messenia. Paus. 

4. A commander of the Athenian fleet, un- 
der Alcibiades, conquered by Lysander. JXe- 

noph. Hist. Grcsc. A writer of Alexandria, 

who published a treatise on comic poets. Athen. 



-Plut. wi Eumen. Alexand. &c. 



-II. A son 



-A sculptor, said to have made the famous 
statue of Pallas, preserved in the Ludovisi gar- 
dens at Rome. 

Antipater, I. son of lolaus, was soldier under 
king Philip, and raised to the rank of a general 
under Alexander the Great. When Alexander 
went to invade Asia, he left Antipater supreme 
governor of Macedonia and of all Greece. An- 
tipater exerted himself in the cause of his king ; 
he made war against Sparta, and was soon after 
called into Persia, with a reinforcement, by 
Alexander. He had been suspected of giving 
poison to Alexander, to raise himself to power. 
After Alexander's death, his generals divided 
the empire among themselves, and Macedonia 
was allotted to Antipater. The wars which 
Greece, and chiefly Athens, meditated during 
Alexander's life, now burst forth with uncom- 
mon fury as soon as the news of his death was 
received. The Athenians levied an army of 
30,000 men, and equipped 200 ships against 
Antipater, who was master of Macedonia. Their 
expedition was attended Avith much success, An- 
tipater was routed in Thessaly, and even be- 
sieged in the town of Lamia. But when Leos- 
thenes, the Athenian general, was mortally 
wounded under the walls of Lamia, the fortune 
of the war was changed. Antipater obliged the 
enemy to raise the siege, and soon after received 
a reinforcement from Craterus from Asia, with 
which he conquered the Athenians at Cranon 
in Thessaly. After this defeat, Antipater and 
Craterus marched into Boeotia, and conquered 
the iEtolians, and granted peace to the Athe- 
nians, on the conditions which Leosthenes had 
proposed to Antipater when besieged in Lamia, 
i. e. that he should be absolute master over them. 
Besides this, he demanded from their ambas- 
sadors, Demades, Phocion, and Xenocrates, 
that they should deliver into his hands the ora- 
tors Demosthenes and Hyperides, whose elo- 
quence had inflamed the minds of their coun- 
trymen, and had been the primary causes of the 
war. The conditions were accepted, a Mace- 
donian garrison was stationed in Athens, but 
the inhabitants still were permitted the free use 
of their laws and privileges. Antipater and 
Craterus were the first who made hostile pre- 
parations against Perdiccas; and, during that 
time, Polyperchon was appointed over Macedo- 
nia. Polyperchon defeated the ^tolians, who 
made an invasion upon Macedonia. Antipater 
gave assistance to Euraenes, in Asia, against 
Antigonus, according to Justin. 14, c. 2. At 
his death, B. C. 319, Antipater appointed Poly- 
perchon master of all his possessions. Curt. 
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 10. — Justin. 11, 12, 13, &c — 
Diod. 17, 18, &c. — C. Nep. in Phoc. <^ Eumen. 



of Cassander, king of Macedonia, and son-in- 
law of Lysimachus. He killed his mother, be- 
cause she wished his brother Alexander to suc- 
ceed to the throne. Alexander, to revenge the 
death of his mother, solicited the assistance of 
Demetrius; but peace was re-established be- 
tween the two brothers, by the advice of Lysi- 
machus, and, soon after, Demetrius killed An- 
tipater, and made himself king of Macedonia, 

294 B. C. Justin. 26, c. 1. III. A king of 

Macedonia, who reigned only 45 days, 277 B. C. 
IV. A powerful prince, father to Herod. 



He was appointed governor of Judaea by Caesar, 
whom he had assisted in the Alexandrine war. 

Joseph. V. One of Alexander's soldiers, who 

conspired against his life with Hermolaus. 
Curt. 8, c. 6.— — VI. A celebrated sophist of 
Hieropolis, preceptor to the children of the em- 
peror Severus. VII. A stoic philosopher of 

Tarsus, 144 years B. C. VIII. A poet of 

Sidon, who could compose a number of verses 
extempore upon any subject. He ranked Sap- 
pho among the muses in one of his epigrams. 
He had a fever every year on the day of his 
birth, of which at last he died. He flourished 
about 80 years B. C. Some of his epigrams are 
preserved in the Anthologia. Plin. 7, c. 51. — 
Val. Max. 1, 10.— Cic. de Oral. 3, de Offic 3, de 
Quasi. Acad. 4. IX. A philosopher of Phoe- 
nicia, preceptor to Cato of tJtica. Pluft. in Cat. 



A stoic philosopher, disciple to Diogenes 
of Babylon. He wrote two books on divina- 
tion, and died at Athens. Cic. de Div. 1, c 3. 

—Ac. Quasi. 4, c. 6.—De Offic. 3, c. 12. 

XI, A disciple of Aristotle, who wrote two 

books of letters. XII. A poet of Thessalo- 

nica, in the age of Augustus. 

Antiphanes, I. an ingenious statuary, of Ar- 

gos. Paus. 5, c. 17. II. A comic poet of 

Rhodes, Smyrna, or Carystus. He was born 
B. C. 408, of parents in the low condition of 
slaves. This most prolific poet, (he is said to 
have composed upwards of three hundred dra- 
mas,) notwithstanding the meanness of his ori- 
gin, was so popular in Athens, that on his de- 
cease a decree was passed to remove his remains 
from Chios to that city, where they were inter- 
red with public honours. III. A physician 

of Delos, who used to say that diseases origi- 
nated from the variety of food that was eaten. 
Clem. Alex. — Allien. 

Antiphilus, I. an Athenian who succeeded 
Leosthenes at the siege of Lamia against An- 
tipater. Diod. 18. II, A noble painter, who 

represented a youth lean ing over a fi re an d blow- 
ing it, from which the whole house seemed to 
be illuminated.- He was an Egyptian by birth: 
he imitated Apelles, and was disciple to Ctesi- 
demus, Plin. 35, c. 10. 

Antiphus, a brother of Ctiraenus, was son of 
Ganyctor the Naupactian. These two brothers 
murdered the poet Hesiod, on the false suspi- 
cion that he had offered violence to their sister, 
and threw his body into the sea. The poet's 
dog discovered them, and they were seized and 
convicted of the murder, Plut. de Solert. Anim. 

Antisthenes, I. a philosopher, born of an 
Athenian father and of a Phrygian mother. 
He taught rhetoric, and had among his pupils 
the famous Diogenes ; but when he had heard 
Socrates, he shut up his school, and told his pu- 
349 



AN 



HISTORY, &c. 



AN 



pils, "Go seek for yourselves a master, I have 
now found one." He was the head of the sect 
of the cynic philosophers. One of his pupils 
asked him what philosophy had taught him 1 
" To live with myself," said he. He sold his 
all, and preserved only a very ragged coat, which 
drew the attention of Socrates, and tempted him 
to say to the cynic, who carried his contempt of 
dress too far," " Antisthenes, I see thy vanity 
through the holes of thy coat," Antisthenes 
taught the unity of God, but he recommended 
suicide. Some of his letters are extant. His 
doctrines of austerity were followed as long as 
he was himself an example of the cynical char- 
acter ; but after his death they were all forgot- 
ten. Antisthenes flourished 396 years B. C. 
Cic. Oral. 3, c. 35. — Diog. 6. — Ptut. in Dye. 

II. A disciple of Heraclitus. III. An 

historian of Rhodes. Diog. 

Antistius Labeo, I. an excellent lawyer at 
Rome, who defended the liberties of his country 
against Augustus, for which he is taxed with 
madness, by Horat. 1, Stat. 3, v. 82. — Sueton. 
in Aug. 54. II. Petro of Gabii, was the au- 
thor of a celebrated treaty between Rome and 
his country, in the age of Tarquin the Proud. 
Dionys. Vol. 4. 

Antomenes, the last king of Corinth. After 
his death magistrates with regal authority were 
chosen annually. 

Antonia Lex, was enacted by M, Antony, 
the consul, A. U. C. 710. It abrogated the lex 
Atia, and renewed the lex Cornelia^ by taking 
away from the people the privilege of choosing 
priests, and restoring it to the college of priests, 
to which it originally belonged. Dio. 44.- — 
Another, by the same. It allowed an appeal 
to the people, to those who were condemned de 
majestate, or of perfidious measures against the 

state. Another, by the same, during his 

triumvirate. It made it a capital offence to 
propose, ever after, the election of a dictator, 
and for any person to accept of the ofUce, Ap- 
pian. de Bell. Civ. 3, 

Antonia, I. a daughter of M. Antony, by 
Octavia. She married Domitius JEnobarbus, 
and was mother of Nero and two daughters. 

II. A sister of Germanicus. III. A 

daughter of Claudius and iElia Petina. She 
was of the family of the Tuberos, and was re- 
pudiated for her levity. Sueton. in Claud. 1. 

— Tacit. Ann. 11. tV. The wife of Drusus, 

the son of Livia, and brother to Tiberius. She 
became mother of three children, Germanicus, 
Caligula's father; Claudius the emperor ; and 
the debauched Livia. Her husband died very- 
early, and she never would marr^^ again, but 
spent her time in the education of her children. 
Some people suppose her grandson, Caligula, 
ordered her to be poisoned, A. D. 38, Val. 
Max. 4, c. 3. 

Antoninus, I. (Titus,) surnamed Pius, was 
adopted by the emperor Adrian, to whom he 
succeeded. This prince is remarkable for all 
the virtues that can form a perfect statesman, 
philosopher, and king. He rebuilt whatever 
cities had been destroyed by Avars in former 
reigns. He suffered the governors of the pro- 
vinces to remain long in the administration, that 
no opportunity of extortion might be given to 
new comers. When told of conquering heroes, 
he said with Scipio, I prefer the life and preser- 
350 



vation of a citizen to the death of one hundred ' 
enemies. He did not persecute the Christians 
like his predecessors, but his life was a scene of 
universal benevolence. His last moments were 
easy, though preceded by a lingering illness. 
He extended the boundaries of the Roman pro- 
vince in Britain, by raising a rampart between 
the Friths of Clyde and Forth ; but he waged 
no war during his reign, and only repulsed the 
enemies of the empire who appeared in the field. 
He died in the 75th year of his age, after a reign 
of 23 years, A. D. 161. He was succeeded by 
his adopted son, M. Aurelius Antoninus, sur- 
named the philosopher, a prince as virtuous as 
his father. He raised to the imperial dignity 
his brother L. Verus, whose voluptuousness and 
dissipation were as conspicuous as the modera- 
tion of the philosopher. During their reign, the 
Gluadi, Parthians, and Marcomanni were de- 
feated. Antoninus wrote a book in Greek, en- 
titled, rnKuS' eavTov, concerning himself; the best 
editions of which are the 4to. Cantab. 1652, 
and the 8vo. Oxon. 1704. After the war with 
the Gluadi had been finished, Verus died of an 
apoplexy, and Antoninus survived him eight 
years, and died in his 61st year, after a reign of 

29 years and ten days. Dio Cassius. II. 

Bassianus Caracalla, son of the emperor Septi- 
mus Severus, was celebrated for his cruelties. 
He killed his brother Geta in his mother's arms, 
and attempted to destroy the writings of Aris- 
totle, observing that Aristotle was one of those 
who sent poison to Alexander. He married his 
mother, and publicly lived with her ; which 
gave occasion to the people of Alexandria to 
say that he was an (Edipus, and his wife a 
Jocasta. He was assassinated at Edessa by 
Macrinus, April 8, in the 43d year of his age, 
A. D. 217. His body was sent to his wife Ju- 
lia, who stabbed herself at the sight. There is 
extant a Greek itinerary, and another book, 
called Iter Britannicum, which some have attri- 
buted to the emperor Antoninus, though it was 
more probably written by a person of that name 
whose age is unknown. 

M. Antonius Gnipho, I. a poet of Gaul, 
who taught rhetoric at Rome; Cicero and other 

illustrious men frequented his school. II. 

An orator, grandfather to the triumvir of the 
same name. He was killed in the civil wars of 
Marius, and his head was hung in the forum. 

Val. Max. 9, c. 2.—Diican. 2, v. 121. III. 

Marcus, the eldest son of the orator of the same 
name, by means of Cotta and Cethegus obtain- 
ed from the senate the office of managing the 
corn on the maritime coasts of the Mediterra- 
nean with unlimited power. This gave him 
many opportunities of plundering the provinces 
and enriching himself. He died of a broken 

heart. Sallust. Frag. IV. Caius, a son of 

the orator of that name, who obtained a troop of 
horse from Sylla, and plundered Achaia. He 
was carried before the praetor M. Lucullus, and 
banished from the senate by the censors, for 
pillaging the allies, and refusing to appear when 

summoned before justice. V. Caius, son of 

Antonius Caius, was consul with Cicero, and 
assisted him to destroy the conspiracy of Ca- 
tiline in Gaul. He went to Macedonia as his 
province, and fought with ill success against 
the Dardani. He was accused at his return and 
banished. -VI. Marcus, the triumvir, was 



AP 



HISTORY, &c. 



AP 



grandson to the orator M. Antonius, and son 
of Antonius, siirnamed Cretensis, from his wars 
in Crete. He was augur and tribune of the 
people, in which he distinguished himself by 
his ambitious views. When the senate was 
torn by the factions of Pompey's and Caesar's 
adherents, Antony proposed that both should 
lay aside the command of their armies in the 
provinces ; but as this proposition met not with 
.success, he privately retired from Rome to the 
camp of Csesar, and advised him to march 
his army to Rome. In support of his attach- 
ment, he commanded the left wing of his army 
at Pharsalia ; and, according to a premeditated 
scheme, offered him a diadem in the presence 
of the Roman, people. He besieged Mutina, 
which had been allotted to D. Brutus, for which 
the senate judged him an enemy to the re- 
public, at the remonstration of Cicero. He was 
conquered by the consuls HirtiusandPansa, and 
by young Caesar, who soon after joined his in- 
terest with that of Antony, and formed the cele- 
brated triumvirate, which was established with 
such cruel proscriptions, that Antony did not 
even spare his own uncle that he might strike 
off the head of his enemy Cicero. The trium- 
virate divided the Roman empire among them- 
selves ; and Antony returned into the east, 
where he enlarged his dominions by different 
conquests. Antony had married Fulvia, whom 
he repudiated to marry Octavia the sister of 
Augustus, and by this conjunction to strengthen 
the triumvirate. He assisted Augustus at the 
battle of Philippi against the murderers of J. 
Csesar, and he buried the body of M. Brutus, 
his enemy, in a most magnificent manner. Dur- 
ing his residence in the east he became enamour- 
ed of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and repudiat- 
ed Octavia to marry her. This devorce incens- 
ed Augustus, who now prepared to deprive An- 
tony of all his power. The two enemies met 
at Actium, where a naval engagement soon be- 
gan, and Cleopatra, by flying with 60 sail, drew 
Antony from the battle and ruined his cause. 
After the battle of Actium, Antony followed 
Cleopatra into Egypt, where he was soon inform- 
ed of the defection of all his allies and adhe- 
rents, and saw the conqueror on his shores. He- 
stabbed himself, and died in the 56th year of 
his age, B. C. 30 ; and the conqueror shed tears 
when he was informed that his enemy was no 
more. Antony left seven children by his three 
wives. In his public character Antony was 
brave and courageous ; but with the intrepidity 
of Caesar, he possessed all his voluptuous incli- 
nations. It is said that the night of Caesar's 
murder Cassius supped with Antony; and be- 
ing asked whether he had a dagger with him, 
answered. Yes, if you, Antony, aspire to sove- 
reign power. Plutarch has written an account 
of his life. Virg. JEn. 8, v. GSb.—Horat. ep. 
' 9.- -Mv. 10, V. 122. — C. Nep. in Attic. — Cic. in 

Philip. — Justin. 41 and 42. VII. Julius, 

son of Antony, the triumvir, by Fulvia, was 
consul with Paulus Fabius Maximus. He was 
surnamed Africanus, and pnt to death by order 
of Augustus. Some^say that he killed himself. 
It is supposed that he wrote an heroic poem on 
Diomede, in 12 books. Horace dedicated his 4 

Od. 2. to him. Tacit. 4, Ann. c. 44. VIII. 

Lucius, the triumvir's brother, was besieged in 
Pelusium by Augustus, and obliged to surren- 



der himself, with 300 men, by famine. The 
conqueror spared his life. Some say that he 
was killed at the shrine of Casar. IX. Ju- 
lius, was put to death by Augustus, for his cri- 
minal conversation with Julia. 

Antorides, a painter, disciple to Aristippus. 
Plin. 

Apama, I. a daughter of Artaxerxes, who 

married Pharnabazus, satrap of Ionia. II. 

j^ daughter of Antiochus. Pans. 1, c. 8. 

Apamb, I. the mother of Nicomedes, by Pru- 

sias, king of Bithynia. II. The mother of 

Antiochus Soter, by Seleucus Nicanor. 

Apella, a word, Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 10, 
which has given much trouble to critics and 
commentators. Some suppose it to mean cir- 
cumcised, {sine pelle,) nn epithet highly appli- 
cable to a Jew. Others maintain that it is a proper 
name, upon the authority of Cicero, a^ Attic. 12, 
ep. 19, who mentions a person of the same name. 

Apelles. a celebrated painter of Cos, or as 
others say, of Ephesus, or Colophon, son of 
Pithius. He lived in the age of Alexander the 
Great, who honoured him so much that he for- 
bade any man but Appelles to draw his picture. 
He was so attentive to his profession, that he 
never spent a day without employing his pencil ; 
whence the proverb of Nulla dies sine lined. 
His most perfect picture was Venus Anadyo- 
mene, which was not totally finished when the 
painter died. He made a painting of^ Alexan- 
der holding thunder in his hand, so much like 
life, that Pliny, Vv'ho saw it, says that the hand 
of the king with the thunder seemed to come 
out of the picture. This picture was placed in 
Diana's temple at Ephesus. He made another 
of Alexander, but the king expressed not much 
satisfaction at the sight of it ; and at that mo- 
ment a horse passing by, neighed at the horse 
which was represented in the piece, supposing 
it to be alive; upon which the painter said, 
" One would imagine that the horse is a better 
judge of painting than your majesty." When 
Alexander ordered him to draw the picture of 
Campaspe, one of his mistresses, Apelles be- 
came enamoured of her, and the king permitted 
him to marry her. He wrote three volumes 
upon painting, which were still extant in the 
age of Pliny. It is said that he was accused in 
Egypt of conspiring against the life of Ptolemy ; 
and that he would have been put to death had 
not the real conspirator discovered himself and 
saved the painter. Apelles never put his name 
to any pictures but three ; a sleeping Venus, 
Venus Anadyomene, and an Alexander. The 
proverb of JYe sutor ultra crepidam, is applied 
to him by some. Plin. 35, c. 10. — Horat. 2, ep. 
1, V. 238. — Cic, in Famil. 1, ep. 9. — Ovid.de 
Art. Am. 3, v. 401.— F«Z. Max. 8, c. 11. 

Apellicon, a Teian peripatetic philosopher, 
whose fondness for books was so great that he is 
accused of stealing them when he could not 
obtain them with money. He bought the works 
of Aristotle and Theophrastus, but greatly dis- 
figured them by his frequent interpolations. 
The extensive library which he had collected at 
Athens, was carried to Rome when Sylla had 
conquered the capital of Attica; and among the 
valuable books was found an original manu- 
script of Aristotle. He died about 86 years 
before Christ. Strdb. 13. 

Aper, Marcus, I. a Latin orator of Gaul, 
351 



AP 



HISTORY, &c. 



AP 



who distinguished himself as a politician as well 
as by his genius. The dialogue of the orators, 
inserted with the works of Tacitus and Gtuinti- 
lian, is attributed to him. He died A. D. 85. 
II. Another. Vid. JYuvieriamis. 

Aphareus, I. a king of Messenia, who mar- 
ried Arene daughter of CEbalus, by whom he 

had three sons. II. The step-son of Iso- 

crates. He began to exhibit Olymp. cm. B. 
C. 368, and continued to compose till B. C. 
341. He produced thirty-five or thirty-seven 
tragedies, and was four times victor. 

Aphellas, a king of Cyrene, who, with the 
aid of Agathocies, endeavoured to reduce all 
Africa under his power. Justm. 22, c. 7. 

Aphrices, an Indian prince, who defended 
the rock Aornus with 20,000 foot and 15 el- 
ephants. He was killed by his troops, and his 
head sent to Alexander. 

ApHRODieiA, festivals in honour of Venus, 
celebrated in different parts of Greece, but chief- 
ly in Cyprus. They were first instituted by 
Cinyras, from whose family the priests of the 
goddess v/ere always chosen. All those that 
v/ere initiated offered a piece of money to Ve- 
nus, and received, as a mark of the favours of 
the goddess, a measure of salt and a (paWos ; the 
salt, because Venus arose from the sea ; the ^aX- 
Aof, because she is the goddess of wantonness. 
They were celebrated at Corinth by harlots, and 
in every part of Greece they were very much 
frequented. Strab. 14. — Athen. 

Apianus, or ApioN, was born at Oasis in 
Egypt, whence he went to Alexandria, of which 
he was deemed a citizen. He succeeded Theus 
in the profession of rhetoric in the reign of Ti- 
berius, and wrote a book against the Jews, which 
Josephus refuted. He was at the head of an 
embassy which the people of Alexandria sent 
to Caligula to complain of the Jews. Seneca, 
ep. 88. — Plin. praf. Hist. 

Apicius, a famous glutton in Rome. There 
were three of the same name, all famous for 
their voracious appetite. The first lived in the 
time of the republic, the second in the reign of 
Augustus and Tiberius, and the third under 
Trajan. The second was the most famous, as 
he wrote a book on the pleasures and incite- 
ments of eating. He hanged himself after he 
had consumed the greatest part of his estate. 
The best edition of Apicius Caslius de Arte 
Coquinarid, is that of Amst. 12mo. 1709. Juv. 
11. V. 3.— Martial. 2, ep. 69. 

Apion, a surname of Ptolemy, one of the 
descendants of Ptolemy Lagus. Vid. Apianus. 

Apollinares Ludi, games celebrated at 
Rome in honour of Apollo. The people gene- 
rally sat crowned with laurel at the represen- 
tation of these games, which were usually cele- 
brated at the option of the praetor, till the year 
U. C. 545, when a law was passed to settle the 
celebration yearly on the same day, about the 
nones of July. When this alteration happened, 
Rome was infested with a dreadful pestilence, 
which, however, seemed to be appeased by this 
act of religion. Liv. 25, c. 12. 

^Apollinaris, C. Sulpitius, I. a grammarian 
of Carthage in the second century, who is sup- 
posed to be the author of the verses prefixed to 

Terence's plays as arguments. II. A writer 

better known by the name of Sidonius. Vid. 
Sidonius. 

353 



Apollocrates, a friend of Dion, supposed 
by some to be the son of- Dionysius. 

Apollodorus, I. a famous grammarian and 
mythologist of Athens, son of Asclepias, and 
disciple lo Pansetius, the Rhodian philosopher. 
He flourished about 115 years before the Chris- 
lian era, and wrote a history of Athens besides 
other works. But of all his compositions, no- 
thing is extant but his Bibliotheca, a valuable 
v/ork, divided into three books. It is an abridg- 
ed history of the gods and of the ancient heroes, 
of whose actions and genealogy it gives a true 
and 'faithful account. The best edition is that 
of Heyne, Goett. in 8vo. 4 vols. 1782. Athen. — 
Plin. 7, c. Ti.—Diod. 4 and 13. II. A tra- 
gic poet of Cilicia, who wrote tragedies entitled 

Ulysses, Thyestes, &c. III. A comic poet 

of Gela in Sicily, in the age of Menander, who 
wrote 47 plays. He was one of the six writers 
whom the ancient critics selected as the models 
of the New Comedy. The other five were Phi- 
lippides, Philemon, Menander, Diphilus, and 
Posidippus. Terence copied his Hecyra, and 
Phormio from tM'o of his dramas ; all of which, 

save the 
-IV. An 



though very numerous, are now lost, 
titles of eight, with a few fragments. 



architect of Damascus, who directed the build- 
ing of Trajan's bridge across the Danube. He 
was put to death by Adrian, to whom, when in 
a private station, he had spoken in too bold a 

manner. V. A disciple of Epicurus, the 

most learned of his school, and deservedly 
surnamed the illustrious. He wrote about 40 

volumes on different subjects. Diog. VI. A 

painter of Athens, of whom Zeuxis was a pupil. 
Two of his paintings were admired at Pergamus 
in the age of Pliny : a priest in a suppliant pos- 
ture, and Ajax struck with Minerva's thunders. 

Plin. 35, c. 9. VII. A statuary in the age 

of Alexander. He was of such an irascible 
disposition, that he destroyed his own pieces 

upon the least provocation. Plin. 34, c. 8. 

VIII. A rhetorician of Pergamus, preceptor 
and friend to Augustus, who wrote a book on 
rhetoric. Strab. 13. 

Apollonia, a festival at jEgialea, in honour 
of Apollo and Diana. It arose from this cir- 
cumstance: these two deities came to ^gialea 
after the conquest of the serpent Python; but 
they were frightened away, and fled to Crete. 
jEgialea was soon visited with an epidemical 
distemper, and the inhabitants, by the advice of 
their prophets, sent seven chosen boys, with the 
same number of girls, to entreat them to return 
to -lEgialea, Apollo and Diana granted their 
petition, in honour of which a temple was raised 
to neiQw, the goddess of persuasion ; and, ever 
after, a number of youths, of both sexes, were 
chosen to march in solemn procession, as if 
anxious to bring back A polio and Diana. Pau- 
san, in Corinth. 

Apolloniades, a tyrant of Sicily, compelled 
to lay down his power by Timoleon. 

Apollonides, a physician of Cos, at the court 
of Artaxerxes, who became enamoured of Amy- 
tis, the monarch's sister, and was some time after 
put to death for slighting her after the reception 
of her favours. 

Apollonius, I. a stoic philosopher of Chalcis, 
sent for by Antoninus Pius, to instruct his adopt- 
ed son Marcus Antoninus. When he came to 
Rome, he refused to go to the palace, observing^. 



AP 



HISTORY, &c. 



AP 



that the master ought not to wait upon his pupil, 
but the pupil upon him. The emperor, hearing 
this, said, laughing, " It was, then, easier for 
ApoUonius to come from Chalcis to Rome than 
from Rome to the palace." II. A geometri- 
cian of Perga in Pamphylia, whose works are 
now lost. He lived about 242 years before the 
Christian era, and composed a commentary on 
Euclid, whose pupils he attended at Alexan- 
dria. He wrote a treatise on conic sections, 

edited by Dr. Halley, Oxon. fol. 1710. III. 

A poet of Naucratis, according to some autho- 
rities, or, according to others, of Alexandria, 
generally called Apollonius of Rhodes, because 
he lived for some time there. He was pupil, 
when young, to Callimachus and Pansetius, and 
succeeded to Eratosthenes, as third librarian of 
the famous library of Alexandria,under Ptolemy 
Evergetes. He was ungrateful to his master, 
Callimachus, who wrote a poem against him, 
in which he denominated him Ibis. Of all his 
works nothing remains but his poem on the ex- 
pedition of the Argonauts, in four books. The 
best editions of Apollonius are those printed at 
Oxford, in 4to. by Shaw, 1777, in 2 vols, and 
in 1, 8vo. 1779, and that of Brunck, Argentor, 

12mo. 1780. Quintil. 10, c. 1. IV. A Greek 

orator, surnamed Molo, was a native of Ala- 
banda in Caria. He opened a school of rheto- 
ric at Rhodes and Rome, and had J. Caesar and 
Cicero among his pupils. He discouraged the 
attendance of those whom he supposed incapa- 
ble of distinguishing themselves as orators, and 
he recommended to them pursuits more conge- 
nial to their abilities. He wrote a history, in 
which he "did not candidly treat the people of 
Judaea, according to the complaint of Josephus 
contra Apion. Cic. de Or at. 1, c. 28, 75, 126, and 
130. Ad. Famil. 3, ep. 16. De Invent. 1, c. 81. 
— Quintil. 3, c. 1, 1. 2, c. 6. — Smt. in Cces. 4. — 

Plut. in CcEs. V. A Greek historian, about 

the age of Augustus, who wrote upon the phi- 
losophy of Zeno and of his followers. Strab. 
14. VI. Thyaneus, a Pythagorean philoso- 
pher, well skilled in the art of imposture. One 
day, while haranguing the populace at Ephesus, 
he" suddenly exclaimed, " Strike the tyrant ! — 
strike him ! The blow is given ; he is wounded, 
and fallen !" At that very moment the empe- 
ror Domitian had been stabbed at Rome. He 
was courted by kings and princes, and com- 
manded unusual attention by his numberless 
artifices. His friend and companion, called 
Damis, wrote his life, which 200 years after en- 
gaged the attention of Philostratus. In his his- 
tory, the biographer relates so many curious and 
extraordinary anecdotes of his hero, that many 
have justly deemed it a romance ; yet for all this, 
Hierocles had the presumption to compare the 
impostures of ApoUonius with the miracles of 

Jesus Christ. VII. A sophist of Alexandria, 

distinguished for his Lexicon Gracuvi lliadis et 
OdvssecB, a book thai was beautifully edited by 
Villoison, in 4to. 2 vols. Paris, 1773. Apollonius 
was one of the pupils of Didymus, and flourished 
in the besfinning of the first century. 

Apollophanes, a stoic, who greatly flattered 
king Antigonus, and maintained that there ex- 
isted but one virtue, prudence. Diog. 

Aponius, M. a governor of Mcesia, rewarded 
with a triumphal statue by, Otho, for defeating 
9000 barbarians. Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 79. 

Part If.— 2 Y 



Apotheosis, a ceremony observed by the an- 
cient nations of the world, by which they raised 
their kings, heroes, and great men, to the rank 
of deities. The nations of the East were the 
first who paid divine honours to their great men, 
and the Romans followed their example, and 
not only deified the most prudent and humane 
of their emperors, but also the most cruel and 
profligate. Herodian. 4, c. 2, has left us an 
account of the apotheosis of a Roman emperor. 
After the body of the deceased was burnt, an 
ivory image was laid on a couch for seven days, 
representing the emperor under the agonies of 
disease. The- city was in sorrow, the senate 
visited it in mourning, and the physicians pro- 
nounced it every day in a more decaying state. 
When the death was announced, a young band 
of senators carried the couch and image to the 
Campus Martins, where it was deposited on an 
edifice in the form of a pyramid, where spices 
and combustible materials were thrown. After 
this the knights walked round the pile in solemn 
procession, and the images of the most illustri- 
ous Romans were drawn in state, and imme- 
diately the new emperor, with a torch set fire to 
the pile, and was assisted by the surrounding 
multitude. Meanwhile an eagle was let fly from 
the middle of the pile, which was supposed to 
carry the soul of the deceased to heaven, where 
he was ranked among the gods. If the deiiied 
was a female, a peacock, and not an e^gle, was 
sent from the flames. The Greeks observed 
ceremonies much of the same nature. 

Appianus, a Greek historian of Alexandria, 
who flourished A. D. 123. His universal histo- 
ry, which consisted of 24 books, was a series of 
history of all the nations that' had been con- 
quered by the Romans in the order of time; and 
in the composition the writer displayed, with a 
style simple and unadorned, a great knowledge 
of military aflfairs, and described his battles in a 
masterly manner. This excellent work is great- 
ly mutilated, and there is extant now only the 
account of the Punic, Syrian, Parthian, Mithri- 
datic, and Spanish wars, with those of Illyricum 
and the civil dissentions, with a fragment of the 
Celtic wars. The best editions are those of, 
Tollius and Variorum, 2 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1670, 
and that of Schweigheuserus, 8 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
1785. He was so eloquent that the emperor 
highly promoted him in the state. He wrote a 
universal histoiy in 24 books, which began from 
the time of the Trojan war, down to his own 
age. Few books of this valuable work are ex- 
tant. 

Appius, the praenomen of an illustrious fami- 
ly at Rome. A censor of that name, A. U. 

C. 442. Horat. 1, Sat. 6. 

Appius Claudius, I. a decemvir, who obtain- 
ed his power by force and oppression. He at- 
tempted the virtue of Virginia, whom her father 
killed to preserve her chastity. This act of vio- 
lence was the cause of a revolution in the state, 
and the ravisher destroyed himself when cited 
to appear before the tribunal of his country. 

Liv. 3, c. 33. II. Claudius Caecus, a Roman 

orator, who built the Appian way, and many 
aqueducts in Rome. When Pyrrhus, who was 
come to assist the Tarentines against Rome, 
demanded peace of the senators, Appius, grown 
old in the service of the republic, caused himself 
to be carried to the senate-house, and, by his 
353 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



authority, dissuaded them from granting a peace 
which would prove dislionourable to the Roman 
name. Ovid. Fast 6, v. 203. Cic. in Brut. <f« 

Tusc. 4. III. A Roman, who, when he 

heard that he had been proscribed by the trium- 
virs, divided his riches among his servants, and 
embarked with them for Sicily. In their pas- 
sage the vessel was shipwrecked, and Appius 
alone saved his life. Appian. 4. IV. Clau- 
dius Crassus, a consul, who, with Sp. Naut. Ru- 
tulius, conquered the Celtiberians, and was de- 
feated by Perseus, king of Macedonia. Liv. 

V. Claudius Pulcher, a grandson of Ap. 

CI. Caecus, consul in the age of Sylla, retired 
from grandeur to enjoy the pleasures of a private 

life. VI. Clausus, a general of the Sabines, 

who, upon being ill-treated by his countrymen, 
retired to Rome with 5000 of his friends, and 
was admitted into the senate in the early ages 

of the republic. Plut. in Poplic. VII. Her- 

donius, seized the capital with 4000 exiles, A. U. 
C. 292, and was soon after overthrown. Liv. 3, 

c. 15.—Flor. 3, c. 19. VIII. Claudius Len- 

tulus, a consul with M. Perpenna. — ■ — IX. A 

dictator who conquered the Hernici. The 

name of Appius was common in Rome, and 
particularly to many consuls whose history is 
not marked by any uncommon event. 

Apries, and Aprius, one of the kings of 
Egypt in the age of Cyrus, supposed to be the 
Pharaoh Hophra of Scripture. He took Sidon, 
and lived in great prosperity till his subjects 
revolted to Amasis, by whom he was conquer- 
ed and strangled. Herodot. 2, c. 159, &c. — 
Diod. 1. 

Apsinus, an Athenian sophist in the third 
century, author of a work called PrcBceptor de 
Arte Rhetorica. 

Apuleia Lex, was enacted by L. Apuleius, 
the tribune, A. U. C. 652, for inflicting a punish- 
ment upon such as were guilty of raising sedi- 
tions, or showing violence in the city. Vari- 

lia, a grand-daughter of Augustus, convicted of 
adultery with a certain Manlius in the reign of 
Tiberius. Tacit. An. c. 50. 

Apuleius, a learned man, born at Madaura 
in Africa. He studied at Carthage, Athens, 
and Rome, where he married a rich widow call- 
ed Pudentilla, for which he was accused by some 
of her relations of using magical arts to win her 
heart. His apology was a masterly composition. 
In his youth Apuleius had been very profuse; 
but he was, in a maturer age, more devoted to 
study, and learnt Latin without a master. The 
most famous of his works extant is the golden 
as.'!, in eleven books, an allegorical piece, replete 
with morality. The best editions of Apuleius 
are the Delphin, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1688, and 
Pricaei, 8vo. Goudse, 1650. 

Aquilius Niger, Sabinus, I. a lawyer of 
Rome, surnamed the Cato of his age. He was 
father to Aquilia Severa, whom Heliogabalus 

married. II. Severus, a poet and historian 

in the age of Valentinian. 

AauiLLiA and Aquilia, a patrician family at 
Rome, from which few illustrious men rose. 

AauiLO, a wind blowing from the north. Its 
name is derived, according to some, from Aqui- 
la, on account of its keenness and velocity. 

Ara, a constellation, consisting of seven stars, 
near the tail of the Scorpion. Ovid, Met. 2, 
V. 138. 

354 



Arabarches, a vulgar person among the 
Egyptians, or perhaps a usual expression for 
the leaders of the Arabians, who resided in 
Rome. Juv. 1, v. 130. Some believe that Ci- 
cero, 2, ep. 17, ad Attic, alluded to Pompey un- 
der the name of Arabarches. 

Araros, son of Aristophanes, was the con- 
temporary of Eubulus. Under his name the 
two last pieces of his father were represented, 
whose talents he by no means possessed. Ni- 
costratus and Philippus, two other sons of Aris- 
tophanes, are also recorded among the poels of 
the Middle Comedy. The titles of several co- 
medies written by these three brothers are pre- 
served in Athenseus. 

Aratus, I. a Greek poet of Cilicia, about 277 
B. C. He was greatly esteemed by Antigonus 
Gonatas, king of Macedonia, at whose court he 
passed much of his time, and by whose desire 
he wrote a poem on astronomy, in which he 
gives an account of the situations, rising and 
setting, number and motion of the stars. Ci- 
cero represents him as imacquainted with as- 
trology, yet capable of writing upon it in ele- 
gant and highly finrished verses, which, however, 
from the subject, admit of little variety. Aratus 
wrote, besides, hymns and epigrams,&c. and had 
among his interpreters and commentators many 
of the learned men of Greece whose works are 
lost, besides Cicero, Claudius, and Germanicus 
Csesar, who, in their youth or moments of re- 
laxation, translated the phenomena into Latin 
verse. The best editions of Aratus are Grotius, 
4to. apud Raphaleng. 1600; and Oxon. 8vo. 
1672. Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 41.— Pans. 1, c. 2. 

— Ovid. Am. 1, el. 15, v. 26. II. The-son of 

Clinias and Aristodama, was born at Sicyonin 
Achaia, near the river Asopus. When he was 
but seven years of age, his father, who held the 
government of Sicyon, was assassinated by 
Abantidas, who made himself absolute. After 
some revolutions the sovereignty came into the 
hands of Nicocles, whom Aratus murdered to 
restore his country to liberty. He was so jealous 
of tyrannical power, that he even destroyed a 
picture which was the representation of a tyrant. 
He joined the republic of Sicyon in the Achaean 
league, which he strengthened by making a 
treaty of alliance with the Corinthians, and "with 
Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He was chosen chief 
commander of the forces of the Achaeans, and 
drove away the Macedonians from Athens and 
Corinth. He made war against the Spartans, 
but was conquered in a battle by their king 
Cleomenes. To repair the losses he had sus- 
tained, he solicited the assistance of king Anti- 
gonus, and drove away Cleomenes from Sparta, 
who fled to Egypt, where he killed himself. 
The -^tolians soon after attacked the Achaeans ; 
and Aratus, to support his character, was obi iged 
to call to his aid Philip, king of Macedonia. 
His friendship with this new ally did not long 
continue. Philip showed himself cruel and op- 
pressive ; and put to death some of the noblest 
of the Achaeans, and even seduced the wife of 
the son of Aratus. Aratus, who was now ad- 
vanced in years, showed his displeasure by with- 
drawing himself from the society and friendship 
of Philip. But this rupture was fatal. Philip 
dreaded the power and influence of Aratus, and 
therefore he caused him and his son to be poi- 
soned. Some days before his death Aratus was 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



observed to spit blood ; and when apprized of it 
by his friends, he replied, " Such are the re- 
wards which a connexion with kings will pro- 
duce." He was buried with great pomp by his 
countrymen ; and two solemn sacrifices were 
anniially made to him, the first on the day that 
he delivered Sicyon from tyranny, and the se- 
cond on the day of his birth. During those sa- 
crifices, which were called Arateia, the priests 
wore a riband bespangled with while and pur- 
ple spots, and the public schoolmaster walked 
in procession at the head of his scholars, and 
was always accompanied by the richest and 
most eminent senators adorned with garlands. 
Aratus died in the 62d year of his age, B. C. 213. 
He wrote a history of the Achaean league, much 
commended by Polybius. Plut. in vita. — Paus. 
2, c. 8.—Cic. de Offic. 2, c. 23.—Strab. 14.— 
Liv. 27, c. 31.— Polyb. 2. 

Arbaces, a Mede, who revolted with Belesis 
against Sardanapalus, and founded the empire 
of Media upon the ruins of the Assyrian power, 
820 years before the Christian era. He reigned 
above fifty years, and was famous for the great- 
ness of his undertakings as well as for his val- 
our. Justin. 1, c. 3. — Paterc. 1, c. 6. 

Arbuscula, an actress on the Roman stage, 
who laughed at the hisses of the populace while 
she received the applauses of the knights. Hor. 
1, Sat. 10, V. 77. 

Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius the 
Great, succeeded his father A. D. 395. Under 
him the Roman power was divided into the east- 
ern and western empire. He made the eastern 
empire his choice,and fixed his residence at Con- 
stantinople'; while his brother Honorius was 
made emperor of the west, and lived in Rome. 
After this separation of the Roman empire the 
two powers looked upon one another with indif- 
ference; and, soon after, their indifference was 
changed into jealousy, and contributed to hasten 
their mutual ruin. In the reign of Arcadius, 
Alaricus attacked the western empire and plun- 
dered Rome. Arcadius married Eudoxia, a bold 
ambitious woman, and died in the 31st year of 
his age, after a reign of 13 years, in which he 
bore the character of an effeminate prince, who 
suffered himself to be governed by favourites, 
and who abandoned his subjects to the tyranny 
of ministers, while he lost himself in the pleas- 
ures of a voluptuous court. 

Argesilaus, I. son of Battus, king of Cy- 
Tene, was driven from his kingdom in a sedition, 

and died B. C. 575. II. One of Alexander's 

generals, who obtained Mesopotamia at the ge- 
neral division of the provinces after the king's 
death. III. A chief of Catana, which he be- 
trayed to Dionysius the elder. Diod. 14 



IV. A philosopher of Pitano in -^olia, disciple 
of Polemon. He visited Sardes and Athens, 
and was the founder of the middle academy, as 
Socrates founded the ancient and Carneades the 
new one. He pretended to know nothing, and 
accused others of the same ignorance. He ac- 
quired many pupils in the character of teacher ; 
but some of them left him for Epicurus, though 
no Epicurean came to him ; which gave him oc- 
casion to say, that it is easy to make a eunuch 
of a man, but impossible to make a man of a 
eunuch. He was very fond of Homer, and 
generally divided his time among the pleasures 
of philosophy, love, reading, and the table. He 



died in his 75th year, B. C. 241, or 300, according 
to some. Diog. in vita. — Persius, 3, v. 78. — 
Cic. de Flnib. 

Arch5:anax, of Mitylene, was intimate with 
Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. He fortified Si- 
gaeum with a wall from the ruins of ancient 
Troy. Strab. 13. 

Archelaus, I. a name common to some kings 
of Cappadocia. One of them was conquered by 
^ylla for assisting Mithridates. II. A per- 
son of that name married Berenice, and made 
himself king of Egypt ; a dignity he enjoyed 
only six months, as he was killed by the soldiers 
of Gabinius, B. C. 56. He had been made 
priest of Comana by Pompey. His grandson 
was made king of Cappadocia by Antony, 
whom he assisted at Actium, and he maintained 
his independence under Augustus till Tiberius 

perfidiously destroyed him. III. A king of 

Macedonia, who succeeded his father, Perdiccas 
the second : as he was but a natural child, he 
killed the legitimate heirs to gain the kingdom. 
He proved himself to be a great monarch ; but 
he was at last killed by one of his favourites, 
because he had promised him his daughter ia 
marriage, and given her to another, after a reign 
of 23 years. He patronised the poet Euripides. 
Diod. 14. — Justi7b. 7, c. 4. — Mlian. V. H. 2, 8, 

12, 14. IV. A king of the Jews, son of 

Herod, He married Glaphyre, daughter of 
Archelaus, king of Macedonia, and widow of his 
brother Alexander, Cssar banished him for 

his cruelties. Dio. V. A king of Lacedas- 

mon, son of Agesilaus. He reigned 42 years 
with Charilaus, of the other branch of the fami- 
ly. Herodot. 7, c. 204.— Paws. ,3, c. 2. VI. 

A general of Antigonus the younger, appointed 
governor of the Acrocorinth, with the philoso- 
pher Persaeus. Polycen. 6, c. 5. VII. A cel- 
ebrated general of Mithridates against Sylla. 

Id. 8, c. 8. VIII. A philosopher of Athens 

or Messenia, son of Apollodorus, and successor 
to Anaxagoras. He was preceptor to Socrates, 
and was called Physicus. He supposed that 
heat and cold were the principles of all things. 
He first discovered the voice to be propagated 
by the vibration of the air. Cin. Titsc. 5. — 

Diog. in vita. — Aiigustin. de civ. Dei, 8. 

IX. A man set over Susa by Alexander, with 

a garrison of 3000 men. Curt. 5, c. 2. X. 

A Greek philosopher, who wrote a history of 
animals, and maintained that goats breathed not 
through the nostrils, but through the ears. Plin. 

8, c. 50. XI. A sculptor of Priene, in the 

age of Claudius. He made an apotheosis of Ho- 
mer, a piece of sculpture highly admired, and 
said to have been discovered under ground, A. 
D. 1658. XIT. A writer of Thrace. 

Archemachus, a Greek writer, who published 
a history of Euboea. Athen. 6. 

Archeptolymus, son of Iphitus, king of Elis, 
went to the Trojan war, and fought against the 
Greeks. As he was fighting near Hector, he 
was killed by Ajax, son of Telamon. It is said 
that he re-established the Olympic games, i/o- 
w£r. 11. 8, V. 128. 

Archestratus, I. a tragic poet, whose pieces 
were acted during the Peloponnesian war. Plut. 

in Arist. II. A follower of Epicurus, who 

wrote a poem in commendation of gluttony. 

ARcmAs, I. a Corinthian, descended "from 
Hercules. He founded Syracuse, B. C. 732. 
355 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



Being told by an oracle to make choice of health 
or riches, he chose the latter. Dionys. Hal. 2. 

II. A poet of Antioch, intimate with the 

Luculli. He obtained the rank and name of a 
Roman citizen by the means of Cicero, who 
defended him in an elegant oration when his 
enemies had disputed his privileges of citizen of 
Rome. He wrote a poem on the Cimbrian war, 
and began another concerning Cicero's consul- 
ship, which are now lost. Some of his epigrams 
are preserved in the Anthologia. Cic. pro Arch. 

III. A polemarch of Thebes, assassinated 

in the conspiracy of Pelopidas, which he could 
have prevented, if he had not deferred to the 
morrow the reading of a letter which he had re- 
ceived from Archias, the Athenian highpriest, 
and which gave him information of his danger. 

Plut. in Pelop. IV. A highpriest of Athens, 

contemporary and intimate with the polemarch 

of the same name. Id. ibid. V. A Theban 

who abolished the oligarchy. Aristot. 

Archibiades, I. a philosopher of Athens, 
who affected the manners of the Spartans, and 
was very inimical to the views and measures of 
Phocion. Plut. in Phac. II. An ambassa- 
dor of Byzantium, &c. Polycen. 4, c. 44. 
ARcmBius, the son of the geographer Ptolemy. 
ARcmDAMiA, I. a priestess of Ceres, who, on 
account of her affection for Aristomenes, re- 
stored him to liberty when he had been taken 
prisoner by her female attendants at the cele- 
bration of their festivals. Paus. 4, c. 17. II. 

A daughter of Cleadas, who, upon hearing that 
her countrymen, the Spartans, were debating 
whether they should send away their women to 
Crete, against the hostile approach of Pyrrhus, 
seized a sword, and ran to the senate-house, ex- 
claiming that the women were as able to fight as 
the men. Upon this, the decree was repealed, 
Plut. in Pyrrh. — Polycen. 8, c. 8. 
Archidamus. Vid. Leotichydes. 
Archidemus, a stoic philosopher, who exiled 
himself among the Parthians. Plut. de exit. 

ARcmGENEs, a physician, born at Apamea. in 
Syria. He lived in the reign of Domitian,Nerva, 
and Trajan, and died in the 73d year of his age. 
Archilochus, I. a poet of Paros, who wrote 
elegies, satires, odes, and epigrams, and was the 
first who introduced iambics in his verses. He 
had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycara- 
bes, and had received promises of marriage; but 
the father gave her to another, superior to the 
poet in rank and fortune ; upon which Archilo- 
chus wrote such a bitter satire, that Lycambes 
hanged himself in a fit of despair. The Spar- 
tans condemned his verses, on account of their 
indelicacy, and banished him from their city as 
a petulant and dangerous citizen. He fiiourished 
685 B. C, and it is said that he was assassin- 
ated. Some fragments of his poetry remain, 
which display vigour and animation, boldness 
and vehemence, in the highest degree; from 
which reason, perhaps, Cicero calls virulent 
edicts Archilochia edicta. Cic. Tusc. 1. — Quin- 
til. 10, c. 1. — Herodot. 1, c. 12. — Horat. art. poet. 
V. Id.—Athen. 1, 2, &c. II. A Greek histo- 
rian, who wrote a chronological table, and other 
works about the 20th or 30th olympiad. 

Archimedes, a famous geometrician of Syra- 
cuse, who invented a machine of glass that 
faithfully represented the motion of all the heav- 
enly bodies. When Marcellus, the Roman con- 
356 



sul, besieged Syracuse, Archimedes construct' 
ed machines, which suddenly raised up in the 
air the ships of the enemy from the bay before 
the city, and then let them fall with such vio- 
lence into the water that they sunk. He set 
them also on fire with his burning-glasses. 
When the town was taken, the Roman general 
gave strict orders to his soldiers not to hurt Ar- 
chimedes, and even offered a reward to him who 
should bring him alive and safe into his presence. 
All these precautions were useless ; the philoso- 
pher was so deeply engaged in solving a prob- 
lem, that he was even ignorant that the enemy 
were in possession of the town ; and a soldier, 
without knowing who he was, killed him, be- 
cause he refused to follow him, B. C. 212. Mar- 
cellus raised a monument over him, and placed 
upon it a cylinder and a sphere ; but the place 
remained long unknown, till Cicero, during his 
qusestorship in Sicily, found it near one of the 
gates of Syracuse, surrounded with thorns and 
brambles. Some suppose that Archimedes raised 
the site of the towns and villages of Egypt, and 
began those mounds of earth by means of which 
communication is kept from town to town, du- 
ring the inundations of the Nile. The story of 
his burning-glasses had always appeared fabu- 
lous to some of the moderns, till the experiments 
of Buffon demonstrated it beyond contradiction. 
These celebrated glasses were supposed to be re- 
flectors made of metal, and capable of producing 
their effect at the distance of a bow-shot. The 
manner in which he discovered how much brass 
a goldsmith had mixed with gold in making a 
golden crown for the king, is well known to 
every modern hydrostatic, as well as the pump- 
ing screw which still bears his name. Among 
the wild schemes of Archimedes, is his saying, 
that by means of his machines he could move 
the earth with ease if placed on a fixed spot 
near it. Many of his works are extant, es- 
pecially treatises de spKcera (f* cylindro, circuli 
dimensio, de lineis spiralibus, de quadratura pa- 
raboles^ de numero arena, &c. the best edition of 
which is that of David Rivaltius, fol. Paris, 
1615. Cic. Tusc. 2, c. 25.— i)e Nat. D. 2, c. 
U.—Liv. 24, c. M.— Quintil. 1, c. 10.— Vitruv. 
9, c. 3.—Polyb. 9.— Plut. in Marcell.— Val. 
Max. 8, c. 7. 

ARCfflNDS, I. a man who when he was ap- 
pointed to distribute new arms among the po- 
pulace of Argos, raised a mercenary band, and 

made himself absolute. Polycen. ^, c. 8. 

11. A rhetorician of Athens. 

Archippus, a comic poet of Athens, of whose 
eight comedies only one obtained the prize. 

Archon, one of Alexander's generals, w^ho 
received the provinces of Babylon at the gene- 
ral division after the king's death. Diod. 18. 

Archontes, the name of the chief magis- 
trates of Athens. They were nine in number, 
and none were chosen but such as were de- 
scended from ancestors who had been free citi- 
zens of the republic for three generations. They 
were also to be without deformity in all the parts 
and members of their body ; and were obliged to 
produce testimonials of their dutiful behaviour 
to their parents, of the services they had render- 
ed their country, and the competency of their 
fortune to support their dignity. They took a 
solemn oath that they would observe the laws, 
administer justice with impartiality, and never 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



suffer themselves to be corrupted. If they ever 
received bribes, they were compelled by the 
laws to dedicate to the god of Delphi a statue 
of gold of equal weight with their body. They 
all had the power of punishing malefactors with 
death. The chief among them was called Ar- 
chon ; the year look iis denomination from him ; 
he determined all causes between man and wife, 
and took care of legacies and wills ; he provided 
for orphans, protected the injured, and punished 
drunkenness. If he suffered himself to be in- 
toxicated during the time of his office, the mis- 
demeanor was punished with death. The se- 
cond of the archons was called Basileus ; it 
was his office to keep good order, and to remove 
all causes of quarrel in the families of those who 
were dedicated to the service of the gods. The 
profane and the impious were brought before his 
tribunal ; and he offered public sacrifices for the 
good of the state. He assisted at the celebra- 
tion of the Eleusinian festivals and other reli- 
gious ceremonies. His wife was to be related 
to the whole people of Athens, and of a pure 
and unsullied life. He had a vote among the 
Areopagites, but was obliged to sit among them 
without his crown. The Polemarch was an- 
other archon of inferior dignity. He had the 
care of all foreigners, and provided a sufficient 
maintenance from the public treasury, for the 
families of those who had lost their lives in de- 
fence of their country. These three archons 
generally chose each of them two persons of 
respectable character, and of an advanced age, 
whose councils and advice might assist and 
support them in their public capacity. The six 
other archons were indistinctly called Thesmo- 
theta, and received complaints against persons 
accused of impiety, bribery, and ill behaviour. 
They settled all disputes between the citizens, 
redressed the wrongs of strangers, and forbade 
any laws to be enforced but such as were con- 
ducive to the safety of the state. These officers 
of state were chosen after the death of king 
Codrus ; their power was originally for life, but 
afterwards it was limited to ten years, and at 
last to one year. After some time, the quali- 
fications which were required to be an archon 
were not strictly observed. Adrian, before he 
was elected emperor of Rome, was made archon 
at Athens, though a foreigner ; and the same 
honours were conferred upon Plutarch. The 
perpetual archons after the death of Codrus were 
Medon, whose office began B. C. 1070; Acas- 
tus, 1050 ; Archippus, 1014 ; Thersippus, 995 ; 
Phorbas, 954 ; Megacles, 923 ; Diogenetus, 893 ; 
Pherecles, 865; Ariphron, 846 ; Thespieus,826 ; 
Agamestor, 799; ^schylus, 778; Alcmseon, 
756; after whose death the archons were decen- 
nial, the first of whom was Charops, who be- 
gan 753 ; iEsimedes, 744 ; Clidieus, 734 ; Hip- 
pomenes, 724 ; Leocrates, 714 ; Apsander, 704 ; 
Eryxias, 694; after whom, the office became 
annual, and of these annual archons Creon was 
the first. Aris/.opk. in Nvh. and Avib. — Phut. 
Sympos. 1. — Demost. — Pollux. — L/t/sias. 
Archytas, I, a musician of Mitylene, who 

wrote a treatise on agriculture. Diog. II. 

The son of Hestiseus of Tarentura, was a fol- 
lower of the Pythagorean philosophy, and an 
able astronomer and geometrician. He redeem- 
ed his master, Plato, from the hands of the tyrant 
Dionysius, and, for his virtues, he was seven 



times chosen by his fellow-citizens governor of 
Tarentum. He invented some mathematical 
instruments, and a wooden pigeon which could 
fly. He perished in a shipwreck, about 394 
years before the Christian era. He is also the 
reputed inventor of the screw and the pulley. 
A fragment of his writings has been preserved 
by Porphyry. Horat. 1, od. 28. — Cic. 3, de 
Oral. — Diog. in Vit. 

Arctinus, a Milesian poet, said to be pupil 
to Homer. Dionys. Hal. 1. 

Arctos, two celestial constellations near the 
north pole, commonly called Ursa Major and 
Minor. Virg. G. 1. 

Arcturus, a star near the tail of the Great 
Bear, whose rising and setting were generally 
supposed to portend great tempests. Horat. 3, 
od. 1. The name is derived from its situation, 
a()KTos ursus, ovpa cauda. It rises now about the 
beginning of October ; and Pliny tells us it rose 
in his age on the 12th, or, according to Colu- 
mella, on the 5th of September. 

Ardys, a son of Gyges, king of Lydia, who 
reigned 49 years, took Priene,. and made war 
against Miletus. Herodot. 1, c. 15. 

Areas, a general chosen by the Greeks 
against iEtolia. Justin. 24, c. 1. 

Areius, the Platonist, was a man of equal 
worth and knowledge with Athenodorus, but 
he professed a milder philosophy, and one which 
was more adapted to the temper of the times. 
Though a native of Alexandria, he had escaped 
the moral contagion of that licentious town. 
When Egypt was subdued by Augustus, the 
conqueror entered Alexandria, holding Areius 
by the hand ; and, in the harangue which he 
delivered to the inhabitants fro'm his tribunal, 
informed them that he spared their town partly 
for the sake of Areius, his own friend and their 
fellow-citizen. Yet, mild as were the temper 
and philosophy of this Platonist, he strongly 
urged Augustus to destroy Caesario, the reputed 
son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, fortifying 
his opinion by a line in Homer : — 

'OtiK ayaQov iroXvKoipavij] etj KOipavoi £S"a) — 

which Areius thus converted : — 

'OvK dyadov 7ro\vKaiaappr]' tig "K-Ocaapoi £S*w. 

When Augustus returned from Egypt, Areius 
followed him to Rome. The empress Livia, in 
the commencement of her grief for the loss of 
her son Drusus, admitted him as a visiter, and 
acknowledged that her sorrows were much as- 
suaged by the topics of consolation which he 
suggested. He was also patronised by Maece- 
nas, in whose house he frequently resided. 
Dunlop. 

Arellius, a celebrated painter of Rome, in the 
age of Augustus. He painted the goddesses in 
the form of his mistresses. Plin. 35, c. 10. 

AREOPAGiTiE, the judges of the Areopagus, a 
seat of justice on a small eminence near Athens, 
whose name is derived from apcog rrayog, the kill 
of Mars. The time in which this celebrated 
seat of justice was instituted is unknown. 
Some suppose that Cecrops, the founder of 
Athens, first established it ; while others give 
the credit of it to Cranaus, and others to Solon. 
The number of judges that composed this au- 
gust assembly is not known. They have been 
limited by some to 9, to 31, to 51, and some- 
357 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



times to a greater number. The most worthy 
and religious of the Athenians were admitted as 
members, and such archons as had discharged 
their duty with care and faithfulness. If any 
of them were convicted of immorality, if they 
had used any indecent language, they were im- 
mediately expelled from the assembly, and held 
in the greatest disgrace, though the dignity of a 
judge of the Areopagus always was for life. 
The Areopagites took cognizance of murders, 
impiety, and immoral behaviour ; and particu- 
larly of idleness, which they deemed the cause 
of all vice. They watched over the laws, and 
they had the management of the public treasu- 
ry ; they had the liberty of rewarding the vir- 
tuous, and of inflicting severe punishment upon 
such as blasphemed against the gods, or slighted 
the celebration of the holy mysteries. They al- 
ways sat in the open air, because they took cog- 
nizance of murder ; and by their laws it was 
not permitted for the murderer and his accuser 
to be both under the same roof. This custom 
also might originate because the persons of the 
judges were sacred, and they were afraid of con- 
tracting pollution by conversing in the same 
house with men who had been guilty of shedding 
innocent blood. They always heard causes and 
passed sentence in the night, that they might 
not be prepossessed in favour of the plaintifl" or 
of the defendant by seeing them. Whatever 
causes were pleaded before them, were to be 
divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest 
eloquence should charm their ears and corrupt 
their judgment. Hence arose the most just and 
most impartial decisions, and their sentence was 
deemed sacred and inviolable, and the plaintiff 
and defendant were equally convinced of its 
justice. The Areopagites generally sat on the 
27th, 28th, and 29th day of every month. Their 
authority continued in its original state till 
Pericles, who was refused admittance among 
them, resolved to lessen their consequence and 
destroy their power. From that time, the morals 
of the Athenians were corrupted, and the Areo- 
pagites were no longer conspicuous for their 
virtue and justice ; and when they censured the 
debaucheries of Demetrius, one of the family of 
Phalereus, he plainly told them, that if they 
wished to make a reform in Athens, they must 
begin at home. 

_ Areta, a daughter of Dionysius, who mar- 
ried Dion. She was thrown into the sea. Plut. 
in Dion. 

Aret^us, a physician of Cappadocia, very 
inquisitive after the operations of nature. His 
treatise on agues has been much admired. The 
best edition of his works which are extant, is 
that of Boerhaave, L. Bat. fol. 1736. 

ARETAPfflLA, the wife of Melanippus, a priest 
of Cyrene. Nicocrates murdered her husband 
to marry her. She, however, was so attached 
to Melanippus, that she endeavoured to poison 
Nicocrates, and at last caused him to be assas- 
sinated by his brother Lysander, whom she mar- 
ried. Lysander proved as cruel as his brother, 
upon which Aretaphila ordered him to be thrown 
in the sea. After this she retired to a private 
station. Plut. de Virtut. Mulier.—Polyaan. 8, 
c. 38. 

Aretales, a Cnidian, who wrote a history 
of Macedonia, besides a treatise on Islands. 
Plut. 

358 



Areus, I. a king of Sparta, preferred ia the 
succession to Cleonymus, brother of Acrotatus, 
who had made an alliance with Pyrrhus. He 
assisted Athens when Antigonus besieged it, 

and died at Corinth. Paus. 3, c. 6. — PluL 

II. A king of Sparta, who succeeded his father 
Acrotatus 2d, and was succeeded by his son 
Leonidas, son of Cleonymus. 

ARGiEus, and Argeus, a son of Perdiccas, 
who succeeded his father in the kingdom of 
Macedonia. Justin. 7, c. 1. Vid. Part I. 

Argathonius, a king of Tartessus, who, ac- 
cording to Plin. 7, c. 48, lived 120 years, and 
300 according to Ital. 3, v. 396. 

Argia, daughter of Adrastus, married Poly- 
nices, whom she loved with uncommon tender- 
ness. When he was killed in the war, she 
buried his body in the night against the positive 
orders of Creon, for which pious action she was 
punished with death. Theseus revenged her 
death by killing Creon, Hygin. fab. 69 and 
12.— Stat. Theb. 12. 

Argilius, a favourite youth of Pausanias, 
who revealed his master's correspondence with 
the Persian king to the Ephori. C. Nep. in 
Paus. 

ARorog, a steward of Galba, who privately 
interred the body of his master in his gardens. 
Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 49. 

Aria, the wife of Paetus Cecinna, of Padua, 
a Roman senator who was accused of conspira- 
cy against Claudius, and carried to Rome by 
sea. She accompanied him, and in the boat she 
stabbed herself, and presented the sword to her 
husband, who followed her example, Plin. 7. 
Vid. Part I. 

Arijeus, an officer who succeeded to the 
command of the surviving army after the death 
of Cyrus the younger, after the battle of Cu- 
naxa. He made peace with Artaxerxes, Xe- 
noph. 

Ariamnes, a king of Cappadocia, son of 
Ariarathes 3d. 

Ariarathes, a king of Cappadocia, who 
joined Darius Ochus in his expedition against 

Egypt, where he acquired much glory. His 

nephew, the 2d of that name, defended his king- 
dom against Perdiccas, the general of Alexan- 
der ; but he was defeated and hung on a cross, 

in the 81st year of his age, 321 B. C. His 

son, Ariarathes the 3d, escaped the massacre, 
and after the death of Perdiccas recovered Cap- 
padocia, by conquering Amyntas, the Macedo- 
nian general. He was succeeded by his son 

Ariamnes. Ariarathes the4th, succeeded his 

father Ariamnes,and married Stratonice,daugh- 
ter of Antiochus Theos. He died after a reign 
of twenty-eight years, B. C. 220, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Ariarathes the 5th, a prince 
who married Antiochia, the daughter of king 
Antiochus, whom he assisted against the Ro- 
mans. Antiochus being defeated, Ariarathes 
saved his kingdom from invasion by paying the 
Romans a large sum of money remitted at the 

instance of the king of Pergamus. His son, 

the 6th of that name, called Philopater, from 
his piety, succeeded him 166 B. C. An alliance 
with the Romans shielded him against the false 
claims that were laid to his crown by one of 
the favourites of Demetrius, king of Syria. 
He was maintained on his throne by Attalus, 
and assisted his friends of Rome against Aris- 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



tonicus, the usurper of Pergamus ; but he was 
killed in the war B. C. 130, leaving six children, 
five of whom were mardered by his surviving 

wife Laodice. The only one who escaped, 

Ariarathes 7th, was proclaimed king, and soon 
after married Laodice, the sister of Mithridates 
Eupator, by whom he had two sons. He was 
murdered by an illegitimate brother, upon which 
his widow Laodice gave herself and kingdom 
to Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. Mithridates 
made war against the new king, and raised his 
nephew to the throne. The young king, who 
was the 8th of the name of Ariarathes, made 
war against the tyrannical Mithridates, by 
whom he was assassinated in the presence of 
both armies, and the murderer's son, a child 
eight years old, was placed on the vacant throne. 
The Cappadocians revolted, and made the late 
monarch's brother, Ariarathes 9th, king; but 
Mithridates expelled him, and restored his own 
son. The exiled prince died of a broken heart ; 
and Nicomedes of Bithynia, dreading the power 
of the tyrant, interested the Romans in the af- 
fairs of Cappadocia. The arbiters wished to 
make the country free ; but the Cappadocians 
demanded a king, and received Ariobarzanes, 
B. C. 9L On the death of Ariobarzanes, his 
brother ascended the throne, under the name 
of Ariarathes 10th; but his title was disputed 
by Sisenna, the eldest son of Glaphyra, by Ar- 
chelaus, priest of Comana. M, Antony, who 
was umpire between the contending parties, 
decided in favour of Sisenna; but Ariarathes 
recovered it for a while, though he was soon 
after obliged to yield in favour of Archelaus, 
the second son of Glaphyra, B. C. 36. Diod. 
IQ— Justin. 13 and 29.—Strab. 12. 

Aridjeus, I. a companion of Cyrus the yoimg- 
er. After the death of his friend, he recon ciled 
himself to Artaxerxes, by betraying to him the 

surviving Greeks in their return. Diod. II. 

An illegitimate son of Philip, who, after the 
death of Alexander, was made king of Macedo- 
nia, till Roxane, who was pregnant by Alexan- 
der, brought into the world a legitimate male 
successor. Aridseus had not the free enjoy- 
ment of his senses ; and therefore Perdiccas, 
one of Alexander's generals, declared himself 
his protector, and even married his sister, to 
strengthen their connexion. He was seven 
years in possession of the sovereign power, and 
was put to death, with his wife Eurydice, by 
Olympias. Justin. 9, c. 8. — Diod. 

Arimazes, a powerful prince of Sogdiana, 
who treated Alexander with much insolence, 
and even asked, whether he could fly, to aspire 
to so extensive a dominion. He surrendered, 
and was exposed on a cross with his friends and 
relations. Curt. 7, c. 11. 

Ariobarzanes, I. a man made king of Cap- 
-padocia by the Romans, after the troubles, 
which the false- Ariarathes had raised, had sub- 
sided. Mithridates drove him from his king- 
dom, but the Romans restored him. He fol- 
lowed the interest of Pompey, and fought at 
Pharsalia against J. Caesar. He and his king- 
dom were preserved by means of Cicero. Cic. 
5, ad Attic, ep. 29. — Horat. ep. 6, v. 38. — Flor. 

3, c. 5. II. A satrap of Phrygia, who, after 

the death of Mithridates, invaded the kingdom 
of Pontus, and kept it for twenty-six years. He 
was succeeded by the son of Mithridates. Diod. 



17. III. A general of Darius, who defended 

the passes of Susa with 15,000 foot against Alex- 
ander. After a bloody encounter with the Ma- 
cedonians, he was killed as he attempted to seize 
the city of Persepolis. Diod. 17. — Curt. 4 and 

5. IV. A Mede of elegant stature and great 

prudence, whom Tiberius appointed to settle 
the troubles of Armenia. Tacit. Ann. 2, c, 4. 

Ariojvundes, son of Gobryas, was general of 
Athens against the Persians. Plut. in Cim. 

Ariomardus, a son of Darius, in the army of 
Xerxes when he went against Greece. Hero- 
dot. 7, c. 78. 

Arion, a famous lyric poet and musician, son 
of Cylos, of Methymna, in the island of Lesbos. 
He went into Italy with Periander, tyrant of 
Corinth, where he obtained immense riches by 
his profession. Some time after he wished to 
revisit his country ; and the sailors of the ship 
in which he embarked resolved to murder him, 
to obtain the riches which he v>'as carrying to 
Lesbos. Arion begged that he might be per- 
mitted to play some melodious tune ; and as 
soon as he had finished it, he threw himself into 
the sea. A number of dolphins had been at- 
tracted round the ship by the sweetness of his 
music ; and it is said that one of them carried 
him safe on his back to Tasnarus, whence he 
hastened to the court of Periander, who order- 
ed all the sailors to be crucified at their return. 
Hijgin. fab. Id4:.—Herodot. 1, c. 23 and 24.— 
JElian. de Nat. An. 13, c. 45. — Ital. 11. — Pro' 
pert. 2, el. 26, v. 11.— Plut. in Symp. Vid. 
Part III. 

Ariovistus, a king of Germany, who pro- 
fessed himself a friend of Rome. When Caesar 
was in Gaul, Ariovistus marched against him, 
and was conquered with the loss of 80,000 men. 
Cass, in Bell. Gall. — Tacit. 4. Hist. 

Arist^netus, a writer whose epistles have 
been beautifully edited by Abresch. Zwollae, 
1749. 

Aristagoras, I, a writer who composed a 

history of Egypt. Plin. 36, c. 12. II. A 

son-in-law of Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus, who 
revolted from Darius, and incited the Athenians 
against Persia, and burnt Sardis. This so ex- 
asperated the king, that every evening before 
supper, he ordered his servants to remind him 
of punishing Aristagoras. He was killed in a 
battle against the Persians, B. C. 499. Hero- 
dot. 5, c. 30, &c. 1. 7, c. Q.—Polycen. 1, c. 14. 

ARiSTARcmjs, I. a celebrated grammarian of 
Samos, disciple of Aristophanes. He lived the 
greatest part of his life at Alexandria, and Pto- 
lemy Philometor intrusted him with the educa- 
tion of his sons. He was famous for his criti- 
cal powers, and he revised the poems of Homer 
with such severit}'-, that ever after all severe cri- 
tics were called Aristarchi. He wrote above 
800 commentaries on difierent authors, much 
esteemed in his age. In his old age he became 
dropsical, upon which he starved himself, and 
died in his 72d year, B. C. 157. He left two 
sons, called Aristarchus and Aristagoras, both 
famous for their stupidity. Horat. de Art. poet. 
V. 499.— Oui^. 3, ex Pont. ep. 9, v. 24.— C?c. 
ad Fam. 3, ep. 11. ad Attic. 1, ep. l^.— Quin- 

til. 10, c. 1. II. A tragic poet of Tegea in 

Arcadia, about 454 years B. C. He composed 

70 tragedies, of which two only were rewarded 

with the prize. One of them, called Achilles, 

359 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. • 



AR 



was translated into Latin verse by Ennius. 

Suidas. III. An astronomer of Samos, who 

first supposed that the earth turned round its 
axis, and revolved round the sun. This doc- 
trine nearly proved fatal to him, as he was ac- 
cused of disturbing the peace of the gods Lares. 
He maintained that the sun was nineteen times 
further distant from the earth than the moon, 
and that the moon was 56 semi-diameters of our 
globe, and little more than one third, and the 
diameter of the sun six or seven times more 
than that of the earth. The age in which he 
flourished is not precisely known. His treatise 
on the largeness and the distance of the sun 
and moon is extant, of which the best edition is 
that of Oxford, 8vo. 1688. 

Aristeas, a poet of Proconnesus, who, as 
fables report, appeared seven years after his 
death to his countrymen, and 540 years after to 
the people of Metapontum in Italy, and com- 
manded them to raise him a statue near the 
temple of Apollo. He wrote an epic poem on 
the Arimaspi in three books, and some of his 
verses are quoted by Longinus. HerodoL 4, 
c. n.—Strab.U—Max. Tyr.^2. 

Aristides, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of 
Lysimachus, whose great temperance and virtue 
procured him the surname of Just. He was 
rival to Themistocle?, by whose influence he 
was banished for ten years, B. C. 484 ; but be- 
fore six years of his exile had elapsed, he was 
recalled by the Athenians. He was at the bat- 
tle of Salamis, and was appointed chief com- 
mander with Pausanias against Mardonius, 
who was defeated at Platsea. He died so poor, 
that the expenses of his funeral were defrayed 
at the public charge ; and his two daughters, 
on account of their father's virtues, received a 
dowry from the public treasury when they were 
come to marriageable years. Poverty, however, 
seemed hereditary in the family of Aristides, for 
the grandson was seen in the public streets, get- 
ting his livelihood by explaining dreams. When 
he sat as judge, it is said that the plaintiff", in his 
accusation, mentioned the injuries his opponent 
had done to Aristides. "Mention the wrongs 
you have received," replied the equitable Athe- 
nian ; " I sit here as judge, and the lawsuit is 
yours, and not mine." C. Nep. <^ Plut. in 

vita. II. An historian of Miletus, fonder of 

stories and of anecdotes than of truth. He 
wrote a history of Italy, of which the fortieth 

volume has been quoted lay Pliut. in Parall. 

III. A painter of Thebes in Boeotia, in the age 
of Alexander the Great, for one of whose pieces 
Attains offered 6000 sesterces. Plin. 7 and 35. 

IV. A Greek orator, who wrote 50 orations. 

When Smyrna was destroyed by an earthquake, 
he wrote so pathetic a letter to M. Aurelius, 
that the emperor ordered the city immediately 
to be rebuilt, and a statue was in consequence 
raised to the orator. His works consist of hymns 
in prose in honour of the gods, funeral orations, 
apologues, panegyrics, and harangues; the best 
edition of which is that of Jebb, 2 vols. 4to. Oxon. 
1722, and that in a smaller size, in 12mo. 3 vols. 

of Canterus apud P. Steph. 1604. V. A man 

of Locris, who died by the bite of a weazel. 
jElian. V. H. 14. 

Aristh-lus, a philosopher of the Alexandrian 
school, who, about 300 years B. C, attempted, 
with Timocharis, to determine the place of the 
360 



different stars in the heavens, and to trace the 
course of the planets. . 

Artstio, a sophist of Athens, who, by the sup- 
port of Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, 
seized the government of his country, and made 
himself absolute. He poisoned himself when., 
defeated by Sylla. Liv. 81, 82. 

Aristippus, I. the elder, a philosopher of Gy- 
rene, disciple to Socrates, and founder of the 
Cyrenaic sect. He was one of the flatterers of 
Dionysius of Sicily, and distinguished himself 
fur his epicurean voluptuousness, in support of 
which he wrote a book, as likewise a history 
of Libya. When travelling in the deserts of 
Africa, he ordered his servants to throw away 
the money they carried, as too burdensome. 
On another occasion, discovering that the ship 
in which he sailed belonged to pirates, he de- 
signedly threw his property into the sea, adding, 
that he chose rather to lose it than his life. 
Many of his sayings and maxims are recorded 
by Diogenes, in his life. Homer. 2, Sat. 3, v. 

100. II. His grandson of the same name, 

called the younger, was a warm defender of his 
opinions, and supported that the principles of 
all things were pain and pleasure. He flou- 
rished about 363 years B. C. III. A tyrant 

of Argos, whose life was one continued series 
of apprehension. He was killed by a Cretan, 
in a battle against Aratus, B. C. 242. Diog. 

Aristoclea, a beautiful woman, seen naked 
by Strabo, as she was offering a sacrifice. She 
was passionately loved by Callisthenes, and 
was equally admired by Strabo. The two rivals 
so furiously contended for her hand, that she 
died during their quarrel; upon which Strabo 
killed himself, and Callisthenes was never seen 
after. Plut. in Amat. 

Aristocles, a peripatetic philosopher of Mes- 
senia, who reviewed, in a treatise on philoso- 
phy, the opinions of his predecessors. The 
14th book of this treatise is quoted, &c. He 
also wrote on rhetoric, and likewise nine books 
on morals. 

Aristoclides, a tyrant of Orchomenus, who, 
because he could not win the affection of Stym- 
phalis, killed her and her father; upon which 
all Arcadia took up arms, and destroyed the 
murderer. 

Aristocrates, I. a king of Arcadia, put to 
death by his subjects for offering violence to the 

priestess of Diana. Paus. 8, c. 5. II. His 

grandson of the same name was stoned to death 
for taking bribes, during the second Messenian 
war, and being the cause of the defeat of his 
Messenian allies, B. C. 682. Id. ibid. — -III. 
A Greek historian, son of Hipparchus. Plut. 
in L/yc. 

Aristodemus, I. son of Aristomachus, was 
one of the Heraclidae. He, with his brothers 
Temenus and Cresphontes, invaded Pelopon- 
nesus, conquered it, and divided the country 
among themselves, 1104 years before the Chris- 
tian era. He married Argia, by whom he had 
the twins Procles and Eurvsthenes. He was 
killed by a thunderbolt at Naupactum, though 
some say he died at Delphi in Phocis. Paus. 
2, c. 18, 1.3, c. 1 and \Q.—Herodot. 7, c. 204, 1. 

8, c. 131. II. A king of Messenia, who 

maintained a famous war against Sparta. After 
some losses, he recovered his strength, and ef- 
fectually defeated the enemy's forces. Aristo- 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



demus put his daughter to death for the good of 
his country. Being afterwards persecuted in a 
dream by her manes, he killed himself, after a 
reign of six years and some months, in which 
he nad obtained much military glory, B. C. 724. 
His death was lamented by his countrymen, 
M^ho did not appoint him a successor, but only 
invested Dauiis, one of his friends, with abso- 
lute power to continue the war, which was at 
last terminated, after much bloodshed and many 

losses on both sides. Paus. in Mes&en. III. 

A Spartan, who taught the children of Pausa- 

nias. IV. A man who was preceptor to the 

children of Pompey. 

Aristogenes, I. a physician of Cnidos, who 
obtained great reputation by the cure of Deme- 
trius Gonatas, king of Macedonia. II. A 

Thrasian who wrote 24 books on medicine. 

Aristogiton and Harmodhjs, two celebrated 
friends of Athens, who, by their joint efforts, 
delivered their country from the tyranny of the 
Pisistratida;, B.C. 510. They received immor- 
tal honours from the Athenians, and had sta- 
tues raised to their memory. These statues 
were carried away by Xerxes, when he took 
Athens. The conspiracy of Aristogiton was so 
secretly planned, and so wisely carried into exe- 
cution, that it is said a courtesan bit her tongue 
off not to betray the trust reposed in her. Paus. 
I, c. 'il^.—Herodot. 5, c. bb.—Plut. de 10, Or at. 

An Athenian orator, surnamed Canis, for 

his impudence. He wrote orations against 
Timarchus, Timotheus, Hyperides, and Thra- 
syllus. Paus. 

Aristomachus, I. the son of Cleodfeas, and 
grandson of Hyllas, whose three sons, Cres- 
phontes, Temenus, and Aristodemus, called 
Heraclidas, conquered Peloponnesus. Paus. 2, 

c. 7, 1. 3, c. Ib.—Herodot. 6, 7 and 8. II. A 

man who laid aside his sovereign power at Ar- 
gos, at the persuasion of Aratus. Paus. 2, c. 8. 

Aristcmenes, I. a commander of the fleet 
of Darius on the Hellespont, conquered by the 

Macedonians. Curt. 4. c. 1. II. A famous 

general of Messenia, who encouraged his coun- 
trymen to shake off the Lacedaemonian yoke, 
imder which they had laboured for above 30 
years. He once defended the virtue of some 
Spartan women, whom his soldiers had attempt- 
ed ; and when he was taken prisoner and car- 
ried to Sparta, the women whom he had pro- 
tected interested themselves so warmly in his 
cause that they procured his liberty. He refus- 
ed to assume the title of king, but was satisfied 
with that of commander. He acquired the sur- 
name of Just, from his equity, to which he join- 
ed the true valour, sagacity and perseverance 
of a general. He often entered Sparta with- 
out being known, and was so dexterous in elud- 
ing the vigilance of the Lacedaemonians, who 
had taken him captive, that he twice escaped 
from them. As he attempted to do it a third 
time, he was unfortunately killed, and his body 
being opened, his heart was found all covered 
with hair. He died 671 years B. C. and it is 
said that he left dramatical pieces behind him. 
Diod. 15. — Paus. in Messen. 

Ariston, I. the son of Agasicles. king of 

Sparta. II. A tyrant of Methymna, who, 

being ignorant that Chios had surrendered to 
the Macedonians, entered into the harbour, 
aind was taken and put to death. Curt. 4 c. 9. 

Part II.— 2 Z 



III. A philosopher of Chios, pupil to Zeno 

the stoic, and founder of a sect which continued 
but a little while. He supported that the na- 
ture of the divinity is unintelligible. It is said 
that he died by the heat of the sun, which feU 
too powerfully upon his bald head. In his old 
age he was much given to sensuality. Diog. 

Aristonicus, I. son of Eumenes, by a concu- 
bine of Ephesus, 126 B. C. invaded Asia and 
ihe kingdom of Pergamus, which Attains had 
left by his will to the Roman people. He was 
conquered by the consul Perpenna, and stran- 
gled in prison. Justin. 36, c. 4 — Flor. 2, c. 20. 
11. A grammarian of Alexandria, who 



wrote a commentary on Hesiod and Homer, be- 
sides a treatise on the Musaeum established at 
Alexandria by the Ptolemies. 

Aristophanes, I. Of Aristophanes antiquity 
supplies us with few notices, and those of doubt- 
ful credit. The most likely account makes him 
the son of Philippus, a native of ^gina ; and 
therefore the comedian was an adopted, not a na- 
tural, citizen of Athens. The exact dates of his 
birth and death are equally unknown. At a very 
early period of his dramatic career Aristophanes 
directed his attention to the political situation 
and occurrences of Athens. His second record- 
ed comedy, the Babylonians, was aimed against 
Cleon, and his third, the Acharnians, turns 
upon the evils of the Peloponnesian war — then 
in its sixth year — and the advantage of a speedy 
peace. His talents and address soon gave him 
amazing influence with his countrymen ; as 
Cleon felt to his cost, the succeeding year on the 
representation of the Equites. The fame of 
Aristophanes was not confined. to his own city, 
Dionysius of Syracuse would gladly have ad- 
mitted the popular dramatist to his court and 
patronage ; but his invitations were steadily re- 
fused by the independent Athenian. In B. C. 
423, the sophists felt the weight of his lash, for 
in that year he produced,though unsuccessfully, 
his Nuies. The vulgar notion that the exhibi- 
tion of Socrates in this play was an intentional 
prelude to his capital accusation in the criminal 
court, and that Aristophanes was the leagued 
accomplice of Melitus,has of late been frequent- 
ly and satisfactorily refuted. The simple con- 
sideration that twenty-four years intervened 
between the representation of the Nubes and 
the trial of Socrates, affords a sufficient answer 
to any such charge. In fact, after the perform- 
ance of this very comedy, we find Socrates and 
Aristophanes become acquainted, and occa- 
sionally meeting together on the best terms. 
An imperfect knowledge of Socrates at the 
time, his reputed doctrines, and his constantly 
consorting with notorious sophists, along with 
the marked singularity of his face, figure, and 
manners,so well adapted to comic mimicry, were 
doubtless the main reasons for the selection of 
him as the sophistic Coryphaeus. In the Peace 
and the lyysistrata Aristophanes again reverts 
to politics and the Peloponnesian war: in the 
Wasps, the Birds, and the EcclesicBzusce, he 
takes cognizance of the internal concerns of the 
state ; in the Tkesmophoriazusa, and the RaneE^ 
he attacks Euripides and discusses the drama; 
whilst in the Ptutnis he presents us with a 
specimen of the Middle Comedy. Eleven of 
his comedies are still extant out of upwards of 
sixty. Aristophanes, during the whole of his 
361 



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HISTORY, &c. 



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career, had a numerous body of rival com- 
edians to oppose. Ecphantides, Pisander, Cal- 
lias, Hermippus, Myrtilus, Lysimachus, Lycis, 
Zjeucon, and Paiitacles, besides the more cele- 
brated writers whom we have noticed above, 
were a little his seniors ; Aristomeiies, Amcip- 
sias, Teleclides, Pherecrates, Plato, Diodes, 
Sannyrio, Philyllius, PMlonides, Stratiis, and 
Theopompus, with several others, to the number 
of thirty in all, were somewhat his juniors ; 
with most of whom Aristophanes had to con- 
tend in the course of his dramatic exhibitions. 
Of these poets little is left us beyond their names 
and a few isolated fragments. Yet Plato, Phe- 
recrates, and Philonides were men of superior 
talent. With Theopompus, who flourished 
B. C. 386, closes the list of the Old Come- 
dians. Although among the extant works of 
Aristophanes we have some of his earliest, yet 
all bear the marks of equal maturity. But he 
had long been preparing himself in silence for 
the exercise of his art, which he represents to 
be the most difficult of all art ; nay out of mo- 
desty, (or according to his own expression, like 
a young girl who having given birth to a child 
in secret, intrusts it to the care of another,) he 
at first had his labours brought out under an- 
other person's name. He first appeared in his 
own character, in his Knights; and here he 
maintained the boldness of a comedian in full 
measure, by hazarding a capital attack on the 
popular opinion. Its object was nothing less 
than the ruin of Cleon, who, after Pericles, 
stood at the head of all state affairs, who was a 
promoter of the war, a worthless vulgar person, 
but the idol of the infatuated people. His only 
adversaries were those more wealthy men of 
property, who formed the class of Knights: 
these Aristophanes blends with his party in the 
strongest manner, by making them his chorus. 
He had the prudence no where to name Cleon, 
but merely to describe him, so that he could not 
be mistaken. Yet, from fear of Cleon's faction, 
no mask-maker dared to make a copy of his face; 
the poet therefore resolved to play the part him- 
self, merely painting his face. It may be con- 
ceived what tumults the performance excited 
among the collected populace ; yet the bold and 
skilful efforts of the poet were crowned with 
success, and his piece gained the prize. Scarcely 
any of his comedies is more political and histo- 
rical ; it is also almost irresistibly powerful as a 
piece of rhetoric to excite indignation : it is truly 
a philippic drama. It is only after the storm 
of jeering sarcasms has wasted its fury, that 
droller scenes follow ; and droll scenes they are 
indeed, where the two demagogues, the leather- 
cutter (that is to say, Cleon,) and his antagonist 
the sausage-maker, by adulation, by prophecies, 
and by dainties, vie with each other in wooing 
the favour of the old dotard Demos, the personi- 
fication of the people ; and the play ends with 
a triumph almost touchingly joyous, where the 
scene changes from the Pnyx, the place of the 
popular assemblies, to the majestic Propylsea; 
and Demos,wondrously restored to youth, comes 
forward in the garb of the old Athenians, and, 
together with his youthful vigour, has recovered 
the old feelings of the times of Marathon. With 
the exception of this attack on Cleon, and of 
those on Euripides, whom he frequently singles 
out, the other plays of Aristophanes are not so 
362 



exclusively directed against individuals. They 
have, for the most part, a general, and often a 
very important aim, of which, notwithstanding 
all his roundabout ways — his extravagant di- 
gressions, and heterogeneous interpolations, the 
poet never loses sight. The Peace, the Achar- 
nians and Lysistrata, under various turns of ex- 
pression, recommend peace; the Ecclesiazusoe, 
the Thesmophoriazusoe, and again the Lysis- 
trata, besides their other purposes, are satires on 
the conditions and manners of the female sex. 
The Clouds ridicule the metaphysics of the so- 
phists ; the Wasps, the mania of the Athenians 
for lawsuits and trials ; the Frogs treat of the 
decline of tragic art ; Plutus is an allegory on 
the unequal distribution of wealth ; the Birds 
are seemingly the most purposeless of all, and 
for that very reason one of the most delightful. 
The Peace begins in an extremely sprightly and 
lively manner : the peace-loving Trygaeus riding 
to heaven on the back of a dung-beetle, in the 
manner of Bellerophon: War, a wild giant, 
who, with his comrade Riot, is the sole inhabit- 
ant of Olympus, in place of all the other gods, 
and is pounding the cities in a huge mortar, in 
which operation he uses the most famous gene- 
rals as his pestles ; the goddess of peace buried 
in a deep w^ell, whence she is hauled up with 
ropes by the united exertions of all the Greek 
nations : all these inventions, which are alike 
ingenious and fantastic, are calculated to pro- 
duce the most pleasant effect. But afterwards 
the poetry does not maintain an equal elevation : 
nothing more remains but to sacrifice and make 
feasts to the restored goddess of peace, while 
the pressing visits of such persons as found their 
advantage in the war, form indeed a pleasant en- 
tertainment, though not a satisfactory conclusion 
after a beginning of so much promise. ' We 
have here one example, among several others, 
which shows that the old comedians not only 
altered the scenes in the intervals, while the 
stage was empty, but even when an actor was 
still in sight. The scene here changes from a 
spot in Attica to Olympus, while Trygaeus on 
his beetle hangs aloft in air, and calls out to the 
machine-manager to take care that he does not 
break his neck. His subsequent descent into 
the orchestra denotes his return to earth. The 
liberties taken by the tragedians, according as 
their subject might require it, in respect of the 
unities of place and time, on which the moderns 
lay so foolish a stress, might be overlooked : the 
boldness with which the old comedian subjects 
these mere externalities to his humorous caprice 
is so striking, as to force itself on the most short- 
sighted : and yet, in none of the treatises on the 
constitution of the Greek stage has it been pro- 
perly noticed. The Acharnians, a play of an 
earlier date, seems to us much more excellent 
than the Peace, for the continual progress and 
the ever-heightening wit, which at last ends in 
a really bacchanalian revelry. Dicseopolis, the 
honest citizen, enraged at the false pretexts with 
which the people are put off, and all terms of 
peace thwarted, sends an embassy to Lacedas- 
mon, and concludes a separate peace for himself 
and his family. Now he returns into the coun- 
try, and, in spite of all disturbances, makes an 
enclosure before his house, Avithin which there 
is peace and free market for the neighbouring 
people, while the rest of the country is harassed 



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HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



by the war. The blessings of peace are exhi- 
bited in the most palpable manner for hungry- 
maws ; the fat Boeotian brings his eels and poul- 
try for barter, and nothing is thought of but 
feasting and revelling. Lamachus, the famous 
general, who lives on the other side, is sum- 
moned, by a sudden attack of the enemy, to the 
defence of the frontier; while Dicaeopolis is 
invited by his neighbours to partake of a feast, 
to which each brings his contribution. The 
preparations of arms, and the preparations in 
the kitchen, now go on with equal diligence 
and despatch on both sides: here they fetch the 
lance, there the spit ; here the armour, there the 
wine-can ; here they fasten the crest on the hel- 
met, there they pluck thrushes. Shortly after- 
wards, Lamachus; returns with broken head and 
crippled foot, supported by two comrades ; on 
the other side, Dicoeopolis, drunk, and led by 
two good-natured damsels. The lamentations 
of the one are continually mimicked and derid- 
ed by the exultations of the other, and with this 
contrast, which is carried to the very highest 
point, the play ends. The Lysistrata bears so 
evil a character, that we must make but fugitive 
mention of it, like persons passing over hot en>- 
bers. The women, according to the poet's in- 
vention, have taken it into their heads, by a 
severe resolution, to compel their husbands to 
make peace. Under the guidance of their 
clever chieftain, they organize a conspiracy for 
this end through all Greece, and at the same 
time get possession, in Athens, of the fortified 
Acropolis. The terrible plight into which the 
husbands are reduced by this separation, occa- 
sions the most ridiculous scenes; ambassadors 
come from both the belligerent parties, and the 
peace is concluded with the greatest despatch un- 
der the direction of the clever Lysistrata, In 
spite of all the bold indecencies which the play 
contains, its purpose, divested of these, is, on the 
■whole, very innocent ; the longing for the plea- 
sures of domestic life, which were so often inter- 
rupted by the absence of the men, is to put an 
end to this unhappy war which was ruining all 
Greece. The honest coarseness of the Lace- 
daemonians, in particular, is inimitably well 
portrayed. The Ecclesiazusse ; also a govern- 
ment of women, but much more corrupt than the 
former. The women, disguised as men, steal in- 
to the assembly, and by means of this surreptiti- 
ous majority,ordain a new constitution, in which 
there is to be a community of goods and wives. 
This is a satire upon the ideal republics of the 
philosophers with laws like these ; such as Pro- 
tagoras had projected before Plato's time. This 
play, in our opinion, labours under the same 
faults as the Peace : the introduction, the private 
assembly of the women, the description of the 
assembly, are all treated in a masterly style ; but 
towards the middle it comes to a stand-still. 
Nothing remains but to show the confusion aris- 
ing from the different communities, especially 
from the community of women, and the appoint- 
ment of the same rights in love for the old and 
ngly, as for the young and beautiful. This con- 
fusion is pleasant enough, but it turns too much 
upon one continually repeated joke. The old 
allegoric comedy, in general, is exposed to the 
danger of sinking in its progress. When a per- 
son begins with turning the world upside down, 
of course the strangest individual incidents will 



result, but they are apt to appear petty compared 
with the decisive strokes of witin thecommence- 
ment. The play called the Thesmophoriazusae, 
has a proper intrigue, a knot which is not untied 
till quite at the end, and in this it possesses a 
great advantage. Euripides, on account of the 
well-known misogyny of his tragedies, is accus- 
ed and sentenced to condign punishment at the 
festival of the Thesmophoria, at which women 
al.one might be present. After a vain attempt 
to excite the effeminate poet Agathon to such 
an adventure,Euripides disguises his brother-in- 
law Mnesilochus, a man now advanced in years, 
in the garb of a woman, that in this shape he 
may plead his cause. The manner in which he 
does this, renders him suspected, it is discovered 
that he is a man ; he flees to an altar, and for 
greater security against their persecution, he 
snatches a child from the arms of a woman, and 
threatens to kill it if they do not let him alone. 
As he is about to throttle it, it turns out to be 
only a wine-skin dressed up in child's clothes. 
Then comes Euripides under various forms to 
rescue his friend ; now he is Menelaus, who 
finds his wife Helen in Egypt ; now Echo, help- 
ing the chained Andromache lo complain ; now 
Perseus, about to release her from her bonds. 
At last he frees Mnesilochus, who is fastened 
to a kind of pillory, by disguising himself as a 
procuress, and enticing away the officer, a sim- 
ple barbarian, who is guarding him, ^ by the 
charms of a flute-playing girl. These parodied 
scenes, composed almost in the very words of 
the tragedies, are inimitable. Everywhere in 
this poet, the instant Euripides comes into play, 
we may lay our account with finding the clever- 
est and most cutting ridicule : as though the 
mind of Aristophanes possessed quite a specific 
talent for decomposing the poetry of this trage- 
dian into comedy. The play of the Clouds is 
very well known, but for the most part has not 
been properly understood and appreciated. It is ^ 
intended to show, that the propensity to philos- 
ophical subtilties, the martial exercises of the 
Athenians were neglected, that speculation only 
serves to shake the foundations of religion and 
morality, that by sophistical slight, in particu- 
lar, all justice was turned into quibbles, and the 
weaker cause often enabled to come off victo- 
rious. The Clouds, themselves, who form the 
chorus, (for such beings the poet personifi- 
ed, and, no doubt dressed them out strangely 
enough) are an allegory on these metaphysical 
thoughts, which do not rest on the ground of 
experience, but hover about without definite 
form and substance, in the region of possibilities. 
It is one of the principal forms of Aristophanic 
wit, in general, to take a metaphor in the literal 
sense, and so place it before the eyes of the spec- 
tators. Thus, it is said of a person who has a 
propensity to idle, unintelligible dreams, that he 
walks in air, and here, therefore, Socrates at 
his first appearance descends from the air in his 
basket. Whether this description be directly ap- 
plicable to him is another question : but we have 
reason to believe, that the philosophy of Socrates 
was very idealistic, and not so much confined to 
popular usefulness as Xenophon would havens 
believe. But why did Aristophanes imbody 
the metaphysics of the sophists in the person of 
Socrates, himself, in fact, a decided antagonist 
of the sophists 1 Perhaps there was some per- 
363 



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HISTORY, &c. 



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sonal dislike at the bottom ; we must not attempt 
to justify him on this score, but the choice of the 
name does not at all prejudice the excellence of 
the fiction. Aristophanes declares this to be 
the most elaborate of all his works, though, in 
this expression indeed, he must not be exactly- 
taken at his word. He unhesitatingly allows 
himself on every occasion the most unbounded 
praises of himself ; this also seems to belong to 
the unrestrained license of comedy. The play 
of the Clouds, it may be added, was unfavour- 
ably received at its performance ; it was twice 
exhibited in competition for the prize, but with- 
out success. The play of the Frogs, as already 
mentioned, turns upon the decline of tragic art. 
Euripides was dead, so were Sophocles and 
Agathon; there remained none but second-rate 
tragedians. Bacchus misses Euripides, and 
wishes to fetch him backfrom the infernal world. 
In this he imitates Hercules, but though equip- 
ped with the lion-hide and club of that hero, he 
is very unlike him in character, and as a das- 
tardly voluptuary, gives rise to much laughter. 
Here we may see the boldness of the comedian 
in the right point of view ; he does not scruple 
to attack the guardian god of his own art, in ho- 
nour of whom the play was exhibited. It was 
the common belief that the gods understood fun 
as well, if not better, than men. Bacchus rows 
himself over the Acherusian lake, where the 
frogs pleasantly greet him with their unmelodi- 
ous croaking. The proper chorus, however, 
consists of the shades of the initiated in the 
Eleusinian Mysteries, and odes of wonderful 
Deauty are assigned to them. iEschylus had at 
first assumed the tragic throne in the lower 
world, but now Euripides is for thrusting him 
oflf it. Pluto proposes that Bacchus should de- 
cide this great contest ; the two poets, the sub- 
limely wrathful iEschylus, the subtle, vain 
Euripides, stand opposite each other and sub- 
mit specimens of their art ; they sing, they de- 
claim against each other, and all their features 
are characterized in masterly style. At last a 
balance is brought, on which each lays a verse ; 
but let Euripides take what pains he will to pro- 
duce his most ponderous lines, a verse of JEs- 
chylus instantly jerks up the scale of his antag- 
onist. A-t last he grows weary of the contest, 
and tells Euripides he may mount into the bal- 
ance himself with all his works, his wife, chil- 
dren, and Cephisophon, and he will lay against 
them only two verses. Bacchus, in the mean- 
time, has come over to the cause of ^schy- 
lus, and though he had sworn to Euripides that 
he would take him back with him from the 
lower world, he despatches him with an allu- 
sion to his own verse from the Hippolytus : — 

.ffischylus, therefore, returns to the living world, 
and resigns the tragic throne to Sophocles du- 
ring his absence. The observation which was 
made concerning the changes of scene in the 
Peace, may be repeated of the Frogs. The 
scene at first lies in Thebes, of which place both 
Bacchus and Hercules were natives. After- 
wards the stage, though Bacchus had not left it, 
is transformed at once into the hither shore of 
the Acherusian lake, which was represented by 
the sunken space of the orchestra, and it was 
not till Bacchus landed on the other end of the 
364 



Logeum, that the scenery represented the infer- 
nal regions, with the palace of Pluto in the back- 
ground. Let not this be taken for mere conjec- 
ture ; the ancient Scholiast testifies as much ex- 
pressly. The Wasps appears to be the weakest 
of Aristophanes' plays. The subject is too con- 
fined, the folly exhibited appears as a singular 
weakness without any satisfactory general sig- 
nificance, and in the treatment it is too long 
spun out. In this instance, the poet himself 
speaks modestly of his means of entertainment, 
and will not promise unbounded laughter. On 
the contrary, the Birds sparkles with the boldest 
and richest imagination in the province of the 
fantastically marvellous : it is a merry, buoyant 
creation, bright with the gayest plumage. I 
cannot agree with the ancient critic, who con- 
ceives the main purport of the work to consist in 
the most universal, and most unreserved satire 
on the corruption of the Athenian state, nay, of 
all human constitutions in general. Rather say, 
that it is a piece of the most harmless buffbonry. 
which has a touch at everything, gods as well as 
man, but without any where pressing towards 
any particular object. All that was remarkable 
in the stories about birds in natural history, in 
mythology, in the lore of augury, in jfEsop's Fa- 
bles, or even in proverbial expressions, the poet 
has ingeniously blended in this poem ; he even 
goes back as far as the Cosmogony, and shows 
how at first black-winged Night laid a wind-egg, 
whence lovely Eros, with golden pinions (doubt- 
lessly a bird) soared aloft, and then gave birth 
to all things. Two fugitives of the human 
species find their way into the domain of the 
birds,who are determined to revenge themselves 
on them for the many hostilities they have suf- 
fered from man ; the captives save themselves 
by proving clearly, that the birds are pre-emi- 
nent above all creatures, and advise them to 
collect their scattered powers into one enormous 
state; thus the wondrous city. Cloud-cuckoo- 
town {'N£<p£\oKOKKvyia,) is built abovc the earth ; 
all sorts of unbidden guests, priests, poets, 
soothsayers, geometers, lawgivers, sycophants, 
wish to feather their nests in the new state, but 
are bid go their ways, new gods are ordained, 
of course after the image of birds, as mankind 
conceive theirs as human beings ; the frontier 
of Olympus is walled up against the old gods, 
so that no savour of sacrifice can reach them, 
whereby they are brought into great distress, 
and send an embassy, consisting of the vora- 
cious Hercules, Neptune, (who after the usual 
fashion among men, swears " By Neptune !") 
and a Thracian god who cannot talk Greek in 
the most correct fashion, but discourses gibber- 
ish ; these, however, are compelled to put up 
with whatever terms the birds please to offer, 
and they leave to the birds the sovereignty of 
the world . However like a farcical tale all this 
may seem, it has a philosophical significance ; 
it casts a bird's-eye glance, as it were, on the 
sum of all things, which, once in a way, is all 
very proper, considering that most of our con- 
ceptions are true only for a human point of 
view. The ancient critics judged Cratinus to 
be strong in keen, straight-forward satire, but 
to be deficient in pleasantry and humour ; nei- 
ther, say they, had he skill to develop a strik- 
ing plot to the best advantage, nor to fill up his 
plays with the proper detail. Eupolis, they say, 



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HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



was pleasing in his mirth, skilful in ingenious 
tarns of meaning, so that he had no need of 
Parabases to say whatever he wished; but he 
wanted satiric power. Aristophanes, they add, 
in a happy medium, unites the excellences of 
both ; satire and mirth in his poem are most 
completely melted down into each other, and in 
the most attractive proportions. From these ac- 
counts, we are justified in assuming that of the 
plays of Aristophanes, that of" The Knights," 
is most in the style of Cratinus ; " The Birds," 
in that of Eupolis ; and that he had their 
respective manners immediately in view when 
he composed these plays. For though he 
boasts of his independence and originality, and 
of his never borrowing any thing from others, 
yet there could not fail to be a reciprocal in- 
fluence at work among such distinguished 
contemporaries. If this conjecture be well 
groanded, we have perhaps to deplore the loss 
of the works of Cratinus, rather for their 
bearing on the history of Athenian manners 
and the insight which they would have afforded 
us inio the Athenian constitution ; and the loss 
of the works of Eupolis rather in respect of 
their comic form. The Plutus is the refashion- 
ment of an earlier work of Aristophanes, but 
in its extant form, one of his latest. In its es- 
sence it belongs to the Old Comedy, but in the 
sparingness of personal satire, and in the mild- 
ness which pervades it, it seems to verge to- 
wards the Middle Comedy. The older comedy, 
indeed, received its death-blow from a formal 
enactment, but even before that event it was 
perhaps every day more hazardous to exercise 
the democratic privilege of the old comedian in 
its full extent. We are even told, (but proba- 
bly only on conjecture, for others have denied 
the story,) that Alcibiades had Eupolis drown- 
ed, on account of a play which that poet had 
directed against him. Against such perils no 
. zeal in the cause of art will stand its ground : 
it is but fair that a person, whose calling it is to 
amuse his fellow-citizens, should at least be se- 
cure of his life. The best editions of the works 
of Aristophanes are, Kuster's, fol. Amst. 1710, 
and the 12mo. L. Bat. 1670, and that of 
Brunck. 4 vols. 8vo. Argent. 1783, which would 
still be more perfect did it contain the valuable 
scholia. Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Paterc. 1, c. 16. — 

Horat. 1, Sat. 4, v. 1, II, A grammarian of 

Byzantium, keeper of the library of Alexan- 
dria under Ptolemy Evergetes. 

Aristophon, I. a painter in the age of So- 
crates. He drew the picture of Alcibiades re- 
clining on the bosom of Nemea, and all the peo- 
ple of Athens ran in crowds to be spectators of 
the masterly piece. He also made a painting 
of Mars leaning on the arm of Venus. Pint. 

in Alc.—Athen.'n.—Pli7v. 35, c. 11. II. A. 

comic poet in the age of Alexander, many of 
whose fragments are collected in Athenaeus. 

Aristoteleia, festivals in honour of Aristo- 
tle, because he obtained the restitution of his 
country from Alexander. 

Aristoteles, a famous philosopher, son of 
the physician Nicomachus by Festiada, born 
at Stagira. After his father's death he went to 
Athens, to hear Plato's lectures, where he soon 
signalized himself by the brightness of his ge- 
nius. He had been of an inactive and disso- 
lute disposition in his youth, but now he appli- 



ed himself with uncommon diligence, and, after 
he had spent 20 years in hearing the instruc- 
tions of Plato, he opened a school for himself, 
for which he was accused of ingratitude and il- 
liberality by his ancient master. He was mo- 
derate in his meals ; he slept little, and always 
had one arm out of his couch with a bullet in it, 
which by falling into a brazen basin underneath, 
early awakened him. He was, according to 
some, ten years preceptor to Alexander, who 
received his instructions with much pleasure and 
deference, and always respected him. Almost 
all his writings, which are composed on a va- 
riety of subjects, are extant : he gave them to 
Theophrastus at his death, and they were bought 
by one of the Ptolemies, and placed in the fa- 
mous library of Alexandria. Diogenes Laertes 
has given us a very extensive catalogue of them, 
Aristotle had a deformed countenance, but his 
genius was a sufficient compensation for all his 
personal defects. He has been called by Plato 
the philosopher of truth ; and Cicero compli- 
ments him with the title of a man of eloquence, 
universal knowledge, readiness and acuteness of 
invention, and fecundity of thotight, Aristotle 
studied nature more than art,and had recourse to 
simplicity of expression more than ornament. 
He was so authoritative in his opinions, that, as 
Bacon observes, he wished to establish the same 
dominion over men's minds as his pupil over 
nations, Alexander, it is said, wished and en- 
couraged his learned tutor to write the history 
of animals ; and the more eifectually to assist 
him, he supplied him with 800 talents, and in 
his Asiatic expedition employed above a thou- 
sand men to collect animals, either in fishing, 
hunting,or hawking,which were carefully trans- 
mitted to the philosopher, Aristotle's logic has 
long reigned in the schools, and been regarded 
as the perfect model of all imitation. As he ex- 
pired, the philosopher is said to have uttered the 
following sentiment: Fmde hunc mundwni ^7^- 
Iravi, anxius vixi, perturbatus egredior, causa 
causarum miserere mei. The letter which 
Philip wrote to Aristotle has been preserved, 
and is in these words : " I inform you I have a 
son ; I thank the gods, not so much for making 
me a father, as for giving me a son in an age 
when he can have Aristotle for his instructer, 
I hope you will make him a successor worthy 
of me, and a king worthy of Macedonia." He 
died in the 63d year of his age. B. C. 322, His 
treatises have been published separately ; but 
the best edition of the works collectively, is that 
of Duval, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1629. Tyrrwhitt's 
edition of the Poetica, Oxon. 4to. 1794, is a va- 
luable acquisition to literature. He had a son, 
whom he called Nicomachus, by the courtesan 
Herpyllis. Some have said that he drowned 
himself in the Euripus, because he could not 
find out the cause of its flux and reflux. There 
are, however, different reports about the manner 
of his death, and some believe that he died at 
Athens of a colic, two years after Alexander's 
death. The people of Stagira instituted festi- 
vals in his honour, because he had rendered im- 
portant services to their city. Ding, in vita.-— 
Plut. in Alex, and de Alex. fort. &c. — Cic. 
Acad. Qucest. 4, de Orat. 3, de Finif>. 5. — 
Quintil. 1,2, 5, 10.— JElian. V. H. A.— Justin. 
12. — Justin. Martyr. — August, de Civ. Dei, 8. 
—Plin. 2,4, 5 &c.—Athen.— Val Max. 5, c. 6, 
365 



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HISTORY, &c. 



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&c. There were besides seven of the same 

name. 

Aristoxenus, a celebrated musician, disciple 
of Aristotle, and born at Tarentum. He wrote 
453 different treatises on philosophy, history, 
&c. and was disappointed in his expectations of 
succeeding in the school of Aristotle, for which 
he always spoke with ingratitude of his learned 
master. Of all his works, nothing remains but 
three books upon music, the most ancient on 
that subject extant. 

Arius, a celebrated writer, the origin of the 
Arian controversy that denied the eternal di- 
vinity and consubstantiality of the Word. 
Though he was greatly persecuted for his opi- 
nions, he gained the favour of the emperor Con- 
stantine, and triumphed over his powerful an- 
tagonist Athanasius. He died the very night 
he was going to enter the church of Constanti- 
nople in triumph. 

Armentarius, a Caesar in the reign of Dio- 
clesian. 

Armilustrium, a festival at Rome on the 
19th of October. When the sacrifices were 
offered, all the people appeared under arms. 
The festival has often been confounded with 
that of the Salii. It was instituted A. U. C. 
543. Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 3.—Liv. 27, c. 37. 

Arminius, a warlike general of the Ger- 
mans, who supported a bloody war against 
Rome for some time, and was at last conquered 
by Germanicus in two great battles. He was 
poisoned by one of his friends, A. D. 19, in the 
37th year of his age. Dio. 56. — Tacit. A7in. 1, 
&c. 

Arnobius, a philosopher in Dioclesian's reign, 
who became a convert to Christianity. He 
applied for ordination, but was refused by the 
bishops till he gave them a proof of his since- 
rity, tjpon this he wrote his celebrated treatise, 
in which he exposed the absurdity of irreligion, 
and ridiculed the heathen gods. Opinions are 
various concerning the purity of his style,though 
all agree in praise of his extensive erudition. 
The book that he wrote, de Rhetorica Institu- 
tione, is not extant. The best edition of his 
treatise Adversus Gentes is the 4to. printed L. 
Bat. 1651. 

Arrianus, I. a philosopher of Nicomedia, 
priest of Ceres and Proserpine, and disciple of 
Epictus, called a second Xenophon, from the 
elegance and sweetness of his diction, and dis- 
tinguished for bis acquaintance with military 
and political life. He wrote seven books on 
Alexander's expedition, the periplus of the 
Euxine and Red Sea, four books on the disser- 
tations of Epictetus, besides an account of the 
Alani, Bithynians, and Parthians. He flourish- 
ed about the 140th year of Christ, and was re- 
warded with the consulship and government of 
Cappadocia by M. Antoninus, The best edi- 
tion of Arrian's Expediiio Alexandria is the fol. 
Gronovii. L. Bat. 1704, and the 8vo. a Raphe- 
lio, 2 vols. 1757, and the Tactica, 8vo. Amst. 

1683. II. A poet who wrote an epic poem 

in twenty-four books on Alexander ; also ano- 
ther poem on Attains, king of Pergamus. He 
likewise translated Virgil's Georgics into Greek 
verse. 

ARRros, and Arius, a philosopher of Alex- 
andria, who so ingratiated himself with Augus- 
tus after the battle of Actium, that the con- 
366 



queror declared the people of Alexandria owed 
the preservation of their city to three causes ; 
because Alexander was their founder, because 
of the beauty of the situation, and because Ar- 
rius was a native of the place. Plut. in Anton. 

Arruntius, a famous geographer, who, upon 
being accused of adultery and treason under 
Tiberius, opened his veins. Tacit. Ann. 6. 

Arsaces, I. a man of obscure origin, who, 
upon seeing Seleucus defeated by the Gauls, in- 
vaded Parthia, and conquered the governor of 
the province called Andragoras, and laid the 
foundations of an empire, 250 B. C. He add- 
ed the kingdom of the Hyrcani to his newly- 
acquired possessions, and spent his time in es- 
tablishing his power and regulating the laws. 

Justin. 41, c, 5 and 6. — Strab. 11 and 12. 

II. His son and successor bore the same name. 
He carried war against Antiochus, the son of 
Seleucus, who entered the field with 100,000 
foot and 20,000 horse. He afterwards made 
peace with Antiochus, and died B. C. 217. Id. 

41, c. 5. III. The third king of Parthia, of 

the family of the Arsacidse, bore the same name,, 
and was also called Priapatius. He reigned 
twelve years, and left two sons, Mithridates and 
Phraates. Phraates succeeded, as being the 
elder, and at his death he left his kingdom to 
his brother, though he had many children ; ob- 
serving, that a monarch ought to have in view, 
not the dignity of his family, but the prosperity 

of his subjects. Justin. 31, c. 5. IV, A 

king of Pontus and Armenia, in alliance with 
the Romans, He fought long with success 
against the Persians, till he was deceived by the 
snares of king Sapor, his enemy, who put out 
his eyes, and soon after deprived him of life. 

Marcellin. V. The eldest son of Artaba- 

nus, appointed over Armenia by his father, af- 
ter the death of king Artaxias, Tacit. Hist. 6, 

ARSAciD.E, a name given to some of the 
monarchs of Parthia, in honour of Arsaces, the 
founder of the empire. Their power subsisted 
till the 229th year of the Christian era, when 
they were conquered by Artaxerxes king of 
Persia. Justin. 41. 

Arsanes, the son of Ochus, and father of 
Codomanus, 

Arses, the younger son of Ochus, whom 
the eunuch Bagoas raised to the throne of Per- 
sia, and destroyed with his children, after a reign 
of three years, Diod. 17, 

Arsinoe, I, a daughter of Leucippus and 
Philodice, was mother of jEsculapius by Apol- 
lo, according to some authors. She received 
divine honours after death at Sparta. Apollod. 
S.—Paus. 2, c. 26, 1. 3, c. 12. II. The sis- 
ter and wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus, worship- 
ped after death under the name of Venus Ze- 
phyritis, Dinochares began to build her a tem- 
ple with loadstones, in which there stood a sta- 
tue of Arsinoe suspended in the air by the pow- 
er of the magnet ; but the death of the architect 
prevented it being perfected. Plin. 34, c, 14. 
III. A daughter of Ptolemy Lagus, who 



married Lysimachus king of Macedonia, After 
her husband's death, Ceraunus, her own bro- 
ther, married her, and ascended the throne of 
Macedonia. He previously murdered Lysima- 
chus and Philip, the sons of Arsinoe by Lysi- 
machus, in their mother's arms, Arsinoe was 
sometime after banished to Samothrace. Jus-- 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AR 



tin. 17, c. 1, &c. IV. A younger daughter 

of Plolemy Auletes, sister to Cleopatra. An- 
tony despatched her to gain the good graces of 
her sister. Hlrt. Alex. 4. — Appian. Vid. Part I. 

Artabanos, I. son of Hysiaspes, was brother 
to Darius ihe first. He dissuaded his nephew 
Xerxes from making war against the Greeks, 
and at his return he assassinated him with the 
hopes of ascending the throne. Darius, the son 
of Xerxes, was murdered in a sim'ilar manner ; 
and Artaxerxes, his brother, would have shared 
the same fate, had not he discovered the snares 
of the assassin and punished him with death. 
Diod. 11. — Justin. 3, c. 1, &c. — Herodot. 4, c. 

38, 1. 7, c. 10, &c. II. A king of Parthia 

after the death of his nephew Phraates 2d. He 
undertook a war against a nation of Scythia, in 
which he perished. His son Mithridates sac- 
ceeded him,and merited the appellation of Great. 

Justin. 42, c. 2. III. A king of Media, and 

afterwards of Parthia. He invaded Armenia, 
from whence he was driven away by one of the 
generals of Tiberius. He was expelled from 
his throne, which Tiridates usurped ; and, some 
time after, he was restored again to his ancient 
power, and died A. D. 48. Tacit. Ann. 5, &c. 

IV. Another king of Parthia, who made 

war against the emperor Caracalla, who had 
attempted his life on pretence of courting his 
daughter. He was murdered, and the power 
of Parthia abolished, and the crown translated 
to the Persian monarchs. Dio. — Herodian. 

Artabazanes, or Artamenes, the eldest son 
of Darius when a private person. He attempt- 
ed to succeed to the Persian throne in prefe- 
rence to Xerxes. Justin. 

Artabazus, I. a son of Pharnaces, general in 
the army of Xerxes. He fled from Greece upon 
the ill success of Mardonius. Herodot. 7, 8 and 
9. II. A general who made war against Ar- 
taxerxes, and was defeated. He was afterwards 
•reconciled to his prince, and became the fa- 
miliar friend of Darius 3d. After the murder 
of this prince, he surrendered himself up with 
his sons to Alexander, who treated him with 
much humanity and confidence. Curt. 5, c. 9 
and 12, 1. 6, c. 5, 1. 7, c. 3 and 5, 1. 8, c. 1. 

Artac^as, an oflicer in the army of Xerxes, 
the tallest of all the troops, the king excepted. 

Artaphernes, a general whom Darius sent 
into Greece with Datis. He was conquered at 
the battle of Marathon by Miltiades. Vid. Da- 
tis. C. Nep. in Milt. — Herodot, 

Artavasdes, a son of Tigranes, king of 
Upper Armenia, who wrote tragedies, and shone 
as au orator and historian. He lived in alliance 
with the Romans, but Crassus, the Roman gene- 
ral, was defeated partly on account of his delay. 
He betrayed M. Antony in his expedition 
against Parthia, for which Antony reduced his 
kingdom, and carried him to Egypt, where he 
adorned the triumph of the conqueror led in 
golden chains. He was some time after mur- 
dered. Strab. 11. -Two other kings of Ar- 
menia bore this name. 

Artaxa, and Artaxias, a general of Antio- 
chus the Great, who erected the province of 
Armenia into a kingdom, by his reliance on the 
friendship of the Romans. King Tigranes was 
one of his successors. Strab. 11. 

Artaxerxes, I. succeeded to the kingdom 
of Persia after his father Xerxes. He destroy- 



ed Artabanus, who had murdered Xerxes, and 
attempted to destroy the royal family to raise 
himself to the throne. He made war against 
the Bactrians, and re-conquered Egypt that had 
revolted, with the assistance of the Athenians, 
and was remarkable for his equity and mode- 
ration. One of his hands was longer than the 
other, whence he has been called Macrochir or 
Longimaiius. He reigned 39 years, and died 
B. C. 425. C. Nep. in Reg. — Plut. in Artax. 
The second of that name, king of Persia, 



was surnamed Mnemon, on account of his ex- 
tensive memory. He was son of Darius the se- 
cond, by Parysatis, the daughter of Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, and had three brothers, Cyrus, 
Ostanes, and Oxathres. His name was Arsa- 
ces, which he changed into Artaxerxes when 
he ascended the throne. His brother Cyrus, 
who had been appointed over Lydia and the 
seacoasts, assembled a large army under va- 
rious pretences, and at last marched against his 
brother at the head of 100,000 barbarians and 
13,000 Greeks. He was opposed by Artaxerxes 
with 900,000 men, and a bloody battle was fought 
at Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was killed and his 
forces routed. It has been reported that Cyrus 
was killed by Artaxerxes, who was so desirous 
of the honour, that he put to death two men for 
saying that they had killed him. After he was 
delivered from the attacks of his brother, Arta- 
xerxes stirred up a war among the Greeks 
against Sparta, and exerted all his inflilence to 
weaken the power of the Greeks. It is said 
that Artaxerxes died of a broken heart, in con- 
sequence of his son's unnatural behaviour, in 
the 94thyear of his age, after a reign of 46 years, 
B. C. 358. Artaxerxes had 150 children by his 
350 concubines, and only four legitimate sons. 
Plut. in vita. — C. Nep. in Reg. — Justin. 10, 

e. 1, &i(i.—Diod. 13, &c. The 3d, surnamed 

Ochus, succeeded his father Artaxerxes 2d, and 
established himself on his throne by murdering 
about 80 of his nearest relations. He punished 
with death one of his officers who conspired 
against him, and recovered Egypt, Avhich had 
revolted,destroyed Sidon, and ravaged all Syria, 
He made war against the Cadusii, and greatly 
rewarded a private man called Codomanusfor 
his uncommon valour. But his behaviour in 
Egypt, and his cruelty towards the inhabitants, 
offended his subjects, and Bagoas at last obliged 
his physician to poison him, B.C. 337, and after- 
wards gave his flesh to be devoured by cats, and 
made handles for swords with his bones. Jns- 
tin. 10, c. 3.— Diod. ll.—JSlian. V. H. 6, c. 8. 

Artaxerxes, or Artaxares I. a common 
soldier of Persia, who killed Artabanus, A. D. 
228, and erected Persia again into a kingdom, 
which had been "extinct since the death of Da- 
rius. Severus, the Roman emperor, conquered 
hira, and obliged him to remain within his king- 
dom. Herodian. 5. One of his successors, 

son of Sapor, bore his name, and reigned elev- 
en yearSjduring which he distinguished himself 
by his cruelties. 

Artaxias, I. a son of Aartavasdes, king of 
Armenia, was proclaimed king by his father's 
troops. He opposed Antony, by whom he was 
defeated, and became so odious that the Romans, 
at the request of the Armenians, raised Tigra- 
nes to the throne. II. Another, son of Pole- 

mon, whose original name was Zeno. After 
367 



AR 



HISTORY, &c. 



AS 



the expulsion ofVenones from Armenia, he 
was made king of Germanicus. Tacit. 6, Ann. 
c. 31. Vid. Artaooa. 

Artayctes, a Persian, appomted governor of 
Sestos by Xerxes. He was hung on a cross by 
the Athenians for his cruelties. Herod. 7 and 9. 

Artemidorus, I. a native of Ephesus, who 
wrote a history and descriptionof the earth, in 
eleven books. He flourished about 104 years 

B. C. II. A man in the reign of Antoninus, 

who wrote a learned work on the interpretation 
of dreams, still extant ; the best edition of which 
is that of Rigaltius, Paris, 4to. 1604, to which 

is annexed Achmetis oneirocritica. III, A 

man of Cnidus, son to the historian Theopom- 
pus. He had a school at Rome, and he wrote a 
Ijook on illustrious men, not extant. As he was 
a friend of J. Caesar, he wrote dowD an account of 
the conspiracy which was formed against him. 
He gave it to the dictator from among the crowd 
as he was going to the senate, but J. Cassar put 
it with other papers which he held in his hand, 
thinking it to be of no material consequence. 
Plut. in CcBS. 

Artemisia, daughter of Lygdamis of Hali- 
carnassus, reigned over Halicarnassus and the 
neighbouring country. She assisted Xerxes in 
his expedition against Greece with a fleet, and 
her valour was so great that the monarch ob- 
served that all his men fought like women, and 
all his women like men. The Athenians were 
so ashamed of fighting against a woman, that 
they offered a reward of 10,000 drachms for her 

head. There was also another queen ofCa- 

ria of that name, often confounded with the 
daughter of Lygdamis. She was daughter of 
Hecatomnus king of Caria, or Halicarnassus, 
and was married to her own brother Mausolus, 
famous for his personal beauty. She was so 
fond of her husband, that at his death she drank 
in her liquor his ashes after his body had been 
burned, and erected to his memory a monument, 
which, for its grandeur and magnificence, was 
called one of the seven wonders of the world. 
This monument she called Mausoleum, a name 
which has been given from that time to all 
monuments of unusual splendour. She invited 
all the literary men of her age, and proposed 
rewards to him who composed the best elegiac 
panegyric upon her husband. The prize was 
adjudged to Theopompus. She was so incon- 
solable for the death of her husband, that she 
died through grief tAVo years after. Vitruv. — 
Strab. U.—Plin. 25, c. 7, 1. 36, c. 5. 

Artemon, I. a native of Clazomena, who was 
with Pericles at the siege of Samos, where it is 
said he invented the battering-ram, the testudo, 
and other equally valuable military engines. 
II. A man who wrote a treatise on col- 
lecting books. III. A Syrian, whose features 

resembled in the strongest manner, those of An- 
tiochus. Vid. Antiochus. 

Artobarzanes, a son of Darius, who endeav- 
oured to ascend the throne in preference to his 
brother Xerxes, but to no purpose. Herodot. 
7, c. 2 and 3. 

ARVALEs,a name given to twelve priests who 
celebrated the festivals called Ambarvalia. 
They were descended from the twelve sons of 
Acca Laurentia. Varro de L. />, 4. Vid. Am- 
bravalia. 

Aruns, I. a brother of Tarquin the Proud. 
368 



He married Tullia, who murdered him to es- 
pouse Tarquin, who had assassinated his wife. 
•II. A son of Tarquin the Proud, who, in 



the battle that was fought between the partisans 
of his father and the Romans, attacked Brutus, 
the Roman consul, who wounded him and :hrew 

him down from his horse. Liv. 2, c. 6. III. 

A son of Porsenna, king of Etruria, sent by his 
father to take Aricia. Liv. 2, c. 14. 

Aruntius, (Paterculus.) Vid. Phalaris. 
Aryandes, a Persian appointed governor of 
Egypt by Cambyses. He was put to death be- 
cause he imitated Darius in whatever he did. 
Herodot. 4, c. 166. 

ARYPTiEus, a prince of the Molossi, wlio 
privately encouraged the Greeks against Mace- 
donia, and afterwards embraced the party oi 
the Macedonians. 

Ascanius, son of ^neasby Creusa, was sav- 
ed from the flames of Troy by his father, whom 
he accompanied in his voyage to Italy. He was 
afterwards called lulus. He behaved with 
great valour in the war which his father carried 
on against the Latins, and succeeded ^neas in 
the kingdom of Latinus, and built Alba, to which 
he transferred the seat of his empire from La- 
vinium. The descendants of Ascanius reigned 
in Alba, for above 420 years, under 14 kings, 
till the age of Numitor. Ascanius reigned 38 
years, 30 at Lavinium and eight at Alba ; and 
was succeeded by Sylvius Posthumus, son oi 
vEneas by Lavinia. Liv. 1, c. 3. — Virg. JEn. 

1, &c. According to Dionys. Hal. I, c. 15, 

&c. the son of ./Eneas by Lavinia was also cal- 
led Ascanius. 

AscLEPiA, festivals in honour of Asclepius, 
or iEsculapius, celebrated all over Greece, 
when prizes for poetical and musical compo- 
sitions were hojf.ourably distributed. At Epidau- 
rus they were called by a different name. 
■ AscuLEPiADEs, I. a rhctorician in the age of 
Eumenes, who wrote an historical account of 
Alexander. Arrian. II. A philosopher, dis- 
ciple to Stilpo, and very intimate with Menede- 
mus. The two friends lived together, and that 
they might not be separated when they married, 
Asclepiades married the daughter, and Mene- 
demus, though much the younger, the mother. 
When the wife of Asclepiades was dead, Mene- 
demus gave his wife to his friend, and married 
another. He was blind in his old age, and died 

in Eretria. Plut. III. A physician of Bi- 

thynia, B. C. 90, who acquired great reputation 
at Rome, and was the founder of a sect in phy- 
sic. He relied so much on his skill, that he laid 
a wager he should never be sick ; and won it, as 
he died of a fall, in a very advanced age. No- 
thing of his medical treatises is now extant. 

IV. An Eg}rptian, who wrote hymns on 

the gods of his country, and also a treatise on 

the coincidence of all religions. V. A native 

of Alexandria, who gave a history of the Athe- 
nian archons. VI. A disciple of Isocrates, 

who wrote six books on those events which had 
been the subject of tragedies. 

AscLEPioDoRUs, a painter in the age of Apel- 
les, 12 of whose pictures of the gods were sold 
for 300 minae each, to an African prince. Plin. 
35, 

AscLETARiON, a mathematician in the age 
of Domitian, who said that he should be torn by 
dogs. The emperor ordered him to be put to 



AS 



HISTORY, &c> 



AS 



death, and his body carefully secured ; but as 
soon as he was set on the burning pile, a sud- 
den storm arose which put out the flames, and 
the dogs came and tore to pieces the mathema- 
tician's body. Sueton. in Domit. 15. 

AscOlia, a festival in honour of Bacchus, 
celebrated about December, by the Athenian 
husbandmen, who generally sacrificed a goat to 
the god, because that animal is a great enemy to 
the vine. They made a bottle with the skin of 
the victim, which they iilled with oil and wine, 
and afterwards leaped upon it. He who could 
stand upon it first M^as victorious, and receiv- 
ed the bottle as a reward. This was called 

aaKO}\iai^eiv ~apa to etti rov acrxov aWe^dat, leaping 

upon the bottle, whence the name of the festival 
is derived. It was also introduced in Italy, 
where the people besmeared their faces with the 
dregs of wine, and sung hymns to the god. 
They always hanged some small images of the 
god on the tallest tree in their vineyards, and 
these images they called Oscilla: Vi/'s^. G. 2, 
V. ZSi.— Pollux. 9, c. 7. 

AscoNius Labeo, I. a preceptor of Nero 



make peace with Rome, and upbraided AnmbaJ 
for laughing in the Carthaginian senate. Liv. 

V. A grandson of Massinissa, murdered 

in the senate-house by the Carthaginians. 



II. Pedia, a man in the age of Vespasian, who 
became blind in his old age, and lived 12 years 
after. He wrote, besides some historical trea- 
tises, annotations on Cicero's orations. 

AsDRUJBAL, I. a Carthaginian, son-in-law of 
Hamilcar. He distinguished himself in the 
Numidian war, and was appointed chief general 
on the death of his father-in-law, and for eight 
years presided with much prudence and valour 
over Spain, which submitted to his arms with 
cheerfulness. Here he laid the foundation of 
new Carthage, and saw it complete. To stop 
his progress towards the east, the Romans, in a 
treaty with Carthage, forbade him to pass the 
Iberus, which was faithfully observed by the 
general. He was killed in the midst of hjs sol- 
diers, B. C.220, by a slave whose master he had 
•murdered. Ital. 1, v. 165. — Appian. Iberic. — 

—Polyb. 2.— Liv. 21, c. 2, &c. II. A son of 

Hamilcar, who came from Spain with a large 
reinforcement for his brother Annibal. He 
crossed the Alps and entered Italy ; but some 
of his letters to Annibal having fallen into the 
hands of the Romans, the consuls M. Livius 
Salinator and Claudius Nero attacked him sud- 
denlv near the Metaurus, and defeated him, B . 
C. 207. He was killed in the battle, and 56,000 
of his men shared his fate, and 5400 were taken 
prisoners ; about 8000 Romans were killed. 
The head of Asdrubal was cut off, and some 
da}^s after thrown into the camp of Annibal, 
who, in the moment that he was m the greatest 
expectations of a promised supply, exclaimed at 
the sight, " In losing Asdrubal, I lose all my 
happiness, and Carthage all her hopes." As- 
drubal had before made an attempt to penetrate 
into Italy by sea, but had been defeated by the 
governor of Sardinia. Liv. 21, 2^, 27, &c. — 

Polyb. — Horat. 4, od. 4. II. A Carthaginian 

general, surnamed Calvus, appointed governor 
of Sardinia, and taken prisoner by the Romans. 
Liv. III. Another, son of Gisgon, appoint- 
ed general of the Carthaginian forces in Spain, 
in the time of the great Annibal. He made 
head against the Romans in Africa, with the 
assistance of Syphax, but he was soon after de- 
feated by Scipio. He died B. C. 206. Liv. 

IV. Another, who advised his countrymen to 
Part II.— 3 A 



VI. Anotlier, whose camp was destroyed in 
Africa by Scipio, though at the head of 20,000 
men, in the last Punic war. When all was 
lost, he fled to the enemy and begged his life. 
Scipio showed him to the Carthaginians, upon 
which his wife, with a thousand imprecations, 
tlirew herself and her two children into the 
flames of the temple of ^sculapius, which she, 
and others, had set on fire. He was not of the 

same family as Hannibal. Liv. 51. VII. 

A Carthagmian general, conquered by L. Cs- 
cilius Metellus in Sicily, m a battle in which 
he lost 130 elephants. These animals were led 
in triumph all over Italy by the conquerors. 

AsELLio (Sempronius,) an historian and mil- 
itary tribune, who wrote an account of the ac- 
tions in which he was present. Dionys. Hal. 

AsiNARiA, a festival in Sicily, in commemora- 
tion of the victory obtained over Demosthenes 
and Nicias at the river Asinarius. 

AsiNius Gallus, I. son of Asinius PoUio, the 
orator, married Vipsania after she had been 
divorced by Tiberius. This marriage gave rise 
to a secret enmity betv/een the emperor and Asi- 
nius, who starved himself to death, either vo- 
luntarily, or by order of his imperial enemy. 
He wrote a comparison between his fatjier and 
Cicero, in which he gave a decided superiority 
to the former. Tacit. 1 and 5. Ann. — Dio. 58. 

— Plin. 7, ep. 4. II. Pollio, an excellent 

orator, poet, and historian, intimate with Au- 
gustus. He triumphed over the Dalmatians, 
and wrote an account of the wars of Caesar and 
Pompey, in 17 books, besides poems. He re- 
fused to answer some verses against him by Au- 
gustus, " Because," said he, " you have the pow- 
er to proscribe me should my answer prove of- 
fensive." He died in the 80th year of his age, 
A. D. 4. He was consul with Cn. Domitius 
Calvinus, A. U. C. 714. It is to him that the 
fourth of Virgil's Bucolics is inscribed. Quintil. 
— Sueton. in Cccs. 30 and 55. — Dio. 27, 49, 55. 
— SeTiec. de Tranq. Ani. (^ ep. 100. — Plin. 7, 
c. 30.— Tacit. Q.— Patera. 2.—Plut. in Cces. 

AsPAsiA, I. a daughter of Hermotimus of 
Phocaea, famous for her personal charms and 
elegance. She was priestess of the sun, mis- 
tress to Cyrus, and afterwards to his brother 
Artaxerxes, from whom she passed to Darius. 
She was called Milto, Vermillion, on account 
of the beauty of her complexion. jElian. V. 
H. 12, c. 1. — Pint, in Artax. II. Another wo- 
man, daughter of Axiochus, born at Miletus. 
She came to Athens, where she taught elo- 
quence, and Socrates was proud to be among 
her scholars. She so captivated Pericles by 
her mental and personal accomplishments, that 
he became her pupil, and at last took her for his 

mistress and wife. III. The wife of Xeno- 

phon, was also called Aspasia, if we follow the 
improper interpretation given by some to Cic. de 
Inv. 1, c. 31. 

AsPASius, a peripatetic philosopher in the 2d 
century, whose commentaries on different sub- 
jects were highly valued, 

AspATHiNES, one of the seven noblemen of 
Persia, who conspired against the usurper 
Smerdis. Herodot. 3, c. 70, &c. 
369 



AT 



HISTORY, &c. 



AT 



AssARACus, a Trojan prince, son of Tros by 
Callirrhoe. He was father to Capys, the fa- 
ther of Anchises. The Trojans were frequent- 
ly called the descendants of Assaracas, Gens 
Assaraci. Homer. 11. 20. — Virg. JSn. 1. 

Aster, a dexterous archer, who offered his 
services to Philip, king of Macedonia. Upon 
being slighted, he retired into the city and aim- 
ed an arrow at Philip, who pressed it with a 
siege. The arrow, on which was written, " Aim- 
ed at Philip's right eye," struck the king's eye 
and put it out ; and Philip, to return the pleas- 
antry, threw back the same arrow, with these 
words, " If Philip takes the town, Aster shall 
be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 
Lucian. de Hist. Scrib. 

AsTiocHus, a general of Lacedsemon, who 
conquered the Athenians near Cnidus, and took 
Phocgea and Cumse, B. C. 411. 

AsTYAGEs, son of Cyaxarcs, was the last 
king of Media. He was deprived of his crown 
by his grandson, after a reign of 35 years. As- 
tyages was very cruel and oppressive ; and 
Harpagus, one of his officers, whose son he had 
wantonly murdered,encouraged Mandane's son, 
who was called Cyrus, to take up arms against 
his grandfather, and he conquered him and took 
him prisoner, 559 B. C. Xenophon, in his Cy- 
ropffidia, relates a different story, and asserts 
that Cyrus and Astyages lived in the most un- 
disturbed friendship together. Justin. 1, c. 4, 
&c. — Herodot. 1, c. 74, 75, &c. 

AsTYANAx, I. a son of Hector and Andro- 
mache. He was very young when the Greeks 
besieged Troy ; and when the city was taken, 
his mother saved him in her arms from the 
flames. Ulysses, who was afraid lest the young 
prince should inherit the virtues of his father, 
and one day avenge the ruin of his country 
upon the Greeks, seized him, and threw him 
down from the walls of Troy. According to 
Euripides, he was killed by Menelaus ; and 
Seneca says, that Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, 
pat him to death. Hector had given him the 
name of Scamandrius; but the Trojans, who 
hoped he might prove as great as his father, 
called him Astyanax, or the bulwark of the city. 
Homer. 11. 6, v. 400, 1. 22, v. 500.— Hr^. ^n. 
2, V. 457, 1. 3, V. ^S^.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 415. 
II. A writer in the age of Gallienus. 

AsTYDAMAS, I. an Athenian, pupil to Iso- 
crates. He wrote 240 tragedies, of which only 
15 obtained the poetical prize. II. A Mile- 
sian, three times victorious at Olympia. He 
was famous for his strength as well as for his 
voracious appetite. He was once invited to a 
feast by king Ariobarzanes, and he eat what 
had been prepared for nine persons. Athen. 10. 
— — III. Two tragic writers bore the same 
name, one of whom was disciple to Socrates. 
IV. A comic poet of Athens. 

AsYCHis, a king of Egypt, who succeeded 
Mycerinus, and made a law, that whoever bor- 
rowed money must depositehis father's body in 
the hands of his creditors as a pledge of his 
promise of payment. He built a magnificent 
pyramid. Herodot. 2, c. 136. 

Atabulus, a wind which was frequent in 
Apulia. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 78. 

Athanasius, a bishop of Alexandria, cele- 
brated for his sufferings, and the determined op- 
positiop J»e maintained against Arius and his 
370 



doctrine. His writings, which were numerous, 
and some of which have perished, contain a de- 
fence of the mystery of the Trinity, the divinity 
of the Word and of the Holy Ghost, and an 
apology to Constantine. The creed which bears 
his name is supposed by some not to be his 
composition. Athanasius died 2d May, 373 A. 
D. after filling the archiepiscopal chair 47 years, 
and leading alternately a life of exile and of 
triumph. The latest edition of his works is 
that of the Benedictines, 3 vols. fol. Paris, 1698. 

AxHENiEA, festivals celebrated at Athens in 
honour of Minerva. One of them was called 
Panathencea and the other Chalcea ; for an 
account of which see those words. 

ATHENiEus, I. a Greek cosmographer. II. 

A peripatetic philosopher of Cilicia in the time 

of Augustus. Sirab. III. A Spartan sent 

by his countrymen to Athens to settle the peace 
during the Peloponnesian war. IV. A gram- 
marian of Naucratis, who composed an elegant 
and miscellaneous work, called Deipnosophistcs, 
replete with very curious and interesting re- 
marks and anecdotes of the manners of the an- 
cients, and likewise valuable for the scattered 
pieces of ancient poetry it preserves. The 
work consists of 15 books, of which the two first, 
part of the third, and almost the whole of the 
last, are lost, Athenseus wrote, besides this, a 
history of Syria, and other works now lost. He 
died A. D. 194. The best edition of his works 
is that of Casaubon, fol. 2 vols. Lugd. 1612, by 
far superior to the editions of 1595 and 1657. 
•V. A physician of Cilicia in the age of 



Pliny, who made heat, cold, wet, dry, and air, 
the elements, instead of the four commonly re- 
ceived. 

Athenagoras, I. a Greek in the time of Da- 
rius, to whom Pharnabazus gave the govern- 
ment of Chios, &c. Curt. 8, c. 5. II. A 

Christian philosopher in the age of Aurelius, 
who wrote a treatise on the resurrection, and an 
apology for the Christians, still extant. He 
died A. D. 177. The best edition of his works 
is that of Dechair, 8vo. Oxon. 1706. The ro- 
mance of Theagenes and Charis is falsely as- 
cribed to him. 

Athenion, I. a peripatetic philosopher, 108 
B. C. II. A general of the Sicilian slaves. 

Athenodorus, I. a philosopher of Tarsus, 
intimate with Augustus. The emperor often 
profited by his lessons, and was advised by him 
always to repeat the 24 letters of the Greek al- 
phabet before he gave way to the impulse of 
anger, Athenodorus died in his 82d year, 

much lamented by his countrymen. Suet. 

II, A stoic philosopher of Cana, near Tarsus, 
in the age of Augustus. He was intimate with 
Strabo, Strab. 14. III. A philosopher, dis- 
ciple to Zeno, and keeper of the royal library 
at Pergamus. 

Atia, I. a law enacted A. U, C. 690, by 
Atius Labienus, the tribune of the people. It 
abolished the Cornelian law, and put in full 
force the Lex Domitia, by transferring the right 
of electing priests from the college of priests to 

the people, II. The mother of Augustus. 

Vid. Accia. 

Atilia Lex, gave the praetor, and a majority 
of the tribunes, power of appointing guardians 
to those minors who were not previously pro- 
vided for by their parents. It was enacted 



AT 



HISTORY, &c. 



AT 



about A. U. C. 560. Another, A, U. C. 

443, which gave the people power of electing 
20 tribunes of the soldiers in four legions. Liv. 
9, c. 30. 

Atilius, a freedman, who exhibited combats 
of gladiators at Fidense. The amphitheatre, 
which contained the spectators, fell during the 
exhibition, and about 50,000 persons were kill- 
ed or mutilated. Tacit. 4, Ann. c. 62. 

Atilla, the mother of the poet Lucan. She 
was accused of conspiracy by her son, who ex- 
pected to clear himself of the charge. Tacit. 
Ann. 15, c. 56. 

Atinia Lex, was enacted by the tribune 
Atinius. It gave a tribune of the people the 
privileges of a senator, and the right of sitting 
in the senate. 

Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus, who was one 
of the wives of Cambyses, Smerdis, and after- 
wards of Darius, by whom she had Xerxes. 
She was cured of a dangerous cancer by De- 
mocedes. She is supposed by some to be the 
Vashti of scripture. Herodot. 3, c. 68, &c. 

Atreus, son of Pelops by Hippodamia, 
daughter of CEnomaus, king of Pisa, was king 
of Mycenae, and brother to Pittheus, Troezen, 
Thyestes, and Chrysippus. As Chrysippus 
was an illegitimate son, and at the same time a 
favourite, of his father, Hippodamia resolved to 
remove him. She persuaded her sons Thyestes 
and Atreus to murder him ; but their refusal 
exasperated her more, and she executed it her- 
self This murder was grievous to Pelops ; he 
suspected his two sons, who fled away from his 
presence. Atreus retired to the court of Eurys- 
thenes king- of Argos, his nephew, and upon his 
deaih he succeeded him on the throne. He mar- 
ried, as some report, ^rope, his predecessor's 
daughter, fey whom he had Plisthenes, Mene- 
laus, and Agamemnon. Others affirm that 
jJErope was the wife of Plisthenes, by whom he 
■had Agamemnon and Menelaus, who are the 
reputed sons of Atreus, because that prince took 
care of their education and brought them up as 
his own. {^Vid. Plisthenes.^ Thyestes had 
followed his brother to Argos, where he lived 
with him, and debauched his wife, by whom he 
had two, or according to some, three children. 
This incestuous commerce offended Atreus, and 
Thyestes was banished from his court. He was, 
however, soon after recalled by his brother, who 
determined cruelly to revenge the violence of- 
fered to his bed. To effect this purpose he in- 
vited his brother to a sumptuous feast, where 
Thyestes was served up with the flesh of the 
children he had by his sister-in-law the queen. 
After the repast was finished, the arms and 
heads of the murdered children were produced, 
to convince Thyestes of what he had feasted 
upon. This action appeared so cruel and im- 
pious, that the sun is said to have shrunk back 
in its course at the bloody sight. Thyestes im- 
mediately fled to the court of Thesprotns, and 
thence to Sicyon, where he ravished his own 
daughter Pelopea, in a grove sacred to Minerva, 
without knowing who she was. This incest he 
committed intentionally, as some report, to re- 
venue himself on his brother Atreus, according 
to the words of the oracle, which promised him 
satisfaction for the cruelties he had suffered 
only from the hand of a son who should be bom 
of himself and his own daughter. Pelopea 



brought forth a son, whom she called ^gisthus, 
and soon after she married Atreus, who had lost 
his wife. Atreus adopted .^gisthus, and sent 
him to murder Thyestes, who had been seized 
at Delphi and imprisoned, Thyestes knew his 
son, and made himself known to him; he made 
him espouse his cause, and instead of becoming 
his father's murderer, he rather avenged his 
wrongs, and returned to Atreus whom he as- 
sassinated. Vid. Thyestes, jEgisthus, Pelopea, 
Agamemnon, and Menelaus. Hygin. fab. 83, 
86, 87, 88, and 258. — Euripid. in Orest. in 
Iphig. Taur. — Plut. in Parall. — Pans. 9, c 40. 
— Afollod. 3, c. 10. — Senec. in Atr. 

AxRiDiE, a patronymic given by Homer to 
Agamemnon and Menelaus, as being the sons 
of Atreus. This is false, upon the authority of 
Hesiod, Lactantius, Dictys of Crete, &c. who 
maintain that these princes were not the sons 
of Atreus, but of Plisthenes, and that they were 
brought up in the house and under the eye of 
their grandfather. Vid. Plisthenes. 

Atta, T. Q,. a writer of merit in the Augus- 
tan age, who seems to have received this name 
from some deformity in his legs or feet. His 
compositions, dramatical as well as satirical, 
were held in universal admiration, though Ho- 
race thinks of them with indifference. Horat. 
2, ep. 1, V. 79. 

Attalus 1st, king of Pergamus, succeeded 
Eumenes 1st. He defeated the Gauls, who had 
invaded his dominions, extended his conquests 
to mount Taurus, and obtained the assistance 
of the Romans against Antiochus. The Athe- 
nians rewarded his merit with great honours. 
He died at Pergamus, after a reign of 44 years, 
B. C. 197. Liv. 26, 27, 28, &.t.—Polyb. 5.— 

Strab. 13. The 2d of that name, was sent 

on an embassy to Rome by his brother Eumenes 
the second, and at his return was appointed 
guardian to his nephew, Attalus the third, who 
was then an infant. Prusias made successful 
war against him, and seized his capital ; but the 
conquest was stopped by the interference of the 
Romans, who restored Attalus to his throne. 
Attains, who has received the name of Phila- 
delphus, from his fraternal love, was a munifi- 
cent patron of learning, and the founder of sev- 
eral cities. He was poisoned by his nephew, 
in the 82d year of his age, B.C. 138. He had 
governed the nation with great prudence and 
moderation for 20 years. Strab. 13. — Pohjb. 

5. The 3d, succeeded to the kingdom of 

Pergamus by the murder of Attalus the 2d, and 
made himself odious by his cruelty to his rela- 
tions, and his wanton exercise of power. He 
was son to Eumenes 2d, and surnamed Phi- 
lopator. He left the cares of government, to 
cultivate his garden, and to make experiments 
on the melting of metals. He lived in great 
amity with the Romans ; and, as he died with- 
out issue by his wife Berenice, he left in his 
will the words P. R. meorum hceres esto, which 
the Romans interpreted as themselves, and 
therefore took possession of his kingdom, B. C. 
133, and made it a Roman province, which 
they governed by a proconsul. From this cir- 
cumstance, whatever was a valuable acquisi- 
tion, or an ample fortune, was always called by 
the epithet Attalicus. Attalus, as well as his 
predecessors,made themselves celebrated for the 
valuable libraries which they collected at Perga- 
37a 



AT 



HISTORY, &c. 



AU 



mus, and for the patronage which merit and 
virtue always found at their court. Liv. 2-i, &c. 
Plin. 7, 8, 33, &c. — Justin. 39. — Horat. 1, od, 

1. rV. An officer in Alexander's army. 

Curt. 4, c. 13. V. Another, very inimical to 

Alexander. He was put to death by Parmenio, 
and Alexander was accused of the murder. 

Curt. 6, c. 9, 1. 8, c. 1. VI. A philosopher, 

preceptor to Seneca. Senec. ep. 108. 

Atteius Capito, a consul in the age of Au- 
gustus, who wrote treatises on the sacerdotal 
laws, public courts of justice, and the duty of a 
senator. Vid. Ateius. 

Atticus, I. (T. Pomponius) a celebrated Ro- 
man knight, to whom Cicero wrote a great 
number of letters, which contained the general 
history of the age. They are now extant, and 
divided into 17 books. In the time of Marius 
and Sylla, Atticus retired to Athens, where he 
so endeared himself to the citizens, that, after 
his departure, they erected statues to him, in 
commemoration of his munificence and libe- 
rality. He was such a perfect masier of the 
Greek writers, and spoke their language so flu- 
ently, that he was surnamed Atticus. He be- 
haved in such a disinterested manner, that he 
oifended neither of the inimical parties at Rome, 
and both were equally anxious of courting his 
approbation. He lived in the greatest intimacy 
with the illustrious men of his age, and he was 
such a lover of truth, that he not only abstained 
from falsehood, even in a joke, but treated with 
the greatest contempt and indignation a lying 
tongue. It is said that he refused to take ali- 
ment, when unable to get the better of a fever, 
and died in his 77th year, B. C. 32, after bearing 
the amiable character of peacemaker among 
his friends. Cornelius Nepos, one of his inti- 
mate friends, has written a minute account of 

his life. Cic. ad Attic. &c. II. Herodes, an 

Athenian in the age of the Antonines, descended 
from Miltiades, and celebrated for his munifi- 
cence. His son of the same name was honoured 
with the consulship, and he generously erected 
an aqueduct at Troas, of which he had been 
made governor by the emperor Adrian, and 
raised in other parts of the empire several pub- 
lic buildings, as useful as they were magnifi- 
cent. Philostrat. in. vit. 2, p. 548. — A. Gell. 
noct. Att. 

Attila, a celebrated king of the Huns, a 
nation in the southern parts of Scythia, who in- 
vaded the Roman empire in the reign of Valen- 
tinian, with an army of 500,000 men, and laid 
waste the provinces. He took the town of Aqui- 
leia, and marched against Rome ; but his retreat 
and peace were purchased with a large sum of 
money by the feeble emperor. Attila, who boast- 
ed in the appellation of the scourge of^ God, 
died A. D. 453, of an uncommon eiFusion of 
blood the first night of his nuptials. He had 
expressed his wish to extend his conquests over 
the whole world; and he often feasted his bar- 
barity by dragging captive kings in his train. 
Jornant. de Reb. Get. Vid. Hunni, Part I. 

Attilius, I. Vid. Regulus. II. Calatinus, 

a Roman consul, who fought the Carthaginian 

fleet. III. Marcus, a poet, who translated the 

Electra of Sophocles into Latin verse, and wrote 
comedies whose unintelligible language pro- 
cured him the appellation of Ferreios. IV. 

Regulus, a Roman censor, who built a temple 
372 



to the goddess of concord. Liv. 23, c. 23, &c. 

The name of Attilius was common among 

the Romans, and many of the public magis- 
trates are called Attilii. 

Attius Pelignus, I. Tullias, the general of 
the Volsci, to whom Coriolanus fled when ban- 
ished from Rome. Liv. II. Varus, seized 

Auxinum, in Pompey's name, whence he was 
expelled. After this, he fled to Africa, which 
he alienated from J. Caesar. C<xs. 1, Bell. Civ. 

III. A poet. Vid. Accius. The family of 

the Attii was descended from Atys, one of the 
companions of ^neas, according to the opinion 
which Virgil has adopted. .S/t, 5, v. 568. 

Atys, I. an ancient king of Lydia, who sent 
away his son Tyrrhenus, with a colony of Ly- 
dians, who settled in Italy. Herodot. 1, c. 7. 

Vid. Part III. II. A son of Croesus, king of 

Lydia. He was forbidden the use of all weapons 
by his father, who had dreamt that he had been 
killed. Some time after this, Atys prevailed on 
his father to permit him to go to hunt a wild 
boar, which laid waste the country of Mysia, 
and he was killed in the attempt by Adrastus, 
whom Croesus had appointed guardian over his 
son, and thus the apprehensions of the monarch 
were realized. Herodot. 1, c. 34, &c. Vid. 
Adrastus. 

AuFiDiA Lex, was enacted by the tribune Au- 
fidius Lurco, A. U. C. 692. It ordained that 
if any candidate, in canva.ssing for an oflice, 
promised money to the tribunes, and failed in the 
performance, he should be excused ; but if he 
actually paid it, he should be compelled to pay 
every tribune 6000 sesterces. 

AuFiDrus, I. (Bassus,) a famous historian in 
the age of Gluintilian, who wrote an account of 
Germany and of the civil wars. II. A Ro- 
man senator, famous for his blindness and abili- 
ties. Cic. Tusc. 5. II. Lurco, a man who 

enriched himself by fattening peacocks and 
selling them. Plhi. 10. 

AuGUREs, a certain officer at Rome who fore- 
told future events, whence their name, ab avium 
garritu. They were first created by Romulus, 
to the number of three. Servius Tullius added 
a fourth, and the tribunes of the people, A. U, C. 
454, increased the number to nine ; and Sylla 
added six more during his dictatorship. They 
had a particular college, and the chief amongst 
them was called magister collegii. Their office 
was honourable ; and if any one of them was 
convicted of any crime, he could not be deprived 
of his privileges ; an indulgence granted to no 
other sacerdotal body at Rome. The augur ge- 
nerally sat on a high tower to make his observa- 
tions. His face was turned towards the east, and 
he had the north to his left and the south at his 
right. With a crooked staiT he divided the face 
of the heavens into four different partg^ and af- 
terwards sacrificed to the gods, covering his head 
with his vestment. There were generally five 
things from which the augurs drew omens : the 
first consisted in observing the phenomena of 
the heavens, such as thunder, lightning, comets, 
&c. The second kind of omen was drawn from 
the chirping or flying of birds. The third was 
from the sacred chickens, whose eagerness or 
indifiTerence in eating the bread which was 
thrown to them, was looked upon as lucky or 
unlucky. The fourth was from quadrupeds, 
from their crossing or appearing in some unac- 



AU 



HISTORY, &c. 



AU 



customed place. The fifth was from difierent 
casualties, which were called Z^ira, such as spil- 
ling sa.lt upon a table or wine upon one's clothes, 
hearing strange noises, stumbling or sneezing, 
meeting a wolf, hare, fox, or pregnant bitch. 
The sight of birds on the left hand was always 
deemed a lucky object, and the words sinister 
and IcBvus, though generally supposed to be 
terms of ill luck, were always used by the au- 
gurs in an auspicious sense. Cic. de Div. — 
Liv. 1, &c. — Dionys. Hal. — Ovid. Fast. 

AuGusTALiA, a festival at Rome, in commemo- 
ration of the day on which Augustus returned 
to R,ome, after he had established peace over the 
different parts of the empire. 

AuGUSTiNUS, a bishop of Hippo, in Africa, 
distinguished himself by his writings, as well as 
by the austerity of his life. In his works, which 
are numerous, he displayed the powers of a great 
genius, and an extensive acquamtance with the 
philosophy of Plato. He died in the 76th year 
of his age, A. D. 430. The best edition of his 
works is that of the Benedict, fol. Ant. 1700 to 
1703. 12 vols. 

Augustus Octavianus Cjesar, second em- 
peror of Rome, was son of Octavius, a senator, 
and Accia, daughter of Julius and sister to Ju- 
lius Caesar. There can be little doubt that 
Cffisar had intended his grandnephew as his 
successor in the empire ; perceiving, probably, 
in that precocious youth the gem of those talents 
which Sylla had foreseen in himself. Octavius 
had pass'ed his boyhood in the family of his 
uncle ; he had accompanied him to Spain, in 
the expedition against the sons of Pompey, and 
.had been sent by him, about six months before 
his death, to complete his education in the Greek 
city of Apollonia. It was there he first heard 
of the assassination of his protector ; and he 
immediately set out for Rome, where he arriv- 
ed a weakly student from the schools of Greece, 
' in the most difiicult and momentous crisis which 
had yet occurred m the history of his country. 
Before he could reach the capital, Antony had 
sufficient leisure to concert various measures 
calculated to secure his ovm power, and to pos- 
sess himself of the whole public treasure, which 
had been amassed by Caesar. Octavius, with 
one object ever in view, but veering about with 
wonderful dexterity in hisprofessions,perceived, 
in a short while, that his only chance of success 
against this formidable opponent, was to place 
himself at the head of the senatorian party, by 
whose aid he nearly ruined his dangerous rival 
at Modena. The consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, 
having been slain in the memorable combats 
which were fought under the walls of that city. 
Octavius marched to Rome to demand the first 
magistracy of the state at the head of his army. 
Meanwhile, the reduced strength of Antony 
was recruited by the forces of Pollio, Plancus, 
and Lepidus, from Gaul and Spain. After this 
accession, it became apparent that Antony and 
Octavius were destined to form the preponder- 
ating powers in the commonwealth. They met 
near Bologna, where, along with Lepidus, they 
established the inauspicious triurnvirate, and en- 
tered into a sanguinary convention, by which it 
was agreed to destroy the legal government — to 
put their mutual enemies to death — divide the 
lands ©f the richest towns and colonies in Italy 
among their soldiers — distribute the provinces of 



the republic among themselves, and proceed in 
the following spring against Brutus and Cas- 
sius, who still upheld the party of the common- 
wealth in Greece and Asia. These bloody and 
illegal designs were all fully accomplished. The 
former triumvirs had wished only to obtain 
power; their successors had resentments to gra- 
tify, vengeance to exercise, and lawless troops 
to satiate. They massacred in cold blood the 
chiefs of the republic who had remained in Italy ; 
they overthrew its legion at Philippi ; and Sex- 
tus Pompey, who, for some time after that fatal 
combat,maintained by his naval power an image 
of the commonwealth in Sicily, at length fell a 
victim to the jealousy and engrossing am.bition 
of the triumviral tyrants. But the hlood which 
these usurpers had so profusely shed, did not 
cement their unhallowed alliance. So jarring 
were their interests, and so unprincipled their 
motives, that distrust and discord could hardly 
fail to arise among them. Antony, intoxicated 
with love, and wine, and power,was long watch- 
ed by a sober and subtle rival. Various tempo- 
rary, but ineffectual expedients, were tried to 
adjust their differences, and to heal the mutual 
jealousies and suspicions, which rankled in their 
bosoms. Lepidus was deprived of his share of 
sovereignty, without a blow : one blow hurled 
Antony from his sumptuous throne and Octa- 
vius passed through the gates of Alexandria to 
the undisputed empire of the world.^ When 
the genius of Octavius. had thus successively 
triumphed over his adversaries, and when he re- 
mained without a rival, his counsels, and per- 
haps even his temper, changed. ' There were,' 
says Blackwell, ' three very different periods in 
the life of Octavius. The first,'on his early en- 
tering on business at his return from Apollonia, 
till the victory at Modena, during which, under 
the direction of Cicero, he acted the Roman and 
the patriot. The second, from his extorted con- 
sulship till the defeat of Antony, at Actium, 
where he played the tyrant and the triumvir; and 
the third, from the conquest of Egypt to the end 
of his life, when he became first the prince, and 
then the parent of his country and people.' 
Hitherto the palace of Octavius had resembled 
the headquarters of a general, or citadel of a 
tyrant ; but, after his return from Egypt, it be- 
gan to assume the appearance of a regular court, 
where every thing was conducted with order, 
prudence, and moderation. Few citizens now 
survived, who had witnessed the golden days oi 
the republic, and all had felt the evils of its 
anarchy. The fear of new tumults extinguish- 
ed the love of liberty, or checked at least all 
struggles to regain it. On the other part, Oc- 
tavius felt that his interest was now identified 
with that of the state : he wished to enjoy in se- 
curity the lofty prize he had gained, and to aug- 
ment its value. Timidity had been the source 
of m.any of his crimes, but, having resolved to 
retain the government, he wisely thought it 
safest to be just and merciful. Military strength, 
he perceived, was an insufficient prop for his 
power. To render his authority permanent, he 
saw it was necessary to add the good opinion, or 
at least the affections, of the people. While, 
therefore, he bribed the soldiers with donations 
of money, or grants of land, he cajoled the pop- 
ulace with shows and entertainments, and dis- 
tributions of corn, which, by supporting them 
373 



AU 



HISTORY, &c. 



AU 



in idleness and'dissipation, made them forget the 
state of political degradation into which, they 
were fallen. The senators he soothed, by pre- 
senting them with the flattering image of their 
ancient privileges, and the forms of the repub- 
lican government. Nothing was farther from 
his wish or intention, than that the common- 
wealth should be actually revived. Indeed, he 
could no more have restored it to its former state, 
than he could have reanimated the corse of 
Cicero ; and when advised by Agrippatomake 
the attempt, he prudently rejected the counsel 
which would probably have proved ruinous to 
himself, and came too late to be of service to his 
country. Yet while he determined to preserve 
the sovereign power, he resolved at the same 
time, by re-establishing ancient forms, to veil in 
part the hideous aspect of despotism. He was 
careful not to display his power by any external 
marks of royalty ; and he exercised his authori- 
ty not under any new title or magistracy, but as 
uniting in his person most of the ancient offices 
which were of weight or importance in the state. 
Servitude was thus established in the place of 
liberty ; but a phantom in the shape of freedom 
still frequented the senate, and at the choice of 
consuls yearly walked the Forum. Octavius, 
however,(whom we shall hereafter style Augus- 
tus,) had recourse to more worthy arts than 
these, to endear his name and reign to the Ro- 
man citizens. He revived or enacted beneficial 
laws, and introduced the most provident regula- 
tions for the maintenance of order and tranquil- 
lity. The police which he established, gave 
security to life and property in the capital and 
throughout Italy : the provinces were protected 
from the exactions and oppressions of their go- 
vernors, under which they had so often groaned 
in the days of the republic. He bestowed even 
personally, an unremitting attention on the 
due administration of justice; and he used his 
best exertions to stem the overwhelming tide of 
luxury and moral corruption. His plans for the 
melioration of the state were aided by those 
wise counsellors by whom he was so long sur- 
rounded, till at length the blood-stained crafty 
triumvir was hailed, during his life, as the 
father of his country, by the united voice of 
senate and people, and left at his death the 
memory of a reign which has become proverbial 
for beneficence, clemency, and justice. Among 
the various arts to which Augustus resorted to 
beguile the hearts of his people, and perhaps to 
render them forgetful of their former freedom, 
one of the most remarkable was, the encourage- 
ment which he extended to learning, and the pa- 
tronage he so liberally bestowed on all by whom 
it was cultivated. To this noble protection of 
literature he was prompted not less by taste and 
inclination than sound policy ; and in his pa- 
tronage of the learned, his usual artifice had 
probably a smaller share than in those other 
parts of his conduct, by which he acquired the 
favourable opinion of the world. Prom infancy 
every thing had contributed to give him a relish 
for learning and a respect for the learned. His 
mother Atia, a woman of sense and prudence, 
had admirably regulated in his boyhood the ed- 
ucation of her son. She herself spoke the Latin 
tongue with a purity resembling the language 
of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi ; and 
Augustus retained during life that urbanity of 
374 



style and conversation to which he had been ac- 
customed in his youth. The great Julius, by 
whom he had been adopted,was desirous, among 
other less laudable objects of ambition, to hold 
the first place in letters as well as in arms. 
Those daring adventurers, Antony, Curio, and 
Dolabella, were the instruments of his military 
power; but his private friends were Balbus, 
Matius, Hirtius, and Oppidus, men who were 
all eminently accomplished — elegant in their 
modes of life, and fond of literary pursuits. Au- 
gustus had thus before him an example which 
he .would naturally respect and imitate. His 
adoptive father placed around his destined heir 
the ablest instructers ; and sometime before his 
death sent him to Apollonia, a Corinthian colo- 
ny in Illyria, where he assiduously studied mo- 
rals under Athenodorus. He was ardently pe- 
rusing the Grecian orators, and had made con- 
siderable progress in rhetoric, under Apollodo 
rus, a distinguished master of eloquence, when 
he received intelligence of the assassination of 
Caesar. The events which called him from 
Greece, and hurried him into the tumult of af- 
fairs, broke not his course of study. During 
that campaign against Antony, which terminat- 
ed with the battle of Modena, not a day passed 
in which he did not read, write, and declaim. 
He, at the same time, was constantly surround- 
ed by men of literature and taste. After the 
victory at Modena, when he marched to Rome, 
to demand the consulship, he was accompanied 
by Cornelius Gallus and Maecenas, who like- 
wise followed him to Rome from Philippi ; and 
on his first landing in Italy, after the victory he 
had there gained over Brutus, were his advi- 
sers in writing to the senate in terras of mode- 
ration. Though Athens was hostile to the Cae- 
sarian name, yet, when he visited it after, the 
battle of Actium, he showed the city many marks 
of respect, and was initiated into the solemni- 
ties of its goddesses, Minerva and Ceres. "When 
Egypt was subdued, he entered Alexandria, 
holding by the hand the philosopher Areius, 
who was a native of that city ; and, in the ha- 
rangue which he delivered to the inhabitants 
from his tribunal, he informed them that he 
spared their town, first, on account of the god 
Serapis ; secondly, out of respect for its founder, 
Alexander the Great ; and, thirdly, for the sake 
of Areius, his own friend and their fellow-citi- 
zen. After being firmly established without a 
competitor in the empire, Augustus still continu- 
ed to prosecute his private studies with unremit- 
ting assiduity, and to reap from them the great- 
est advantages. When he perused a Greek or 
Latin author, he dwelt chiefly on what might 
be a lesson or example in the administration of 
public affairs, or in his own private conduct. — 
'In evolvendis utriusque linguae auctoribus,' 
says Suetonius, 'nihil aeque sectabatur, quam 
praecepta et exempla publice vel privatim salu- 
bria.' His literary tastes appears from the mul- 
titude of his Greek secretaries, his superintend- 
ants for the charge of his collection of statues 
and pictures, his copyists and librarians. When 
wakeful through the night, he had a reader or a 
storyteller, like the eastern monarchs, who sat 
by him; and he often continued listening, till 
he dropped asleep. Among other embellish- 
ments which he bestowed on the city of Rome, 
be erected two public libraries; the one called 



AU 



HISTORY, &c. 



AU 



the Octavian, which stood in the portico of Oc- 
tavia, and the other on mount Palatme, adja- 
cent to the temple of Apollo. From his own 
share of the spoils of the conquered to^^ois in 
Dalmatia, he erected, at the Palatine library, 
a magnificent colonnade, with double rows of 
pillars; the interstices of which were adorned 
with statues and pictures, executed by the chief 
Grecian masters. It was open below, but above 
it comprehended an extensive and curious libra- 
ry, with retiring rooms for private reading — pub- 
lic halls for reciting — schools for teaching— and 
in short, every allurement and aid to study. 
Around v.'ere delightful walks, fitted for exer- 
cise or contemplation — some under shade, and 
others exposed to the sun, which could be alter- 
nately resorted to as the season of the year re- 
quired. A colossal statue of Apollo in bronze, 
which was of Tuscan workmanship, presided 
as the genius of the place, and no spot on earth 
could then have been dearer to the god : — 

' T\lvi medium claro surgebat marmore temphim. 
Et patrid Phoebo co.rius Ortygia.'' 

By advice of Msecenas, he likewise provided 
means for the careful education of the Roman 
youth. In pursuance of his ministers' recom- 
mendation, he, among other measures for pro- 
moting this design, transferred the school of 
Verrius Flaccus to the Palatme library, and 
settled a large salary on that celebrated gramma- 
rian. On literary men in general he lavished 
not merely pecuniary rewards and recompense, 
but paid them that attention and regard which 
they all court; and which, by raising their sta- 
tion in society, animates their exertions. Thus, 
when he was absent from the city, he never 
wrote to any of his own family or political ad- 
visers, without sending letters by the same op- 
portunity to Atticus, to inform him in what place 
he was, how long he intended remaining in it, 
■ and what books he was engaged in reading. 
While he was at Rome, and unable from the 
multiplicity of affairs to enjoy the society of At- 
ticus, he scarcely ever allowed a day to pass 
without proposing to him in writing some ques- 
tion on the subjects of antiquities, criticisms, or 
poetry. The commencement of his political ca- 
reer had indeed been somewhat inauspicious to 
the rising poets of his country. Virgil, Tibul- 
lus, and Propertius, all mourn the losses they had 
sustained during the reign of the triumvirate. 
But Virgil had no sooner displayed his genius 
than his lands were restored ; while, to other 
poets, crowns were assigned, or statues were 
erected, as rewards and distinctions. They also 
frequently read their works in the presence of 
Augustus, and he willingly attended public re- 
citations and discussions on literary topics. — 
• Ingenia seculi sui,' says Suetonius, ' omnibus 
modis fovit. Recitantes et benigne et patienter 
audivit, nee tantiim carmina, et historias, sed et 
orationes, et diaiogos. Componi tamen aliquid 
dese,nisi et serio et a proestantissimis, offende- 
batur.' As Augustus advanced in years, and 
became surroimded by his own shortlived de- 
scendants, and those of the empress Livia by 
her former husband, all the young members of 
the imperial family, who wished to gain his fa- 
vour, distinguished themselves by their profi- 
ciency in polite literature ; and by the acquisition 
of elegant accomplishments. The imcommon 



' attention which he paid to their instruction, and 
to the preservation of the purity of the Roman 
language, is evinced by one of his letters to his 
grandson, Caius Caesar, quoted by Gluiniilian, 
in which he censures him for using the word 
Calidus instead of Caldus, not but what the for- 
mer was Latin, but because it was unusual and 
pedantic. At the very close of life, when indis- 
position rendered him incapable of continued at- 
tention to business, or of long residence in the 
capital, he was carried in a litter to Prasne.ste, 
Tibur, or Baiae, through beautiful alleys, which 
terminated with the sea, or through odoriferous 
groves, which he himself had planted with myr- 
tles and laurels, the shade of which was then 
considered salutary for the health. On these 
journeys he read the works of the poets whose 
genius he himself had festered, and was con- 
stantly attended by philosophers, in whose con- 
versation he found his chief solace. Even when 
on his death- bed at Nola, he passed his time and 
exercised his faculties, which he retained to the 
last moment, in philosophic conversations on the 
vanity and emptiness of all human affairs. Au- 
gustus was, besides, an excellent judge of com- 
position, and a true critic in poetry ; so that his 
patronage was never misplaced, or lavished on 
those whose writings might rather have tended 
to corrupt than improve the taste and learning 
of the age. He was wont to laugh at the tinsel 
of that style which Maecenas affected, at the la- 
boured language of Tiberius, at Pollid's fond- 
ness for antiquated expressions, and the empty 
pomp of Asiatic eloquence which delighted An- 
tony. His own style was smooth, easy, and 
natural : he avoided all puerile or far-fetched 
thoughts, all affectation in the turn or disposi- 
tion of his phrases, and all words not in general 
use. Perspicuity was his principal care ; and 
whatever deviated in any shape from Nature, 
hurt the delicacy of his taste and judgment. 
Aulus Gellius, in mentioning the letters of Au- 
gustus to his grandson, Caius Agrippa, which 
he had just been reading, speaks with much de- 
light and admiration of the simple, unlaboured 
elegance of the style in which they were writ- 
ten ; but he unfortunately quotes from them only 
a single passage. This good taste of the prince 
had the happiest effect on that of the age. No 
writer could hope for patronage or popularity 
except by cultivating a style chaste and simple 
— which, if ornamental, was not luxuriant, or 
if severe, was not rugged or antiquated. The 
court of Augustus thus became a school of ur- 
banity, where men of genius acquired that deli- 
cacy of taste, that elevation of sentiment, and 
that purity of expression, which characterized 
the writers of the age. This extensive and 
judicious patronage of literature was attended 
with manifold political advantages to the empe- 
ror. His poets palliated whatever was odious 
in his despotism ; and his protection of philoso- 
phers was regarded by the people as a pledge or 
declaration that he was resolved to govern with 
humanity and justice. The pageantry of learn- 
ing may originally have been but one of those 
many arts of government which Augustus 
practised so admirably that he inquired on his 
death-bed if he had not well performed his part 
in the farce of life. But what commenced chiefly 
in artifice, though partly perhaps in inclination, 
tended ultimately to amend his own disposition 
375 



AU 



HISTORY, &c. 



AU 



and character. The emperor Julian insinuates 
that an intercourse with those men of worth 
and learning by whom he was surrounded, 
mollified a heart by nature obdurate and un- 
relenting, and from which ambition seemed to 
have eradicated every feeling of compassion or 
tenderness. The productions of genius, with 
which he became acquainted, occupied the heart 
as well as the fancy ; and in a situation other- 
wise calculated to instil pride, jealousy, and dis- 
trust of mankind, served at once as an antidote 
to those evils which beset the possessor of a new 
raised throne, and opened the way to better dis- 
positions. What prince could be conversant 
with the epistles of Horace, and not receive a 
lesson of urbanity 1 or read the works of Virgil 
without rising from the perusal more gracious 
and benign 1 From this temper of the monarch 
considerable freedom of expression was allowed 
to the poets, M^hose verses often show that, 
though the republic was subverted, the minds of 
the Romans were still in a great measure repub- 
lican. The daring pretensions of a people to 
punish, as well as to resist a tyrant, could not 
have been asserted with more energy by Milton 
himself than by Virgil, in his story of Mezen- 
tias and of his subjects' insurrection, which is 
approved both by the gods and the poet : — 

Ergo omnis furiis surrezit Etruria justis ; 
Regem ad supplicium prasenti Marte reposcunt, 

"With all his political virtues, sound judgment, 
and exquisite taste in literature, Augustus had 
some follies and weaknesses, which also exer- 
cised an influence on the literature of the age, 
and to which many things that we meet with, 
particularly in the works of the poets, must be 
referred. Thus their extravagant flattery in ad- 
dressing him as a divinity, who had descended 
for a short while on earth, and was about to re- 
sume his place in the celestial mansions, origin- 
ated in his absurd and impious desire to be con- 
sidered and even worshipped as a god. He be- 
gan with deifying his adoptive father, Julius, 
who also had boasted that celestial blood flowed 
in his veins. In a funeral oration, pronounced 
lor his aunt, Julius had alluded to his divine 
descent, and he frequently gave Venus Genetrix 
as his word of battle. Seven days after his 
death, a comet had appeared, which was be- 
lieved by the vulgar to be the soul of Caesar, con- 
verted by Venus into a blazing star, and in that 
form received into heaven. Augustus, availing 
himself of this belief, placed a brazen statue of 
Cassar in the temple of Venus, with a star over 
its head. His image was carried in procession 
with that of Venus, whenever intelligence of a 
victory was received, and supplications were 
decreed to him as a divinity. Hence the poetic 
incense offered to the manes of the deceased 
usurper, and Virgil's enumeration of the prodi- 
gies that had announced his death. The cool 
and reflecting head of Augustus did not preserve 
him from the influence of those extravagant and 
impious fancies which, about the same period, 
induced Antony to assume the character of 
Bacchus, and Sextus Porapey to bear the title 
and ensigns of the son of Neptune. While he 
affected to appear for a time on earth as the 
avenger of his adoptive parent,he was not unwil- 
ling it should be thought that his real father was 
376 



a greater than Octavius. A fable was circulated, 
which Augustus did not discountenance, with 
regard to his mother Atia and Apollo, resem- 
bling that which had been feigned concerning 
Olympias and Jupiter Ammon ; and it gained 
such credit that, as Suetonius informs us, some 
writers gravely asserted he was the son of Apol- 
lo. The name of that divinity was the word of 
battle chosen by the triumvirs at Philippi, and 
it was considered as an omen of the fate of 
Brutus, that, shortly before his death, he had 
involuntarily repeated the Homeric line : — 

'AXXa ii£ jioip' oXor) KUt A/jT«f ektovev viog. 

At an impious feast, held by Augustus in th& 
beginning of his reign, he, with five of his cour- 
tiers, represented the six great celestial gods, 
while some of the ladies of his court personated 
the six great goddesses ; and on this occasion 
the emperor himself, who was in fact uncom- 
monly beautiful, chose to appear with the attri- 
butes of Apollo. In his medals, the countenance 
of Augustus is what the Romans called an 
ApoUinian face ; and Servius informs us that 
there were statues of Augustus in Rome, which 
represented him under the character and with 
the emblems of that bright divinity. We also 
learn, that because Apollo was usually repre- 
sented with a flow of light beaming from thf 
eyes, Augustus wished it to be supposed that hi: 
eyes likewise, which were really fine,darted fortl 
so strong a brightness, as to dazzle those whc 
looked on them too steadily or closely : ' Ocu 
los habuit claros,' says Suetonius, ' ac nitidos 
quibus etiam existimari volebat inesse quoddanr 
divini vigoris, gaudebatque si quis sibi acriu; 
contuenti, quasi ad fulgorem solis, vultum sub- 
mitteret.' He also permitted his name to be in- 
serted in the hymns to the gods. He at length 
became the object of private worship, and at 
public festivals libations were poured out to him, 
as a tutelar deity of the empire. When a gen- 
eral obsequiousness to the will of Augustus 
prevailed at Rome, and the senate had idolized 
him by its decrees, we cannot wonder that the 
poets of the court should have followed the ex- 
ample of the conscript fathers, or that Virgil 
and Horace should have represented him as a 
god, the avenger of Julius, descended from hea- 
ven for a time, but soon about to resume his 
place among the constellations. This, it is true, 
might be, in some degree conventional language. 
There are three topics which poets in all ages 
have treated somewhat in a similar manner — 
Devotion, Love, and Loyalty ; or rather, they 
have applied to the two latter feelings a set of 
expressions which have been borrowed from the 
former. The pliable nature, too, of ancient 
mythology, made the proffer of a godhead seem 
less ridiculous to the Romans than it appears to 
us. It admitted of local genii, and of deified 
heroes. Romulus, the founder, had been early 
assumed among the number of the gods ; and 
since the days of Ennitis a system had been 
promulgated, and found credit in Rome, which 
taught that all the objects of vulgar worship 
were deified human spirits. Hence, a poet 
might the more readily venture to ask a bene- 
ficent prince, what sort of divinity he would be- 
come, if he would take his station in the hea- 
vens, rule the immense ocean, or preside in the 
realms below. The example, however, of Au- 



AU 



HISTORY, &c. 



AV 



gustus was of unfortunate precedent in Latin 
poetry; and Nero and Domitian, though de- 
graded by their vices below the ordinary level 
of the human species, were extolled in verse as 
constellations or demi-gods. Towards the close 
of the reign of Augustus, and when Rome had 
enjoyed for nearly half a century the benign in- 
fluence of his paternal government, the absurd 
adoration which had been paid to him changed 
into those mixed feelings of reverence and affec- 
tion, the union of which, in modern times, has 
been termed loyalty, and for which pietas was 
the Latin expression. This sentiment towards 
the sovereign and his family, which prompts the 
subject to feel the wrongs of the monarch as his 
own, and, as such, to be ready at all hazards to 
avenge them, is frequently expressed in the 
works of the poets who flourished at the end of 
Augustus' reign, both in reference to their own 
feelings and to those which prevailed among 
others : — 

Quceqiie tua est pief^s in totum nomen luli, 
Te IcBdi, cum quis Iceditur mde, pitas. 

Augustus, like Sylla, paid a sincere devotion to 
Fortmie; and, accordingly, in the C^sars of Ju- 
lian, that deity admits that he was the only 
prince who had been sincerely grateful to her. 
He repaired her temples, and omitted no oppor- 
tunity of paying her honour. Hence, Horace's 
courtly Odes to Fortune, and a tone prevailing 
among the poets, as if it w^ere more flattering to 
the vanity of a patron, that his wealth and pow- 
er should have been acquired by her blind fa- 
vour, than by his own talents or virtues. Great, 
happy, and- powerful, in the commencement of 
his reign, Augustus was, in his declining years, 
feeble, credulous, and unfortunate, at least in 
the interior of his palace. Domestic chagrins 
besieged his old age, and often wrung from his 
lips the melancholy line : — 

'Atfl 6(^£\ov dyafios r kjisvai dyovos t di:o\eGQai. 

Hence, in the works of the poets there were, as 
Blackwell expresses it, ' decencies to be observ- 
ed, and distances to be kept.' Concerning ma- 
ny topics, there could not be the same freedom 
as in the days of Lucilius, or Catullus. Some 
imprudent epigrams are said tohave accelerated 
the melancholy fate of Cornelius Gallus, and an 
oflfensive poem was made at least the pretext for 
the exile of Ovid. The patronage of a prince, 
however liberal and judicious, can seldom of it- 
self be sufficient essentially to promote the in- 
terests of literature : but his example spreads 
among his courtiers and the great of the land. 
Accordingly, there never was an age in which 
the learned were so rewarded and encouraged 
by statesmen, politicians, and generals, as that 
which grateful posterity has stamped with the 
name of Augus^Js. Its literature, more than 
any other period, was the result of patronage 
and court favour, and consequently we must ex- 
pect to find in it those excellences and defects 
which patronagfe and court favour are calculated 
to produce. Nothing can be more obvious, than 
the advantages which the literature of a nation 
derives from men of elevated rank aiding its pro- 
gress, and co-operating to promote its expansion. 
They remove the contempt which in rude ages 
has been sometimes felt for it, and the prejudices 
which, in more civilized states of society, have 
Part II.— 3 B 



been frequently entertained against it. Their 
influence insensibly extends itself to each de- 
partment of literature, and their countrymen 
learn to judge of every thing, and to treat every 
thing, as if the)'' were all animated with a digni- 
fied and patrician spirit. It is to this exalted 
patronage that Roman literature has been in- 
debted for a large portion of its characteristic 
greatness, both of expression and of thought. 
On the other hand, those compositions, particu- 
larly the poetical, which have been produced by 
command of a patron, or with a view to merit 
his approbation, have always an air as if they 
had proceeded rather from premeditation than 
feeling or impulse, and appear to have been 
written, not as the natural expression of power- 
ful emotions, but from the desire of favour, or 
at best of fame. When an author, too, depends 
solely on the patronage of exalted individuals, 
and not, as in modern times, on the support of 
the public, a spirit of servility and flattery is apt 
to infuse itself into his writings. Yet to this 
system of adulation we owe some of the sweet- 
est lines of Tibullus, and the most splendid pas- 
sages of Virgil ! At the commencement of the 
reign of Augustus, the old Csesarians, Balbus, 
Matius and Oppius, men who were highly ac- 
complished, and had been the chief personal 
friends of the great Julius, still survived, and led 
the way in every species of learning and ele- 
gance. Their correspondence with Cicero, in. 
his Familiar Epistles, exhibits much re'finement 
in the individuals, and in general, a highly pol- 
ished stale of society. They had a taste for 
gardening, planting, and architecture, and all 
those various arts which contribute to the em- 
bellishment of life. They rewarded the verses 
of poets, listened to their productions, and court- 
ed their society. When Augustus landed in 
Italy from Apollonia, Balbus was the first per- 
son who came to offer his services, and Matius 
took charge of the shows which he exhibited on 
his arrival at Rome. These ancient friends of 
the Julian line continued, during the early part 
of his reign to frequent the court of Augustus ; 
and though not first in favour with the new sove- 
reigii, they felt no jealous)^ of their successor, 
but lived on the most cordial and intimate terms 
with Maecenas, who now held, near the person 
of the adopted son, the enviable place which 

they had occupied with the father. The 

name of Aug^tsfus was afterwards given to the 
successors of Octavianus in the Roman empire 
as a personal, and the name of Ccesar as a 
family distinction. In a more distant period of 
the empire, the title of Augustus was given only 
to the emperor.whilethatof Ceesar was bestow- 
ed on the second person in the state, who was 
considered as presumptive heir. 

Avmros Casstos, a man saluted emperor A. 
D. 175. He reigned only three months, and 
was assassinated by a centurion. He w^as called 
a second Catiline, from his excessive love of 
bloodshed. Diod. 

AviENcs, RcFus Festus, a poet in the age of 
Theodosius, who translated the Phaenomena of 
Aratus, as also all Livy, into iambic verses. 
The best edition of what remains of him is that 
of Cannegetier, 8vo. 1731. 

AviTus,'!. a governor of Britain under Nero. 

Tacit. Ann. 14. II. Alcinus, a Christian poet, 

who wrote a poem in 6 books on original sin, &c. 
377 



BA 



HISTORY, &c. 



BA 



Adrelia Lex, was enacted A. IT. C. 653, 

by the praetor L. Aurelias Cotta, to invest the 
senatorian and equestrian orders, and the Tri- 

buni iErarii, with judicial power. Another, 

A. U. C. 678. It abrogated a clause of the 
Lex Cornelia, and permitted the tribunes to hold 
other offices after the expiration of the iribune- 
ship. 

AuRiiLiANus, emperor of Rome after Flavius 
Claudius, was austere, and even cruel in the 
execution of the laws, and punished his soldiers 
with unusual severity. He rendered himself 
famous for his military character ; and his expe- 
dition against Zenobia, the celebrated queen of 
Palmyra, gained him great honours. He beau- 
tified Rome, was charitable to the poor, and the 
author of many salutary laws. He was natu- 
rally brave ; and in all the battles he fought, it is 
said he killed no less than 800 men with his own 
hand. In his triumph he exhibited to the Ro- 
mans, people of 15 different nations, all of which 
he had conquered. He was the first emperor 
who wore a diadem. After a glorious reign of 
six years, as he marched against the northern 
barbarians, he was assassinated near Byzanti- 
um, A. D. 275, 29th January, by his soldiers, 
whom Mnestheus had incited to rebellion 
against their emperor. 

AuRELius, I. emperor of Rome. Vid. Anto- 
ninus Bassianus. II. Victor, an historian 

in the age of Julian, two of whose composi- 
tions are extant, an account of illustrious men, 
and a biography of all the Csesars to Julian, 
The best editions of Aurelius are the 4to. of 
Artuzenius, Amst. 1733, and the 8vo. of Pitis- 
cus, Utr. 1696. Vid. Antoninus. 

AuREOLus, a general who assumed the pur- 
ple in the age of Gallienus. 

AuRiNiA, a prophetess held in great venera- 
tion by the Germans. Tacit. Germ. 8. 

AusoNius, Decim. Magnus, a poet, born at 
Bourdeaux in Gaul, in the 4th century, precep- 
tor to Gratian, son of the emperor Valentinian, 
and made consul by the means of his pupil. 
His compositions have been long admired. The 
thanks he returned the emperor Gratian is one 
of the best of his poems, which were too often 
hurried for publication, and consequently not 
perfect. He wrote the consular fasti of Rome, 
a useful performance, now lost. 

Auspices, a sacerdotal order at Rome, nearly 
the same as the augurs. Vid. Augures. 

AuxEsiA and Damia, two virgms who came 
from Crete to TroBzene, where the inhabitants 
stoned them to death in a sedition. The Epi- 
daurians raised them statues, by order of the 
oracle, when their country was become barren. 
They were held in great veneration at Troe- 
zene. Herodot. 5, c. 82. — Paus. 2, c. 30. 

B. 

Babilius, a Roman, who, by the help of a 
certain herb, is said to have passed in six days 
from the Sicilian Sea to Alexandria, Plin. 
Pram. 19. 

Bacabasus, betrayed the snares of Artaba- 
nus, brother of Darius, against Artaxerxes. 
Justin. 3, c. 1. 

Bacch^, the priestesses of Bacchus, Paus. 
2, c. 7. 

Bacchanalia. Vid. Dionysia. 
378 



Bacchantes, priestesses of Bacchus, who 
are represented at the. celebration of the orgies 
almost naked, with garlands of ivy, with a thyr- 
sus, and dishevelled hair. Their looks are wild, 
and they utter dreadful sounds, and clash difier- 
ent musical instruments together. They are 
also called Thyades and Menades. Ovid. Met. 
6, V, 695.—Horat. 3, od. 2b.—Propert. 3, el. 21. 
— LAican. 1, V. 674. 

Bacchis, or Balus, king of Corinth, succeed- 
ed his father, Prumnides. His successors were 
always called Bacchida, in remembrance of the 
equity and moderation of his reign. The Bac- 
chidse increased so much, that they chose one oi 
their number to preside among them, with regal 
authority ; and it is said that the sovereign 
power continued in their hands near 200 years. 
Cypselus overturned this institution by making 
himself absolute. Strab. 8. — Paus. 2, c. 4. — 
Herodot. 5, c. 92.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 407. 

Bacchius and Bithus, two celebrated gladia- 
tors, of equal age and strength; whence the 
proverb to express equality, Bithus contra Bac- 
chium. Sueton. in Aug. — Horat. 1, sat. 7, v. 20. 

Bacchylides, a lyric poet of Cos, nephew to 
Simonides, who, like Pindar, wrote the praises 
of Hiero. Some of his verses have been pre- 
served. Marcel. 

Bacis, a famous soothsayer of Bceotia, Cic. 
1, de Div. c. 34. 

B^BiA Lex, was enacted for the election of 

four praetors every other year. Liv. 40. 

Another law, by M. Bsebius, a tribune of the 
people, which forbade the division of the lands, 
whilst it substituted a yearly tax to be paid by 
the possessors, and to be divided among the 
people. Appian. 1, 

Bagoas, and Bagosas, an Egyptian eunuch 
in the court of Artaxerxes Ochus, so powerful 
that nothing could be done without his consent. 
He led some troops against the Jews, and pro- 
faned their temple. He poisoned Ochus, gave 
his flesh to cats, and made knife-handles with 
his bones, because he had killed the god Apis. 
He placed on the throne Arses, the youngest of 
the slaughtered prince's children, and afterwards 
put him to death. He was at last killed, B. C. 
335, by Darius, whom, after raising to the 
crown, he had attempted to poison. Diod. 16 

and 17. The name of Bagoas occurs very 

frequently in the Persian history; and it seems 
that most of the eunuchs of the monarchs of 
Persia were generally known by that appella- 
tion. 

Balbillus, C. a learned and benevolent man, 
governor of Egypt, of which he wrote the his- 
tory, under Nero. Tacit. Ann. 13, c. 22. 

Balbinus, a Roman, who, after governing 
provinces with credit and honour, assassinated 
the Gordians and seized the purple. He was 
some time after murdered by his soldiers, A. D. 
238. 

BALNEiE, {baths,) were very numerous at 
Rome, private as well as public. In the ancient 
times simplicity was observed, but in the age of 
the emperors they became expensive ; they were 
used after walking, exercise, or labour; and 
were deemed more necessary than luxurious. 
Under the emperors, it became so fashionable 
to bathe, that without this the meanest of the 
people seemed to be deprived of one of the neces- 
saries of life. There were certain hours of the 



BA 



HISTORY, &c. 



BA 



day appointed for bathing, and a small piece of 
money admitted the poorest as well as the most 
opulent. In the baths, there were separate 
apartments for the people to dress and to un- 
dress; and, after they had bathed, they com- 
monly covered themselves, the hair was plucked 
out of the skin, and the body rubbed over with a 
pumice-stone, and perfumed, to render it smooth 
and fair. The Roman emperors generally 
built baths, and all endeavoured to eclipse each 
other in the magnificence of the building. It is 
said that Dioclesian employed 40,000 of his 
soldiers in building his baths ; and when they 
were finished, he destroyed all the workmen. 
Alexander Severus first permitted the people to 
use them in the night, and he himself often 
bathed with the common people. For some 
time both sexes bathed promiscuously and with- 
out shame, and the edicts of the emperors proved 
abortive for a Vv^hile in abolishing that indecent 
custom, which gradually destroyed the morals 
of the people. They generally read in bathing, 
and we find many compositions written in the 
midst of this luxurious enjoyment. 

Bantius, L. a gallant youth of Nola, whom 
Annibal found, after the battle of Cannae, al- 
most dead amongst the heap of slain. He was 
sent back home with great humanity; upon 
which he resolved to betray his country to so 
generous an enemy, Marcellus, the Roman 
general, heard of it, and rebuked Bantius, who 
continued firm and faithful to the interest of 
Rome. Liv.Sb, c. 15. 

BAPT.E, I. the priests of Cotytto, at Athens. 
Her festivals were celebrated in the night. The 
name is derived from /Sairreiv, to wash, because 
the priests bathed themselves in the most effemi- 
nate manner. Juv. 2, v. 91. II. A comedy 

of Eupolis, in which men are introduced dancing 
on the stage with indecent gestures. 

Barbari, a name originally applied to those 
who spoke inelegantly, or with harshness and 
difficulty. The Greeks and Romans generally 
called all nations, except their own, by the des- 
picable name of barbarians, 

Barcha, the surname of a noble family at 
Carthage, of which Annibal and Hamilcar were 
descended. By means of their bribes and in- 
fluence, they excited a great faction, which is 
celebrated in the annals of Carthage by the 
name of the Barchinian faction; and at last 
raised themselves to power, and to the independ- 
ent disposal of all the offices of trust or emolu- 
ment in the state. Liv. 21, c. 2 and 9. 

Bardi, a celebrated sacerdotal order among 
the ancient Gauls, who praised their heroes, and 
published their fame in their verses or on mu- 
sical instruments. They were so esteemed and 
respected by the people, that at their sight two 
armies who were engaged in battle laid dowm 
their arms, and submitted to their orders. They 
censured, as well as commended, the behaviour 
of the people, l/ucan. 1, v. 447. — Strab, 4. — 
Marcell. 15, c, 24. 

Bardyllis, an Illyrian prince,whose daughter 
Bircenna married king Pyrrhus. Plut.inPyrrh. 

Bars'ine, and Barsene, a daughter of Da- 
rius, who married Alexander, by whom she had 
a son called Hercules. Cassander ordered her 
and her child to be put to death. Justin. 13, c. 
S, 1. 15, c. 2. — Arrian. 
B.^sIUDEg, I. the father of Herodotus, who, 



with others, attempted to destroy Strattes, ty- 
rant of Chios. Uerodot. 8, c. 132. II. A 

family who held an oligarchical power at Ery- 

thrae, Strab. 14. lil. A priest of mount 

Carmel, who foretold many momentous events 
to Vespasian, when he offered sacrifices. Ta- 
cit. 2, Hist. c. 87. — Suetaii. in Vesp. 7. 

Basilius, a celebrated bishop of Africa, very 
animated against the Arians, whose tenets and 
doctrines he refuted with warmth, but great 
ability. He was eloquent as well as ingenious, 
and possessed of all those qualities which con- 
stitute the persuasive orator and the elegant wri- 
ter. 'Erasmus has placed him in the number of 
the greatest orators of antiquity. He died in his 
51st year, A. D. 379. The latest edition of his 
works is that of the Benedictines, fol. Paris,1721. 

Bassarides, a name given to the votaries of 
Bacchus, and to Agave by Persius, which seems 
derived from Bassara, a town of Libya sacred 
to the god, or from a particular dress worn by 
his priestesses, and so called by the Thracians. 
Persius 1, v. 101. 

Bassus AuFinrus, I. an historian in the age 
of Augustus, who wrote on the Germanic war. 

Quintil. 10, c, 1. II. Csesius, a lyric poet in 

Nero's age, to whom Persius addressed his 6th 

satire. Some of his verses are extant. III. 

Julius, an orator in the reign of Augustus, some 
of whose orations have been preserved by Se- 
neca. 

Bathyllus, a beautiful youth of Samos, 
greatly beloved by Polycrates the tyrant, and by 

Anacreon. Horat. ep. 14, v. 9. Mecsenas 

was also fond of a youth of Alexandria of the 

same name. Juv. 6, v. 63. The poet who 

claimed as his own Virgil's distich, Noctepluit 
totd, &c. bore also the same name. 

Batiattjs, Lent, a man of Campania, who 
kept a house full of gladiators, who rebelled 
against him, Plut. in Cras. 

Batis, a eunuch, governor of Gaza, who, 
upon being unwilling to yield, was diagged 
round the city tied by the heels to Alexander's 
chariot. Curt. 4, c. 6. 

Baton, of Sinope, wrote commentaries oi> 
the Persian affairs. Strab. 12. 

BATRACHOMYOMAcmA, a pocm, describing 
the fight between frogs and mice, written by 
Homer, which has been printed sometimes se- 
parately from the Iliad and Odyssey. The best 
edition of it is Maittaire's 8vo. London, 1721. 

Battiades, a patronymic of Callimachus, 
from his father Battus. Ovid, in Ibin. v. 53. 
A name given to the people of Cyrene 



from king Battus. Ital. 3, v. 253. 

Battus I. a Lacedaemonian, who built the 
town of Cyrene, B. C. 630, with a colony from 
the island of Thera. He was son of Polym- 
nestus and Phronime, and reigned in the town 
he had founded, and after death received divine 
honours. The difficulty with which he spoke 
first procured him the name of Battus. Uero- 
dot. 4, c. 155, &c.—Paus. 10, c. 15. The 

2d of that name was grandson to Battus 1st, by 
Arcesilaus. He succeeded his father on the 
throne of Cyrene, and was surnamed Felix, 
and died 544 B. C. Herodot. 4, c. 159, &c. 

Bavius and Misvius, two stupid and malev- 
olent poets in the age of Augustus, who at- 
tacked the superior talents of the contemporary 
writers. Virg. Eel. 3. 

379 



BE 



HISTORY, &c. 



BE 



Belephantes, a Chaldean, who, from his 
knowledge of astrology, told Alexander that his 
entering Babylon would be attended with fatal 
consequences to him. Diod. 17. 

Belesis, a priest of Babylon, who told Ar- 
baces, governor of Media, that he should reign 
one day in the place of Sardanapalus. His pro- 
phecy was verified, and he was rewarded by the 
new king with the government of Babylon, B. 
C. 826. Diod. 2. 

Belisarius, a celebrated general, who, in a 
degenerate and an effeminate age, in the reign 
of Justinian, emperor of Constantinople, re- 
newed all the glorious victories, battles, and tri- 
umphs, which had rendered the first Romans so 
distinguished in the time of their republic. He 
died, after a life of military glory, and the trial of 
royal ingratitude, in the 565th year of the Chris- 
tian era. The story of his begging charity, with 
date obolum Belasario is said lo be a fabrication. 

Belistida, a woman who obtained a prize at 
Olympia. Paus. 5, c. 8. 

Bellovesus, a king of the Celtae, who, in 
the reign of Tarquin Priscus, was sent at the 
head of a colony to Italy by his uncle Ambiga- 
tus. Liv. 5, c. 34. 

Belus, I. one of the most ancient kings of 
Babylon, about 1800 years before the age of 
Semiramis, was made a god after death, and 
worshipped with much ceremony by the Assy- 
rians and Babylonians. He was supposed to 
be the son of the Osiris of the Egyptians. The 
temple of Belus was the most ancient and most 
magnificent in the world. It was originally the 
tower of Babel, which was converted into a 
temple. It had lofty towers, and it was enriched 
by all the succeeding monarchs til] the age of 
Xerxes, who, after his unfortunate expedition 
against Greece, plundered and demolished it. 
Among the riches it contained were many sta- 
tues of massy gold, one of which was forty feet 
high. In the highest of the towers was a mag- 
nificent bed, where the priests daily conducted 
a woman, who, as they said, was honoured with 
the company of the god. Joseph. Ant. Jud. 10. 
— Herodot. 1, c. 181, &c. — Strab. 16. — Arrian. 

7. — Diod. 1, &c. 11. A king of Egypt, son 

of Epaphus and Libya, and father of Agenor. 

III. Another, son of Phoenix the son of 

Agenor, who reigned in Phoenica. 

Berenice, and Beronice, I. a woman famous 
for her beauty, mother of Ptolemy Philadelphus 
by Lagus. JElian. V. H. 14, c. 43. — Theocrit. 
— Paus. 1, c. 7. II. A daughter of Phila- 
delphus, who married Antiochus king of Syria, 
after he had divorced Laodice, his former wife. 
After the death of Philadelphus, Laodice was 
recalled ; and mindful of the treatment she had 
received, she poisoned her husband, placed her 
son on the vacant throne, and murdered Bere- 
nice and her child at Antioch, where she had 
fled, B. C. 248. III. A daughter of Ptole- 
my Auletes, who usurped her father's throne 
for some time, strangled her husband Seleucus, 
and married Archelaus, a priest of Bellona. 
Her father regained his power, and put her to 

death, B. C. 55. IV. The wife of Mithri- 

dates, who, when conquered by Lucullus, or- 
dered all his wives to destroy themselves, for fear 
the conqueror should offer violence to them. 
She accordingly drank poison, but this not ope- 
rating soon enough, she was strangled by a 
380 



eunuch. V. The mother of Agrippa, who 

shines in the history of the Jews as daughter-in- 
law of Herod the Great. VI. A daughter 

of Agrippa, who married her uncle Herod, and 
afterwards Polemon, king of Cilicia. She was 
accused by Juvenal of committing incest with 
her brother Agrippa. It is said that she was 
passionately loved by Titus, who would have 
made her empress but for fear of the people. 
VII. A wife of king Attains. VIIL 



Another, daughter of Philadelphus and Arsi- 
noe, who married her own brother Evergetes, 
whom she loved with much tenderness. When 
he went on a dangerous expedition, she vowed 
all the hair of her head to the goddess Venus if 
he returned. Sometime after his victorious 
return, the locks which were in the temple of 
Venus disappeared ; and Conon, an astrono- 
mer, to make his court to the queen, publicly 
reported that Jupiter had carried them away, 
and had made them a constellation. She was 
put to death by her son, B. C. 221. Catull. 67. 

— Hygin. P. A. 2, c. 24. — Justin. 26, c. 3. 

This name is common to many of the queens 
and princesses in the Ptolemean family in Egypt. 
Bero.sus, a Babylonian by birth, who flourish- 
ed in the reign of Alexander the Great, and re- 
sided for some years at Athens. As a priest of 
Belus, he possessed every advantage which the 
records of the temple and the learning and tra- 
ditions of the Chaldseans could afford. He ap- 
pears to have sketched his history of the earlier 
times from the representations upon the walls 
of the temple. From written and traditionary 
knowledge he must have learned several points 
too well authenticated to be called in question ; 
and correcting the one by the other, and at the 
same time blending them as usual with my- 
thology, he produced his strange history. The 
first fragment preserved by Alexander Polyhis- 
tor is extremely valuable, and contains a store 
of very curious information. The first book of 
the history apparently opens, naturally enough 
with a description of Babylonia. Then refer- 
ring to the paintings, the author finds the first 
series a kind of preface to the rest. All men 
of every nation appear assembled in Chaldaea : 
among them is introduced a personage who is 
represented as their instructer in the arts and 
sciences, and informing them of the events 
which had previously taken place. Unconscious 
that Noah is represented under the character 
of Cannes, Berosus describes him, from the 
hieroglyphical delineation, as a being literally 
compounded of a fish and a man, and as pas- 
sing the natural, instead of the diluvian night in 
the ocean, with other circum-stances indicative 
of his character and life. The instructions of 
the patriarch are detailed in the next series of 
paintings. In the first of which, I conceive, 
the Chaos is portrayed by the confusion of the 
limbs of every kind of animal ; the second rep- 
resents the creation of the universe : the third 
the formation of mankind: others again that of 
animals, and of the heavenly bodies. The sec- 
ond book appears to have comprehended the 
history of the antediluvian world : and of this 
the two succeeding fragments seem to have 
been extracts. The historian, as usual, ha.s 
appropriated the history of the world to Chal- 
daea. He finds nine persons, probably repre- 
sented as kings, preceding Noah, who is again 



BI 



HISTORY, &c. 



BO 



introduced under the name Xisuthrus, and he 
supposes that the representation was that of the 
first dynasty of the Chalda^an kings. From the 
imiversal consent of history and tradition he was 
well assured that Alorus or Orion, ihe Nimrod 
of the Scriptures, was the founder of Babylon 
and the first king : consequently he places him 
at ihe top, and Xisuthrus follows as the tenth. 
The destruction of the records by Nabonasar 
left him to fill up the intermediate names as he 
could : and who are inserted, is not easy so to 
determine. Berosus has ^iven also a full and 
accurate description of the deluge, which is 
wonderfully consonant with the Mosaic ac- 
count. We have also a similar account, or it 
may be an epitome of the same from the Assy- 
rian history of Abydenus, who was a disciple 
of Aristotle, and a copyist from Berosus. The 
age in which he lived is not precisely known, 
though some fix it in the reign of Alexander, 
or 268 years B.C. 

Bessus, I. a governor of Bactriana, who, af- 
ter the battle of Arbela, seized Darius, his sove- 
reign, and put him to death. After this murder 
he assumed the title of king, and was, some 
time after, brought before Alexander, who gave 
him to Oxatres, the brother of Darius. The 
prince ordered his hands and ears to be cut off", 
and his body to be exposed on a cross, and shot 
at by the soldiers. Justin. 12, e. b.—Curt. 6 

and 7. II. A parricide who discovered the 

murder he had committed, upon destroying a 
nest of swallows, which, as he observed, re- 
proached him of his crime. Plut. 

BiBACULUs, I. (M. Furius) a Latin poet in 
the age of Cicero. He composed annals in Iam- 
bic verses, and wrote epigrams full of wit and 
humour, and other poems now lost. Horai. 2. 

,S:a^. 5, V. n.—Quintil. 10. II. A praetor, 

&c. Val. Max. 1, c. 1. 

BiBULUS, a son of M. Calpumius Bibulus by 
■Portia, Cato's daughter. He was Csesar's col- 
league in the consulship, but of no consequence 
in the state, according to this distich mentioned 
by Sueion. in Jul. c. 20. 

Non Bibulo quicquam nuper, sed Ccesare fac- 
tum est : 
. Nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini. 

One of the friends of Horace bore that name. 
1 Sat. 10, V. 86. 

BiON, I. a philosopher and sophist of Borys- 
thenes in Scythia, who rendered himself famous 
for his knowledge of poetry, music, and philo- 
sophy. He made every body the object of his 
satire, and rendered his compositions distin- 
guished for clearness of expression, for face- 
tiousness, wit, and pleasantry. He died 241 B. 

C. Diog. in vita. II. A Greek poet of 

Smyrna, who wrote pastorals in an elegant style. 
Moschus, his friend and disciple, mentions in an 
elegiac poem that he died by poison, about 300 
years B. C. His Idyllia are written with ele- 
gance and simplicity, purity and ease ; and they 
abound with correct images, such as the view 
of the country may inspire. There are many 
good editions of this poet's works, generally 
printed with those of Moschus, the best of which 

is that of Heskin, 8vo. Oxon. 1748. III. A 

soldier in Alexander's army, &c. Curt. 4, c. 

13. IV. A native of Propontis in the age of 

Pherecydes. V. A man of Syracuse, who 



wrote on rhetoric. VI. A native of Abdera, 

disciple to Democritus. He first found out that 
there were certain parts of the earth where 
there were six months of perpetual light and 

darkness alternately. VII. A man of Soli, 

who composed a history of jEthiopia. VIII. 

Another, who wrote nine books on rhetoric, 
which he called by the names of the muses ; 
and hence Biov^i sermones mentioned by Ho- 
rat. 2, ep. 2, v. m.—Diog. 4. 

'BiTuiTUs, a king of the Allobroges, conquer- 
ed by a small number of Romans, &c. Val. 
Max. 6, c. Q.—Flor. 3, c. 2. 

BoccAR, a king of Mauretania. Juv. 4, v. 
90, applies the word in a general sense to any 
native of Africa. . 

BoccHUs, a king of Getulia, m alliance with 
Rome, who perfidiously delivered Jugurtha to 
Sylla, the lieutenant of Marius. SaUust. Jug. 
— Paterc. 2, c. 12. 

BcBDROMiA, an Athenian festival, instituted 
in commemoration of the assistance which the 
people of Athens received in the reign of Erech- 
theus, from Ion, son of Xuthus, when their 
country was invaded by Eumolpus son of Nep- 
tune. The word is derived otto tov PonSponeiv, 
coming to help. Plutarch in Thes. mentions it 
as in commemoration of the victory which The- 
seus obtained over the Amazons in a month 
called at Athens Boedromion. 

BcEOTARCH^], the chief magistrates in Boe- 
otia. Liv. 42, c. 43. ^ . • ' ir v 

BcEOROBisTAS, a man who made himsell ab- 
solute among the Getge by the strictness of his 
discipline. StraJ). 7. , • , j 

BoETHius, a celebrated Roman, banished, 
and afterwards punished with death, on a sus- 
picion of a conspiracv,by Theodoric, king of the 
Ostrogoths, A. D. 525. It wa^ during his im- 
prisonment that he wrote his celebrated poetical 
treatise de consolatiane philosophic in five books. 
The best edition of his works is that of Hage- 
nau, 4to. 1491, or that of L. Bat. 1671, with 
the notis variorum. 

BoETUs, a foolish poet of Tarsus, who wrote 
a poem on the battle of Philippi. Strab. 14. 

Bolus, a king of the Cimbri, who killed a 
Roman ambassador. Liv. ep. 67. 

BoMONiciB, youths that were whipt at the 
altar of Diana Orthia during the festivals of 
the goddess. He wh o bore the lash of the whip 
with the greatest patience, and without uttering a 
groan, was declared victorious, and received an 
honourable prize. Paus. 3, c. IQ.—Plut. in Lye 

BoNOsius, an officer of Probus, who assumed 
the imperial purple in Gaul. 
Bootes. Vid. Part III. 
BoREADEs, the descendants of Boreas, who 
long possessed the supreme power and the 
priesthood in the island of the Hyperboreans. 
Diod. 1 and 2. 
Boreas. Vid. Part III. 
BoREiSMi, a festival at Athens m honour ol 
Boreas, who, as the Athenians supposed, was 
related to them on account of his marriage with 
Orithyia, the daughter of one of their kings. 
They attributed the overthrow of the eneniy^s 
fleet to the respect which he paid to his wile s 
native country. There were also sacrifices at 
Megalopolis in Arcadia, in honour of Boreas. 
Paus. Attic. (f« Arcad. ,, , 

BouDiCEA, a queen in Britain, who rebellea 
381 



BR 



HISTORY, &c. 



BR 



upon being insulted by the Romans. She poi- 
soned herself when conquered, A. D. 61. Tacit. 
Ann. 14, c. 31. 

Brachmanes, Indian philosophers, who de- 
rived their name from Brahma, one of the three 
beings whom God, according to their theology, 
created, and with whose assistance he formed 
the world. They devoted themselves totally to 
the worship of the gods, and were accustomed 
from their youth to endure labours, and to live 
with frugality and abstinence. They never ate 
flesh, and abstained from the use of wine and all 
carnal enjoyments. After they had spent 37 
years in the greatest trials, they were permitted 
to marry, and indulge themselves in a more free 
and unbounded manner. According to modern 
authors, Brahma is the parent of all mankind, 
and he produced as many worlds as there are 
parts in the body, which they reckoned 14. 
They believed that there were seven seas, of 
water, milk, curds, butter, salt, sugar, and 
wine, each blessed with its particular paradise, 
Strab. Ib.—Diod. 17. 

Branchyllides, a chief of the Boeotians. 
Paus. 9, c. 13. 

Brasidas, a famous general of Lacedsemon, 
son of Tellus, who, after many great victories 
over Athens and other Grecian states, died of a 
wound at Amphipolis, which Cleon, the Athe- 
nian, had besieged, B. C. 423. A superb mon- 
ument was raised to his memory. Pans. 3, c. 
2i.— Thucyd. 4 and b.—Diod. b. 

Brasideia, festivals at Lacedeemon in honour 
of Brasidas. None but freemen, born Spartans, 
were permitted to enter their lists, and such as 
were absent were fined. 

Brennus, I. a general of the Galli Senones, 
who invaded Italy, defeated the Romans at the 
river Allia, and entered their city without oppo- 
sition. The Romans fled into the capitol, and 
left the whole city in the possession of the ene- 
my. The Gauls climbed the Tarpeian rock in 
the night, and the capital would have been ta- 
ken had not the Romans been awakened by the 
noise of geese which were before the doors, and 
immediately repelled the enemy. Camillus, 
who was in banishment, marched to the relief 
of his country, and so totally defeated the Gauls, 
that not one remained to carry the news of 
their destruction. Liv. 5, c. 36, &c. — Pint, in 
Catnill. II. Another Gaul, who made an ir- 
ruption into Greece with 150,000 men and 
15,000 horse, and endeavoured to plunder the 
temple of Apollo at Delphi. He was destroyed 
with all his troops, by the god ; or, more pro- 
perly, he killed himself in a fit of intoxication, 
B. C. 278, after being defeated by the Delphians. 
Pans. 10, c. 22 and 23. — Justin. 24, c. 6, &c. 

Briseis, a woman of Lyrnessus, called also 
Hippodamia. When her country was taken by 
the Greeks, and her husband Mines and brother 
killed in the fight, she fell to the share of Achil- 
les, in the division of the spoils. Agamemnon 
took her away some time after from Achilles, 
who made a vow to absent himself from the 
field of battle. Briseis was very faithful to 
Achilles ; and when Agamemnon restored her 
to him, he swore he had never offended her 
chastity. Homer. Jl. 1, 2, &c. — Ovid. Heroid. 
3, de Art. Am. 2 and 3.—Propert. 2, el. 8, 20, 
and 22.— Paus. 5, c. 24:.— Horat. 2, od. 4. 

Britannicus, a son of Claudius Csesar by 
382 



Messalina. Nero was raised to the throne in 
preference to him, by means of Agrippina, and 
caused him to be poisoned. His corpse was 
buried in the night ; but it is said that a shower 
of rain washed away the white paint which the 
murderer had put over his face, so that it appear- 
ed quite black, and discovered the effects of poi- 
son. Tacit. Ann. — Sueton. in Ner. c. 33. 

Brumalia, festivals celebrated at Rome in 
honour of Bacchus, about the month of Decem- 
ber. They were first instituted by Romulus. 

Brutus, L. Junius, I. son of M. Junius and 
Tarquinia, second daughter of Tarquin Pris- 
ons. The father, with his eldest son, were 
murdered by Tarquin the Proud, and Lucius, 
unable to revenge their death, pretended to be 
insane. The artifice saved his life ; he was 
called Brutus for his stupidity, which he, how- 
ever, soon after showed to be feigned. When 
Lucretia killed herself, B. C. 509, in conse- 
quence of the brutality of Tarquin, Brutus 
snatched the dagger from the wound, and swore 
upon the reeking blade, immortal hatred to the 
royal family. His example animated the Ro- 
mans, the Tarquins were proscribed by a de- 
cree of the senate, and the royal authority vested 
in the hands of consuls chosen from patrician 
families. Brutus, in his consular office, made 
the people swear they never would again sub- 
mit to kingly authority ; but the first who vio- 
lated their oath were in his own family. His 
sons conspired with the Tuscan ambassador to 
restore the Tarquins ; and whisn discovered, 
they were tried and condemned before their fa- 
ther, who himself attended at their execution. 
Sometime after, in a combat that was fought 
between the Romans and Tarquins, Brutus 
engaged with Aruns, and so fierce was the at- 
tack, that they pierced one another at the same 
time. The dead body was brought to Rome, 
and received as in triumph ; a funeral oration 
was spoken over it, and the Roman matrons 
showed their grief by mourning a year for the 
father of the republic. Flor. 1, c. 9. — Liv. 1, 
c. 56, 1. 2, c. 1, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 4 and 5. — 
C. Nep. in Attic. 8. — Eutrop. de Tarq. — Virg. 

JEn. 6, V. 818.— Pint, in Brut. <^ Cas. 

II. Marcus Junius, father of Caesar's murderer, 
wrote three books on civil law. He followed 
the party of Marius, and was conquered by 
Pompey. After the death of Sylla, he M^as be- 
sieged in Mutina by Pompey, to whom he sur- 
rendered, and by whose orders he was put to 
death. He had married Servilia, Cato's sister, 
by whom he had a son and two daughters. Cic. 

de Orat. c. 55. — Pint, in Brut. III. His 

son of the same name, by Servilia, was lineally 
descended from J. Brutus, who expelled the 
Tarquins from Rome. He seemed to inherit 
the republican principles of his great progenitor, 
and in the civil wars joined himself to the side 
of Pompey, though he was his father's murder- 
er, only because he looked upon him as more 
just and patriotic in his claims. At the battle 
of Pharsalia, Caesar not only spared the life of 
Brutus, but he made him one of his most faith- 
ful friends. He, however, forgot the favour, 
because Caesar aspired to tyranny. He con- 
spired with many of the most illustrious citizens 
of Rome against the tyrant, and stabbed him in 
Pompey's Basilica. Brutus retired into Greece, 
where he gained himself many friends by his 



BU 



HISTORY, &c. 



C^ 



arms as well as by persuasion, and he was soon 
after pursued thither by Antony, whom young 
Octavius accompanied. A battle was fought at 
Philippi. Brutus, who commanded the right 
wing of the republican army, defeated the ene- 
my ; but Cassius, who had the care of the left, 
was overpowered, and as he knew not the situ- 
ation of his friend, and grew desperate, he or- 
dered one of his freedmen to run him through. 
In another battle, the wing which Brutus com- 
manded obtained a victory ; but the other was 
defeated, and he found himself surrounded by 
the soldiers of Antony. He however made his 
escape, and soon after fell upon his sword, B. C. 
42. Antony honoured him with a magnificent 
funeral. Brutus is not less celebrated for his 
literary talents, than his valour in the field. 
When he was in the camp, the greatest part of 
his time was employed in reading and writing ; 
and the day which preceded one of his most 
bloody battles, while the rest of his army was 
under continual apprehensions, Brutus calmly 
spent his hours tillthe evening, in writing an 
epitome of Polybius. He was intimate with 
Cicero, to whom he would have communicated 
his conspiracy, had he not been apprehensive of 
his great timidity. Plutarch mentions that Cae- 
sar's ghost made its appearance to Brutus in 
his tent, and told him that he would meet him 
at Philippi. Brutus married Portia, the daugh- 
ter of Cato. C. Nep. in Attic. — Paterc. 2, c. 
48.—Plut. in Brut. &lc.—Cccs. l.—Flor. 4. 
IV. D. Jun. Albinus, one of Caesar's mur- 
derers, who, after the battle of Mutina, was de- 
serted by the legions with which he wished to 
march against Antony. He was put to death 

by Antony's orders, though consul elect. 

V. Jun. one of the first tribunes of the people 
Pint. 

BuBARis. Vid. Amyntas 1st. 

Bucephalus, a horse of Alexander's, whose 
head resembled that of a bull, whence his name 
(/?ous KE(j)a\os, bovis caput.) Alexander was the 
only one who could mount on his back, and he 
always knelt down to take up his master. He 
was present in an engagement in Asia, where 
he received a heavy wound, and hastened im- 
mediately out of the battle, and dropped down 
dead as soon as he had set down the king in a 
safe place. He was 30 years old when he died, 
and Alexander built a city which he called after 
his name. Plut. in Alex. Curt. — Arrian. 5, c. 
3.—Plin. 8, c. 42. 

BucoLicA, a sort of poem which treats of the 
care of the flocks, and of the pleasures and oc- 
cupations of the rural life, with simplicity and 
elegance. The most famous pastoral writers of 
antiquity are Moschus, Bion, Theocritus, and 
Virgil. The invention of bucolics, or pastoral 
poetry, is attributed to a shepherd of Sicily. 

BuRRHUs, Afranius, I. a chief of the praeto- 
rian guards, put to death by Nero. II. A 

brother-in-law of the emperor Commodus. 

BusA, a woman of Apulia, who entertained 
1000 Romans after the battle of Cannae, Val. 
Max. 4, c. 8. 

Busiris, a king of Egypt, son of Neptune 
and Libya, or Lysianassa, who sacrificed all 
foreigners to Jupiter with the greatest cruelty. 
"When Hercules visited Egypt, Busiris carried 
him to the altar bound hand and foot. The 
hero soon disentangled himself, and offered the 



t}'rant, his son Amphidamus, and the ministers 

of his cruelty, on the altar. Many Egyptian 

princes have borne the same name. One of 
them built a town called Busiris, in the middle 
of the Delta, where Isis had a famous temple. 
Herodot. 2, c. 59 and &\.—Strab. 11.— Ovid. 
Met. 9, V. 132. Heroid. 9, v. 69.— Plut. in 
Thes.— Virg. G. 3, v. b.—Apollod. 2, c. 5. 

BuTEs, one of the descendants of Amycus, 
king of the Bebryces, very expert in the com- 
bat of the cestus. He came to Sicily, where he 
was received by Lycaste, a beautiful harlot, by 
whom he had a son called Eryx. Lycaste, on 
account of her beauty, was called Venus; hence 
Eryx is often called the son of Venus. Virgi 
jEn. 5, V. 372. 

C. 

Cadmus. Vid. Part III. 

CsECiLiA Caia, or Tanaquil. Vid. Tanaquil. 

CiEciLiA Lex, was proposed, A. U. C. 693, 
by Caecil. Metellus Nepos, to remove taxes, 
from all the Italian states, and to give them free 

exportation. Another, called also Didia, A, 

U. C. 656, by the consul Cl. Caecilius Metellus, 
and T. Didius. It required that no more than 
one single matter should be proposed to the 
people in one question ; and that every law, 
before it was preferred, should be exposed to 
public view on three market-days. 

C^ciLiANTJs, a Latm writer before the age of 
Cicero. 

Cecilii, a plebeian family at Rome, descend- 
ed from Caecas, one of the, companions of 
^neas, or from Caeculus, the son of Vulcan, 
who built Praeneste. This family gave birth to 
many illustrious generals and patriots. 

Cecilius, Claudius Isidorus, I. a man who 
left in his will to his heirs, 4116 slaves, 3600 
yoke of oxen, 257,000 small cattle, and 600,000 

pounds of silver. Plin. 33, c. 10. II. Epi- 

rus, a freedman of Atticus, who opened a school 
at Rome, and is said to have first taught reading 

to Virgil and some other growing poets. III. 

A Sicilian orator in the age of Augustus, who 
wrote on the Servile wars, a comparison be- 
tween Demosthenes and Cicero, and an account 
of the orations of Demosthenes. IV. Metel- 
lus. Vid. Metellus. V. A comic poet, ori- 
ginally a slave. He acquired this name with 
his freedom, having been at first called by the 
servile appellation of Statius. He was a native 
of Milan, and flourished towards the sixth cen- 
tury of Rome, having survived Ennius, whose 
intimate friend he was, about one year, which 
places his death at 586. "We learn from the 
prologue to the Hecyra of Terence, spoken in 
the person of Ambivius, the principal actor, or 
rather manager of the theatre, that when he 
first brought out the plays of Caecilius, some 
were hissed off'the stage,and others hardly stood 
their ground ; but knowing the fluctuating for- 
tunes of dramatic exhibitions, he had again at- 
tempted; to bring them forward. His perseve- 
rance having gained for them a full and unpre- 
judiced hearing, they failed not to please ; and 
this success excited the author to new efforts in 
the poetic art, which he had nearly abandoned 
in a fit of despondency. The comedies of Cee- 
cilius, which amounted to thirty, are all lost, so 
that our opinion of their merits can be formed 
383 



CM 



HISTORY, &c. 



CM 



only from the criticisms of those Latin authors 
who wrote before they had perished. Cicero 
blames the improprieties of his style and lan- 
guage. From Horace's Epistle to Augustus, we 
may collect what was the popular sentiment 



concernmg Caecilius :— 

" Vincere Ccscilius gravitate- 



■Terentiua arte J' 

It is not easy to see how a comic author could 
be more grave than Terence; and the quality 
applied to a writer of this cast appears of rather 
difficult interpretation. But the opinion which 
had been long before given by Varro aflbrds a 
sort of commentary on Horace's expression 
— " In argumentis," says he, " Cgecilius palmam 
poscit; in ethesi Terentius." By gravitas 
therefore, as applied to Caecilius, we may pro- 
perly enough understand the grave and affecting 
plots of his comedies : which is farther confirm- 
ed by what Varro elsewhere observes of him — 
^' Pathe Trabea, Attilius et Csecilius facile 
moverunt." Velleius Paterculus joins him with 
Terence and Afranius, whom he reckons the 
most excellent comic writers of Rome — " Dul- 
cesque Latinileporis facetiae per Csecilium, Te- 
rentiumque, et Afranium, sub pari setate, nitue- 
runt." A great many of the plays of Caecilius 
were taken from Menander ; and Aulus Gellius 
informs us that they seemed agreeable and pleas- 
ing enough, till, being compared with their 
Greek models, they appeared quite tame and 
disgusting, and the wit of the original, which 
they were unable to imitate, totally vanished. 
Horat. 2, ep. 1. 
C^Dicius, I. (Gl.) a consul, A. U. C. 498. 

II. Another, A.U. C. 465. III. A military 

tribune in Sicily, who bravely devoted himself 
to rescue the Roman army from the Cartha- 
ginians, B. C. 254. He escaped with his life. 

C^LiA Lex, was enacted A. U. C. 635, by 
Caelius, a tribune. It ordained that in judicial 
proceedings before the people, in cases of trea- 
son, the votes should be given upon tablets, con- 
trary to the exception of the Cassian law. 

C^Lius, I, an orator, disciple to Cicero. He 
died very young. Cicero defended him when 
he was accused by Clodius of being accessary to 
Catiline's conspiracy, and of having murdered 
some ambassadors from Alexandria, and carried 
on an illicit amour with Clodia, the wife of Me- 
tellus. Or at. pro M. CceI — Quintil. 10, c. 1. 

II. Aurelianus, a writer about 300 years 

after Christ, the best edition of whose works is 
that of Almeloveen, Amst. 1722 and 1755. 

III. L. Antipater, wrote a history of Rome, 
which M. Brutus epitomized, and which Adrian 
preferred to the histories of Sallust. Caslius 
flourished 120 years B. C. Val Max. 1, c. 7. 

— Cic. 13. ad. Attic, ep. 8. IV. Tubero, a 

man who came to life after he had been carried 

to the burning pile. Plin. 7, c. 52. V. Vi- 

bienus, a king of Etruria, who assisted Romulus 

against the Cseninenses, &c. VI. Sabinus, 

a writer in the age of Vespasian, who compos- 
ed a treatise on the edicts of the curule ediles. 

C^SAR, a surname given to the Julian family 
at Rome, either because one of them kept an 
elephant, which bears the same name in the 
Punic tongue, or because one was born with a 
thick head of hair. This name, after it had 
been dignified in the person of Julius Caesar 
and of his successors, was given to the apparent 
384 



llfcir of the empire in the age of the Roman em- 
perors. The twelve first Roman emperors were 
distinguished by the surname of Ccesar. They 
reigned in the following order: — Julius Caesar, 
Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, 
Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Tilus, and 
Domitian. In Domitian, or rather in Nero, the 
family of Julius Caesar was extinguished. But 
after such a lapse of time, the appellation of 
Caesar seemed inseparable from the imperial 
dignity, and therefore it was assumed by the 
successors of the Julian family. Suetonius has 
written an account of these twelve characters in 

an extensive and impartial manner. 1. C. 

Julius Cassar, the first emperor of Rome, was 
son of L. Caesar and Aurelia the daughter of 
Cotta. He was descended, according to some 
accounts, from Julius the son of ^neas. "When 
he reached his 15th year he lost his father, and 
the year after he was made priest of Jupiter. 
Sylla was aware of his ambition, and endea- 
voured to remove him ; but Caesar understood 
his intentions, and, to avoid discovery, changed 
every day his lodgings. He was received into 
Sylla's friendship sometime after; and the dic- 
tator told those who solicited the advancement 
of young Caesar, that they were warm in the in- 
terest of a man who would prove, some day or 
other, the ruin of their country and of their liber- 
ty. When Caesar went to finish his studies at 
Rhodes, under Apollonius Molo, he was seized 
by pirates, who offered him his liberty for 30 tal- 
ents. He gave them 40, and threatened to re- 
venge their insults ; and he no sooner was out of 
theirpower, than he armed a ship, pursued them, 
and crucified them all. His eloquence procur- 
ed him friends at Rome, and the generous man- 
ner in which he lived equally served to promote 
his interest. After he had passed through the 
inferior employments of the state, he was ap- 
pointed over Spain, where he signalized himself 
by his valour and intrigues. At his return to 
Rome, he was made consul, and soon after he 
effected a reconciliation between Crassus and 
Pompey. He was appointed for the space of five 
years over the Gauls, by the interest of Pompey, 
to whom he had given his daughter Julia in 
marriage. Here he enlarged the boundaries of 
the Roman empire by conquest, and invaded 
Britain, which was then unknown to the Roman 
people. He checked the Germans, and soon 
after had his government over Gaul prolonged 
to five other years, by means of his friends at 
Rome. The ambition of Caesar and Pompey 
soon became the cause of a civil war. Caesar's 
petitions were received with coldness or indif- 
ference by the Roman senate ; and by the in- 
fluence of Pompey, a decree was passed to strip 
him of his power. Antony, who opposed it as 
tribune, fled to Caesar's camp with the news, 
and the ambitious general no sooner heard this, 
than he made it a plea of resistance. On pre- 
tence of avenging the violence which had been 
offered to the sacred office of tribune in the per- 
son of Antony, he crossed the Rubicon, which 
was the boundary of his province. The pas- 
sage of the Rubicon was a declaration of war, 
and Caesar entered Italy sword in hand. Upon 
this, Pompey, with all the friends of liberty, 
left Rome, and retired to Dyrrachium ; and 
Caesar, afler he had subdued all Italy, in 60 
days, entered Rome, and provided himself with 



om 



HISTORY, &c 



CA 



money from the public treasury. He went to 
Spain, where he conquered the partisans of 
Pompey, under Petreius, Afranius, and Varro ; 
and, at his return to Rome, was declared dic- 
tator, and soon after consul. When he left 
Rome, he went in quest of Pompey, observing 
that he was marching against a general with- 
out troops, after having defeated troops without 
a general in Spain. In the plains of Pharsalia, 
B. C. 48, the two hostile generals engaged. 
Pompey was conquered, and fled into Egypt, 
where he was murdered. Caesar, after he had 
made a noble use of victory, pursued his adver- 
sary into Egypt, where he for some time forgot 
his fame and character in the arms of Cleopa- 
tra. His danger was great Avhile at Alexan- 
dria; but he extricated himself with wonderful 
success, and made Egypt tributary to his power. 
After several conquests in Africa, the defeat of 
Cato, Scipio, and Juba, and that of Pompey's 
sons in Spain, he entered Rome, and triumphed 
over five different nations, Gaul, Alexandria, 
Pontus, Africa, and Spain, and was created 
perpetual dictator. But now his glory was at 
an end ; his uncommon success created him 
enemies, and the chiefest of the senators, 
among whom was Brutus, his most intimate 
friend, conspired against him, and stabbed him 
in the senate-house on the ides of March. He 
died, pierced with 23 wounds, the 15th of March, 
B. C. 44, in the 56th 3'-ear of his age.- He re- 
ceived, as he went to the senate-house, a paper 
from Artemidorus, which discovered the whole 
conspiracy to him ; but he neglected the read- 
ing of what might have saved his life. When 
he was in his first campaign in Spain, he was 
observed to gaze at a statue of Alexander, and 
even shed tears at the recollection that that 
hero had conquered the world at an age in 
which he himself had done nothing. The learn- 
ing of Caesar deserves commendation as well 
as his military character. He reformed the 
calendar. He wrote his Commentaries on the 
Gallic wars on the spot where he fought his 
battles ; and the composition has been admired 
for the elegance as well as the correctness of 
its style. This valuable book was nearly lost ; 
and when Caesar saved his life in the bay of 
Alexandria, he was obliged to swim from his 
ship, with his arms in one hand and his Com- 
mentaries in the other. Besides the Gallic and 
Civil wars, he wrote other pieces, which are 
now lost. The history of the war in Alex- 
andria and Spain is attributed to him by some, 
and by others to Hirtius. His qualities were 
such that in every battle he could not but be 
conqueror, and in every republic, master ; and 
to his sense of his superiority over the rest of the 
world, or to his ambition, we are to attribute his 
saying, that he wished rather to be first in a little 
village then second at Rome. It was after his 
conquest over Pharnaces in one day, that he 
made use of these remarkable words, to express 
the celerity of his operations : Veni, vidi, vicL 
Caesar has been suspected of being privy to 
Catiline's conspiracy ; and it was his fondness 
for dissipated pleasures which made his country- 
men say that he was the husband of all the 
women at Rome, and the woman of all men. It 
is said that he conquered 300 nations, took 800 
cities, and defeated three millions of men, one of 
which fell in the field of battle. PH71. 7, c. 25, 
Part II.— 3 C 



says that be could employ at the same lime, his 
ears to listen, his eyes to read, his hand to write, 
and his mind to dictate. The best editions of 
Caesar's Commentaries, are the magnificent one 
by Dr. Clarke, fol. Lond. 1712 ; that of Cam- 
bridge, with a Greek translation, 4to. 1727; 
that of Oudendorp, 2 volumes, 4to, L. Bat. 
1737 ; and that of Elzevir, Bvo. L. Bat. 1635. 
Sueton cf« Plut. in vita. — Dio. — Appian. — 
Orosius. — Diod. 16 and eel. 31 and 37. — Virg. 
G. 1, V. iQ6.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 182.— Marcell. 

— Flor. 3 and 4. II. Lucius, was father to 

the dictator. He died suddenly, when putting 
on his shoes. III. Octavianus. Vid. Augus- 
tus. IV. Caius, a tragic poet and orator, 

commended by Cic. in Brut. His brother, C. 
LuciuSjWas consul, and followed, as well as him- 
self, the party of Sylla. They were both put to 

death by order of Marius. V. Lucius, an 

uncle of M. Antony, who followed the interest 
of Pompey, and was proscribed by Augustus. 
His son Lucius was put to death by J. Caesar 

in his youth. Two sons of Agrippa bore 

also the name of Caesars, Caius and Lucius, 
Vid. Agrippa. 

C.ESAR10N, the son of J. Caesar, by queen 
Cleopatra, was, at the age of 13, proclaimed by 
Antony and his mother, king of Cyprus, Egypt, 
and Coelosyria. He was put to death five years 
after by Augustus. Suet, in Aug. 17. and Cas. 
52. ^ 

C^soNius, Maximus, was banished from 
Italy by Nero, on account of his friendship with 
Seneca, &c. Tacit. 15, Ann. c. 71. 

Caius and Caia, a praenomen very common 
at Rome to both sexes. C, in ■ its natural posi- 
tion, denoted the man's name, and when revers- 
ed C, it implied Caia. Quiiitil. 1, c. 7. 

Calaber. Q,. called also Smyrnasus, wrote a 
Greek poem in 14 books, as a continuation of 
Homer's Iliad, about the beginning of the third 
century. The best editions of this elegant and 
well written book, are, thatof Rhodoman, 12mo. 
Hanover, 1604, with the notes of Dausqueius, 
and that of Pauw, 8vo. L. Bat. 1734. 

Calantjs, a celebrated Indian philosopher, 
one of the gymnosophists. He followed Alex- 
ander in his Indian expedition, and being sick, 
in his 83d year, he ordered a pile to be raised, 
upon which he mounted, decked with flowers 
and garlands, to the astonishment of the king 
and of the army. When the pile was fired, 
Alexander asked him whether he had any thing 
to say : " No," said he, " I shall meet you 
again in a very short time." Alexander died 
three months after in Babylon. Strab. 15. — 
Cic. de Div. 1, c. 23. — Arrian. cf« Plut. in Alex. 
—Mlian. 2, c." 41, 1. 5, c. ^.— Val. Max. 1, c. 8. 

Calchas. Vid. Part III. 

Calenus, La famous soothsayer of Etruria, 

in the age of Tarquin. Plin. 28, c. 2. II. 

A lieutenant of Caesar's army. After Caesar's 
murder, he concealed some that had been pro- 
scribed by the triumvirs, and behaved with great 
honour to them. Plut. in Cces. 

Calidius, (M.) I. an orator and pretorian, 
who died in the civil wars, &c. Cois. Bell. 
Civ. 1, c. 2. II. L. Julius, a man remark- 
able for his riches, the excellence of his char- 
acter, his learning, and poetical abilities. He 
was proscribed by Volumnius, but delivered by 
Atticus. C. Nep. in Attic. 12. 
385 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



Caligula, C. the emperor, received this sur- 
name from his wearing in the camp, the Caliga, 
a military covering for the leg. He was son 
of Germanicus by Agrippina, and grandson to 
Tiberius. During the first eight months of his 
reign, Rome experienced universal prosperity ; 
the exiles were recalled, taxes were remitted, 
and profligates dismissed; but Caligula soon 
became proud, wanton, and cruel. He built a 
temple to himself, and ordered his head to be 
placed on the images of the gods,while he wished 
to imitate the thunders and power of Jupiter. 
The statues of all great men were removed, as 
if Rome would sooner forget her virtues in their 
absence ; and the emperor appeared in public 
places in the most indecent manner, encouraged 
roguery, committed incest with his three sisters, 
and established public places of prostitution. 
He often amused himself with putting innocent 
people to death ; he attempted to famish Rome 
by a monopoly of corn ; and as he was pleased 
with the greatest disasters which befell his sub- 
jects, ne often wished the Romans had but one 
head that he might have the gratification to 
strike it oiF. Wild beasts were constantly fed 
in his palace with human victims ; and a fa- 
vourite horse was made highpriest and consul, 
and kept in marble apartments, and adorned 
with the most valuable trappings and pearls 
the Roman empire could furnish. Caligula 
built a bridge upwards of three miles in the sea ; 
and would, perhaps, have shown himself more 
tyrannical, had not Chsereas, one of his ser- 
vants, formed a conspiracy against his life, 
with others equally tired with his cruelties and 
the insults that were offered with impunity to 
the persons and feelings of the Romans. In 
consequence of this, the tyrant was murdered 
January 24th, in his 29th year, after a reign of 
three years and ten months, A. D. 41. It has 
been said that Caligula wrote a treatise on 
rhetoric ; but his love of learning is better un- 
derstood from his attempts to destroy the wri- 
tings of Homer and of Virgil. Dio. — Sueton. 
in vita. — Tacit. Ann. 

Callas, I. a general of Alexander. Diod. 17. 
II. Of Cassander against Polyperchon. Id. 

Callias, I. an Athenian appointed to make 
peace between Artaxerxes and his country. 
Diod. 12. II. A son of Temenus, who mur- 
dered his father with the assistance of his bro- 
thers. Apollod. 2, c. 6. III. A Greek poet, 

son of Lysimachus. His compositions are lost. 
He was surnamed Schoenion, from his twisting 
ropes ((Txotvoi) through poverty, Athen. 10. 

IV. A partial historian of Syracuse. He 

wrote an account of the Sicilian wars, and was 
well rewarded by Agathocles, because he had 
shown him in a favourable view. Aihen. 12. — 

Dionys. V. An Athenian, greatly revered 

for his patriotism. Herodot. 6, c. 121. VI. 

A soothsayer. VII. An Athenian, com- 
mander of a fleet against Philip, whose ships he 
took, &c. VIII. A rich Athenian, who libe- 
rated Cimon from prison, on condition of mar- 
rying his sister and wife Elpinice. C. Ncp. and 

Pint, in dm. IX. An historian, who wrote 

an explanation of the poems of Alcaeus and 
Sappho. 

Callicerus, a Greek poet, some of whose 
epigrams are preserved in the Anthologia. 

Callicles, an Athenian, whose house was 
386 



not searched on account of his recent marriage, 
when an inquiry was made after the money giv- 
en by Harpalus, &c. Plut. in Demosth. 

Callicrates, I. an Athenian, who seized up- 
on the sovereignty of Syracuse, by imposing up- 
on Dion when he had lost his popularity. He 
was expelled by the sons of Dionysius, after 
reigning thirteen months. He is called Callip- 

pus by some authors. C. Nep. in Dion. 

n. An officer intrusted with the care of the 
treasures of Susa by Alexander. Curt. 5, c. 
2.- — III. An artist, who made, with ivory, 
ants and other insects so small that they could 
scarcely be seen. It is said that he engraved 
some of Homer's verses upon a grain of millet. 
Plin. 7, c. 2l.—JElian. V. H. I, c. 17. 

Callicratidas, I. a Spartan, who succeeded 
Lysander in the command of the fleet. He took 
Methymna, and routed the Athenian fleet un- 
der Conon. He was defeated and killed near 
the Arginusse, in a naval battle, B. C. 406. 

Diod. 13.— Xenopk. Hist. G. II. One of 

the four ambassadors sent by the Lacedaemoni- 
ans to Darius, upon the rupture of their alli- 
ance with Alexander. Curt. 3, c. 13. 

Calltdius, a celebrated Roman -orator, con- 
temporary with Cicero, who speaks of his abili- 
ties with commendation. Cic. in Brut. 274. — 
Paterc. 2, 36. 

Callimachus, I. an historian and poet of Cy- 
rene, son of Battus and Mesatma, and pupil to 
Hermocrates the grammarian. He had, in the 
age of Ptolemy Philadelphus, kept a school at 
Alexandria, and had Apollonius of Rhodes 
among his pupils, whose ingratitude obliged 
Callimachus to lash him severely in a satirical 
poem, under the name of Ibis. {Vid. Apollo- 
nius.') The Ibis of Ovid is an imitation of this 
piece. He wrote a work in 120 books on famous 
men, besides the treatises on birds ; but of all his 
numerous compositions, only 31 epigrams, an 
elegy, and some hymns on the gods, are extant ; 
the best editions of which are that of Ernestus, 
2 vols. 8vo. L. Bat. 1761, and that of Vulcani- 
us, 12mo. Antwerp, 1584. Propertius styled 
himself the Roman Callimachus. The precise 
time of his death, as well as of his birth, is 
unknown. Propert. 4, el. 1, v. 65. — Cic. Tusc. 
1, c. Si.—Horat. 2, ep. 2, v. 109.— Quintil. 10, 

c. 1. II. An Athenian general, killed in the 

battle of Marathon. His body was found in 
an erect posture, all covered with wounds. 

Plut. III. A Colophonian, who wrote the 

life of Homer. Plut. 

Callimedon, a partisan of Phocionat Athens, 
condemned by the populace. 

Callinus, an orator, who is said to have first 
invented elegant poetry, B. C. 776. Some of 
his verses are to be found in Stobceus. Athen. 
—Strab. 13. 

Callipatira, daughter of Diagoras, and wife 
of Callianax, the athlete, went disguised in 
man's clothes, with her son Pisidorus, to the 
Olympic games. When Pisidorus was declar- 
ed victor, she discovered her sex through ex- 
cess of joy, and was arrested, as women were 
not permitted to appear there on pain of death. 
The victory of her son obtained her release; 
and a law was instantly made which forbade 
any wrestlers to appear but naked. Paus. 5, c. 
6, i. 6, c. 7. 

Calliphon, I. a painter of Samos, famous for 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



his historical pieces. Plin. 10, c. 26. II. A 

philosopher, who made the summumbonum con- 
sist in pleasure joined to the love of honesty. 
This system was opposed by Cicero. Qucest. 
Acad A, c. 131 and 139. de Offic. 3, c. 119. 

Calliphron, a celebrated dancing-master, 
who had Epaminondas among his pupils. C. 
Nep, in J£ipam. 

Callipus, or Calippus, I. an Athenian, disci- 
ple to Plato. He destroyed Dion, &c. Vid. 
Callicrates. C. Nep. in Dion. 11. A Co- 
rinthian, who wrote a history of Orchomenos. 

Pans. 6, c. 29. III. A philosopher. Diog. 

in Zen. IV. A general of the Athenians 

when the Gauls invaded Greece by Thermopy- 
las. Pans. 1, c. 3. 

Callisteia, a festival at Lesbos, during which 
all the women presented themselves in the tem- 
ple of Juno, and the fairest was rewarded in a 
public manner. There was also an institution 
of the same kind among the Parrhasians, first 
made by Cypselus, whose wife was honoured 
-with the first prize. The Eleans had one also, 
in which the fairest man received as a prize a 
complete suit of armour, which he dedicated to 
Minerva. 

Callisthenes, I. a Greek, who wrote a his- 
tory of his own country, in ten books, beginning 
from the peace between Artaxerxes and Greece, 
down to the plundering of the temple of Delphi 

by Philomeius. Died. 14. II. A man who, 

with others, attempted to expel the garrison of 
Demetrius from Athens. Polycbn. 5, c. 17. 

III. A philosopher of Olynthus, intimate with 
Alexander, whom he accompanied in his orien- 
tal expedition, in the capacity of a preceptor, and 
to whom he had been recommended by his friend 
and master Aristotle. He refused to pay divine 
honours to the king, for which he was accused 
of conspiracy, mutilated, and exposed to wild 
beasts, dragged about in chains, till Lysimachus 
gave him poison, which ended together his tor- 
tures and his life, B. C. 328. None of his com- 
positions are extant. Cwrt. 8, c. 6. — Pint, in 
Alex. — Arrian. 4. — Justin. 12, c. 6 and 7. 

IV. A writer of Sybaris. V. A freedman 

of Lucullus. It is said that he gave poison to 
his master. Pint, in IavcuU. 

Callistonigus, a celebrated statuary at 
Thebes. Pans. 9, c. 16. 

Calltstratus, I. an Athenian, appointed 
general with Timotheus and Chabrias, against 

Lacedgemon. Diod. 15. II. An orator of 

Aphidna, in the time of Epaminondas, the most 
eloquent of his age. III. An Athenian ora- 
tor, with whom Demosthenes made an intimate 
acquaintance, after he had heard him plead. 

Xenoph. IV. A Greek historian, praised by 

Dionys. Hal. V. A comic poet, rival of Aris- 

.tophanes. 

Callixenus, I. a general who perished by 

famine. II. An Athenian, imprisoned for 

passing sentence of death upon some prisoners. 
Diod. 13. 

Calphurnia, a daughter of L. Piso, who was 
Julius Caesar's fourth wife. The night previous 
to her husband's murder, she dreamed that the 
roof of her house had fallen, and that he had 
been stabbed in her arms ; and on that account 
she attempted, but in vain, to detain him at 
home. After Caesar's murder, she placed herself 
imder the patronage of M. Antony. Suet, in Jul. 



CALPHURNros Bestia, I. a noble Roman, bribed 
by Jugurtha. It is said that he murdered his 

wives when asleep. Plin. 27, c. 2. II. Cras- 

sus, a patrician, who went with Regulus against 
the Massyli. He was seized by the enemy, as 
he attempted to plunder one of their towns, and 
he was ordered to be sacrificed to Neptune. 
Bisaltia, the king's daughter, fell in love with 
him, and gave him an opportunity of escaping 
and conquering her father. Calphurnius return- 
ed victorious, and Bisaltia destroyed herself. 
III. A man who conspired against the em- 
peror Nerva.— — IV. Galerianus, son of Piso, 

put to death, &c. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 11.' 

V. Piso, condemned for using seditious words 

against Tiberius. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 21. VI. 

Another, famous for his abstinence. Val. Max. 

4, c. 3. VII. Titus, a Latin poet, born in 

Sicily, in the age of Dioclesian, seven of whose 
eclogues are extant, and generally found with 
the works of the poets who have written on 
hunting. Though abounding in many beauti- 
ful lines, they are, however, greatly inferior to 
the elegance and simplicity of Virgil. The best 
edition is that of Kempher, 4to. L. Bat. 1728. 
'VIII. A man surnamed Frugi, who com- 



posed Annals, B. C. 130. 

Calpuhnia, or Calphdrnia, a noble family in 
Rome, derived from Calpus, son of Numa. It 
branched into the families of the *Pisones, 
Bibuli, Plammse, Cassennini, Asprenates, &c. 
Plin. in Num. 

Calpurnia, and Calphurnia, Lex, was en- 
acted A. U. C. 604, severely to punish such as 
were guilty of using bribes, &c. , Cic. de Off. 2. 
I. A daughter of Marius, sacrificed to the 



gods by her father, who was advised to do it, in 
a dream, if he wished to conquer the Cimbri. 

Plut. in Par all.- II. A woman who killed 

herself when she heard that her husband was 
murdered in the civil wars of Marius. Paterc. 
2, 26. III. The wife of J. Caesar. Vid. Cal- 
phurnia. IV. A favourite of the emperor 

Claudius, &c. Tacit. Ann. 

CALUsmros, a soldier in the army of Ger- 
manic us. When this general wished to stab 
himself with his own sword, Calusidius offered 
him his, observing that it was sharper. Tacit. 
1, Ann. c. 35. 

Calvas, Corn. Licinius, a famous orator, 
equally known for writing iambics. He excited 
attention by his animadversions upon Caesar 
and Pompey, and disputed the palm of elo- 
quence with Cicero. Cic. ep. — Horat. 1, Sat. 
10, V. 19. 

Cambyses, I. king of Persia, was son of Cyrus 
the Great. He- conquered Egypt, and was so 
offended at the superstition of the Egyptians, 
that he killed their god Apis, and plundered 
their temples. When he wished to take Pelu- 
sium, he placed at the head of his army a num- 
ber of cats and dogs ; and the Egyptians refus- 
ing, in an attempt to defend themselves, to kill 
animals which they reverenced as divinities, 
became an easy prey to the enemy. Cambyses 
afterwards sent an army of 50,000 men to de- 
stroy Jupiter Ammon's temple, and resolved to 
attack the Carthaginians and Ethiopians. He 
killed his brother Smerdis from mere suspicion, 
and flayed alive a partial judge, whose skin he 
nailed on the judgment-seat, and appointed his 
son to succeed him, telling him to remember 
387 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



■Where he sat. He died of a small wound he had 
givea himself with his sword, as he mounted on 
horseback; and the Egyptians observed, that it 
was the same place on which he had Avounded 
their god Apis, and that therefore he was visited 
bj'- the hand of the gods. His death happened 
521 years before Christ. He left no issue to 
succeed him, and his throne was usurped by the 
magi, and ascended by Darius soon after. He- 
rodot. 2, 3, &c.—Justm. 1, c. 9.— Val. Max. 6, 

c. 3. li. Apersonof obscure origin, to whom 

king Astyages gave his daughter Mandane in 
marriage. The king, who had been terrified by 
dreams which threatened the loss of his crown 
by the hand of his daughter's son, had taken 
this step in hopes that the children of so igno- 
ble a bed would ever remain in obscurity. He 
was disappointed. Cyrus, Mandane's son, de- 
throned him when grown to manhood. Hero- 
dot. 1, c. 46, 107, &c. — Justin. 1, c. 4. 

Camerinus, a Latin poet, who wrote a poem 
on the taking of Troy by Hercules, Ovid. 4, 

ex Pont. el. 16, v. 19. Some of the family of 

the Camerini were distinguished for their zeal 
as citizens, as well as for their abilities as scho- 
lars, among whom was Sulpicius, commissioned 
by the Roman senate to go to Athens to collect 
the best of Solon's laws. Juv. 7, v. 90. 

Camilla. Vid. Part III. 

Camillus, I. (L. Furius,) a celebrated Ro- 
man, called a second Romulus from his services 
to his country. He was banished by the people 
for distributing, contrary to his vow, the spoils 
he had obtained at Veii. During his exile 
Rome was besieged by the Gauls under Bren- 
nus. In the midst of their misfortunes the be- 
sieged Romans elected him dictator, and he for- 
got their ingratitude, and marched to the relief 
of his country, which he delivered, after it had 
been for some time in the possession of the ene- 
my. He died in the 80th year of his age, B. C. 
365, after he had been five times dictator, once 
censor, three times interrex, iwice a military 
tribune, and obtained four triumphs. He con- 
quered the Hernici, Volsci, Latini, and Etru- 
rians; and dissuaded his countrymen from 
Iheir intentions of leaving Rome to reside at 
Veii. When he besieged Falisci, he rejected, 
with proper indignation, the offers of a school- 
master, who had betrayed into his hands the 
sons of the most worthy citizens. Phtt. in vita. 
— Liv. 5. — Flor. 1, c. 13. — Diod. 14. — Virg. 

Mn. 6, V. 825. II. A name of Mercury. 

III. An intimate friend of Cicero. 

Camissares, a governor of part of Cilicia, 
father to Datames, C. Nep. in Dat. 

Camma, a woman of Galatia, who avenged 
the death of her husband Sinetus upon his mur- 
derer Sinorix, by making him drink in a cup, of 
which the liquor was poisoned, on pretence of 
marrying him, according to the custom of their 
country, which required that the bridegroom 
and his bride should drink out of the same ves- 
sel. She escaped by refusing to drink on pre- 
tence of illness. Polycen. 3. 

Campana Lex, or Julian agrarian law, was 
enacted by J. Caesar, A. U. C. 691, to divide 
some lands among the people. 

Campaspe, and Pancaste, a beautiful con- 
cubine of Alexander, whom the king gave to 
Apelles, who had fallen in love with her as 
he drew her picture. It is said that from 
388 



this beauty the painter copied the thousand 
charms of his Venus Anadomene. Plin. 35, 
c. 10. 

Camuloginus, a Gaul, raised to great honours 
by Caesar for his military abilities. Cas. Bell. 
G. 7, c. 57. 

Candace, a queen of -Sithiopia, in the age of 
Augustus, so prudent and meritorious that her 
successors always bore her name. She was 
blind of one eye. Pliri. 6, c. 22. — Dio. 54.- 
Strab. 17. 

Candaules, or Myrsilus, son of Myrsus, 
was the last of the Heraclidas who sat on the 
throne of Lydia. He showed his wife naked 
10 Gyges one of his ministers ; and the queen 
was so incensed, that she ordered Gyges to mur- 
der her husband, 718 years before the Christian 
era. After this murder, Gyges married the 
queen and ascended the throne. Justin, 1, c. 
7. — Herodot. 1, c. 7, &c. — Plut. Symph. 

Canephoria, festivals at Athens in honour 
of Bacchus, or, according to others, of Diana, 
in which all marriageable women offered small 
baskets to the deity, and received the name of 
Canephora ; whence statues representing wo- 
men in that attitude were called by the same 
appellation. , Cic. in Verr. 4. 

Caniculares Dies, certain days in the sum- 
mer, in which the star Canis is said to influence 
the season, and to make the days more warm 
during its appearance. Manilius. 

Canidius, a tribune who proposed a law to 
empower Pompey to go only with two lictors, to 
reconcile Ptolemy and the Alexandrians. Plut. 
in Pomp. 

C. Caninius Rebilus, a consul with J. Caesar 
after the death of Trebonius. He was consul 
only for seven hours, because his predecessor 
died the last day of the year, and he was cho- 
sen only for the remaining part of the day ; 
whence Cicero observed, that Rome was greatly 
indebted to him for his vigilance, as he had not 
slept during the whole time of his consulship. 
Cic. 7, ad Fam. ep. 33. — Plut. in Cces. 

Canistius, a Lacedaemonian courier, who ran 
1200 stadia in one day. Plin. 7, c. 20. 

Canius, a poet of Gades, contemporary with 
Martial. He was so naturally merry that he 
always laughed. Mart. 1. ep. 62. 

Cantharus, I. a famous sculptor of Sicyon. 
Paus. 6, c. 17. II. A comic poet of Athens. 

Canuleius, C. a tribune of the people of 
Rome, A. U. C. 310, who made a law to render 
it constitutional for the patricians and plebeians 
to intermarry. It ordained, also, that one of 
the consuls should be yearly chosen from the 
plebeians. Liv. 4, c. 3, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 17. 

Canijsius, a Greek historian under Ptolemy 
Auletes. Plut. 

Canutius Tiberinus, I. a tribune of the peo- 
ple, who, like Cicero, furiously attacked Antony 
when declared an enemy to the state. His sa- 
tire cost him his life. Pater cul. 2, c. 64. 

IT. A Roman actor. Plut. in Brut. 

Capaneus. Vid. Part III. 

Capella, I. an elegiac poet in the age of J. 

Caesar. Ovid, de Pont. 4. el. 16, v. 36. II. 

Marrianus, a Carthaginian, A. D. 490, who 
wrote a poem on the marriage of Mercury and 
Philologv, and in praise of the liberal arts. The 
best edition is that of Walihardns, 8vo. Bernae, 
1763. 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



Capito, I. the uncle of Paterculus, who join- 
ed Agrippa against Crassus. — Pater cul. 2, c. 

69. II. Ponieius, a man sent by Antony to 

settle his disputes with Augustus. Horat. 1, 

Sat. 5, V. 3-2. III. An historian of Lycia, 

who wrote an account of Isauria in eight 
books. 

Capitolini Ludi, games yearly celebrated at 
Rome in honour of Jupiter, who preserved the 
capitol from the Gauls. 

Capitolinus, (Julius,) an author in Diocle- 
sian's reign, who wrote an account of the life 
of Verus, Antoninus Pius, the Gordians, &c. 
most of which are now lost. 

Capricornus, a sign of the zodiac, in which 
appears 28 stars in the form of a goat, supposed 
by the ancients to be the goat Amalthsea, which 
fed Jupiter with her milk. Some maintain that 
it is Pan, who changed himself into a goat when 
frightened at the approach of Typhon. When 
the sun enters this sign it is winter solstice, or 
the longest night in the year. Manil. 2 and 4. 
—Horat. 2, od. 17, v. 19.— Hijgin. fab. 196. P. 
A. 2, c 28. 

Caprificialis, a day sacred to Vulcan, on 
which the Athenians offered him money. Plin. 
11, c. 15. 

Capys SvLvros, a king of Alba, who reigned 
twenty-eight years. Dionys. Hal. — Virg. JEn. 
6, V. 768. 

Caractacus, a king of the Britons, conquer- 
ed by an officer of Claudius Caesar, A. D. 47. 
Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 33 and 37. 

Caranus, I. one of the Heraclidae, the first 
who laid the foundation of the Macedonian em- 
pire, B.C. 814. He took Edessa and reigned 
twenty-eight years, which he spent in establish- 
ing and strengthening the government of his 
newly-founded kingdom. He was succeeded by 
Perdiccas. Justin. 7, c. 1. — Paterc. 1, c. 6. 
II. A general of Alexander. Curt. 7. 

Carausius, a tyrant of Britain for seven 
years, A. D. 293. 

Carbo, I. a Roman orator, who killed himself 
because he could not curb the licentious man- 
ners of his countrymen. Cic. in Brut. II. 

Cneus, a son of the orator Carbo, who embraced 
the parly of Marius, and after the death of Cin- 
na succeeded to the government. He was kill- 
ed in Spain, in his third consulship, by order of 
Pompey. Val. Max. 9, c. 13. III. An ora- 
tor, son of Carbo the orator, killed by the army 
when desirous of re-establishing the ancient 
military discipline. Cic. in Brut. 

Carcinus, I. a tragic poet of Agrigentum, in 
the age of Philip of Macedon. He wrote on 

the rape of Proserpine. Diod. 5. II. A 

man of Rhegium, who exposed his son Agatho- 
cles on account of some uncommon dreams dur- 
ing his wife's pregnancy. Diod. 19. 

Carcinus, a constellation, the same as the 
Cancer. Iaicom. 9, v. 536. 

Carinus, (M. Aurelius,) a Roman who at- 
tempted to succeed his father Carus as emperor. 
He was famous for his debaucheries and cruel- 
ties. Dioclesian defeated him in Dalmatia, and 
he was killed bv a soldier whose wife he had 
debauched, A. JD. 268. 

Carmentales, festivals at Rome in honour 
of Carmenta, celebrated the 11th of January, 
near the Porta Carmentalis, below the capitol. 
This goddess was entreated to render the Ro- 



man matrons prolific and their labours easy. 
Liv. 1, c. 7. 

Carneades, a philosopher of Cyrene in Af- 
rica, founder of a sect called the third or new 
Academy. The Athenians sent him, with Dio- 
genes the stoic and Critolaus the peripatetic, 
as ambassadors to Rome, B. C. 155. The Ro- 
man youth were extremely fond of the company 
of these learned philosophers ; and when Car- 
neades, in a speech, had given an accurate and 
judicious dissertation upon justice, and in ano- 
ther speech confuted all the arguments he had 
advanced, and apparently given no existence to 
the virtue he had so much commended ; a re- 
port prevailed all over Rome, that a Grecian 
was come, who had so captivated by his words 
the rising generation, that ihey forgot their 
usual amusements and ran mad after philoso- 
phy. When this reached the ears of Cato the 
censor, he gave immediate audience to the 
Athenian ambassadors in the senate, and dis- 
missed them in haste, expressing his apprehen- 
sion of their corrupting the opinions of the Ro- 
man people, whose only profession, he sternly 
observed, was arms and war. Carneades de- 
nied that any thing could be perceived or under- 
stood in the world ; and he was the first who 
introduced a universal suspension of assent. 
He died in the 90th year of his age, B. C. 128. 
Cic. ad Attic. 12, ep. 23. de Orat. 1 and S. — Plin. 
7, c. SO.—Lactantiusb, c. 14. — Val. Max. 8, c. 8. 

Carneia, a festival observed in most of the 
Grecian cities, but more particularly at Sparta, 
where it was first instituted, about 675 B. C. 
in honour of Apollo surnamed Carneus. It 
lasted nine days, and was an imitation of the 
manner of living in camps among the ancients. 

Carpophorus, an actor greatly esteemed by 
Domitian, Martial. — Juv. 6. v. 198. 

Carrinates, Secundus, a poor but inge- 
nious rhetorician, who came from Athens to 
Rome, where the boldness of his expression, 
especially against tyrannical power, exposed 
him to Caligula's resentment, who banished 
him. Juv. 7, v. 205. 

Carvilius, I. a king of Britain, who attacked 
Caesar's naval station by order of Cassive- 

launus, &c. Cas. Bell. G. 5, c. 22. IL 

Spurius, a Roman who made a large image of 
the breastplates taken from the Samnites, and 

placed it in the capitol. Plin. 34, c. 7. III. 

The first Roman who divorced his wife during 
the space of above 600 years. This was for 
barrenness, B. C. 231. Diomis. Hal. 2. — Val. 
Max. 2, c. 1. 

Cards, I. a Roman emperor who succeeded 
Probus. He was a prudent and active general ; 
he conquered the Sarmatians, and continued the 
Persian war which his predecessor had com- 
menced. He reigned two years, and died on 
the banks of the Tigris, as lie was going in an 
expedition against Persia, A. D. 283. He 
made his two sons, Carinus and Numerianus, 
Caesars ; and as his many virtues had promised 
the Romans happiness, he was made a god after 
death. Eutrop. II. One of those who at- 
tempted to scale the rock Aornus, by order of 
Alexander. Curt. 8, c. 11. 

Casca, one of Caesar's assassins, who gave 
him the first blow. Plut. in Cas. 

Cassander. son of Antipater, made himself 
master of Macedonia after his father's death, 
389 



CA 



HISTORY, &C. 



CA 



where he reigned for 18 years. He mar- 
ried Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander, to 
strengthen himself on his throne. Olympias, 
the mother of Alexander, wished to keep the 
kingdom of Macedonia for Alexander's young 
children; and therefore she destroyed the rela- 
tions of Cassander, who besieged her in the 
town of Pydna, and put her to death. Roxane, 
with her son Alexander, and Barsena, the moth- 
er of Hercules, both wives of Alexander, 
shared the fate of Olympias with their chil- 
dren. Antigonus, who had been for some time 
upon friendly terms with Cassander, declared 
war against him ; and Cassander, to make him- 
self equal with his adversary, made a league 
with Lysimachus and Seleucus, and obtained a 
memorable victory ar Ipsus, B. C. 301. He 
died three years after this victory, of a dropsy. 
His son Antipater killed his mother, and for 
this unnatural murder he was put to death by 
his brother Alexander, who, to strengthen him- 
self, invited Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, 
from Asia. Demetrius took advantage of the 
invitation, and put to death Alexander, and as- 
cended the throne of Macedonia. Paus. 1, c. 
25.—Diod. 19.— Justin. 12, 13, &c. 

Cassandra, a daughter of Priam and He- 
cuba, was passionately loved by Apollo, who 
promised to grant her whatever she might re- 
quire. She asked the power of knowing futu- 
rity; and as soon as she had received it, she 
slighted Apollo. The god, in his disappoint- 
ment, declared that no credit or reliance should 
ever be put upon her predictions, however true 
and faithful they might be. She was looked 
upon by the Trojans as insane, and she was 
even confined, and her predictions were disre- 
garded. She was courted by many princes 
during the Trojan war. In the division of the 
spoils of Troy, Agamemnon, who was ena- 
moured of her, took her as his wife, and return- 
ed with her to Greece. She repeatedly foretold 
to him the sudden calamities that awaited his 
return ; but he gave no credit to her, and was 
assassinated by his wife Clytemnestra. Cassan- 
dra shared his fate, and saw all her prophecies 
but too truly fulfilled. Vid. AgainemMon. 
^schyl. in Again. — Homer. 11. 13, v. 363. Od. 4. 
—Hygin. fab. 117.— Fir o". Mn. 2, v. 246, «&c.— • 
Q. Calab. 13, v. 421. — Eurip. in Troad. — Paus. 
1, c. 16, 1. 3, c. 19. 

Cassia Lex, was enacted by Cassius Lon- 
ginus, A. U. C. 649. By it no man condemned 
or deprived of military power was permitted to 

enter the senate-house. Another, enacted 

by C. Cassius, the praetor, to choose some of 
the plebeians to be admitted among the patri- 
cians. Another, A. U. C. 616, to make the 

suffrages of the Roman people free and inde- 
pendent. It ordained that they should be re- 
ceived upon tablets. Cic. in Led. Another, 

A. U. C. 267, to make a division of the terri- 
tories taken from the Hernici, half to the Roman 

people and half to the Latins. Another, 

enacted A. U. C. 596, to grant a consular power 
to P. Anicius and Octavius on the day they 
triumphed over Macedonia. Liv. 

Cassiodorus, a great statesman and writer 
in the 6th century. He died A . D. 562, at the 
age of 100. His works were edited by Chand- 
ler, 8vo. London, 1722. 

Cassivelaunus, a Briton invested with sove- 
390 



reign authority when J. Caesar made a descent 
upon Britain. Cces. Bell. G. 5, c. 19, &c. 

Cassius, (C.) I. a celebrated Roman, who made 
himself known by being first quaestor to Crassus 
in his expedition against Parthia, from which 
he extricated himself with uncommon address. 
He followed the interest of Pompey ; and when 
Caesar had obtained the victory in the plains of 
Pharsalia, Cassius was one of those who owed 
their life to the mercy of the conqueror. He 
married Junia, the sister of Brutus, and with 
him he resolved to murder the man to whom he 
was indebted for his life, on account of his op- 
pressive ambition ; and before he stabbed Cae- 
sar, he addressed himself to the statue of Pom- 
pey. When the provinces were divided among 
Caesar's murderers, Cassius received Africa; 
and when his party had lost ground at Rome, 
by the superior influence of Augustus and M. 
Antony, he retired to Philippi, with his friend 
Brutus and their adherents. In the battle that 
was fought there, the wing which Cassius com- 
manded was defeated, and his camp was plun- 
dered. In this unsuccessful moment he sudden- 
ly gave up all hopes of recovering his losses, 
and concluded that Brutus was conquered and 
ruined as well as himself Fearful to fall into 
the enemy's hands, he ordered one of his freed- 
men to run him through, and he perished by 
that very sword which had given wounds to 
Caesar. His body was honoured with a mag- 
nificent funeral by his friend Brutus, who de- 
clared over him that he deserved to be called the 
last of the Romans. If he was brave, he was 
equally learned. Some of his letters are still 
extant among Cicero's epistles. He was a strict 
follower of the doctrine of Epicurus. He was 
often too rash and too violent ; and many of the 
wrong steps which Brutus took are to be as- 
cribed to the prevailing advice of Cassius. He 
is allowed by Paterculus to have been a better 
commander than Brutus, though a less sincere 
friend. The day after Caesar's murder he 
dined at the house of Antony, who asked him 
whether he had then a dagger concealed in his 
bosom ; Yes, (replied he,) if you aspire to tyran- 
ny. Sueton. in Cas. <^ Aug. — Pint, in Brut. <^ 

CcBS. Paterc. 2, c. AQ.—Dio. 40. II. A 

Roman citizen, who condemned his son to death 
on pretence of his raising commotions in the 

state. Vol. Max. 5, c. 8. III. A tribune of 

the people, who made many laws tending to di- 
minish the influence of the Roman nobility. 
He was competitor with Cicero for the consul- 
ship. IV. One of Pompey's officers who, 

during the civil wars, revolted to Caesar with 10 

ships. V. A poet of Parma, of great genius. 

He was killed by Varus by order of Augustus, 
whom he had offended by his satirical writings. 
His fragments of Orpheus were found, and 
edited some time after by the poet Statius. Ho- 
rat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 62. VI. Spurius, a Ro- 
man, put to death on suspicion of his aspiring 
to tyranny, after he had been three times con- 
sul," B. C. 485. Diod. n.— Val. Max. 6, c. 3. 
VII. Brutus, a Roman, who betrayed his 



country to the Latins, and fled to the temple of 
Pallas, where his father confined him, and he 

was starved to death. VIII. Longinus, an 

officer of Caesar in Spain, much disliked. Cas. 
Alex. c. 48. IX. A consul, to whom Tibe- 
rius married Drusilla, daughter of Germanicus. 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



Sueton. in Val. c. 57. X. A lawyer, whom 

Nero put to death because he bore the name of 

J. Caesar's murderer. Suet, in Ner. 37. 

XI. L. Hemina, the most ancient writer of an- 
nals at Rome. He lived A. U. C. 608.- 



XII. Lucius, a Roman lawyer, whose severity 
in the execution of the law has rendered the 
words Cassiani judices applicable to rigid 

judges. Cic. pro Rose. c. 30. XIII. LoDgi- 

nus, a critic. Vid. Longinus. XIV. Lucius, 

a consul with C. Marius, slain, with his army, 

by the Gauls Senones. Appian. in Celt. 

XV. M. Scasva, a soldier of uncommon valour, 

in Caesar's army. Val. Max. 3, c. 2. XVI. 

An officer under Aurelius, made emperor by 
his soldiers, and murdered three months after. 
XVII. Felix, a physician in the age of Ti- 
berius, who wrote on animals. XVIII. Se- 

verus, an orator, who wrote a severe treatise on 
illustrious men and women. He died in exile, 
in his 25th year. Vid. Severus. The family 
of the Cassii branched into the surname of Lon- 
ginus, Viscellinus, Brutus, &c. 

Castratius, a governor of Placentia, during 
the civil wars of Marius. Val. Max. 6, c. 2. 

Catagogia, festivals in honour of Venus, cele- 
brated by the people of Eryx. Vid. Anagogia. 
Catenes, a Persian, by whose means Bessus 
was seized. Curt. 7, c. 43. 

Catienus, an actor at Rome in Horace's age. 
Hor. 2, Sat. 3, v. 61. 

Catilina, L. Sergius, a celebrated Roman, 
descended of a noble family. When he had 
squandered away his fortuneby his debaucheries 
and extravagance, and been refused the consul- 
ship, he secretly meditated the ruin of his coun- 
try, and conspired with many of the most illus- 
trious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to 
extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and 
set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely 
discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had 
resolved to murder ; and Catiline, after he had 
declared his intentions in the full senate, and 
attempted to vindicate himself, on seeing five of 
his accomplices arrested, retired to Gaul, where 
his partisans were assembling an army ; while 
Cicero at Rome punished the condemned con- 
■ spirators. Petreius, the other consul's lieutenant, 
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined troops, and 
routed them. Catiline was killed in the engage- 
ment, bravely fighting, about the middle of De- 
cember, B. C. 63. To violence ofiered to a 
vestal, he added the murder of his own brother, 
for which he would have suffered death, had 
not friends and bribes prevailed over justice. It 
has been reported that Catiline and the other 
conspirators drank human blood, to make their 
oaths more firm and inviolable. Sallust has 
written an account of the conspiracy, Cic. in 
Catil.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 668. 

Catius, (M.) .1. an Epicurean philosopher of 
Insubria, who wrote a treatise, in four books, on 
the nature of things, and the summum bonum, 
and an account of the doctrine and tenets of 
Epicurus. But as he was not a sound or faith- 
ful follower of the Epicurean philosophy, he has 
been ridiculed by Horat. 2, Sat. 4. — Quintil. 10, 

c. 1. II, Vestinus, a military tribune in M. 

Antony's army. Cic. Div. c. 10, 23. 

Cato, I. a surname of the Poreian family, ren- 
dered illustrious by M. Porcius Cato, a celebrat- 
ed Roman, afterwards called Censorius, from 



his having exercised the office of censor. He 
rose to all the honours of the state ; and the first 
battle he ever saw was against Annibal, at the 
age of seventeen, where he behaved with un- 
common valour. In his quaestorship under Afri- 
canus against Carthage, and in his expedition in 
Spain against the Celtiberians, and in Greece, 
he displayed equal proofs of his courage and 
prudence. He was remarkable for his love of 
temperance ; he never drank but water, and was 
always satisfied with whatever meats were laid 
upon his table by his servants, whom he never 
reproved withan angry word. He is famous 
for the great opposition which he made to the 
introduction of the finer arts of Greece into Italy ; 
and he often observed to his son, that the Ro- 
mans would be certainly ruined whenever they 
began to be infected with Greek. It appears, 
however, that he changed his opinion, and made 
himself remarkable for the knowledge of Greek 
which he acquired in his old age. He was 
universally deemed so strict in his morals, that 
Virgil makes him one of the judges of hell. He 
repented only of three things during his life : 
to have gone by sea when he could go by land, 
to have passed a day inactive, and to have told 
a secret to his wife. In Cicero's age there were 
150 orations of his, besides letters, and a cele- 
brated work called Origines, of which the first 
book gave a history of the Roman menarchy; 
the second and third, an account of the neigh- 
bouring cities of Italy; the fourth, a detail of 
the first, and the fifth of the second Punic war ; 
and, in the others, the Roman history was 
brought down to the war of the Lusitanians, 
carried on by Ser. Galba. Some fragments of 
the Origines remain, supposed by some to be 
supposititious. Cato's treatise, De Re rusiicd, 
was edited by Aufon. Pompna, 8vo. Ant. Plant. 
1590 ; but the best edition of Cato, &c. seems 
to be Gesner's, 2 vols, 4to. Lips. 1735. Cato 
died in an extreme old age, about 150 B. C; 
and Cicero, to show his respect for him, has 
introduced him in his treatise on old age as the 
principal character, Plin. 7, c. 14. — Plutarch 
& C. Nepos have written an account of his life. 

Cic. Acad. <^ de Senect. &c. II. Marcus, the 

son of the censor, married the daughter of P. 
^mylius. He lost his sword in a battle, and, 
though wounded and tired, he went to his friends 
and with their assistance renewed the battle, 

and recovered his sword. Pint, in Cat. III. 

A courageous Roman, grandfather to Cato the 
censor. He had five horses killed under him in 
battles. Plut. in Cat: IV. Valerius, a gram- 
marian of Gallia Norbonensis, in the time of 
Sylla, who instructed at Rome many noble pu- 
pils, and wrote some poems. Ovid. 2, Trist. 

1, V. 436. V. Marcus, surnamed Uticensis 

from his death at Utica, was great grandson to 
the censor of the same name. The early virtues 
that appeared in his childhood seemed to prom- 
ise a great man ; and, at the age of fourteen, he 
earnestly asked his preceptor for a sword to stab 
the tyrant Sylla. He was austere in his morals, 
and a strict follower of the tenets of the stoics ; 
he was careless of his dress, often appeared bare- 
footed in public, and never travelled but on foot. 
When he was set over the troops in the capacity 
of a commander, his removal was universally 
lamented, and deemed almost a public loss by 
his affectionate soldiers. His fondness for can- 
391 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



dour was so great, that the veracity of Cato be- 
came proverbial; In his visits to his friends, he 
wished to give as little molestation as possible ; 
and the importuning civilities of king Dejotarus 
so displeased him, when he was at his court, that 
he hastened away from his presence. He was 
very jealous of the safety and liberty of ihe re- 
public, and watched carefully over the conduct 
of Pompey, whose power and influence were 
great. He often expressed his dislike to serve 
the office of a tribune ; but when he saw a man 
of corrupted principles apply for it, he offered 
himself a candidate to oppose him, and obtain- 
ed the tribuneship. In the conspiracy of Cati- 
line he supported Cicero, and was the chief 
cause that the conspirators were capitally pun- 
ished. When the provinces of Gaul were de- 
creed foi' live years to Caesar, Cato observed to 
the senators that they had introduced a tyrant 
into the capitol. He was sent to Cyprus against 
Ptolemy, who had rebelled, by his enemies, who 
hoped that the difficulty of the expedition would 
injure his reputation. But his prudence extri- 
cated him from every danger. Ptolemy submit- 
ted, and, after a successful campaign, Cato was 
received at Rome with the most distinguishing 
honours, which he, however, modestly declined. 
When the first triumvirate was formed between 
Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, Cato opposed 
them with all his might ; and with an independ- 
ent spirit foretold to the Roman people all the 
misfortunes which soon after followed. After 
repeated applications he was made praetor, but 
he seemed rather to disgrace than support the 
dignity of that office by the meanness of his 
dress. He applied for the consulship, but could 
never obtain it. When Caesar had passed the 
Rubicon, Cato advised the Roman senate to de- 
liver the care of the republic into the hands of 
Pompey ; and when his advice had been com- 
plied with, he followed him with his son toDyr- 
rachium, where, after a small victory there, he 
was intrusted with the care of the ammunition 
and 15 cohorts. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
Cato took the command of the Corcyrean fleet ; 
and when he heard of Pompey's death, on the 
coast of Africa, he traversed the deserts of 
Libya to join himself to Scipio. He refused to 
take the command of the army in Africa, a cir- 
cumstance of which he afterwards repented. 
When Scipio had been defeated, partly for not 
paying regard to Cato's advice, Cato'fortified 
himself in Utica ; but, however, not with the 
intention of supportmg a siege. When Caesar 
approached near the city, Cato disdained to fly ; 
and rather than fall alive into the conqueror's 
hands, he stabbed himself, after he had read 
Plato's treatise on the immortality of the soul, 
B. C. 46, in the 59th year of his age. He had 
first married Attilia, a woman whose licentious 
conduct obliged him to divorce her. Afterwards 
he united himself to Martia, daughter of Philip. 
Hortensius, his friend, wished to raise children 
byMartia, and therefore obtained her from Cato. 
After the death of Hortensius, Cato took her 
again. This conduct was ridiculed by the Ro- 
mans, who observed that Martia had entered the 
house of Hortensius very poor, but returned to 
the bed of Cato loaded with treasures. It was 
observed that Cato always appeared in mourn- 
ing, and never laid down at his meals since the 
defeat of Pompey, but always sat down, contrary 
39 « 



to the custom of the Romans, as if depressed with 
the recollection that the supporters of republican 
liberty were decaying. Plutarch has written an 
account of his life. iMcan. 1, v. 128, &c. — 
Val. Max. 2, c 10.— Horat. 3, od. 21.— Fir^. 

.E)i. 6, V. 841, 1. 8, V. 670. VI. A son of 

Caio of Utica, who was killed in a battle after he 
had acquired much honour, Plut. in Cat. Min. 
Catullus, C. or Q,. Valerius, L was nearly 
contemporary with Lucretius, having come into 
the world a few years after him, and having 
survived him but a short period. This ele- 
gant poet was born of respectable parents, in 
the territory of Verona, but whether at the town 
so called, or on the peninsula of Sirmio, which 
projects into the Lake Benacus, has been a sub- 
ject of much controversy. The former opin- 
ion has been maintained by Maffei and Bayle, 
and the latter by Gyraldus, Schoell, Fuhrmann, 
and most modern writers. The precise period, 
as Avell as place, of the birth of Catullus, is a 
topic of debate and uncertainty. According to 
the Eusebian Chronicle, he was born in ^%Q, 
but, according to other authorities, in 667 or 668. 
With a view of improving his pecuniary cir- 
cumstances, he adopted the usual Roman mode 
of re-establishing a diminished fortune, and ac- 
companied Caius Memmius, the celebrated pa- 
tron of Lucretius, to Bithynia, when he was 
appointed preetor of that province. His situa- 
tion, however, was but little meliorated by this 
expedition, and, in the course of it, he lost a be- 
loved brother, who was long with him; and 
whose death he has lamented in verses never 
surpassed in delicacy or pathos. He came back 
to Rome with a shattered constitution and a 
lacerated heart. From the period of his return 
to Italy till his decease, his time appears to have 
been chiefly occupied with the prosecution of 
licentious amours, in the capital or among the 
solitudes of Sirmio. The Eusebian Chronicle 
places his death in 696, and some writers fix it 
in 705. It is evident, however, that he must 
have survived at least till 708, as Cicero, in his 
letters, talks of his verses against Caesar and 
Mamurra as newly written, and first seen by 
Caesar in that year. The distracted and un- 
happy state of his country, and his disgust at 
the treatment which he had received from Mem- 
mius, were perhaps sufficient excuse for shun- 
ning political employments ; but when we con- 
sider his taste and genius, we cannot help re- 
gretting that he was merely an idler and a de- 
bauchee. His poems are chiefly employed in 
the indulgence and commemoration of his vari- 
ous passions. Ad Passerem Lesbia. — This ad- 
dress of Catullus to the favourite sparrow of his 
mistress, Lesbia, is well known, and has been 
always celebrated as a model of grace and ele- 
gance. In Nuptias Julia et Manlii. These 
ave the three very celebrated epithalamiums of 
Catullus. The first is in honour of the nuptials 
of Julia and Manlius, who isgenerally supposed 
to have been Aulus Manlius Torquatus, an in- 
timate friend of the poet, and a descendant of 
one ofthe most noble patrician families in Rome. 
This poem has been entitled an epithalamiura 
in most of the ancient editions, but Muretus 
contends that this is an improper appellation, 
and that it should be inscribed Carmen Nnp- 
tiale. ' An epithalamium,' he says, * was sup- 
posed to be sung by the virgins when the bride 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CA 



had retired to the nuptial chamber; whereas in 
this poem an earlier part of the ceremony is cele- 
brated and described.' Carmen Nuptiale. — 
Some parts of this epithalamium have been 
taken from Theocritus, particularly from his 
eignteenth Idyl, where the Lacedaemonian 
maids, companions of Helen, sing before the 
bridal-chamber of Menelaus. Tiiis second nup- 
tial hymn of Catullus may be regarded as a 
continuation of the above poem, being also in 
honour of the marriage of Manlius and Julia. 
The stanzas of the former were supposed to 
be sung or recited in the person of the poet, 
who only exhorted the chorus of youths and 
virgins to commence the nuptial strain. But 
here these bands contend, in alternate verses ; 
the maids descanting on the beauty and advan- 
tages of a single life, and the lads on those of 
marriage. The young men, companions of the 
bridegroom, are supposed to have left him at 
the rising of the evening star of love. The 
maids who had accompanied the bride to her 
husband's house, approached the youths who 
had just left the bridegroom, and they commence 
a very elegant contention concerning the merits 
of the star, which the chorus of virgins is pleased 
to characterize as a cruel planet. They are si- 
lenced, however, by the youths hinting that they 
are not such enemies to Hesper as they pretend 
to be. Then the maids draw a beautiful, and, 
with Catullus, a favourite comparison between 
an unblemished virgin and a delicate flower in 
a garden : — 

* Utfios in septis secrefnis nascitur hortis, 
Jgnotus pecori, nullo convulsus aratro, 
Quern vudcent aurce, Jirnmt sol, edumt imber : 
MuUi ilium piieri, muUcB optavere puellce. 
Idem cum teuui carptus defioruit ungui, 
Nulli ilium puen, nidlce optavere puellce. 
Sic virgo dum intacta vian-et, turn cara suis ; sed 
Cum castum amisib, polluto corpore^jlorem, 
Nee piceris jucunda manei, nee cara puellis.'' 

The greatest poets have not disdained to trans- 
plant this exquisite flower of song. Perhaps 
the most successful imitation is one by the 
prince of the romantic bards of Italy, in the 
first canto of his Orlando. De Ati. — The 
story of Atis is one of the most mysterious 
of the mythological emblems. The fable was 
explained by Porphyry ; and the emperor Ju- 
lian afterwards invented and published an alle- 
gory of this mystic tale. According to them, 
the voluntary emasculation of Atis was typical 
of the revolution of the sun between the tropics, 
or the separation of the human soul from vice 
and error. In the literal acceptation in which 
it is presented by Catullus, the fable seems an 
unpromising and rather a peculiar subject for 
poetry : indeed, there is no example of a similar 
event being celebrated in verse, except the va- 
rious poems on the fate of Abelard. It is like- 
wise the only specimen we have in Latin of the 
Galliambic measure; so called, because sung by 
Galli, the effeminate votaries of Cybele. The 
Romans, being a more sober and severe people 
than the Greeks, gave less encouragement than 
they to the celebration of the rites of Bacchus, 
andhavepouredforthbutfewdithyrambic lines. 
The genius of their language and of their usual 
style of poetry, as Avell as their own practical 
and imitative character, were unfavourable to 
Part II.— 3 D 



the composition of such bold, figurative, and dis- 
cursive strains. They have lett no verses which 
can be strictly called dithyrambic, except, per- 
haps, the nineteenth ode of the second booK: of 
Horace, and a chorus in the (Edipus of Seneca. 
If not perfectly dithyrambic, the numbers of 
the Atis of Catullus are, however, strongly ex- 
pressive of distraction and enthusiasm. The 
Yiolent bursts of passion are admirably aided by 
the irresistible torrent of words, and by the ca- 
dence of a measure powerfully denoting mental 
agony and remorse. In this production, now 
unexampled in every sense of the word, Catul- 
lus is no longer the light agreeable poet, who 
counted the kisses of his mistress, and called on 
the Cupids to lament her sparrow. His ideas 
are full of fire, and his language of wildness : 
he pours forth his thoughts with an energy, ra- 
pidity, and enthusiasm, so different from, his 
usual tone, and, indeed, from that of all Latin 
poets, that this production has been supposed to 
be a translation from some ancient Greek dithy- 
rambic, of which it breathes all the passions and 
poetic phrensy. The employment of long com- 
pound epithets, which constantly recur in the 
Atis, is also a strong mark of imitation of the 
Greek dithyrambics ; it being supposed that 
such sonorous and new-invented words were 
most befitting intoxication or religious enthu- 
siasm. Anacreon, in his thirteenth oda, alludes 
to the lamentations and transports of Atis, as 
to a well-knowTi poetical tradition. Atis, it 
appears from the poem of Catullus, was a beau- 
tiful youth, probably of Greece, who, forsaking 
his home and parents, sailed with a few com- 
panions, to Phrygia, and having landed, hur- 
ried to the grove consecrated to the great goddess 
Cybele; there, struck with superstitious phren- 
sy, he qualified himself for the service of that 
divinity ; and, snatching the musical instru- 
ments used in her worship, he. exhorted his com- 
panions, who had followed his example, to as- 
cend to the temple of Cybele. At this part of 
the poem, we follow the new votary of the Phry- 
gian goddess through all his wild traversing of 
woods and mountains, till at length, having 
reached the temple, Atis and his companions 
drop asleep, exhausted by fatigue and mental 
distraction. Being tranquillized in some mea- 
sure by a night's repose, Atis becomes sensible 
of the misery of his situation ; and, struck with 
horror at his rash deed, he returns to the sea- 
shore. There he cast his eyes, bathed in tears, 
over the ocean homeward ; and comparing his 
former happiness with his present wretched con- 
dition, he pours forth a complaint unrivalled in 
energy and pathos. Gibbon talks of the differ- 
ent emotions produced by the transition of Atis 
from the wildest enthusiasm to sober pathetic 
complaint for his irretrievable loss ; but, in fact, 
his complaint is not soberly pathetic — to which 
the Galliambic measure would be little suited : 
it is, on the contrary, the most impassioned ex- 
pression of mental agony and bitter regret in 
the wide compass of Roman literature. Epi- 
thalamium Pelei et Thetidis. — This is the long- 
est and most elaborate of the productions of 
Catullus. It displays much accurate descrip- 
tion, as well as pathetic and impassioned inci- 
dent. Catullus was a Greek scholar, and all his 
commentators seem determined that his best 
poems should be considered as of Greek invent 
393 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CE 



tion. I do not believe, however, that the whole 
of this epithalamium was taken from anyone 
poet of Greece, as the Coma Berenices v^zs from 
Callimachus ; but the author undoubtedly bor- 
rowed a great deal from various writers of that 
country. The proper subject of this epithala- 
mium is the festivals held in Thessaly in hon- 
our of the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis; but 
it is chiefly occupied with a long episode, con- 
taining the story of Ariadne. De Coraa Bere- 
nices, IS translated from a production of Calli- 
machus, of which, only two distichs remain, 
one preserved by Theon, a scholiast on Aratus, 
and another in the Scholia on Apollonius Rho- 
dius. The poem of Catullus has some faults, 
which may be fairly attributed to his pedantic 
model — a certain obscurity in point of diction, 
and that ostentatious display of erudition, which 
characterized the works of the Alexandrian 
poets. The Greek original, however, being 
lost, except two distichs, it is impossible to in- 
stitute an accurate comparison ; but the Latin 
appears to be considerably more diifuse than 
the Greek. The Latin poem, like its Greek 
original, is in elegiac verse, and is supposed to 
be spoken by the constellation called Coma Be- 
renices. It relates how Berenice, the queen and 
sister of Ptolemy, (Euergetes,) vowed the con- 
secration of her locks to the immortals, provid- 
ed her husband was restored to her, safe and 
successful, from a military expedition on which 
he had proceeded against the Assyrians. The 
king having returned according to her wish, 
and her shorn locks having disappeared, it is 
supposed, by one of those fictions which poetry 
alone can admit, that Zephyrus, the son of Au- 
rora, and brother of Memnon, had carried them 
up to heaven, and thrown them into the lap of 
Venus, by whom they were set in the sky, and 
were soon afterwards discovered among the con- 
stellations by Conon, a court astronomer. But 
though the poem of Callimachus may have been 
seriously written, and gravely read by the court 
of Ptolemy, the lines of Catullus often ap- 
proach to something like pleasantry or petrsi- 
flage : and seem intended as a sort of mock- 
heroic, and remind us strongly of the Rape of 
the Lock. Much dispute has existed with re- 
gard to the comparative merit of the epigram* 
matic productions of Catullus, and those of 
Martial, who sharpened the Latin epigram, and 
endeavoured to surprise, by terminating an or- 
dinary thought with some word or expression, 
which formed a point. Of the three great tri- 
umvirs of Latin literature, Joseph Scaliger, Lip- 
sius, and Muretus, the last considers Catullus 
as far superior to his successor, as the wit of a 
gentleman to that of a scoffer and buffoon, while 
the two former award the palm to Martial. 
There can, I think, be no doubt, that as an epi- 
grammatist, Martial is infinitely superior to 
Catullus ; but it is not on his epigrams that the 
fame of Catullus rests ; he owes his reputation 
to about a dozen pieces, in which every word, 
like a note of music, thrills on the heart-strings. 
It is this felicitous selection of the most appro- 
priate and melodious expressions, which seem 
to flow from the heart without study or preme- 
ditation, which has rendered him the most 

graceful of poets. II, A man surnamed 

Urhicarius. was a mimographer, Juv. 13, v. 
111. 

394 



CaTULUS, d. LUCTATTDS, I, WCUt With 300 

ships during the first Punic war against the Car- 
thagmians, and destroyed 600 of their ships un- 
der Hamilcar, near the iEgates. This celebrat- 
ed victory put an end to the war. II. An 

orator, distinguished also as a writer of epigrams, 
and admired for the neatness, elegance, and 
polished style of his compositions. He is sup- 
posed to be the same as the colleague of Marins, 
when a consul the fourth time ; and he shared 
with him the triumph over the Cimbri. He was, 
by his colleague's order, suffocated in a room 
filled with the smoke of burning coals. Lucan. 

2, V. 174. — Plut. in Mario. III. A Roman 

sent by his countrymen to carry a present to 
the god of Delphi, from the spoils taken from 
Asdrubal. Liv. 27. 

Cebe.?, a Theban philosopher, one of the dis- 
ciples of Socrates, B. C. 405. He attended his 
learned preceptor in his last moments, and dis- 
tinguished himself by three dialogues that he 
wrote ; but more particularly by his tables, which 
contain a beautiful and affecting picture of hu- 
man life, delineated with accuracy of judgment 
and great splendour of sentiment. Little is 
known of the character of Cebes from history. 
Plato mentions him once, and Xenophon the 
same ; but both in a manner which conveys most 
fully the goodness of his heart and the purity 
of his morals. The best editions of Cebes are 
those of Gronovius, 8vo. 1689 ; and Glasgow, 
12mo. 1747, 

Cecinna, a. a Roman knight in the interest 
of Pompey, who used to breed up young swal- 
lows, and send them to carry news to his friends 
as messengers. He was a particular friend of 
Cicero, with whom he corresponded. Some of 
his letters are still extant in Cicero. Plin. 10, 
c. 24.— Cic. 15, ep. 66. Oral. 29. 

Cecropid^, an ancient name of the Athe- 
nians, more particularly applied to those who 
were descended from Cecrops, the founder of 
Athens. The honourable name of Cecropidae 
was often conferred as a reward for some vir- 
tuous action in the field of battle. Virg. JEn, 
6, V. 21.— Ovid. 7, Met. 671. 

Cecrops, I. a native of Sais in Egypt, who 
led a colony to Attica, about 1556 years before 
the Christian era, and reigned over part of the 
country, which was called from him Cecropia. 
He softened and polished the rude and uncul- 
tivated manners of the inhabitants, and drew 
them from the country to inhabit twelve small 
villages which he had founded. He gave them 
laws and regulations, and introduced among 
them the worship of those deities which were 
held in adoration in Egypt. He married the 
daughter of Actaeus, a Grecian prince, and was 
deemed the first founder of Athens. He taught 
his subjects to cultivate the olive, and instructed 
them to look upon Minerva as the watchful pa- 
troness of their city. It is said that he was the 
first who raised an altar to Jupiter in Greece, 
and offered him sacrifices. After a reign of 
50 years, spent in regulating his newly-formed 
kingdom, and in polishing the minds of his sub- 
jects, Cecrops died; leaving three daughters, 
Aglaurus, Herse, and Pandrosos. He was suc- 
ceeded by Cranaus, a native of the country. 
Some time after, Theseus, one of his successors 
on the throne, formed the twelve villages which 
he had established into one city, to which the 



CE 



HISTORY, &c. 



CE 



name of Athens was given. Vid. Athence. \ 
Some authors have described Cecrops as a \ 
monster, half a man and half a serpent ; and j 
this fable is explained by the recollection that 
he was master of two languages, the Greek and 
Egyptian ; or that he had command over two 
countries, Egypt and Greece. Others explain 
it by an allusion to the regulations which Ce- 
crops made amongst the inhabitants concerning 
marriage and the union of the two sexes. Pans. 
1, c. 5. — Strcib. 9. — Justin. 2, c. 6. — Herodot. 8, 
c. U.—Apollod.^, c. U.—Ovid. Met. 11, v. 561. 

— Hygin. fab. 166. II. The second of that 

name was the seventh king of Athens, and the 
son and successor of Erechtheus. He married 
Metiadusa, the sister of Daedalus, by whom he 
had Pandion. He reigned 40 years, and died 
1307 B. C. Apollod. 3, c. \h.—Paus. 1, c. 5. 

Celer, I. a man who, with Severus, under- 
took to rebuild Nero's palace after the burning 

of Rome. Tacit. Ann. 15, c. 42. II. A man 

called Fabius, who killed Remus when he leaped 
over the walls of Rome, by order of Romulus. 
Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 837. — Plut. in Romul. 

Celeres, 300 of the noblest and strongest 
youths at Rome, chosen by Romulus to be his 
body guards, to attend him wherever he went, 
and to protect his person. The chief or captain 
was called Tribunus Celerum. Liv. 1, c. 15. 

Celsus, I. an Epicurean philosopher in the 
second century, to whom Lucian dedicated one 
of h is compositions. He wrote a treatise against 
the Christians, to which an answer was re- 
turned by Origen. II. Corn, a physician in 

the age of Tiberius, who wrote eight books on 
medicine, besides treatises on agriculture, rheto- 
ric, and military affairs. The best editions of 
Celsus de medicina are the 8vo. L. Bat. 1746, 
and that of Vallart, 12mo. Paris apud Didot, 

1772. III. Albinovanus, a friend of Horace, 

warned against plagiarism, 1, ep. 3, v. 15, and 
pleasantly ridiculed in the eighth epistle for his 
foibles. Some of his elegies have been pre- 
served. IV. Juventius, a lawyer, who con- 
spired against Domitian. V. Titus, a man 

proclaimed emperor, A. D. 265, against his 
will, and murdered seven days after. 

Censores, two magistrates of great authority 
at Rome, first created B. C. 443. Their office 
was to number the people, estimate the posses- 
sions of every citizen, reform and watch over the 
manners of the people, and regulate the taxes. 
Their power was also extended over private 
families ; they punished irregul arity , and inspec t- 
ed the management and education of the Ro- 
man youth. They could inquire into the expenses 
of every citizen, and even degrade a senator from 
all his privileges and honours, if guilty of any 
extravagance. This punishment was generally 
executed in passing over the offender's name in 
calling the list of the senators. The office of 
public censor was originally exercised by the 
kings. S^rvius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, 
first established a census, by which every man 
was obliged to come to be registered, and give 
in writing the place of his residence, his name, 
his quality, the number of his children, of his 
tenants, estates, and domestics, &c. The ends 
of the census were very salutary to the Roman 
republic. They knew their own strength, their 
ability to support a war, or to make a levy of 
troops, or raise a tribute. It was required that 



every knight should be possessed of 400,000 ses- 
terces, to enjoy the rights and privileges of his 
order ; and a senator was entitled to sit in the 
senate, if he was really worth 800,000 sesterces. 
This laborious task of numbering and reviewing 
the people was, after the expulsion of the Tar- 
quins, one of the duties and privileges of the 
consuls. But when the republic was become 
more powerful, and when the number of its citi- 
zens was increased, the consuls were found un- 
able to make the census, on account of the mul- 
tiplicity of business. After it had been neglected 
for 16 years, two new magistrates, called cen- 
sors, were elected. They remained in office for 
five years, and every fifth year they made a cen- 
sus of all the citizens in the Campus Martius, 
and offered a solemn sacrifice, and made a lustra- 
tion in the name of all the Roman people. This 
space of time was called a lustrum, and ten or 
twenty years were commonly expressed by two 
or four lustra. After the office of censors had re- 
mained for some time unaltered, the Romans, 
jealous of their power, abridged the duration 
of their office; and a law was made, A. U. C. 
420, by Mamercus iEmilius, to limit the time 
of the censorship to 18 mouths. After the sec- 
ond Punic war, they were always chosen 
from such persons as nad been consuls; their 
office was more honourable, though less pow- 
erful, than that of the consuls ; the badges of 
their office were the same, but the censors 
were not allowed to have lictorsto walk before 
them as the consuls. When one of the cen- 
sors died, no one was elected in his room till 
the five years were expired, and his colleague 
immediately resigned. This circumstance ori- 
ginated from the death of a censor before the 
sack of Rome by Brennus, and was ever afler 
deemed an unfortunate event to the republic. 
The emperors abolished the censors, and took 
upon themselves to execute their office. 

Censorinus, I. (Ap. CI.) was compelled, af- 
ter many services to the state, to assume the 
imperial purple by the soldiers, by whom he was 

murdered some days after, A. D. 270. II. 

A grammarian of the 3d century, whose book, 
De die natali, is extant, best edited in 8vo. by 
Havercamp, L. Bat. 1767. It treats of the birth 
of man, of years, months, and days. 

Census, the numbering of the people of Rome, 
performed by the censors, a censeo, to value. 

Vid. Censores. A god worshipped at Rome, 

the same as Consus. 

Centumviri, the members of a court of jus- 
tice at Rome. They were originally chosen, 
three from the 35 tribes of the people, and, 
though 105, they were always called Centum- 
virs. They were afterwards increased to the 
number of 180, and still kept their original 
name. The praetor sent to their tribunal causes 
of the greatest importance, as their knowledge 
of the law was extensive. They were generally 
summoned by the Decemviri, who seemed to be 
the chiefest among them ; and they assembled 
in the Basilica, or public court, and had their 
tribunal distinguished by a spear with an iron 
head ; whence a decree of their court was called 
Hastes judicium ; their sentences were very 
impartial, and without appeal. Cic. de Oral. 1, 
c. 38.— Qwm^tZ. 4, 5, and 11. — Plin. 6. ep. 33. 

Centijria, a division of the people among 
the Romans, consisting of a hundred. The Ro- 
395 



CE 



HISTORY, &c. 



CH 



man people were originally divided into three 
tribes, and each tribe into 10 curiee. Servius 
Tullius made a census: and when he had the 
place of habitation, name, and profession of 
every citizen, which amounted to 80,000 men, 
all able to bear arms, he divided them into six 
classes, and each class into several centuries or 
companies of a hundred men. The first class 
consisted of 80 centuries, 40 of which were com- 
posed of men from the age of 45 and upwards, 
appointed to guard the city. The 40 others 
were young men from 17 to 45 years of age, 
appointed to go to war, and fight the enemies of 
Rome. They were to be worth 1,100,000 «sses, 
a sum equivalent to 1800 pounds English money. 
The second, third, and fourth classes, consisted 
each of twenty centuries, ten of which were 
composed of the more aged, and the others of 
the younger sort of people. They were to be 
worth, in the second class, 75,000 asses, or about 
1211. In the third, 50,000, about 801. ; and in 
the fourth, 25,000, or about 40Z. The fifth class 
consisted of 30 centuries, three of which were 
carpenters by trade, and the others of diflerent 
professions, such as were necessary in a camp. 
They were to be worth 11,000 asses, or about 
18^. The sixth class contained only one cen- 
turia, comprising the whole body of the poorest 
citizens, who were called Proletarii, as their 
only service to the state was procreating chil- 
dren. They were also called capite censi, as the 
censor took notice of their person , not of their es- 
tate. In the public assemblies in the Campus 
Martins, at the election of public magistrates, 
or at the trial of capital crimes, the people gave 
their vote by centuries ; whence the assembly 
was called comitia cetduriafa. In these public 
assemblies, which were never convened only by 
the consuls at the permission of the senate, or 
by the dictator, in the absence of the consuls, 
some of the people appeared under arms for fear 
of an^attack from some foreign enemy. When 
a law was proposed in the public assemblies, its 
advantages were enlarged upon in a harangue; 
after which it was exposed in the most con- 
spicuous parts of the city three market-days, that 
the people might see and consider. Exposing 
it to public view, was called proponere legem, 
and explaining it, promulgare legem.. He who 
merely proposed it, was called lator legis ; and 
he who dwelt upon its importance and utility, 
and wished it to be enforced, was called auctor 
legis. When the assembly was to be held, the 
auguries were consulted by the consul, who, af- 
ter haranguing the people, and reminding them 
to have in view the good of the republic, dis- 
missed them to their respective centuries, that 
their votes might be gathered. They gave their 
votes fi-yd voce, till the year of Rome A. U. C. 
615, when they changed the custom, and gave 
their approbation or disapprobation by ballots 
thrown into an urn. If the first class was 
unanimous, the others were not consulted, as the 
first was superior to all the others in number ; 
but if they were not unanimous, they proceeded 
to consult the rest, and the majority decided the 
question. This advantage of the first class gave 
offence to the rest, and it was afterwards settled 
that one class of the six should be drawn by lot, 
to give its votes first, without regard to rank or 
priority. After all the votes had been gathered, 
the consul declared aloud, that the law which 
396 



had been proposed was duly and constitutionally 
approved. The same ceremonies were observed 
in the election of consuls, proetors, &c. The 
word Centuria is also applied to a subdivision 
of one of the Roman legions, which consisted of 
a himdred men, and was the half of a manipu- 
lus, the sixth part of a cohort, and the sixtieth 
part of a legion. The commander of a centuria 
was called centurion, and he was distinguished 
from the rest by the branch of a vine which he 
carried in his hand. 

Cephalon, a Greek of louia, who wrote a 
history of Troy, besides an epitome of univer- 
sal history from the age of Ninus to Alexander, 
which he divided into nine books, inscribed with 
the name of the nine muses. He affected not 
to know the place of his birth, expecting it 
would be disputed like Homer's. He lived in 
the reign of Adrian. 

Cephalus. Vid. Part III. 

CEPfflsiDORUs, I. a tragic poet of Athens in 

the age of jEschylus. II. An historian who 

wrote an account of the Phocian war. 

Cehcops, a Milesian, author of a fabulous 
history, mentioned by Athenaeus. 

Cerealia, festivals in honour of "Ceres ; first 
instituted at Rome by Memmius the edile, and 
celebrated on the 19th of April. Persons in 
mourning were not permitted to appear at the 
celebration; therefore they were not observed 
after the battle of Cannae. They are the same 
as the Thesmophoria of the Greeks. Vid, 
Thesmophoria. 

Cestius, an Epicurean of Smyrna, who taught 
rhetoric at Rhodes, in the age of Cicero. 

Cethegus, the surname of one of the branch- 
es of the Cornelii. 1. Marcus, a consul in 

the second Punic war. Cic. in Brut. — '■ — II. 
A tribune at Rome of the most corrupted 
morals, who joined Catiline in his conspiracy 
against the state, and was commissioned to 
murder Cicero. He was apprehended, and, 
with Lentulus, put to death by the Roman 

senate. Ptut. in Cic. <^c. III. P. Corn, a 

powerful Roman, who embraced the parly of 
Marius against Sylla. His mistress had ob- 
tained such an ascendency over him, that she 
distributed his favours, and Lucullus was not 
ashamed to court her smiles when he wished 
to be appointed general against Mithridates. 

Ceyx. Vid. Part III. 

Chabrias, an Athenian general and philoso- 
pher, who chiefly signalized himself when he 
assisted the Boeotians against Agesilaus. In 
this celebrated campaign he ordered his soldiers 
to put one knee on the ground, and firmly to 
rest their spears upon the other, and cover them- 
selves with their shields, by which means he 
daunted the enemy and had a statue raised to 
his honour in that same posture. He assisted 
also Nectanebus, king of Egjrpt, and conquered 
the whole island of Cyprus : but he at last fell 
a sacrifice to his excessive courage, and despised 
to fly from his ship when he had it in his pow- 
er to save his life like his companions, B. C; 
376. C. Nep. in vitd.—Diod. l&.—Phtt. in Phoc. 

Chjereas, an officer who murdered Caligu- 
la, A. D. 41, to prevent the infamous death 
which was prepared against himself. _ 

CH.aEREM0N, I. a comic poet, and disciple of 

Socrates. 11. A stoic, who wrote on the 

Egyptian priests. 



CH 



HISTORY, &c. 



CH 



Ch^rephon, a tragic poet of Athens in the 
age of Philip of Macedonia. 

Char^adas, an Athenian general, sent with 
20 ships to Sicily during the Peloponnesian 
war. He died 426 B. C. &c. Thucyd. 3, 
c. 86. 

Charax, a philosopher of Pergamus, who 
wrote a history of Greece in 40 books. 

Charaxes, and Charaxus, a Mitylenean, 
brother to Sappho, who became passionately 
fond of Rhodope, upon whom he squandered all 
his possessions, and reduced himself to poverty 
and the necessity of piratical excursions. Ovid. 
Her old, 15, v. 111.— Her odot. 2, c. 135, &c. 

Chares, I. a statuary of Lindus, who was 12 
yeai's employed in making the famous Colossus 

at Rhodes. Plin. 34, c. 7. II. An historian 

of Mitylene, who wrote a life of Alexander. 

Charicles, one of the 30 tyrants set over 
Athens by the Lacedaemonians. Xenoph. Me- 
mo/: 1. — Arist. Polit. 5, c. 6. II. A famous 

physician under Tiberius. Tacit. Ann. 6, c. 50. 

Charila, a festival observed once in nine 
years by the Delphians. It owes its origin to 
this circumstance. In a great famine the peo- 
ple of Delphi assembled and applied to their 
king to relieve their wants. He accordingly 
distributed a little corn he had among the no- 
blest ; but as a poor little girl, called Charila, 
begged the king with more than common ear- 
nestness, he beat her with his shoe, and the girl, 
unable to bear his treatment, hanged herself in 
her girdle. The famine increased; and the ora- 
cle told the king, that to relieve his people he 
must atone for the murder of Charila. Upon 
this, a festival was instituted with expiatory 
rites. The king presided over this institution, 
and distributed pulse and corn to such as attend- 
ed. Charila's image was brought before the 
king, who struck it with his shoe; after which, 
it was carried to a desolate place, where they 
put a halter round its neck, and buried it where 
Charila was buried. Plut. in Qucest. Grcec. 

Chyrilaus, and Charillus, a son of Poly- 
dectes, king of Sparta, educated and protected 
by his uncle Lycurgus. He made war against 
Argos and attacked Tegea. He was taken 
prisoner, and released on promise that he would 
cease from war, an engagement he soon broke. 
He died in the 64th year of his age. Pans. 2, 
36, 1. 6, c. 48. 

Charisia, a festival in honour of the Graces, 
with dances which continued all night. He who 
continued awake the longest was rewarded with 
a cake. 

Charistia, festivals at Rome, celebrated on 
the 20th of February, by the distribution of mu- 
tual presents, with the intention of reconciling 
friends and relations. Val. Max. 2, c. 1. — Ovid. 
Fast. 1. 

Chariton, a writer of Aphrodisium, at the 
latter end of the fourth century. He composed 
a Greek romance, called, The Loves of Chcereas 
o,nd Callirrhoe, which has been much admired 
for its elegance, and the originality of the char- 
acters it describes. There is a very learned 
edition of Chariton, by Reiske, with D'Orville's 
notes, 2 vols. 4to. Arast. 1750. 

Charmides, a philosopher of the third acad- 
emy, B. C. 95. 

Charms, a physician of Marseilles in Nero's 
age, who used cold baths for his patients, and 



prescribed medicines contrary to those of his 
contemporaries. Plin. 21, c. 1. 

Charmus, a poet of Syracuse, some of whose 
fragments are found scattered in Athenaeus. 

Charon, I. a Theban, who received into his 
house Pelopidas and his friends, when they de- 
livered Thebes from tyranny, &c. Plut. in Pe- 

lop. II. An historian of Lampsacus, son of 

JPytheus, who wrote two books on Persia, be- 
sides other treatises, B. C. 479. III. An his- 
torian of Naucratis, who wrote a history of 
his country and Egy^it. 

Charondas, a man of Catana, who gave laws 
to the people of Thurium, and made a law that 
no man should be permitted to come armed into 
the assembly. He inadvertently broke this law, 
and when told of it, he fell upon his sword, B. C. 
446. Val. Max. 6, c. 5. 

Charops, and Charopes, I. a powerful Epi- 
rot, who assisted Flaminius when making war 
against Philip, the king of Macedonia. Plut. 

in Flam. II. The first decennial archon at 

Athens. Pater c. 1, c. 8. 

CHELiE, a Greek word, (x'?^'?)) signifying 
claws^ which is applied to the Scorpion, one of 
the signs of the zodiac, and lies, according to 
the ancients, contiguous to Virgo. Virg. G. 1, 
V. 33. 

Chelidonia, a festival at Rhodes, in which 
it was customary for boys to go begging from 
door to door, and singing certam songs, &c. 

Aiken. The wind Favonius was called also 

Chelidonia., from the 6th of the ides of Februa- 
ry to the 7th of the calends of March, the 
time when swallows first made their appear- 
ance. Plin. 2, c. 47. 

Chelonis, a daughter of Leonidas, king of 
Sparta, who married Cleombrotus. She accom- 
panied her father, whom her husband had ex- 
pelled, and soon after went into banishment 
with her husband, who had in his turn been ex- 
pelled by Leonidas. Plut. in Agid. <^ Cleom. 

Cheops, and Cheospes, a king of Egypt after 
Rhampsinitus, who built famous pyramids, 
upon which 1060 talents were expended only 
in supplying the workmen with leeks, parsley, 
garlick, and other vegetables. Herodot. 2, c. 
124. 

Chepheren, a brother of Cheops, who also 
built a pyramid. The Egyptians so inveterate- 
ly hated these two royal brothers, that they pub- 
licly reported that the pyramids which they had 
built had been erected by a shepherd. Herodot. 
2, c. 127. 

Cherisophus, a commander of 800 Spartans, 
in the expedition which Cyrus undertook against 
his brother Artaxerxes. Diod. 14. 

Chilo, a Spartan philosopher, who has been 
called one of the seven wise men of Greece. 
Plin. 7, c. 33.—Laert. 

Chionides, was the first comic writer among 
the Athenians. His representations date from 
Olymp. 73d. 2, B. C. 487. The names of 
three of his comedies are recorded : — ' Upms, 
nepc-ai i] 'Affavpioi, and IlTco'x^oi. The two lat- 
ter do not apparently bear any reference to 
mythology, and therefore it is probable that 
comedy was beginning to adopt subjects of a 
different nature ; or rather, that the Attic come- 
dy did, from its earliest times, incline, as in the 
days of Aristophanes, to personality and satire. 

Chilorus, (Constantine,^ one of the C^ssars, 
397 



CI 



HISTORY, &c. 



CI 



in Diocletian's age who reigned two years after 
the emperor's abdication, and died July 25, A. 
D. 306. 

Chcerilus, I. a tragic poet of Athens, who 
wrote many tragedies, of which 13 obtained the 
prize. The dramas of Chcerilus appear origi- 
nally to have been of a satiric character, like 
those of Thespis. In his later days he natural- 
ly copied the improvements of Phrynichus, and 
we find him accordingly contending for the 
tragic prizes against Phrynichus, Pratinas, and 
^schylus, Olymp. 70th, B. C. 499 ; the time 
when iEschylus first exhibited. His pieces are 
said to have amounted to a hundred and fifty : 
not a fragment however remains ; and, if we 
may trust Hermeas and Proclus, the commen- 
tators on Plato, the loss is not very great. 

IL An historian of Samos. Two other poets, 

one of whom was very intimate with Herodotus. 
He wrote a poem on the victory which the 
Athenians had obtained over Xerxes, and, on 
account of the excellence of the composition, 
he received a piece of gold for each verse from 
the Athenians, and was publicly ranked with 
Homer as a poet. The other was one of Alex- 
ander's flatterers and friends. It is said the 
prince promised him as many pieces of gold as 
there should be good verses in his poetry, and 
as many slaps on his forehead as there were bad ; 
and in consequence of this, scarce six of his 
verses in each poem were entitled to gold, while 
the rest were rewarded with the castigation. 
Plut. in Alex. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 232. 
Chonnidas. Vid. Part III. 
Chromius, an Argive, who, alone with Alce- 
nor, survived a battle between 300 of his coun- 
trymen and 300 Spartans. Herodot. 1, c. 62. 

Chrtsanthios, a philosopher in the age of 
Julian, known for the great number of volumes 
he wrote. 

Chrysermus, a Corinthian; who wrote a 
history of Peloponnesus, and of India, besides 
a treatise on rivers. Plut. in Parall. 

Chrysippus, a stoic philosopher of Tarsus, 
who wrote about 311 treatises. Among his cu- 
rious opinions was his approbation of a parent's 
marriage with his child, and his wish that dead 
bodies should be eaten rather than buried. He 
died through excess of wine, or, as others say, 
from laughing too much on seeing an ass eating 
figs on a silver plate, 207, B. C. in the 80th 5'-ear 
of his age. Vol. Max. 8, c. 7. — Diod. — Horat. 
2. Sat. 3, V. 40. 

Chrysostom, a bishop of Constantinople, 
who died A. D. 407, in his 53d year. He was 
a great disciplinarian, and by severely lashing 
the vices of his age, he procured himself many 
enemies. He was banished for opposing the 
raising a statue to the empress, after having dis- 
played his abilities as an elegant preacher, a 
sound theologian, and a faithful interpreter of 
Scripture. Chrysostom's works were nobly and 
correctly edited, without a Latin version, by Sa- 
ville, 8 vols. fol. Etonae. 1613. They have ap- 
peared with a translation, at Paris, edit. Bene- 
dict. Montfaucon, 13 vols. fol. 1718. 

Cicero, M. T. born at Arpinum, was son of 
a Roman knight, and lineally descended from 
the ancient kings of the Sabines. His mother's 
name was Helvia. After displaying many pro- 
mising abilities at school, he was taught philo- 
sophy at Piso, and law by Mntius Scaevola. 
398 



[ The vehemence with which he had attacked 
) Clodius proved injurious to him ; and when his 
enemy was made tribune, Cicero was banished 
from Rome, though 20,000 young men were 
supporters of his innocence. After sixteen 
months absence, he entered Rome with univer- 
sal satisfaction, and when he was sent, with the 
power of proconsul, to Cilicia, his integrity and 
prudence made him successful against the ene- 
my, and at his return he was honoured with a 
triumph, which the factions prevented him to 
enjcry. After much hesitation during the civil 
commotions between Ctesar and Pompey, he 
joined himself to- the latter, and followed him 
to Greece. When victory had declared in fa- 
vour of Caesar, at the battle of Pharsalia, Cicero 
went to Brundusium, and was reconciled to the 
conqueror,who treated him with great humanity. 
From this lime Cicero retired into the country, 
and seldom visited Rome. When Caesar had 
been stabbed in the senate, Cicero recommended 
a general amnesty, and was the most earnest to 
decree the provinces to Brutus and Cassius. 
But when he saw the interest of Caesar's mur- 
derers decrease, and Antony come into power, 
he retired to Athens. He soon after returned, 
but lived in perpetual fear of assassination. 
Augustus courted the approbation of Cicero, 
and expressed his wish to be his colleague in 
the consulship. But his wish was not sincere ; 
he soon forgot his former professions of friend- 
ship; and when the two consuls had been kill- 
ed at Mutina, Augustus joined his interest to 
that of Antony, and the triumvirate was soon 
after formed. The great enmity which Cicero 
bore to Antony was fatal to him ; and Augus- 
tus, Antony, and Lepidus, the triumvirs, to de- 
stroy all cause of quarrel, and each to despatch 
his enemies, produced their list of proscription. 
About two hundred were doomed to death, and 
Cicero was among the number upon the list of 
Antony, Augustus yielded a man to whom 
he partly owed his greatness, and Cicero was 
pursued by the emissaries of Antony, among 
whom was Popilius, whom he had defended 
upon an accusation of parricide. He had fled 
in a litter towards the sea of Caieta, and when 
the assassins came up to him, he put his head 
out of the litter, and it was severed from the 
body by Herennius. This memorable event 
happened in December, 43 B. C. after the en- 
joyment of life for 63 years, 11 months, and 
5 days. The head and the right hand of the 
orator were carried to Rome, and hung up in 
the Roman forum ; and Fulvia, the triumvir's 
wife, drew the tongue out of the mouth, and 
bored it through repeatedly with a gold bodkin, 
verifying, in this act of inhumanity, what Ci- 
cero had once observed, that no animal is more 
revengeful than a woman. Cicero has acquir- 
ed more real fame by his literary compositions 
than by his spirited exertions as a Roman sena- 
tor. The first oration which Cicero pronounced, 
at least of those which are extant, was delivered 
in presenceof four judges appointed by the prae- 
tor, and with Hortensius for his opponent. It 
was in the case of Cluintius, which was pleaded 
in the year 672, when Cicero was 26 years of 
age, at which time he came to the bar much 
later than was usual, after having studied civil 
law under Mucins Scaevola, and having further 
qualified himself for the exercise of his profes- 



CI 



HISTORY, &Q. 



CI 



sion by the study of polite literature under the 
poet Archias, as also of philosophy under the 
principal teachers of each sect who had resorted 
to Rome. This case was undertaken by Cicero, 
at the request of the celebrated comedian Ros- 
cius, the brother-in-law of Cluintius : but it was 
not of a nature well adapted to call forth or dis- 
play any of the higher powers of eloquence. 
In the year following that in which he pleaded 
the CEise of Cluintius, Cicero undertook the de- 
fence of Roscius of Ameria, which was the first 
public or criminal trial in which he spoke. The 
father of Roscius had two mortal enemies, of 
his own name and district. During the proscrip- 
tions of Sylla, he was assassinated one evening 
at Rome, while returning home from supper ; 
and, on pretexi that he was in the list proscribed, 
his estate was purchased for a mere nominal 
price by Chrysogonus,a favourite slave, to whom 
Sylla had given freedoiu, and whom he had per- 
mitted to buy the property of Roscius as a for- 
feiture. Part of the valuable lands thus acquir- 
ed, were made over by Chrysogonus to the R,os- 
cii. The case seems to have been pleaded with 
much animation and spirit, but the oration was 
rather too much in that florid Asiatic taste, 
which Cicero at this time had probably adopted 
from imitation of Hortensius, who was consi- 
dered as the most perfect model of eloquence in 
the Forum ; and hence the celebrated passage 
on the punishment of parricide (which consisted 
in throwing the criminal, tied up in a sack, into 
a river) was condemned by the severer taste of 
his more advanced years. Cicero's courage in 
defending and obtaining the acquittal of Ros- 
cius, under the circumstances in which the case 
was undertaken, was applauded by the whole 
city. By this public opposition to the avarice 
of an agent of Sylla, who was then in the plen- 
itude of his power, and by the energy with 
which he resisted an oppressive proceeding, he 
fixed his character for a fearless and zealous pa- 
tron of the injured, as much as for an accom- 
plished orator. Immediately after the decision 
of this cause, Cicero, partly on account of his 
health, and partly for improvement, travelled 
into Greece and Asia, where he spent two years 
in the assiduous study of philosophy and elo- 
quence, under the ablest teachers of Athens and 
Asia Minor. Nor was his style alone formed 
and improved by imitation of the Greek rheto- 
ricians : his pronunciation also was corrected , by 
practising under Greek masters, from whom he 
learned the art of commanding his voice, and 
of giving it greater compass and variety than it 
had hitherto attained. The first cause which 
he pleaded after his return to Rome, was that of 
Roscius, the celebrated comedian, in a dispute, 
which involved a mere matter of civil right, and 
was of no peculiar interest or importance. All 
the orations which he delivered during the five 
following years, are lost, of which number were 
those for Marcus TuUiusand L. Varenus, men- 
tioned by Priscian as extant in his time. At 
the end of that period, however, and when Ci- 
cero was now in the thirty-seventh year of his 
age, a glorious opportunity was afforded for the 
display of his eloquence, in the prosecution in- 
stituted against Verres, the praetor of Sicily, a 
criminal infinitely more hateful than Catiline 
or Clodius, and to whom the Roman republic^ at 
least, never produced an equal in turpitude and 



crime. He was now accused by the Sicilians 
of many flagrant acts of injustice, rapine, and 
cruelty, committed by him during his triennial 
government of their island, which he had done 
more to ruin than all the arbitrary acts of their 
native tyrants, or the devastating wars between 
the Carthaginians and Romans. This arduous 
task he was earnestly solicited to undertake, by 
^a petition from all the towns of Sicily, except 
'Syracuse and Messina, both which cities had 
been occasionally allowed by the plunderer to 
share the spoils of the province. Having ac- 
cepted this trust, so important in his eyes to the 
honour of the republic, neither the far-distant 
evidence, nor irritating delays of all those gu ards 
of guilt with which Verres was environed, could 
deter or slacken his exertions. The first device 
on the part of the criminal, or rather of his 
counsel, Hortensius, to defeat the ends of jus- 
tice, was an attempt to wrest the conduct of the 
trial from the hands of Cicero, by placing it 
in those of Caecilius, who was a creature of 
Verres, and who now claimed a preference to 
Cicero, on the ground of personal injuries re- 
ceived from the accused, and a particular know- 
ledge of the crimes of his pretended enemy. 
The judicial claims of these competitors had 
therefore to be first decided in that kind of pro- 
cess called Divinatio, in which Cicero delivered 
his oration, entitled Contra Ccecilium, and 
showed, with much power of argument and sar- 
casm, that he himself was in every way best fit- 
ted to act as the impeacher of Verres. Having 
succeeded in convincing the judges that Coeci- 
lius only wished to get the cause into his own 
hands, in order to betray it, Cicero was appoint- 
ed to conduct the prosecution, and was allowed 
110 days to make a voyage to Sicily, in order to 
collect information for supporting his charge. 
He finished his progress through the island in 
less than half the time which had been granted 
him. On his return he found that a plan had 
been laid by the friends of Verres, to procrasti- 
nate the trial at least till the following season, 
when they expected to have magistrates and 
judges who would prove favourable to his inter- 
ests. In this design they so far succeeded, that 
time was not left to go through the cause ac- 
cording to the ordinary forms and practice of 
oratorical discussion in the course of the year : 
Cicero, therefore, resolved to lose no time by en- 
forcing or aggravating the several articles of 
charge, but to produce at once all his documents 
and witnesses, leaving the rhetorical part of the 
performance till the whole evidence was con- 
cluded. The first oration, therefore, against 
Verres, which is extremely short, was merely 
intended to explain the motives which had in- 
duced him to adopt this unusual mode of proce- 
dure. He accordingly exposes the devices by 
which the culprit and his cabal were attempting 
to pervert the course of justice, and unfolds the 
eternal disgrace that would attach to the Roman 
law, should their stratagems prove successful. 
This oration was followed by the deposition of 
the witnesses, and recital of the documents, 
which so clearly established the guilt of Verres, 
that, driven to despair, he submitted, without 
awaiting his sentence, to a voluntary exile. It 
therefore appears, that of the six orations against 
Verres, only one was pronounced. The other 
five, forming the series of harangues which he 
399 



CI 



HISTORY, &G 



CI 



intended to deliver after the proof had been com- 
pleted, were snbsequenily published in the same 
shape as if the delinquent had actually stood his 
trial, and was to have made a regular defence. 
It is much to be regretted, that the oration for 
Fonteius, the next which Cicero delivered, has 
descended to us incomplete. It was the defence 
of an unpopular governor, accused of oppres- 
sion by the province intrusted to his administra- 
tion ; and, as such, would have formed an in- 
teresting contrast to the accusation of Verres. 
Pro Ccecina. — This was a mere question of 
civil right, turning on the effect of a praetorian 
edict. Pro Lege Manilla. — Hitherto Cicero 
had only addressed the judges in the forum in 
civil suits or criminal prosecutions. The ora- 
tion for the Manilian law, which is accounted 
one of the most splendid of his productions, was 
the iirst in which he spoke to the whole people 
from the rostrum. It was pronounced in favour 
of a law proposed by Manilius, a tribune of the 
people, for constituting Pompey sole general, 
with extraordinary powers, in the war against 
Mithridaies and Tigranes, in which Luculius 
at the time commanded. The chiefs of the sen- 
ate regarded this law as a dangerous precedent 
in the republic ; and all the authority of Catul- 
lus, and eloquence of Hortensius, were directed 
against it. The glare of glory that surrounded 
Pompey, concealed from Cicero his many and 
great imperfections, and seduced an honest citi- 
zen, and finest genius in Rome, a roan of un- 
paralleled industry, and that generally applied 
to the noblest purposes, into the prostitution of 
his abilities and virtues, for exalting an ambi- 
tious chief, and investing him with such exor- 
bitant and unconstitutional powers, as virtually 
subverted the commonwealth. Pro Clicentio. — 
This is a pleading for Cluentius, who, at his 
mother's instigation, was accused of having poi- 
soned his stepfather, Oppianicus. Great part 
of the harangue appears to be but collaterally 
connected with the direct subject of the prose- 
cution. The whole oration discloses such a 
scene of enormous villany — of murders, by 
poison and assassination — of incest, and subor- 
nation of witnesses, that the family history of 
Cluentius may be regarded as the counterpart 
in domestic society, of what the government of 
Verres was in public life. Though very long, 
and complica-ted too, in the subject, it is one of 
the most correct and forcible of all Cicero's ju- 
dicial orations ; and under the impression that 
it comes nearer to the strain of a modern plead- 
ing than any of the others, it has been selected 
by Dr. Blair as the subject of a minute analysis 
and criticism. De Lege Agraria contra Rul- 
lum. — In his discourse Pro Lege Manilla^ the 
first of the deliberative kind addressed to the as- 
sembly of the people, Cicero had the advantage 
of speaking for a favourite of the multitude, and 
against the chiefs of the senate; but he was 
placed in a very different situation when he 
came to oppose the Agrarian law. This had 
been for 300 years the darling object of the Ro- 
man tribes — the daily attraction and rallying 
word of the populace — the signal of discord, and 
most powerful engine of the seditious tribu- 
nate. The first of the series of orations against 
the Agrarian law, now proposed by Rullus, was 
delivered by Cicero in the senate-house, shortly 
after his election to the consulship : the second 
4O0 



and third were addressed to the people from the 
rostrum. Pro JRabirio. — About the year 654, 
Saturninus, a seditious tribune, had been slain 
by a party attached to the interests of the senate. 
I'hirty-six years afterwards, Rabirius was ac- 
cused of accession to this murder, by Labienus, 
subsequently well known as Caesar's lieutenant 
in Gaul. Hortensius had pleaded the cause be- 
ibre the Duumvirs, Caius and Lucius Caesar., 
by whom Rabirius being condemned, appealed 
to the people, and was defended by Cicero in 
the Comitia. Cicero's oration on this conten- 
tion between the senatorial and tribunitiai pow- 
er, gives us more the impression of prompt and 
unstudied eloquence than most of his other ha- 
rangues. Contra Catilinam. — The detection 
and suppression of that nefarious plot form the 
most glorious part of the political life of Cicero : 
and the orations he pronounced against the 
chief conspirators, are still regarded as the most 
splendid monuments of his eloquence. The 
conspiracy of Catiline tended to the utter ex- 
tinction of the city and government. Cicero, 
having discovered his designs, summoned the 
senate to meet in the temple of Jupiter Stator, 
with the intention of laying before it-the whole 
circumstances of the plot. But Catiline having 
unexpectedly appeared in the midst of the as- 
sembly,his audacity impelled the consular orator 
into an abrupt invective, which is directly ad- 
dressed to the traitor, and commenced without 
the preamble by which most of his other ha- 
rangues are introduced. The great object of 
the whole oration, was to drive Catiline into 
banishment ; and it appears somewhat singular, 
that so dangerous a personage, and who might 
have been so easily convicted, should thus have 
been forced, or even allowed, to withdraw to his 
army, instead of being seized and punished. 
Catiline havmgescaped unmolested to his camp, 
the conduct of the consul in not apprehending, 
but sending away this formidable enemy, had 
probably excited some censure and discontent ; 
and the second Catilinarian oration was in con- 
sequence delivered by Cicero, in Ein assembly of 
the people, in order to justify his driving the 
chief conspirator from Rome. Manifest proofs 
of the whole plot having been at length obtain- 
ed, by the arrest of the ambassadors from the 
Allobroges, with whom the conspirators had 
tampered, and who were bearing written cre- 
dentials from them to their own country, Cice- 
ro, in his third oration, laid before the people all 
the particulars of the discovery,and invited them 
to join in celebrating a thanksgiving, which had 
been decreed by the senate to his honour, for 
the preservation of his country. The last Cati- 
linarian oration was pronounced in the senate, 
on the debate concerning the punishment to be 
inflicted on the conspirators. Cicero does not 
precisely declare for any particular punishment; 
iDUt he shows that his mind evidently inclined to 
the severest, by dwelling on the enormity of the 
conspirators' guilt, and aggravating all their 
crimes with much acrimony and art. His sen- 
timents finally prevailed ; and those conspira- 
tors who had remained in Rome, were stran- 
gled under his immediate superintendence. In 
these four orations, the tone and style of each of 
them, particularly of the first and last, is very 
different, and accommodated with a great deal 
of judgment to the occasion, and to the circum- 



CI 



HISTORY, &c. 



or 



stances under which they were delivered. 
Through the whole series of the Catilinarian 
orations, the language of Cicero is well calcu- 
lated to overawe the wicked, to confirm the good, 
and encourage the timid. It is of that descrip- 
tion which renders the mind of one man the mind 
of a whole assembl}', or a whole people. Pro 
Murana. — The Comitia being now held in or- 
der to choose consuls for the ensuing year, Ju- 
nius Silanus and Muraena were elected. The 
latter candidate had for his competitor the cele- 
brated jurisconsult Salpicius Rufas; who, being 
assisted by Cato, charged Mursena with having 
prevailed by bribery and corruption. This case 
was one of great expectation, from the dignity 
of the prosecutors, and eloquence of the advo- 
cates of the accused. Before Cicero spoke, it 
had been pleaded by Hortensius, and Crassus 
the triumvir; and Cicero, in engaging in the 
cause, felt the utmost desire to surpass these 
rivals of his eloquence. Such was his anxiety, 
that he slept none during the whole night which 
preceded the hearing of the cause ; and being 
thus exhausted with care, his eloquence on this 
occasion fell short of that of Hortensius. He 
shows, however, much delicacy and art in the 
manner in which he manages the attack on 
the philosophy of Cato, and profession of Sulpi- 
cius, both of whom were his particular friends, 
and high in the estimation of the judges he ad- 
dressed. Pro Cornelio Sylla. — Sylla, whowas 
afterwards a great partisan of Caesar's, was pro- 
secuted for having been engaged in Catiline's 
conspiracy; but his accuser, Torquatus, digres- 
sing from^the charge against Sylla, turned his 
raillery on Cicero ; alleging, that he had usurped 
the authority of a king ; and asserting, that he 
was the third foreign sovereign who had reigned 
at Rome after Numa and Tarquin. Cicero, 
therefore, in his reply had not only to defend his 
client, but to answer the petulant raillery by 
which his antagonist attempted to excite envy 
and odium against himself For this defence of 
Cornelius Sylla, Cicero privately received from 
his client the sum of 20,000 sesterces, which 
chiefly enabled him to purchase his magnificent 
house on the Palatine Hill. Pro Archia. — 
This is one of the orations of Cicero on which 
he has succeeded in bestowing the finest polish, 
and it is, perhaps, the most pleasing of all his 
harangues. ArchiEis was a native of Amioch, 
and, having come to Italy in early youth, was 
rewarded for his learning and genius with the 
friendship of the first men in the state, and with 
the citizenship of Heraclea, a confederate and 
enfranchised town of Magna Graecia. A few 
years afterwards, a law was enacted conferring 
the rights of Roman citizens on all who had 
been admitted to the freedom of federate states, 
provided they had a settlement in Italy at the 
time when the law was passed, and had assert- 
ed the privilege before the praetor within sixty 
days from the period at which it was promul- 
gated. After Archias had enjoyed the benefit 
of this law for more than twenty years, his 
claims were called in question by one Gracchus, 
"who now attempted to drive him from the city, 
under the enactment expelling all foreigners 
who usurped, without due title, the name and at- 
tributes of Roman citizens. The loss of records, 
and some other circumstances, having thrown 
doubts on the legal right of his client, Cicero 
Part II.— 3 E 



chiefly enlarged on the dignity of literature and 
poetry, and the various accomplishments of Ar- 
chias, which gave him so just a claim to the pri- 
vileges he enjoyed. The whole oration is inter- 
spersed with beautiful maxims and sentences, 
which have been quoted with delight in all ages. 
Pro CcbUo. — Middleton has pronounced this to 
be the most entertaining of the orations which 
Cicero has left us, from the vivacity of wit and 
humour with which he treats the gallantries of 
Clodia, her commerce with Ca^lius, and in gen- 
eral the gayeties and licentiousness of youth. 
Ccelius was a young man of considerable talents 
and accomplishments, who had been intrusted 
to the care of Cicero on his first introduction to 
the Forum ; but having imprudently engaged in 
an intrigue with Clodia, the well-known sister 
of Clodius, and having afterwards deserted her, 
she accused him of an attempt to poison her, 
and of having borrowed money from her in or- 
der to procure the assassination of Dio, the 
Alexandrian ambassador. De Provinciis Con- 
sularihus. — The government of Gaul was con- 
tinued to Caesar, in consequence of this oration, 
so that it may be considered as one of the im- 
mediate causes of the ruin of the Roman repub- 
lic, which it was incontestably the great wish of 
Cicero to protect and maintain inviolate. In 
Pisonem. — Piso having been recalled from his 
government of MacedoU; in consequence of 
Cicero's oration, De Provinciis Consularibus, 
he complained, in one of his first appearances 
in the senate, of the treatment he had received, 
and attacked the orator, particularly on the 
score of his poetry, ridiculing .the well-known 
line : — 

' Cedant arma toga — concedat laurea linguce.'' 

Cicero replied in a bitter invective, in which he 
exposed the whole life and conduct of his ene- 
my to public contempt and detestation. The 
most singular feature of this harangue is the 
personal abuse and coarseness of expression it 
contains, which appear the more extraordinary 
when we consider that it was delivered in the 
senate-house, and directed against an individual 
of such distinction and consequence as Piso. 
Pro Milone. — The speech which Cicero actual- 
ly delivered, was taken down in writing, and is 
mentioned by Asconius Pedianus as still extant 
in his time. But that beautiful harangue which 
we now possess, is one which was retouched and 
polished, as a gift for Milo, after he had retired 
in exile to Marseilles. Pro Ligario. — This 
oration was pronounced after Caesar, having 
vanquished Pompey in Thessaly and destroyed, 
the remains of the republican party in Afri- 
ca, assumed the supreme administration of af- 
fairs at Rome. Merciful as the conqueror ap- 
peared, he was understood to be much exaspe- 
rated against those who, after the rout at Phar- 
salia, had renewed the war in Africa. Ligarius, 
M'hen on the point of obtaining a pardon, was 
formerly accused by his old enemy Tubero, of 
having borne arms in that contest. The dicta- 
tor himself presided at the trial of the case, 
much prejudiced against Ligarius,as was known 
from his having previously declared, that his re- 
solution was fixed, and was not to be altered by 
the charms of eloquence. Cicero, however, 
overcame his prepossessions, and extorted from 
him a pardon. The countenance of Caesar, it 
401 



CI 



HISTORY, &c. 



CI 



is said, changed, as the orator proceeded in his 
speech; but when he touched on the battle of 
Pharsalia, and described Tubero as seeking his 
life, amid the ranks of the army, the dictator 
became so agitated, that his body trembled, and 
the papers which he held dropped from his hand. 
This oration is remarkable for the free spirit 
which it breathes, even in the face of that pow- 
er to which it was addressed for mercy. But 
Cicero, at the same time, shows much art in not 
overstepping those limits, within which he knew 
he might speak without offence, and in season- 
ing his freedom with appropriate compliments 
to Cassar, of which, perhaps, the most elegant 
is, that he forgot nothing but the injuries done 
to himself. This was the person whom, in the 
time of Pompey, he characterized as monstrum 
et portentum tyrannum, and whose death he 
soon afterwards celebrated as divinum in rem- 
publicam beneficiuml Philippica. — The chief 
remaining orations of Cicero are those directed 
against Antony, of whose private life and po- 
litical conduct they present us with a full and 
glaring picture. The character of Antony, next 
to that of Sylla, was the most singular in the 
annals of Rome, and in some of its features 
bore a striking resemblance to that of the fortu- 
nate dictator. The philipics against Antony, 
like those of Demosthenes, derive their chief 
beauty from the noble expression of just indig- 
nation, which, indeed, composes many of the 
most splendid and. admired passages of ancient 
eloquence. They were all pronounced during 
the period which elapsed between the assassina- 
tion of Caesar and the defeat of Antony at Mo- 
dena. Cicero was not only a great orator, but 
had also left the fullest instructions and the most 
complete historical details on the art which he 
so gloriously practised. His precepts are con- 
tained in the dialogue De Oratore and the Ora- 
tor ; while the history of Roman eloquence is 
comprehended in the dialogue entitled, Brutus, 
sive De Claris Oratoribus. Cicero, in his youth, 
also wrote the Rhetorica, seu de Inveniione 
Rhetorica, of which there are still extant two 
books, treating of the part of rhetoric that re- 
lates to invention. This is the work mentioned 
by Cicero, in the commencement of the treatise 
De Oratore^ as having been published by him in 
his youth. It is generally believed to have been 
written in 666, when Cicero was only twenty 
years of age, and to have originally contained 
four books. Schutz, however, the German edi- 
tor of Cicero, is of opinion, that he never wrote, 
or at least, never published, more than tiie two 
books we still possess. Cicero, who was un- 
questionably the first orator, was as decidedly 
the most learned philosopher of Rome ; and 
while he eclipsed all his contemporaries in elo- 
quence, he acquired, towards the close of his life, 
no small share of reputation as a writer on 
ethics and metaphysics. His wisdom, however, 
was founded entirely on that of the Greeks, and 
his philosophic writings were chiefly occupied 
with the discussion of questions which had been 
agitated in the Athenian schools, and from them 
had been transmitted to Italy. The disquisition 
respecting the certainty or uncertainty of hu- 
man knowledge, with that concerning the su- 
preme good and evil, were the inquiries which 
he chiefly pursued ; and the notions which he 
entertained of these subjects, were all derived 
403 



from the Portico, A cademy, or Lyceum. Cicero 
was in many respects well qualified for the ar- 
duous but noble task which he had undertaken, 
of naturalizing philosophy at Rome, and exhi- 
biting her, according to the expression of Eras- 
mus, on the stage of life. He was a man of 
fertile genius, luminous understanding, sound 
judgment, and indefatigable industry — qualities 
adequate for the cultivation of reason, and suf- 
ficient for the supply of subjects of meditation. 
Never wasphilosopher placed in asituation more 
favourable for gathering the fruits of an expe- 
rience employed on human nature and civil 
society, or for observing the eflfects of various 
qualities of the mind on public opinion and on 
the actions of men . In the writings of Cicero, ac- 
cordingly, every thing deduced from experience 
and knowledge of world — every observation on 
the duties of society, is clearly expressed, and 
remarkable for justness and acuteness. But 
neither Cicero, nor any other Roman author, 
possessed sufiicient subtilty and refinement of 
spirit, for the more abstruse discussions, among 
the labyrinths of which the Greek philosophers 
delighted to find a fit exercise of their ingenu- 
ity. Hence, all that required research into the 
ultimate foundation of truths, or a more exact 
analysis of common ideas and perceptions — all, 
in short, that related to the subtiliies of the 
Greek schools, is neither so accurately express- 
ed nor so logically connected. In the form of 
dialogue, Cicero has successively treated of law, 
metaphysics, theology., and morals. When Cae- 
sar had attained the supremacy at Rome, and 
Cicero no longer gave law to the senate, he be- 
came the head of a sort of literary or philoso- 
phical society. Filelfo, who delivered public 
lectures at Rome, on the Tusculan disputations, 
attempted to prove that he had stated meetings 
of learned men at his house, and opened a reg- 
ular academy at Tusculum. The most val- 
uable editions of the works complete, are 
that of Verburgius, 2 vols. fol. Amst. 1724. — 
That of Olivet, 9 vols. 4to. Geneva, 1758.— 
The Oxford edition in 10 vols. 4to. 1782— and 
that of Lallemand, 12rao. 14 vols. Paris apud 
Barbou, 1768. Plutarch, in vita. — Quinlil. — 
Dio. Cass. — Appian. — Florus. — C. Nep. in 

Attic. — Eutrop. — Cic. cfc. II. Marcus, the 

son of Cicero, was taken by Augustus as his 
colleague in the consulship. He revenged his 
father's death by throwing public dishonour 
upon the memory of Antony. He disgraced his 
father's virtues, and was so fond of drinking, 
that Pliny observes he wished to deprive Anto- 
ny of the honour of being the greatest drunk- 
ard in the Roman empire. Plut. in Cic. 

III. Gluintus, the brother of the orator, was Cae- 
sar's lieutenant in Gaul, and proconsul of Asia 
for three years. He was proscribed with his 
son at the same time as his brother Tully. Plut. 
in Cic. — Appian. 

CiLLEs, a general of Ptolemy, conquered by 
Demetrius. Diod. 19. 

CiLO, Jun. an oppressive governor of Bithynia 
and Pontus. The provinces carried their com- 
plaints against him to Rome ; but such was the 
noise of the flatterers that attended the emperor 
Claudius, that he was unable to hear them; and 
when he asked what they had said, he was told 
by one of Cilo's friends, that they returned 
thanks for his good administration ; upon which 



CI 



HISTORY, &c. 



CI 



the emperor said, Let Cilo be continued two 
years longer in his province. Dio. 60. — Tacit. 
Ann. 12, c. 21. 

CiMBER, TuLL., one of Caesar's murderers. 
He laid hold of the dictator's robe which was 
a signal for the rest to strike. Plut. in Cces. 

CiMBRicuM Bellum, was begun by the Cira- 
bri and Teutones, by an invasion of the Roman 
territories, B. C. 109. These barbarians were 
so courageous, and even desperate, that they fas- 
tened their first ranks each to the other with 
cords. In the first battle they destroyed 80,000 
Romans, under the consuls Manliusand Servi- 
lius Caspio. But when Marius, in his second 
consulship, was chosen to carry on the war, he 
met the Teutones at Aquse Sextiae, where, after 
a bloody engagement, he left dead on the field 
of battle 20,000, and took 90,000 prisoners, 
B. C. 102. The Cimbri, who had formed an- 
other army, had already penetrated into Italy, 
where they were met at the river Athesis, by 
Marius and his colleague Catulus, a year after. 
An engagement ensued, and 140,000 of them 
were slain. The last battle put an end to this 
dreadful war, and the two consuls entered 
Rome in triumph. Mor. 3, c. 3. — Plin. 7, c. 
22, 1. 17, c. l.—Mela, 3, c. 3.—Paterc. 2, c. 12. 
— Plut. in Mario. 

CiMON, I. an Athenian, son of Miltiades and 
Hegisipyle, famous for his debaucheries in his 
youth, and the reformation of his morals when 
arrived to years of discretion. When his father 
died, he was imprisoned, because unable to pay 
the fine laid upon him by the Athenians; but he 
was released from confinementby his sister and 
wife Elpinice. Vid. Elpinice. He behaved 
with great courage at the battle of Salamis, and 
ren dered himself popular by his munifi cen ce and 
valour. He defeated the Persian fleet, and took 
200 ships, and totally routed their land army the 
very same day. The money he obtained by his 
victories was not applied to his ovra private 
use ; but with it he fortified and embellished the 
city. He, some time after, lost all his popularity, 
and was banished by the Athenians, who de- 
clared war against the Lacedaemonians. He 
was recalled from his exile, and, at his return, 
he made a reconciliation between Lacedaemon 
and his countrymen. He was afterwards ap- 
pointed to carry on the war against Persia in 
Egypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200 ships ; 
and on the coast of Asia he gave battle to the 
enemy and totally ruined their fleet. He died 
ti5 he was besieging the town of Citium in Cv- 
prus, B. C. 449, in the 21st year of his age. He 
maybe called the last of the Greeks, whose spirit 
and boldness defeated the armies of the barba- 
rians. He was such an inveterate enemy to the 
Persian power, that he formed a plan of totally 
destroying it ; and in his wars he had so reduced 
the Persians, that they promised in a treaty not 
to pass the Chelidonlan islands with their fleet, 
or to approach within a day's journey of the 
Grecian seas. The munificence of Cimon has 
been highly extolled by his biograph ers ; and he 
has been deservedly praised for leaving his gar- 
dens open to the public. Thucyd. 1, c. 100 and 
112.— Justin. 2, c. l3.~Diod. 11.— Plut. <^ C. 

Nep. in vita. II. An Athenian, father of 

Miltiades. Herodot. 6, c.34. III. A Roman, 

supported in prison by the milk of his daughter. 
• IV. An Athenian, who wrote an account 



of the war of the Amazons against his country. 

CiNciA Lex, was enacted by M. Cincius, tri- 
bune of the people, A. U. C. 549. By it no man 
was permitted to take any money as a gift or a 
fee in judging a cause. Liv. 34, c. 4. 

CiNCiNNATUs, L. CI. a celebrated Roman, 
who was informed, as he ploughed his field, that 
the senate had chosen him dictator. Upon this 
he left his ploughed land with regret, and repair- 
ed to the field of battle, where his countrymen 
were closely besieged by the Volsci and ^Equi. 
He conquered the enemy, and returned to Rome 
in triumph ; and 16 days after his appointment, 
belaid down his office and retired back to plough 
his fields. In his 80th year he was again sum- 
moned against Praeneste as dictator ; and after 
a successful campaign, he resigned the absolute 
power he had enjoyed only 21 days, nobly dis- 
regarding the rewards that were offered him by 
the senate. He flourished about 460 years be- 
fore Christ. Liv. 3, c. 26. — Flor. 1, c. 11. 

Cic. de FiniJ). 4. — Plin. 18, c. 3. 

Cincius Alimentus, (L.) I. a praetor of 
Sicily in the second Punic war, who wrote an- 
nals in Greek. Dionys. Hal. I. II. Marcus, 

a tribune of the people, A. U. C. 594, author 
of the Cincia Lex. 

CiNEAS, a Thessalian, minister and friend to 
Pyrrhus, kingofEpirus. He was sent to Rome 
by his master to sue for a peace, whicKhe, how- 
ever, could not obtain. . He told Pyrrhus that 
the Roman senate were a venerable assembly of 
kings; and observed, that to fight with them 
was to fight against another Hydra. He was 
of such a retentive memory, that the day after 
his arrival at Rome he could salute every sena- 
tor and knight by his name. Plin. 7, c. 24. — 
Cic. ad Fam. 9, ep. 25. 

CiNESTAS, a Greek poet of Thebes in Boeotia, 
who composed some dithyrambic verses. Athen. 

CiNNA, L. Corn. I. a Roman who oppressed 
the republic with his cruelties, and was banish- 
ed by Octavius for attempting to make the fu- 
gitive slaves free. He joined himself to Ma- 
rius ; and with him, at the head of 30 legions, 
he filled Rome with blood, defeated his enemies, 
and made himself consul even to a fourth time. 
He massacred so many citizens at Rome that 
his name became odious ; and one of his officers 
assassinated him at Ancona, as he was prepar- 
ing war against Sylla. His daughter Cornelia 
married Julius Caesar, and became mother of 
Julia. Plut. in Mar. Pomp. tf» Syll. — L/iican. 
4, V. 822.—Appian. Bell. Civ. l.—Flor. 3, c. 

21.— Pcierc. 2, c. 20, &c.—Plut. in Cces. 

II. One of Caesar's murderers. III. C. Hel- 

vius Cinna, a poet, intimate with Caesar. He 
went to attend the obsequies of Caesar, and, be- 
ing mistaken by the populace for the other Cin- 
na, he was torn to pieces. He had been eight 
years in composing an obscure poem called 
Smyrna, in which he made mention of the in- 
cest of Cinyras. Plut. in Cces. IV. A grand- 
son of Pompey. He conspired against Augus- 
tus, who pardoned him and made him one of 
his most intimate friends. He was consul, and 
made Augustus his heir. Dio. — Seneca de 
Clem. c. 9. 

CiNNADON, a Lacedaemonian youth, who re- 
solved to put to death the Ephori, and seize upon 
the sovereign power. His conspiracy was dis- 
covered, and he was put to death. Arislot. 
403 



CL 



HISTORY, &c. 



CL 



CiRCENSEs LuDi, gamcs performed in the Cir- 
cus at Rome. They were dedicated to the god 
Consus, and were first established by Romulus 
at the rape of the Sabines. They were in imi- 
tation of the Olympian games among the Greeks, 
and, by way of eminence, were often called the 
great games. Their original name was Con- 
sualia, and they were first called Circensians by 
Tarquin the elder, after he had built the Circus. 
They were not appropriated to one particular 
exhibition, but were equally celebrated for leap- 
ing, wrestling, throwing the quoit and javelin, 
races on foot as well as in chariots, and boxing. 
Like the Greeks, the Romans gave the name of 
Pentathlum or Gluinquertium to these five ex- 
ercises. The celebration continued five days, 
beginning on the 15th of September. All games 
in general that were exhibited in the Circus, 
were soon after called Circensian games. Some 
sea-fights and skirmishes, called by the Romans 
Naumachiae, were afterwards exhibited in the 
Circus. Virg. Mn. 8, v. 636. 

Circus, a large and elegant building at Rome, 
where plays and shows were exhibited. There 
were about eight at Rome ; the first, called 
Maximus Circus, was the grandest, raised and 
embellished by Tarquin Priscus. Its figure was 
oblong, and it was filled all round with benches, 
and could contain, as some report, about 300,- 
000 spectators. It was about 2187 feet long, and 
960 broad. All the emperors vied in beautify- 
ing it, and J. Csesar introduced in it large canals 
of water, which, on a sudden, could be covered 
with an infinite number of vessels, and represent 
a sea-fight. 

Claudia, a patrician family at Rome, de- 
scended from Clausus, a king of the Sabines. 
It gave birth to many illustrious patriots in the 
republic ; and it is particularly recorded that 
there were not less than 28 of that family who 
were invested with the consulship, five with the 
oflice of dictator, and seven with that of censor, 
besides the honour of six triumphs. Sueton. in 
Tib. 1. 

Claudia, T. a vestal virgin, accused of incon- 
tinence. To show her innocence, she oflfered to 
remove a ship which had brought the image of 
Vesta to Rome, and had stuck in one of the shal- 
low places of the river. This had already baf- 
fled the efforts of a number of men ; and Clau- 
dia, after addressing her prayers to the goddess, 
untied her girdle, and with it easily dragged 
after her the ship to shore, and by this action 
was honourably acquitted. Val. Max. 5, c. 4. 
-Propert. 4, el. 12, v. b2.—ltal. 17, v. 35.— 
Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 315, ex Panto. 1, ep. 2, v, 144. 

II. A stepdaughter of M. Antony, whom 

Augustus married. He dismissed her undefil- 
ed, immediately after the contract of marriage, 
on account of a sudden quarrel with her mother 

Fulvia. Sueton. in Aug. 62. III. The wife 

of the poet Statins. Stat. 3, Sylv. 5. IV. A 

daughter of Appius Claudius, betrothed to Tib. 

Gracchus. V. The wife of Metellus Celer, 

sister to P. Clodius and to Appius Claudius. 
IV. Pulcra, a cousin of Agrippina, accus- 
ed of adultery and criminal designs against Ti- 
berius. She was condemned. Tacit. Ann. 4, 
c. 52. VII. Antonia, a daughter of the em- 
peror Claudius, married Cn. Pompey, whom 
Messalina caused to be put to death. Her se- 
cond husband Sylla Faustus, bv whom she had 
404 



a son, was killed by Nero, and she shared his 
fate when she refused to marry his murderer. 

Claudia Lex, de comitiis, was enacted by 
M. CI. Marcellus, A. U. C. 702. It ordained 
that at public elections of magistrates, no notice 
should be taken of the votes of such as were ab- 
sent. Another, de usura, which forbade peo- 
ple to lend money to minors on condition of pay- 
ment after the decease of their parents. Ano- 
ther, de negotiatione, by Gl. Claudius, the tribune, 
A. U. C. 535. It forbade any senator, or father 
of a senator, to have any vessel containing above 
300 amphorae, for fear of their engaging them- 
selves in commercial schemes. The same law 
also forbade the same thing to the scribes and 
the attendants of the quaestors, as it was natu- 
rally supposed that the people who had any com- 
mercial connexions could not be faithful to their 

trust, nor promote the interest of the state. 

Another, A. U. C. 576, to permit the allies to 
return to their respective cities, after their names 

were enrolled. Liv. 41, c. 9. Another, to 

take away the freedom of the city of Rome from 
the colonists which Caesar had carried to Novi- 
comum. Sueton. in Jul. 28. 

CLAUDI.E Aau.E, the first water brought to 
Rome by, means of an aqueduct of 11 miles, 
erected by the censor Appius Claudius, A. U. 
C. 441. Eutrop. 2, c. A.— Liv. 9, c. 29. 

Claudianus, a celebrated poet, born at Alex- 
andria in Egypt, in the age of Honorius and 
Arcadius, who seems to possess all the majesty 
of Virgil, without being a slave to the corrupted 
style which prevailed in his age. Scaliger ob- 
serves, that he has supplied the poverty of his 
matter by the purity of his language, the hap- 
piness of his expressions, and the melody of his 
numbers. As he was the favourite of Stilicho, 
he removed from the court when his patron 
was disgraced, and passed the rest of his life in 
retirement and learned ease. His poems on 
Rufinus and Eutropius seem to be the best of 
his compositions. The best editions of hisworks 
are that of Burman, 4to. 2 vols. Amst. 1760, 
and that of Gesner, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1758. 

Claudius, I. (Tiber. Drusus Nero,) son of 
Drusus, Livia's second son, succeeded as empe- 
ror of Rome, after the murder of Caligula,whose 
memory he endeavoured to annihilate. He made 
himself popular for a while, passed over into 
Britain, and obtained a triumph for victories 
which his generals had won; and sufifered him- 
self to be governed by favourites, whose licen- 
tiousness and avarice plundered the state and 
distracted the provinces. He married four wives, 
one of whom, called Messalina, he put to death 
on account of debauchery. He was at last poi- 
soned by another called Agrippina, who wished 
to raise her son Nero to the throne. The poi- 
son was conveyed in mushrooms ; but as it did 
not operate fast enough, his physician, by order 
of the empress, made him swallow a poisoned 
feather. He died in the 63d year of his age, 
October 13, A. D. 54, after a reign of 13 years, 
debased by weakness and irresolution. He was 
succeeded by Nero. Tacit. Ann. 11, &c. — 

Dio. 60. — Jitv. 6, v. 619. — Suet, in vita. 

The second emperor of that name was a Dalma- 
tian, who succeeded Gallienus. He conquered 
the Goths, Scythians, and Heruli, and killed no 
less than 300,000 in a battle ; and after a reign 
of about two years, died of the plague in Pan- 



CL 



I-IISTORY, &c. 



GL 



aonia. The excellence of his character, mark- 
ed with bravery and tempered with justice and 
benevolence, is well known by these words of 
the senate addressed to him : Claudi Auguste, 
tu frater, tu pater , tu amicus, tu bonus senator, 
iu vere princeps. — —III. Nero, a consul with 
Liv. Salinator, who defeated and killed Asdru- 
balnear the river Metaurum, as he was passing 
from Spain into Italy, to go to the assistance of 
his brother Annibal. Liv. 27, &c. — Horat. 4, 

od. 4, V. ^l.—Suet. in Tib. IV. The father 

of the emperor Tiberius, quastor to Caesar in 
the wars of Alexandria. V. Polios, an his- 
torian. Plin. 7, ep. 51. VL Pontius, a gen- 
eral of the Samnites, who conquered the Ro- 
mans at Furcae Candinae, and made them pass 

under the yoke. Liv. 9, c. 1, &c. VII. Pe- 

tilius, a dictator, A. U. C. 442. VIII. App. 

Ccecus, a Roman censor, who built an aque- 
duct, A. U. C. 441, which brought water to Rome 
from Tusculum, at the distance of seven or eight 
miles. The water was called Appia, and it was 
the first that was brought to the city from the 
country. Before his age the Romans were satis- 
fied with the waters of the Tiber or of the foun- 
tains and wells in the city. Vid. Appius. Liv. 
9, c. 29.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 203.— Czc. de sen. 6. 
IX. Pulcher, a consul. He was unsuc- 
cessful in his expeditions against the Cartha- 
genians in Sicily, and disgraced on his return to 

Rome. X. Tiberius Nero, was the elder 

brother to Drusus, and son of Livia Drusilla, 
who married Augustus after his divorce of Scri- 
bonia. He married Livia, the emperor's daugh- 
ter by Scribonia, and succeeded in the empire 
by the name of Tiberius. Vid. Tiberius. Ho- 
rat. 4, ep. 3, V. 2. The name of Claudius 

is common to many Roman consuls and other 
officers of state ; but nothing is recorded of 
them. 

Cleadas, a man of Plataea, who raised tombs 
over those who had been killed in the battle 
against Mardonius. Herodot. 9, c. 85. 

Cleander, I. one of Alexander's officers, 
who killed Parmenio by the king's command. 

Curt. 7, c. 2, 1. 10, c. 1. II. The first tyrant 

of Gela. Aristot. 5, Polit. c. 12. III. A fa- 
vourite of the emperor Commodus, who was put 
to death A. D. 190, after abusing public justice 
and his master's confidence. 

Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher of Assos in 
Troas, successor of Zeno. He was so poor, that 
to maintain himself he used to draw out water 
for a gardener in the night, and study in the 
daytime. Cicero calls him the father of the 
stoics ; and, out of respect for his virtues, the 
Roman senate raised a statue to him in Assos. 
It is said that he starved himself in his 90th 
year, B. C. 240. Strab. 13.— Cic. de Finib. 2, 
c. 69, 1. 4, c. 7. 

Clearchus, I. a tyrant of Heraclea in Pon- 
tus, who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, 
Plato's pupils, during the celebration of the fes- 
tivals of Bacchus, after the enjoyment of the 
sovereign power during twelve years, 353 B. C. 

Justin. 16, c. 4. — Diod. 15. II. The second 

tyrant of Heraclea of that name, died B. C. 288. 
III. A Lacedaemonian sent to quiet the By- 
zantines. He was recalled, but refused to obey, 
and fled to Cyrus the younger, who made him 
captain of 13,000 Greek soldiers. He obtained 
a. victory over Artaxerxes, who was so enraged 



at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell into his 
hands by the treachery of Tissaphernes, he put 
him to immediate death. Diod. 14. 

Clemens Romanus, I. one of the fathers of 
the church, said to be contemporary with St. 
Paul. Several spurious compositions are ascrib- 
ed to him, but the only thing extant is his epis- 
tle 10 the Corinthians, written to quiet the dis- 
turbances that had arisen there. It has been 
much admired. The best edition is that of 

Wotion, 8vo. Cantab. 1718. II. Another of. 

Alexandria, called from thence Alexandrinus, 
who flourished 206 A. D. His works are va- 
rious, elegant, and full of erudition ; the best 
edition of which is Potter's, 2 vols. fol. Oxon. 
1715. 

Cleobis and Biton. two youths, sons of Cy- 
dippe, the priestess of Juno at Argos. "When 
oxen could not be procured to draw their moth- 
er's chariot to the temple of Juno, they put 
themselves under the yoke, and drew it 45 vSta- 
dia to the temple, amidst the acclamations of the 
multitude, who congratulated the mother on ac- 
count of the filial affection of her sons. Cydippe 
entreated the goddess to reward the piety of her 
sons with the best gift that could be granted to a 
mortal. T hey went to rest and awoke no more : 
and by this the goddess showed that death is the 
only true happy event that can happen to man. 
The Argives raised them statues at Delphi. Cic. 
Tusc. 1, c. 47. — Val. Max. 5, c. 4. — tierodot. 1, 
c. 31. — Plut. de Cons, ad Apol. 

CLEOBtjLiNA, a daughter of Cleobulus, re- 
markable for her genius, learning, judgment, 
and courage. She composed enigmas, some of 
which have been preserved. One of them runs 
thus: "A father had 12 children, and these 12 
children had each 30 white sons and 30 black 
daughters, who were immortal, though they 
die every day." In this there is no need of an 
CEdipus to discover that there are 12 months in 
the year, and that every month consists of 30 
days and of the same number of nights. Laert. 

Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men of 
Greece, son of Evagoras of Lindos, famous for 
the beautiful shape of his body. He wrote some 
few verses, and died in the 70th year of his age, 
B. C. 564. Diog. in vita. — Plut. in Symp. 

Cleomedes, a famous athlete of Astypalaea, 
above Crete. In a combat at Olympia he killed 
one of his antagonists by a blow with his fist. 
On account of this accidental murder he was 
deprived of the victory, and he became delirious. 
In his return to Astypalaea, he entered a school, 
and pulled down the pillars which supported the 
roof, and crushed to death 60 boys. He was 
pursued with stones, and he fled for shelter into 
a tomb, whose doors he so strongly secured that 
his pursuers were obliged to break them for ac- 
cess. When the tomb was opened, Cleomedes 
could not be found either dead or alive. The 
oracle of Delphi was consulted, and gave this 
answer: TJltimus heroum Cleomedes Astypalces. 
Upon this they offered sacrifices to him as a 
god. Paus. 6, c. 9. — Plut. in Rom. 

Cleomenes 1st, king of Sparta, conquered 
the Argives, and burnt 5000 of them by setting 
fire to a grove where they had fled, and freed 
Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratim. 
By bribing the oracle, he pronounced Demara- 
tus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be- 
cause he refused lopunish the people of TEgina, 
405 



CL 



HISTORY, &C. 



CL 



who had deserted the Greeks. He killed him- 
self in a fit of madness, 491 B.C. Herodot. 5, 
6 and 7. — Paus. 8, c. 3, «fec. The 2d, suc- 
ceeded his brother Agesipolis 2d. He reigned 
61 years in the greatest tranquillity, and was 
father to Acrotatus and Cleonymus, and was 
succeeded by A reus 1st, son of Acrotatus. Paus. 

3, c. 6. The 3d, succeeded his father Leoni- 

das. He was of an enterprising spirit, and re- 
solved to restore the ancient discipline of Lycur- 
gus in its full force by banishing luxury and in- 
temperance. He killed the Ephori, and remov- 
ed by poison his royal colleague Eurydamides, 
and made his own brother, Euclidas, king, 
against the laws of the state, which forbade more 
than one of the same family to sit on the throne. 
He made war against the Achseans, and at- 
tempted to destroy their league. Aratus, the 
general of the Achssans, who supposed himself 
inferior to his enemy, called Antigonus to his 
assistance; and Cleomenes, when he had fought 
the unfortunate battle of Sellasia, B. G. 222, 
retired into Egypt, to the court of Ptolemy 
Evergetes, where his wife and children had fled 
before him. Ptolemy received him with great 
cordiality ; but his successor, weak and suspi- 
cious, soon expressed his jealousy of this noble 
stranger, and imprisoned him. Cleomenes kill- 
ed himself, and his body was flayed and exposed 
on a cross, B. C. 219. Polyb. 6. — Plut. in vita. 
— Justin. 28, c. 4. 

Cleon, an Athenian, who, though originally 
a tanner, became general of the armies of the 
state by his intrigues and eloquence. He took 
Thoron in Thrace, and after distinguishing 
himself in several engagements, he was killed at 
Amphipolis, in a battle with Brasidas the Spar- 
tan general, 422 B. C. Thucyd. 3, 4, &c.— 
Diod. 12. 

Cleonica, a young virgin of Byzantmm, 
whom Pausanias, king of Sparta, invited to his 
bed. She was introduced into his room when 
he was asleep, and unluckily overturned a burn- 
ing lamp which was by the side of the bed. 
Pausanias was awakened at the sudden noise, 
and thinking it to be some assassin, he seized 
his sword, and killed Cleonica before he knew 
who it was. Paus. 7, c. 17. — Plut. in Cim. 

Cleonymus, I. a son of Cleonemes 2d, who 
called Pyrrhus to his assistance, because Areus, 
his brother's son, had been preferred to him in 
the succession ; but the measure was unpopular, 
and even the women united to repel the foreign 
prince. His wife was unfaithful to his bed, and 
committed adultery with Acrotatus. Plut. in 

Pyrrh. — Paus. 1, c. 3. II A person so cow- 

ardly,that Cleonymo timidior became proverbial. 

Cle5patra, I. the grand-daughter of Attalus, 
betrothed to Philip of Macedonia, after he had 
divorced Olympias. When Philip was mur- 
dered by Pausanias, Cleopatra was seized by 
order of Olympias, and put to death, Diod. 16, 
— Justin. 9, c. 7. — Plut. in Pyrrh. II. A sis- 
ter of Alexander the Great, who married Per- 
diccas, and was killed by Antigonus as she at- 
tempted to fly to Ptolemy in Egypt. Diod. 16 

and 20.— Justin. 9, c, 6, 1, 13, c. 6. III, A 

wife of Tigranes, king of Armenia, sister of 
Mithridates, Justin. 38, c. 3. IV, A daugh- 
ter of Ptolemy Philometor, who married Alex- 
ander Bala, and afterwards Nicanor, She 
killed Seleucus, Nicanor's son, because he as- 
406 



cended ihe throne without her consent. She 
was suspected of preparing poison for Antio- 
chus her son, and compelled lo drink it herself, 
B. C. 120. V. A wife and .sister of Ptole- 
my Evergetes, who raised her son Alexander, 
a minor, to the throne of Egypt, in preference 
to his elder brother, Ptolemy Lathurus, whose 
interest the people favoured. As Alexander 
was odious, Cleopatra suflered Lathurus to as- 
cend the throne, on condition, however, that he 
should repudiate his sister and wife, called Cle- 
opatra, and married Seleuca, his younger sis- 
ter. She afterwards raised her favourite, Al- 
exander, to the throne ; but her cruelties were so 
odious that he fled to avoid her tyranny, Cle- 
opatra laid snares for him ; and when Alexan- 
der heard it, he put her to death, Justin. 39, c, 3 

and 4. VI. A queen of Egypt, daughter of 

Ptolemy Auletes, and sister and wife to Ptole- 
my Dionysius, celebrated for her beauty and 
her cunning. She admitted Caesar to her arms, 
to influence him to give her the kingdom in 
preference to her brother, who had expelled her, 
and had a son by him called CaBsarion. As 
she had supported Brutus, Antony, in his expe- 
dition to Parthia, summoned her to appear De- 
fore him. . She arrayed herself in the most 
magnificent apparel, and appeared before her 
judge in the most captivating attire. Her ar- 
tifice succeeded : Antony, became enamoured of 
her, and publicly married her, forgetful of his 
connexion with Octavia, the sister of Augus- 
tus. He gave her the greatest part of the eastern 
provinces of the Roman empire. This beha- 
viour was the cause of a rupture between Au- 
gustus and Aniony ; and these two celebrated 
Romans met at Actium. where Cleopatra, by 
flying with sixty sail, ruined the interest of An- 
tony, and he was defeated. Cleopatra had re- 
tired to Egypt, where soon after Antony fol- 
lowed her. Antony killed himself upon the 
false information that Cleopatra was dead ; and 
as his wound was not mortal, he was carried to 
the queen, who drew him up by a cord from one 
of the windows of the monument where she had 
retired and concealed herself Antony soon af- 
ter died of his wounds ; and Cleopatra, after she 
had received pressing invitations from Augus- 
tus, and even pretended declarations of love, de- 
stroyed herself by the bite of an asp, not to fall 
into the conqueror's hands. Her beauty has 
been greatly commended, and her mental per- 
fections so highly celebrated, that she has been 
described as capable of giving audience to the 
ambassadors of seven different nations, and of 
speaking their various languages as fluently as 
her own. In Antony's absence she improved 
the public library of Alexandria, with the addi- 
tion of that of Pergamus. Two treatises, de 
medicamine faciei epistola eroticcB, and de mor- 
bis mulierum, have been falsely attributed to her. 
She died B. C. 30 years, after a reign of 24 
years, aged 39. Egypt became a Roman pro- 
vince at her death. Flor. 4, c. \\.—Appian. 5, 
Bell. Civ.— Plut. in Pomp. (^ Ant.—fforat. 1, 
od. 37, V.21, &c.—Strab. 17. 

Cleophes, a queen of India, who submitted 
to Alexander, by whom,, as some suppose, she 
had a son. Curt. 8, c. 10. 

Cleophon, was contemporary with Critias. 
His style was perspicuous, but not elevated, and 
sometimes the addition of a lofty-sounding ep- 



CA 



HISTORY, &c. 



CL 



ithet to a trifling noun made it ridiculous. His 
characters were drawn with an accurate but 
unpoetic adherence to reality. Ten tragedies of 
his are enumerated by Suidas and Eudocia, 
and a piece called Mavcpd0ov\os by Aristotle, 
from its name a comedy or other light poem. 

Cleora, the wife of Agesilaus. Plut. in 
Ages, 

Cleostratus, I. a youth devoted to be sa- 
crificed to a serpent among the Thespians, &c. 

Paus. 9, c. 26. II. An ancient philosopher 

and astronomer of Tenedos, about 536 years 
before Christ. He first found the constellations 
of the zodiac, and reformed the Greek calender. 

Clesides, a Greek painter, about 276 years 
before Christ, who revenged the injuries he had 
received from queen Stratonice, by represent- 
ing her in the arm^ of a fisherman. However 
indecent the painter might represent the queen, 
she was drawn with such personal beauty, that 
she preserved the piece and liberally rewarded 
the artist. 

Clinias, I. a Pythagorean philosopher and 
musician, 520 years before the Christian era. 

Plut. Symp.—^lian. V. H. 14, c. 23. II. 

A son of Alcibiades, the bravest man in the 
Greecian fleet that fought against Xerxes. He- 

rodot. 8,.c. 7. III. The father of Alcibiades, 

killed at the baule of Coronea. Plut. i/i Ale. 

IV. The father of Aratus, killed by Aban- 

tidas, B. C. 263. Plut. in Aral. 

Clincs of Cos, was general of 7000 Greeks 
in the pay of king Nectanebus. He was killed 
wiih some of his troops, by Nicostratus and the 
Argives, as he passed the Nile. Diod. 16. 

Clisthenes, I, the last tyrant of Sicyon. 

Arislot. II. An Athenian, of the family of 

Alcmaeon. It is said that he first established 
ostracism, and that he was the first who was 
banished by that institution. He banished Isa- 
goras, and was himself soon after restored, 
Plut. in Arist. — Herodot. 5, c. &&, &c. 

CLiTARcmrs, I. a man who made himself ab- 
solute at Eretria, by means of Philip of Mace- 
donia. He was ejected by Phocion. II. 

An historian, who accompanied Alexander the 
Great, of whose life he wrote the history. CuH. 
9, c. 5. 

Clitomachus, a Carthaginian philosopher 
of the third academy, who was pupil and suc- 
cessor to Cameades at Athens, B. C. 128. 
Diog. in vita. 

Clitus, I. a familiar friend and foster-bro- 
ther of Alexander. He had saved the king's 
life in a bloody battle. Alexander killed him 
with a javelin, in a fit of anger, because, at a 
feast, he preferred the actions of Philip to those 
of his son. Alexander was inconsolable for the 
loss of a friend, whom he had sacrificed in the 
hour of drunkenness and dissipation. Justin. 

12, c. 6.— Plut. in Alex.— Curt. 4, &c. II. 

An oflicer sent by Antipater, with 240 ships, 
against the Athenians, whom he conquered 
near Echinades. Diod. 18. 

Clopia, I. the wife of LucuUus, repudiated 
for her lasciviousness. Plut. in ImcuU. — ^—11. 
An opulent matron at Rome, mother of D. 
Brutus. Cic. ad. Attic. III. A vestal vir- 
gin, who successfully repressed the rudeness of 
a tribune that attempted to stop the procession 
of her father in his triumph through the streets 
of Rome. Cic. pro M. Ccel. IV. A wo- 



man who married Gl. Metellus, and after- 
wards disgraced herself by her amours with 
Coelius. 

Clodia Lex, de Cypro, was enacted by the 
tribune Clodius, A. U. C. 695, to reduce Cy- 
prus into a Roman province, and expose Ptole- 
my king of Egj'pt to sale in his regal ornaments. 
It empowered Cato to go with the praetorian 
power, and see the auction of the king's goods, 
and commissioned him to return the money 

to Rome. Another, de Mo.gistraiibus, A. 

U. C. 695, by Clodius the tribune. It for- 
bade the censors to put a stigma or mark of in- 
famy upon any person who had not been actu- 
ally accused and condemned by both the cen- 

sorG. Another, de Beligione, by the same, 

A. U. C. 696, to deprive the priest of Cybele, 
a native of Pessinus, of his oflice, and confer 
the priesthood upon Brotigonus, a Gallo-gre- 

cian. Another, de Provinciis, A. U, C. 

695, which nominated the provinces of Syria, 
Babylon, and Persia, to the consul Gabin us; 
and Achaia, Thessaly, Macedon, and Greece, 
to his colleague Piso, with pro-consular power. 
It empowered them to defray the expenses of 
their march from their public treasur}^ Ano- 
ther, A. U. C. 695, which required the same 
distribution of corn among the people gratis, 
as had been given them before at six asses and 

a iriens the bushel. Another, A. U. C. 695, 

by the same, de Judiciis. It called to an ac- 
count such as had executed a Roman citizen 
without a judgment of the people, and all the 

formalities of a trial. Another, by the same, 

to pay no attention to the appearances of the 
heavens, while any affair was before the people. 

Another, to make the power of the tribunes 

free, in making and proposing laws. Ano- 



ther, to re-establish the companies of artists, 
which had been instituted by Numa ; but since 
his time abolished. 

Clodius, Pb. a Roman descended from an 
illustrious family, and remarkable for his licen- 
tiousness, avarice, and ambition. He intro- 
duced himself in women's clothes into the house 
of J. Caesar, whilst Pompeia, Cassar's wife, of 
whom he was enamoured, was celebrating the 
mysteries of Ceres, where no man was permitted 
to appear. He was accused for this violation of 
human and divine laws ; but he corrupted his 
judges, and by that means screened himself 
from justice. He descended from a patrician 
into a plebeian family to become a tribune. He 
was an enemy to Cato, and also to Cicero ; and 
by his influence he banished him from Rome, 
partly on pretence that he had punished with 
death, and without trial, the adherents of Cati- 
line. He wreaked his vengeance upon Cice- 
ro's house, which he burnt, and set all his goods 
to sale ; which, however, to his great mortifica- 
tion, no one offered to buy. In spite of Clodius, 
Cicero was recalled, and all his goods restored 
to him. Clodius was some time after murdered 
by Milo, whose defence Cicero took upon him- 
self. Plut. in Cic. — Appian. de Civ. 2. — Cic. 
pro Milon. ^pro Domo. — Dio. 

Clcelu, I. a Roman virgin, given with other 
maidens as hostages to Porsenna, king of Etru- 
ria. She escaped from her confinement, and 
swam across the Tiber to Rome. Her unpre- 
cedented virtue was rewarded by her country- 
men with an equestrian statue in the Via Sa- 
407 



GL 



HISTORY, &c. 



COE 



era. Liv. % c. IZ.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 651.— 
Dionys. Hal. 5. — Juv. 8, v, 265. IT. A pa- 
trician family, descended from Cloelias, one of 
the companions of iEneas. Dionys. 

Clcblius Gracchus, I. a general of the Vcl- 
sci and Sabines against Rome, conquered by Q,. 
Cincinnatus the dictator. II. Tullus, a Ro- 
man ambassador put to death by Tolumnius, 
king of the Veientes. 

Cluentius, a Roman citizen, accused by his 
mother of having murdered his father, 54 years 
B. C. He was ably defended by Cicero, in an 
oration still extant. The family of the Cluentii 
was descended from Cloanthus, one of the com- 
panions of ^neas. Virg. ^n. 5, v. 122, — 
Cic. pro Cluent. 

Clusia, a daughter of an Etrurian king, of 
whom V. Torquatus, the Roman general, be- 
came enamoured. He asked her of her father, 
who slighted his addresses ; upon which he be- 
sieged and destroyed his town. Clusia threw 
herself down from a high tower, and came to 
the ground unhurt. Plut. in Parall. 

Clymenus, a king of Orchomenos, son of 
Presbon, and father of Erginus, Stratius, Ar- 
rhon, and Axius. He received a wound from a 
stone thrown by a Theban, of which he died. 
His son Erginus, who succeeded him, made 
war against the Thebans to revenge his death. 
Pans. 9, c. 37. 

Ci.YTEMNESTRA, a daughter of Tyndarus, 
king of Sparta, by Leda. She was born, to- 
gether with her brother Castor, from one of the 
eggs which her mother brought forth after her 
amour with Jupiter, under the form of a swan. 
Clytemnestra married Agamemnon king of Ar- 
gos. She had before married Tantalus, son of 
Thyestes, according to some authors. When 
Agamemnon went to the Trojan war, he left 
his cousin ^Egysthus to take care of his wife, 
of his family, and all his domestic affairs. Be- 
sides this, a certain favourite musician was ap- 
pointed by Agamemnon to watch over the con- 
duct of the guardian as well as that of Clytem- 
nestra. In the absence of Agamemnon, JSgys- 
thus made his court to Clytemnestra, and pub- 
licly lived with her. Her infidelity reached the 
ears of Agamemnon before the walls of Troy, 
and he resolved to take full revenge upon the 
adulterers at his return. He was prevented 
from putting his schemes into execution ; Cly- 
temnestra, with her adulterer, murdered him at 
his arrival, as he came out of the bath, or, ac- 
cording to other accounts, as he sat down at a 
feast prepared to celebrate his happy return. 
After this murder, Clytemnestra publicly mar- 
ried ^gysthus, and he ascended the throne of 
Argos. Orestes, after an absence of seven 
years, returned to Mycenae, resolved to avenge 
his father's murder. He concealed himself in 
the house of his sister Electra, who had been 
married by the adulterers to a person of mean 
extraction and indigent circumstances. His 
death was publicly announced ; and when 
JEgysthus and Clytemnestra repaired to the 
temple of Apollo, to return thanks to the god 
for the death of the surviving son of Agamem- 
non, Orestes, who, with his faithful friend Py- 
lades, had concealed himself in the temple, rush- 
ed upon the adulterers and killed them with his 
own hand. They were buried without the 
walls of the city, as their remains were deemed 
408 



unworthy to be laid in the sepulchre of Aga- 
memnon. Vid. jEgysthus, Agamemnon, Ores- 
tes, Electra. Diod. 4. — Homer. Od. 11. — Apol- 
lod. 3, c. IQ.—Paus. 2, c. 18 and ^.—Euri- 
pid. Iphig. in Aul. — Hygin. fab. 117 and 140. 
— Propert. 3. el. 19. — Virg. JEn. 4, v. 471. — 
Philostr. Icon. 2, c. 9. 

Cnemus, a Macedonian general, unsuccessful 
in an expedition against the Acarnanians. Diod. 
12.— Thucyd 2,c. 66,&c, 

Cneus, or Cnjeus, a praenomen common to 
many Romans. 

Cnopus, one of the descendants of Codrus, 
who went to settle a colony. Polyan. 8. 

CoccEius Nerva, I. a friend of Horace and 
Mecsenas, and grandfather to the emperor Ner- 
va. He was one of those who settled the dis- 
putes between Augustus and Antony. He af- 
terwards accompanied Tiberius in his retreat in 
Campania, and starved himself to death. Tacit. 
Ann. 4, c. 58, and 6, c. 26. — Horat. 1, Sat. 5, 

V. 27. II. An architect of Rome, one of 

whose buildings is still in being, the present ca- 
thedral of Naples. III. A man* to whom 

Nero granted a triumph, after the discovery of 
the Pisonian conspiracy. Tacit. 15,' Ann. c. 72. 

Cocles, Pub. Horat. a celebrated Roman, 
who, alone, opposed the whole army of Porsen- 
na at the head of a bridge, while his companions 
behind him were cutting off the communication 
with the other shore. When the bridge was 
destroyed, Cocles, though severely wounded in 
the leg by the darts of the enemy, leapt into the 
Tiber, and swam across with his arms. A bra- 
zen statue was raised to him in the temple of 
Vulcan, by the consul Publicola, for his emi- 
nent services. He had the use only of one eye, 
as Cocles signifies. Liv. 2, c. 10. — Val. Max. 
3, c. 2.— Virg. jEn. 8, v. 650. 

CoDOMANUs, a surname of Darius the third, 
king of Persia. 

CodridjE, the descendants of Codrus, who 
went from Athens at the head of several colo- 
nies. Paus. 7, c. 2. 

Codrus, I. the 17th and last king of Athens, 
son of Melanthus. When the Heraclidse made 
war against Athens, the oracle declared that the 
victory would be granted to that nation whose 
king was killed in battle. The Heraclidae upon 
this gave strict orders to spare the life of Cod- 
rus, but the patriotic king disguised himself, 
and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he 
was killed. The Athenians obtained the victo- 
ry, and Codrus was deservedly called the father 
of his country. He reigned 22 years, and was 
killed 1070 years before the Christian era. To 
pay greater honour to his memory, the Athe- 
nians made a resolution that no man after Cod- 
rus should reign in Athens under the name of 
king, and therefore the government was put into 
the hands of perpetual archons. Paterc. 1, c. 
2.— Justin. 2, c. 6 and l.—Paus. 1, c. 19, 1. 7, 

c. 25.— Val. Max. 5, c. 6. II. Another, in 

the reign of Domitian, whose poverty became 
a proverb, J^iv. 3, v. 203. 

CcELTA, the wife of Sylla. Plut. in Syll. 
The Coelian family, which was plebeian, but 
honoured with the "consulship, was descended 
from Vibenna CcEles, an Etrurian, who came 
to settle at Rome in the age of Romulus. 

CcELios, I. a Roman, defended by Cicero. 
II. Two brothers of Tarracina, accused of 



CO 



HISTORY, &c 



CO 



having murdered their father in his bed. They 
were acquitted, when it was proved that they 
were both asleep at the time of the murder. 

Val. Max. 8, c. l.—Plut. in Cic. HI. A 

man who, after spending his all in dissipation 
and luxury, became a public robber with his 
frieud Birrhus. Horat. 1, Sal. 4, v. 69. 

CcENUs, an officer of Alexander, son-in-law 
to Parmenio. He died of a distemper, in his 
return from India. Curt. 9, c. 3. — Diod. 17. 

Goes, a man of Mityiene, made sovereign 
master of his country by Darius. His coun- 
trymen stoned him to death. Herodot. 5, c. 11 
and 38. 

CoHORs, a division in the Roman armies, con- 
sisting of about 600 men. It was the sixth part 
of a legion, and consequently its number was 
under the same fluctuations as that of the 
legions, being sometimes more, and sometimes 
less. 

CoLJENUs, a king of Attica, before the age of 
Cecrops, according to some accounts. Paus. 
I, c. 31. 

CoLLATJNus, L. T^RauiNius, a nephew of 
Tarquin the Proud, who married Lucretia, to 
whom Sext. Tarquin offered violence. He, 
with Brums, drove the Tarquins from Rome, 
and were made first consuls. As he was one of 
the Tarquins, so much abominated by all the 
Roman people, he laid down his office of con- 
sul, and retired to Alba in voluntary banish- 
ment. Liv. 1, c. 57, 1. 3, c. 2.—Flor. 1, c. 9. 

Colo, Jun. a governor of Pontus, whobrought 
Mithridates to the emperor Claudius. Tacit. 
13, Ann. c. 21. 

Colossus, a celebrated brazen image at 
Rhodes, which passed forone of the seven won- 
ders of the world. Its feet were upon the two 
moles which formed the entrance of the harbour, 
and ships passed in full sail between its legs. It 
was 70 cubits, or 105 feet high, and every thing 
in equal proportion, and few could clasp round 
its thumb. It was the work of Chares, the dis- 
ciple of Lysippus, and the artist was 12 years 
in making it. It was begun 300 years before 
Christ; and after it had remained unhurt during 
56 or 58 years, it was partly demolished by an 
earthquake, 224 B. C. A winding staircase 
ran to the top, from which could easily be dis- 
cerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that 
sailed on the coast of Egypt, by the help of 
glasses, which were hung on the neck of the 
statue. It remained in ruins for the space of 
894 years; and the Rhodians, who had received 
several large contributions to repair it, divided 
the money among themselves, and frustrated the 
expectations of the donors, by saying that the 
oracle of Delphi forbade them to raise it up 
again from its ruins. In the year 672 of the 
Christian era, it was sold by the Saracens, who 
were msisters of the island, to a Jewish merchant 
of Edessa, who loaded 900 camels with the brass, 
whose value has been estimated at 36,000 
pounds English money. 

CoLOTEs, a Teian painter, disciple of Phidias. 
Plin. 36, c. 8. 

Columella, (L. Jun. Moderatus) a native of 
Gades, who wrote, among other works, twelve 
books on agriculture, of which the tenth, on gar- 
dening, is in verse. The style is elegant, and 
the work displays the genius of a naturalist and 
the labours of an accurate observer. The best 

Part IL— 3 F 



edition of Columella is that of Gesner, 2 vols. 
4to. Lips. 1735, and reprinted there 1772. 

Coluthus, a native of Lycopolis in Egypt, 
who wrote a short poem on the rape of Helen, 
in imitation of Homer. The composition re- 
mained long unknown, till it was discovered at 
Lycopolis, in the 15th century, by the learned 
cardinal Bessarion. Coluthus was, as some 
^suppose, a contemporary of Tryphiodorus. 

CoMiNius, (Q,.) a Roman knight, who wrote 
some illiberal verses against Tiberius, Tacit. 
4, Ann. c. 31. 

CoMiTu, (orum,) an assembly of the Roman, 
people. The word is derived from Comitium, 
the place where they were convened, quasi a, 
ciiTn eundo. The Comitium was a large hall, 
which was left uncovered at the top, in the first 
ages of the republic; so that the assembly was 
often dissolved in rainy weather. The Comitia 
were called, some consularia, for the election of 
the consuls ; others pratoria, for the election of 
praetors, &c. These assemblies were more gen- 
erally known by the name of Comitia, Curiata^ 
Ceniuriata, and Tributa. The Curiata was 
when the people gave their votes by curiae. The 
Centuriata were not convened in later times. 
( Vid. Centuria.) Another assembly was called 
Comitia Tributa, where the votes were receiv- 
ed from the whole tribes together. At first the 
Roman people were divided only into three 
tribes ; but as their numbers increased, the tribes 
were at last swelled to 35. The object of these 
assemblies w^as the electing of magistrates, and 
all the public officers of slate. They could be 
dissolved by one of the tribunes, if he differed 
in opinion from the rest of his colleagues. If 
one among the people was taken with the falling 
sickness, the whole assembly was immediately 
dissolved ; whence that disease is called inorbis 
comitalis. After the custom of giving their 
votes vi'vavocehd.diheen abolished, every one of 
the assembly, in the enacting of a law, was pre- 
sented with two ballots, on one of which were the 
letters U. R. that is, uti rogas, be it as it is re- 
quired : on the other was an A, that is, antiqiio, 
which bears the same meaning asantiquam volo, 
I forbid it, the old law is more preferable. If 
the number of ballots with U. R. was superior 
to the A's the law was approved constitutional- 
ly; if not, it was rejected. Only the chief ma- 
gistrates, and sometimes the pontifices, had the 
privilege of convening these assemblies. There 
were only these eight of the magistrates who had 
the power of proposing a law, the consuls, the 
dictator, the praetor, the interrex, the decemvirs, 
the military tribunes, the kings, and the trium- 
virs. These were called majores magisiratus: 
to whom one of the minores magistratus was 
added, the tribune of the people. 

CoMius, a man appointed king over the At- 
trebates, by J. Caesar, for his services. Ccbs. 
Bell. G. 4, c. 21. 

CoMMODus, (L. Aurelius Antoninus) son of 
M. Antoninus, succeeded his father in the Ro- 
man empire. He was naturally cruel, and fond 
of indulging his licentious propensities ; and re- 
gardless of the instructions of philosophers and 
of the decencies of nature, he corrupted his own. 
sisters, and kept 300 women, and as many boys, 
for his illicit pleasures. Desirous to be called 
Hercules, like that hero, he adorned his shoul- 
ders with a lion's skin, and armed his hand with 
409 



CO 



HISTORY, &c. 



CO 



a knotted club. He showed himself naked in 
public, and fought with ihe gladiators, and 
boasted of his dexterity in killing the wild beasts 
in the amphitheatre. He required divine hon- 
ours from the senate, and they were granted, 
He was wont to put such an immense quantity 
of gold dust in his hair, that when he appeared 
bareheaded in the sunshine, his head glittered 
as if surrounded with sunbeams. Martia, one 
of his concubines, whose death he had prepared, 
poisoned him ; but as the poison did not quickly 
operate, he was strangled by a wrestler. He 
died in the 31st year of his age, and the 13th of 
his reign, A, D. 192. It has been observed, 
that he never trusted himself to a barber, but 
always burnt his beard in imitation of the ty- 
rant Dionysius. Herodian. 

CoMPiTALiA, festivals celebrated by the Ro- 
mans the 12th of January and the 6th of March, 
in the cross ways, in honour of the household 
gods called Lares. Tarquin the Proud, or, ac- 
cording to some, Servius Tullius, instituted 
them, on account of an oracle which ordered 
him to offer heads to the Lares. He sacrificed 
to them human victims ; but J. Brutus, after the 
expulsion of the Tarquins, thought it sufficient 
10 offer them only poppy heads and men of straw. 
The slaves were generally the ministers, and, 
during the celebration, they enjoyed their free- 
dom. Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 3. — Ovid. Fast. 5, 
V. 140. — Dionys. Hal. 4. 

CoNETODUNus and Cotuatus, two desperate 
Gauls, who raised their countrymen against 
Rome, &c. Cces. Bell. G. 7, c. 3. 

Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, as much 
honoured among his countrymen as a monarch. 
He died about 479 years B. C. 

CoNON, I. a famous general of Athens, son of 
Timotheus. He was made governor of all the 
islands of the Athenians, and was defeated in a 
naval battle by Lysander, near the iEgospota- 
mos. He retired in voluntary banishment to 
Evagoras, king of Cyprus, and afterwards to 
Artaxerxes king of Persia, by whose assist- 
ance he freed his country from slavery. He de- 
feated the Spartans near Cnidos, in an engage- 
ment where Pisander, the enemy's admiral, 
was killed. By his means the Athenians forti- 
fied their city with a strong wall, and attempted 
to recover Ionia and iEolia. He was perfidi- 
ously betrayed by a Persian, and died in prison, 
B. C. 393. C. Nep. in vita.—Plut. in Dys. cf. 

Artax. — Isocrates. II. A Greek astronomer 

of Samos, who. to gain the favour of Ptolemy 
Evergetes, publicly declared that the queen's 
locks, which had been dedicated in the temple of 
Venus, and had since disappeared, were become 
a constellation. He was intimate with Archi- 
medes, and flourished 247 B. C. Catul. 67. — 

Virg. Ed. 3, v. 40. III. A Grecian mytho- 

logist, in the age of Julius Caesar, who wrote a 
book which contained 40 fables, still extant, 

preserved by Photius. There was a treatise 

written on Italy by a man of the same name. 

CoNsiDius jEauus, I. a Roman knight, &c. 
Tacit. II. Caius, one of Pompey's adhe- 
rents, &c. Cces Belt. Civ. 2, c. 23. 

CoNSTANs, a son of Constantine. Vid. Con- 
slantinus. 

CoNSTANTiA, a grand-daughtcr of the great 
Constantine, who married the emperor Gratian. 

CoNSTANTiNUs, I. sumamcd the Great, from 
410 



the greatness of his exploits, was son of Con- 
stantius. As soon as he became independent, 
he assumed the title of Augustus, and made 
war against Licinius, his brother-in-law and 
colleague on the throne, because he was cruel 
and ambitious. He conquered him, and obli- 
ged him to lay aside the imperial power. It is 
said, that as he was going to fight against Max- 
entius, one of his rivals, he saw a cross in the 
sky, with this inscription, ev rovroi viko, in hoc 
vince. From this circumstance he became a 
convert to Christianity, and obtained an easy 
victory, ever after adopting a cross or labarum. 
as his standard. After the death of Diocletian, 
Maximian,Maxentius, Maximinus, andLicini- 
us,who had reigned together, though in a subor- 
dinate manner, Constantine became sole empe- 
ror, and began to reform the state. He founded 
a city where old Byzantium formerly stood, and 
called it by his own name, Constantinopolis. 
Thither he transported part of the Roman sen- 
ate 5 and by keeping his court there, he made it 
the rival of Rome in population and magnifi- 
cence. From that -time the two imperial cities 
began to look upon each other with an eye of 
envy ; and soon after the age of Constantine, 
a separation was made of two empires, and 
Rome was called the capital of the western, 
and Constantinopolis was called the capital 
of the eastern dominions of Rome. The em- 
peror has been distinguished for personal cour- 
age, and praised for the protection he extend- 
ed to the Christians. He at first persecuted 
the Arians, but afterwards inclined to their 
opinions. His murder of his son Crispus has 
been deservedly censured. By removing the 
Roman legions from the garrisons on the 
rivers, he opened an easy passage to the bar- 
barians, and rendered his soldiers unwarlike. 
He defeated 100,000 Goths, and received into 
his territories 300,000 Sarmatians,who had been 
banished by their slaves, and allowed them land 
to cultivate. Constantine was learned, and 
preached, as well as composed, many sermons, 
one of which remains. He died A. D, 337, 
after a reign of 31 years of the greatest glory 
and success. He left three sons, Constantinus, 
Constans, and Constantius, among whom he 
divided his empire. The first, who had Gaul, 
Spain, and Britain, for his portion, was conquer- 
ed by the armies of his brother Constans, and 
killed in the 25th year of his age, A. D. 340. 
Magnentius, the governor of the provinces of 
Rhsetia, murdered Constans in his bed, after a 
reign of 13 years over Italy, Africa, and Illyri- 
cum; and Constantius, the only surviving 
brother, now became the sole emperor, A. D. 
353, punished his brother's murderer, and gave 
way to cruelty and oppression. He visited 
Rome, where he displayed a triumph, and died 
in his march against Julian, who had been pro- 
claimed independent emperor by his soldiers. — 
The name of Constantine was very common 
to the emperors of the east in a later period. 
II. A private soldier in Britain, rais- 



ed on account of his name to the imperial dig- 
nity. III. A general of Belisarius. 

Constantius Chlorus, I. son of Eutropius, 
and father of the great Constantine, merited the 
title of Caesar, which he obtained, by his victo- 
ries in Britain and Germany. He became the 
colleague of Galerius on the abdication of Dio- 



CO 



HISTORY, &c. 



CO 



cletian ; and after bearing the character of a hu- 
mane and benevolent prince, he died at York, 
and made his son his successor, A. D. 306. 



II. The second son of Constantine the Great, 
Vid. Constantinus. III. The father of Ju- 
lian and Gallus, was son of Constantius by- 
Theodora, and died A. D. 337. IV. A Ro- 
man general of Nyssa, who married Placidia, 
the sister of Honorius, and was proclamied em- 
peror, aa honour he enjoyed only seven months. 
He died, universally regretted, 421 A. D. and 
was succeeded by his son Valentinian in the 
west. 

CoNSDALES LuDi, or CoNsalLiA, festivals at 
Rome in honour of Consus, the god of counsel, 
whose altar Romulus discovered under the 
ground. This altar was always covered, except 
at the festival, when a mule was sacrificed, and 
games and horseraces exhibited in honour of 
Neptune. It was during these festivals that Ro- 
mulus carried away the Sabine women who had 
assembled to.be spectators of the games. They 
were first instituted by Romulus. Some say, 
however, that Romulus only regulated and re- 
instituted them after they had been before estab- 
lished by Evander. During the celebration, 
which happened about the middle of August, 
horses, mules, and asses, were exempted from 
ail labours, and were led through the streets 
adorned with garlands and flowers. Auson. GQ, 
v. d.— Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 199.— iir. 1, c. 9.— 
Dionys. Hal. 

Consul, a magistrate at Rome, with regal 
. authority for the space of one year. There were 
two consuls, a consulendo. annually chosen in 
the Campus Martius. The two first consuls 
were L. Jun. Brutus, and L. Tarquinius Colla- 
tinus, chosen A. U. C. 244, after the expulsion 
of the Tarquins. In the first ages of the repub- 
lic, the two consuls were always chosen from 
patrician families or noblemen ; but the people 
obtained the privilege, A. U. C. 388, of elect- 
ing one of the consuls from their own body ; and 
sometimes both were plebeians. The first con- 
sul among the plebeians was L. Sextius. It was 
required that every candidate for the consulship 
should be 43 years of age, called legitimum tem- 
pus. He was always to appear at the election 
as a private man, without a retinue ; and it was 
requisite, before he canvassed for the office, to 
have discharged the inferior functions of quaes- 
tor, edile, and prcetor. Sometimes these quali- 
fications were disregarded. Val. Corvinus was 
made a consul in his 23d year, and Scipioinhis 
24th. Young Marius, Pompey, and Augustus, 
were also under the proper age when they were 
invested with the office, and Pompey had never 
been quaestor or praetor. The power of the con- 
.suls was unbounded, and they knew no superior 
but the gods and the laws: but after the expira- 
tion of their office, their conduct was minutely 
scrutinized by the people, and misbehaviour was 
often punished by the laws. The badge of their 
office was the praiexta, a robe fringed with pur- 
ple, afterwards exchanged for the toga picta or 
palmata. They v\rere preceded by 12 lictors, 
carrying the fasces or bundle of sticks, in the 
middle of which appeared an axe. The axe, 
being the characteristic rather of tyranny than 
of freedom, was taken away from the fasces 
by Valerius Publicola, but it was restored by 
his successor. The consuls took it by turns, 



monthly, to be preceded by the lictors while at 
Rome, lest the appearance of two persons with 
the badges of royal authority should raise appre- 
hensions in the multitude. While one appeared 
publicly in state, only a crier walked before the 
other, and the lictors followed behind without 
the fasces. Their authority was equal ; yet the 
Valerian law gave the right of priority to the old- 
er, and the Julian law to him who had the most 
children, and he was generally called co7t,sul ma- 
jor or prior. As their power was absolute, they 
presided over the senate, and could convene and 
dismiss it at pleasure. The senators were their 
counsellors ; and among the Romans, the man- 
ner of reckoning their years was by the name 
of the consuls ; and by M Tull. Cicerone <^ L. 
Antonio Consulibus, for instance, the year of 
Rome 691 was always understood. This cus- 
tom lasted from the year of Rome 244 till the 
year 1294, or 541st year of the Christian era, 
when the consular office was totally suppressed 
by Justinian. In public assemblies the consuls 
sat in ivory chairs, and held in their hands an 
ivory wand, called scipio eburneus, which had 
an eagle on its top, as a sign of dignity and pow- 
er. When they had drawn by lot the provinces 
over which they were to preside during their 
consulship, they went to the capitol to offer 
their prayers to the gods, and entreat them to 
protect the republic : after this they, departed 
from the city, arrayed in their military dress, and 
preceded by the lictors. Sometimes the prov- 
inces were assigned them, without drawing by 
lot, by the will and appointment of the senators. 
At their departure, they were provided by the 
state with whatever was requisite during their 
expedition. In their provinces they were both 
attended by the 12 lictors, and equally invested 
with legal authority. They were not permitted 
to return to Rome without the special command 
of the senate, and they always remained in the 
province till the arrival of their successor. At 
their return they harangued the people, and 
solemnly protested that they had done nothing 
against the laws or interests of their country, but. 
had faithfully and diligently endeavoured to pro- 
mote the greatness and welfare of the state. No 
man could be consul two following years , yet 
this institution was sometimes broken ; and we 
find Marius re-elected consul, after the expira- 
tion of his office, during the Cimbrian war. The 
office of consul, so dignified during the times of 
the commonwealth, became a mere title under 
the emperors, and retained nothing of its au- 
thority but the useless ensigns of original digni- 
ty. Even the office of consul, which was origin- 
ally annual, was reduced to two or three months 
by J. Caesar : but they who were admitted on 
the first of January denominated the year, and 
were called ordinarii. Their successors, dur- 
ing the year, were distinguished by the name of 
sufecti. Til3erius and Claudius abridged the 
time of the consulship, and the emperor Com- 
modus made no less than 25 consuls in one year. 
Constantine the Great renewed the original in- 
stitution, and permitted them to be a whole year 
in office. The two first consuls, A. U. C. 244, 
were L. Jun. Brutus and L. Tarq. Collatinus. 
Collatinus retired from Rome, and Pub. Valerius 
was chosen in his room. When Brutus was kill- 
ed in battle, Sp, Lucretius was elected to suc- 
ceed him ; and afTer the death of Lucretius, Mar- 
411 



CO 



HISTORY, &c. 



CO 



cus Horatius was chosen for the rest of the year 
•with Valerius Publicola. The first consulship 
lasted about 16 months, during which the Ro- 
mans fought against the Tarquins, and the 
capitol was dedicated. From the time of Au- 
gustus the consular authority may be consider- 
ed at an end, though consuls continued to be 
elected till the latest days of the empire. The 
Italians always retained a fondness for this 
name, and the principal officers of the republics 
of the middle ages were generally called 
consuls. 

CoRAx, an ancient rhetorician of Sicily, who 
first demanded salary of his pupils. Cic. in 
Brut. 12, de orat. 1, c. 20.—Aul. Gell. 5, c. 10. 
— Quintil. 3, c. 1. 

CoRBULo, (Doraitius,) a prefect of Belgium, 
who, when governor of Syria, routed the Par- 
thians, destroyed Artaxata, and made Tigranes 
king of Arinenia. Nero, jealous of his virtues, 
ordered hhn to be murdered ; and Corbulo, hear- 
ing this, fell upon his sword, exclaiming, I have 
well deserved this ! A. D. Q6. His name was 
given to a place (Monumentum) in Germany, 
which some suppose to be modern Groningen. 
Tacit. Ann. 11, c. 18. 

CoRDUs. Vid. Cremutius. 

CoRiNNA, L a celebrated woman of Tanagra, 
near Thebes, disciple to Myrtis. Her fathei's 
name was Archelodorus. It is said that she 
obtained five times a poetical prize, in which 
Pindar was her competitor; but it must be ac- 
knowledged that her beauty greatly contributed 
to defeat her rivals. She had composed 50 books 
of epigrams and odes, of which only some few 
verses remain. Propert. 2, el, 3. — Paus. 9, c. 

22. II. Corinna, a wanton, enticing beauty, 

whose real name and family ihe commentators 
and biographers have ineffectually laboured to 
discover. From the elegies of Ovid, it appears 
that she was a married woman, but it does not 
seem to have been known even at Rome in the 
poet's time, who the lady was that he sung under 
that fictitious name ; and others than the true 
Corinna advanced their vain pretensions to the 
celebrity which his verses conferred. It is quite 
improbable that Corinna denoted Julia, the 
daughter of Augustus, and impossible that she 
represented Julia his grand-daughter, who was 
but an infant when Ovid recorded his amours 
with Corinna. It is evident, however, that she 
was a lady of some distinction, and of a rank 
superior to his own. She was attended not only 
by a waiting-maid, but a watchful eunuch. 
The poet compares her to Semiramis, and 
speaks of her condescension towards him as re- 
sembling that of the goddess Calypso in loving 
Ulysses. Corinna, whoever she may have been, 
always held the first place among his mistress- 
es, and his passion for her is the chief subject 
of his amatory poems. But even she, with all 
her charms and fascinations, was compelled to 
share his affections not only with the legal part- 
ners of his heart, but with her own attendant ; 
which, however, he perhaps justified, as one of 
the arts practised for gaining the affections of 
the mistress. 

CoRiNNus, an ancient poet in the time of the 
Trojan war, on which he wrote a poem. Ho- 
mer, as some suppose, took his subject from the 
poem of Corinnus. 

CoRioLANUs, the surname of C. Martius, 
412 



from his victory over Corioli. When master of 
the place, he accepted, as the only reward, the 
surname of Coriolanus, a horse, and prisoners, 
and his ancieni host, to whom he immediately 
gave his liberty. After a number of military 
exploits, and many services to his country, he 
was refused the consulship by the people, when 
his scars had for a while influenced them in his 
favour. This raised his resentment ; and when 
the Romans had received a present of corn from 
Gelo, king of Sicily, Coriolanus insisted that it 
should be sold for money and not be given gratis. 
Upon this the tribunes raised the people against 
him, and even wished to put him to death. 
This rigorous sentence was stopped by ihe in- 
fluence of the senators, and Coriolanus submit- 
ted to a trial. He was banished by a majority 
of three tribes, and he immediately retired 
among the Volsci, to Tullus Aufidius, his great- 
est enemy, from whom he met a most friendly 
reception. He advised him to make war against 
Rome, and he marched at the head of the Volsci 
as general. The approach of Coriolanus greatly 
alarmed the Romans, who sent him several em- 
bassies to reconcile him to his country and to 
solicit his return. He was deaf to all proposals, 
and bade them prepare for war. He pitched 
his camp only at the distance of five miles from 
the city; and his enmity against his country 
would have been fatal, had not his mother Vo- 
lumnia, and his wife Vergilia, been prevailed 
upon by the Romon matrons to go and appease 
his resentment. The meeting of Coriolanus with 
his family was tender and affecting. He re- 
mained long inexorable; but at last the tears and 
entreaties of a mother and a wife prevailed over 
the stern and obstinate resolutions of an enemy, 
and Coriolanus marched the Volsci from the 
neighbourhood of Rome. To show their sense 
of Volumnia's merit and patriotism, the Romans 
dedicated a temple to Female Fortune. The be- 
haviour of Coriolanus, however, displeased the 
Volsci. He was summoned to appear before 
the people of Antium, and was murdered on the 
place appointed for his trial, B. C. 488. His 
body was honoured with a magnificent funeral 
by the Volsci, and the Roman matrons put on 
mourning for his loss. Some historians say 
that he died in exile, in an advanced old age. 
Plut. in vita. — Flor. 2, c. 22. 

Cornelia Lex, de Civiiate, was enacted A. 
U. C. 670, by L. Corn. Sylla. It confirmed the 
Sulpician law, and required that the citizens of 
the eight newly elected tribes should be divided 

among the 35 ancient tribes. Another, de 

Judiciis, A. U. C. 673, by the same. It or- 
dained that the prastor should always observe 
the same invariable method in judicial proceed- 
ings, and that the process should not depend 

upon his will. Another, de Svmptibus, by 

the same. It limited the expenses which gen- 
erally attended funerals. Another, de Re- 

ligione, by the same, A. U. C. 677. It restored 
to the college of priests the privilege of choosing 
the priests, which, by the Domitian law, had 
been lodged in the hands of the people.— — An- 
other, de Mitnicipiis, by the same ; which re- 
voked all the privileges which had been some 
time before granted to the several towns that 
had assisted Marius and Cinna in the civil 

wars. Another, de Magistratibus,^ by the 

same : which gave the power of bearing hon- 



CO 



HISTORY, &c. 



CO 



ours and being promoied before the legal age, 
to those who had followed the interest of Sylla, 
while the sons and partisans of his enemies, 
who had been proscribed, were deprived of the 
privilege of standing for any office of the state. 

Another, de Magistratibus, by the same, 

A. U. C, 673. It ordained that no person 
should exercise the same office within ten years' 
distance, or be invested with two different ma- 
gistracies in one year. Another, de Magis- 

iraiihcs, A. U. C. 673. It divested the tribunes 
of the privilege of making laws, interfering, 
holding assemblies, and receiving appeals. All 
such as had been tribunes were incapable of 
holding any other office in the state by that law, 

Another, de Majestate, by the same, A. 

U. C. 670. It made it treason to send an army 
out of a province, or engage m a war without 
orders, to influence the soldiers to spare or ran- 
som a captive general of the enemy, to pardon 
the leaders of robbers or pirates, or for the ab- 
sence of a Roman citizen to a foreign court, 
without previous leave. The punishment was 

aqua et ignis interdictio. Another, by the 

same, which gave the power to a man accused 
of murder, either by poison, weapons, or false 
accusations, and the setting fire to buildings, to 
choose whether the jury that tried him should 
give their verdict dam or po2am viva voce^ or by 

ballots. Another, by the same, which made 

it aqucB et ignis interdictioio such as were guilty 
of forgery, concealing and altering of wills, cor- 
ruption, false accusations, and the debasing or 
counterfeiting of the public coin ; all such as 
were accessary to this offence, were deemed as 

guilty as the offender. Another, de pecuniis 

repetundis, by which a man convicted of pecula- 
tion or extortion in the provinces, was condemn- 
ed to suffer the aqua et ignis interdictio. 

Another, by the same, which gave the power to 
such as were sent into the provinces with any 
government, of retaining their command and 
appointment without a renewal of it by the 

senate, as was before observed. Another, by 

the same, which ordained that the lands of pro- 
scribed persons, should be common, especially 
those about Volaterrte and Fesulae in Etruria, 

which Sylla divided among his soldiers. 

Another, by C. Cornelius, tribune of the peo- 
ple, A. U. C. 686 ; which ordained that no per- 
son should be exempted from any law, accord- 
ing to the general custom, unless 200 senators 
were present in the senate ; and no person thus 
exempted, could hinder the bill of his exemp- 
tion from being carried to the people for their 

concurrence. Another, by Nasica, A. U. C. 

582, to make war against Perseus, son of Philip, 
king of Macedonia, if he did not give proper 
satisfaction to the Roman people. 

Cornelia, I. a daughter of Cinna, who was 
the first wife of J. Caesar. She became mother 
of Julia, Pompey's wife, and was so affection- 
ately loved by her husband, that at her death 
he pronounced a funeral oration over her body. 

Plut. in Cces. IT. A daughter of Metellus 

Scipio, who married Pompey after the death of 
her husband P. Crassus. She ha? been praised 

for her great virtues. Plut. in Pomp. III. 

A daughter of Scipio Africanus, who married 
Sempronius Gracchus, and was the mother of 
Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. She was court- 
ed by a king, but she preferred being the wife 



of a Roman citizen to that of a monarch. Her 
virtues have been deservedly commended, as 
well as the wholesome principles she inculcated 
in her two sons. When a Campanian lady 
made once a show of her jewels at Cornelia's 
house, and entreated her to favour her with a 
sight of her own, Cornelia produced her two 
sons, saying, These are the only jewels of which 
\ can boast. A statue was raised to her, with 
this inscription, Cornelia mater Gracchorum. 
Some of her epistles are preserved. Plut. in 
Gracch. — Juv. 6, v. 167. — Val. Max. 4, c, 4. — 
Cic. in Brut. 58, de El. Or. 58. 

CoRNELn, Cossus, I, a military tribune during 
the time that there were no consuls in the re- 
public. He offered to Jupiter the spoils called 
opima. Liv. 4, c. 19. II. Scipio, a man ap- 
pointed master of the horse, by Camillus, when 

dictator. III. C. Nepos, an historian, Vid. 

Nepos. IV, Merula, a consul, sent against 

the Boii in Gaul. He killed 1400 of them. His 
grandson followed the interest of Sylla ; and 
when Marius entered the city, he killed himself 

by opening his veins. V. Severus, an epic 

poet in the age of Augustus, of great genius. 
He wrote a poem on mount ^tna, and on the 

death of Cicero, Quintil. 10, v. 1. VI. 

Aur, Celsus, wrote eight books on medicine, still 

extant, and highly valued. VII. Cn, and 

Publ. Scipio, Vid. Scipio. 

CoRNiFicius, I. a poet and general in the age 
of Augustus, employed to accuse Brutus, &c. 
His sister Cornificia was also blessed with a po- 
etical genius, Plut. in Brut. II, A lieu- 
tenant of J. Caesar. Id. in Cces.—, — III. A friend 
of Cicero and his colleague in the office of augur. 

CoRNiJTUs, I. A stoic philosopher of Africa, 
preceptor to Persius, the satirist. He wrote 
some treatises on philosophy and rhetoric. Pers. 
5, V. 36. II. A Roman, saved from the pro- 
scription of Marius by his servants, who hung 
a dead man in his room, and said it was their 
master. Plut. in Mario. 

CoRCEBUs, I, a Phrygian, son of Mygdon and 
Anaximena. He assisted Priam in the Trojan 
war, with the hopes of being rewarded wilh the 
hand of Cassandra, Cassandra advised him 
in vain to retire from the war. He was killed 
by Peneleus. Paus. 10, c. 27. — Virg. yEw. 2, 

v. 341, &c, II. A courier of Elis, killed by 

Neoptolemus. He obtained a prize at Olyra- 
pia, B. C, 776, in the 28th olympiad, from the 
institution of Iphitus; but this year has gene- 
rally been called the first olympiad, Paus. 5, 
c. 8. 

CoRviNus, I. a name given to M, Valerius 
from a crow, which assisted him when he was 
fighting against a Gaul. II. Messala, an elo- 
quent orator in the Augustan age, distinguish- 
ed for integrity and patriotism, yet ridiculed 
for his frequent quotations of Greek in his ora- 
tions. In his old age he became so forgetful 
as not even to remember his own name. 

CoRUNCANUs, T. the first plebeian who was 

made high-priest at Rome. The family of 

the Coruncani was famous for the number ot 
great men which it supplied for the service of 
the republic. Cic. pro Domo. 

Cossus, a surname given to the family of the 

Cornelii. A Roman, who killed Volumnius, 

kins: of Veii, and obtained the Spolia Opima, 
A. U. C. 317. Virg. jEn. 6, v. 841. 
413 



CR 



HISTORY, &c 



CR 



CossuTii, a family at Rome, of which Cossu- 
tia, Caesar's wife, was descended. Suet, in Ccbs. 
1. — One of the family was distinguished as an 
architect about 200 B. C. He first introduced 
into Italy the more perfect models of Greece, 

CoTiso, a king of the Daci, whose army 
invaded Pannonia, and was defeated by Corn. 
Lentulus, the lieutenant of Augustus. It is 
said that Augustus solicited his daughter in 
marriage. SvM. in Aug. 63. — Horat. 3, od. 8, 
V. 18. 

CoTTA, M. AuRELius, I. a Roman who op- 
posed Marius. He was consul with Lucullus ; 
and when in Asia, he was defeated by sea and 
land by Mithridates. He was surnamed Pon^ 
ticus, because he took Heraclea of Pontus by 

treachery. Plut. in Laccull. II. An orator, 

greatly commended by Cicero de Orat. In his 
manner he was soft and relaxed ; but every thing 
he said was sober, and in good taste, and he 
often led the judges to the same conclusion to 
which Sulpicius impelled them, " No two 
things," says Cicero, " were ever more unlike 
than they are to each other. The one, in a polite, 
delicate manner, sets forth his subject in well- 
chosen expressions. He still keeps to his 
point ; and, as he sees with the greatest pene- 
tration what he has to prove to the court, he 
directs to that the whole strength of his reason- 
ing and eloquence, wiihout regarding other ar- 
guments. But Sulpicius, endued with irresisti- 
ble energy, with a full strong voice, with the 
greatest vehemence and dignity of action, ac- 
companied with so much weight and variety 
of expression, seemed, of all mankind, the best 
fitted by nature for eloquence," It was sup- 
posed that Cotta wished to resemble Antony, 
as Sulpicius obviously imitated Crassus; but 
the latter wanted the agreeable pleasantry of 
Crassus, and the former the force of Antony. 
None of the orations of Sulpicius remained 
in the time of Cicero — those circulated under 
his name have been written by Canutius after 
his death. The oration of Cotta for himself, 
when accused on the Varian law, was com- 
posed, it is said, ai his request by Lucius 
^lius; and, if this be true, nothing can ap- 
pear to us more extraordinary, than that so 
accomplished a speaker as Cotta should have 
wished any of the trivial harangues of iElius to 
pass for his own. 

CoTYs, I. a king of Thrace, who divided the 
kingdom with his uncle, by whom he was killed. 
It is the same to whom Ovid writes from his 
banishment. Tacit. 2, Ann. 64. — Ovid. 2, de 

Pont. ep. 9. II, A king of Armenia Minor, 

who fought against Mithridates in the age of 
Claudius, Tacit. Ann. 11 and 13, 

Cranaus, the second king of Athens, who suc- 
ceeded Cecrops, and reigned nine years, B, C. 
1497, Pans. 1, c. 2. 

Crantor, a philosopher of Soli. 

Crassus, I. a grandfather of Crassus the Rich, 

who never laughed. Plin. 7, c. 19. II. Publ. 

Licinius, a Roman high-priest, about 131 years 
B. C, who went into Asia with an army against 
Aristonicus, where he was killed, and buried at 
Smyrna. III. M. Licinius, a celebrated Ro- 
man, surnamed Rich on account of his opulence. 
The cruelties of Cinna obliged him to leave 
Rome, and he retired to Spain. After Cinna's 
death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, 
414 



where he served Sylla, and ingratiated himself 
in his favour. When the gladiators, with Spar- 
tacus at their head, had spread a universa. 
alarm in Italy, and defeated some of the Roman 
generals, Crassus was sent against them. A 
battle was fought, in which Crassus slaughtered 
12,000 of the slaves, and by this decisive blow 
he soon put an end to the war, and was honour- 
ed with an ovatio at his return. He was socn 
after made consul with Pompey; and in this 
high office he displayed his opulence, by enter- 
taining the populace at 10,000 tables. He was 
afterwards censor, and formed the first triumvi- 
rate with Pompey and Caesar, As his love of 
riches was more predominant than that of glory, 
Crassus never imitated the ambitious conduct 
of his colleagues, but was satisfied with the pro- 
vince of Syria, which seemed to produce an in- 
exhaustible source of wealth. With hopes of 
enlarging his possessions he set off from Rome, 
though the omens proved unfavourable, and 
every thing seemed to threaten his ruin. He 
crossed the Euphrates, and, forgetful of the rich 
cities of Babylon and Seleucia, he hastened to 
make himself master of Parthia. He was be- 
trayed in his march by the delay of Artavasdes, 
king of Armenia, and the perfidy of Ariamnes. 
He was met in a large plain by Surena, the 
general of the forces of Orodes, king of Parthia ; 
and a battle was fought, in which 20,000 Ro- 
mans were killed, and 10,000 taken prisoners. 
The darkness of the night favoured the escape 
of the rest, and Crassus, forced' by the mutiny 
and turbulence of his soldiers, and the treachery 
of his guides, trusted himself to the general of 
the enemy, on pretence of proposing terms of 
accommodation, and he was put to death, B.C. 
53. His head was cut off, and sent to Orodes, 
who poured melted lead down his throat, and 
insulted his misfortunes. The firmness with 
which Crassus received the news of his son's 
death, who perished in that expedition, has been 
deservedly commended ; and the words that he 
uttered when he surrendered himself into the 
hands of Surena, equally claim our admiration. 
He was wont often to say, that no man ought 
to be accounted rich if he could not maintain an 
army. Though he has been called avaricious, 
yet he showed himself always ready to lend 
money to his friends without mterest. He was 
fond of philosophy, and his knowledge of his- 
tory was great and extensive. Plutarch has 

written his life. Flor. 3, c. 11. IV. Publius, 

the son of the rich Crassus, went into Parthia 
with his father. When he saw himself sur- 
rounded by the enemy, and without any hope 
of escape, he ordered one of his men to run him 
through. His head was cut off, and shown 
with insolence to his father by the Parthians. 
Plut. in Crass. — — V, L, Licinius, a celebrated 
Roman orator, commended by Cicero, and in- 
troduced in his book (Ze Oratore SiS the principal 

speaker, VI, A son of Crassus the Rich, 

killed in the civil wars, after Cassar's death. 

Craterus, I. one of Alexander's generals. 
He rendered himselfconspicuousby his literary 
fame, as well as by his valour in the field, and 
wrote the history of Alexander's life. He was 
greatly respected and loved by the Macedonian 
soldiers,and Alexander always trusted him with 
unusual confidence. After Alexander's death, 
he subdued Greece with Antipater, and passed 



CR 



HISTORY, &c. 



CR 



with his colleagiie into Asia,where he was killed 
in a battle against Eumenes, B. C. 321, He 
had received for his share of Alexander's king- 
doms, Greece and Epirus. Nep. in Eumen. 2. 
—Justin. 12 and 13. — Curt. 3. — Arrian. — 
Plui. in Alex. II. An Athenian, who col- 
lected into one body all the decrees M'hich had 
passed in the public assemblies at Athens. 

Crates, I. a philosopher of Boeotia, son of 
Ascondus and disciple of Diogenes the cynic, 
B. C. 324. He sold his estates, and gave the 
money to his fellow-citizens. He was naturally 
deformed,and he rendered himself more hideous 
by sewing sheepskins to his mantle, and by the 
singularity of his manners. He clothed him- 
self as warm as possible in the summer ; but in 
the winter his garments were uncommonly thin, 
and incapable to resist the inclemency of the 
season. Hipparchia, the sister of a philosopher, 
became enamoured of him ; and, as he could not 
cool her passion by representing himself as poor 
and deformed, he married her. Some of his 

letters are extant. Diog. in vita. II. A 

stoic, son of Timocrates, who opened a school at 
Rome, where he taught grammar. Sueton.- 



Ill, A native of Pergamus, who wrote an ac- 
count of the most striking events of every age, 

B. C. 165. Mlian. de Anim. 17, c. 9. IV, 

A philosopher of Athens, who succeeded in the 

school of his master Polemon. V. He was 

originally an actor, and performed the principal 
parts in the plays of Cratinus, Afterwards, 
about B. C. 450, he began to compose comedies 
himself. Crates, according to Aristotle, was the 
first Athenian poet who abandoned the iambic 
or satiric form of comedy, and made use of in- 
vented and general stories or fables. Perhaps 
the law, mentioned below ( Vid. Cratinus) might 
have some share in giving his plays this less of- 
fensive turn. His style is said to have been gay 
and facetious ; yet the few fragments of his writ- 
ings which remain are of a serious cast. From 
the expressions of Aristophanes,in the parabasis 
of the Equites, the comedies of Crates seem to 
have been marked by elegance of language and 
ingenious ideas. Yet, with all his endeavours 
to please his fastidious authors, the poet had, in 
common with his rivals, to endure many con- 
tumelies and vexations. He nevertheless, with 
unwearied resolution, continued to compose and 
exhibit during a varied career of success and 
reverses, 

Cratinus, the son of Callimedes, an Athe- 
nian, was bom Olymp. 65th, 2, B. C. 519. It 
was not till late in life that he directed his atten- 
tion to comic composition. The first piece of 
his on record is the ^AfjyiXoyoi, which was re- 
presented about Olymp. 83d, B. C.448; at which 
time he was in his 71st year. Soon after this, 
comedy became so licentious and virulent in its 
personalitieSjthat the magistracy were obliged to 
interfere. A decree was passed, Oljfmp. 85th, 1, 
B. C.440, prohibiting the exhibitions of comedy ; 
which law continued in force only during that 
year and the two following, being repealed in 
the archonship of Euthymenes. Three victo- 
ries of Cratinus stand recorded after the recom- 
mencement of comic performances. With the 
^sifia^onEvoi he was second, B. 425, when 
the 'Axapvsii of Aristophanes won the prize, 
and the third place was adjudged to the Nod- 
itnviai of Eupolis. In the succeeding year he 



was again second with the Hdrvpoi, and Aristo- 
phanes again first with the 'linrETi. In a pa- 
rabasis of this play, that young rival makes 
mention of Cratinus ; where, after having no- 
ticed his former successes, he insinuates under 
the cloak of an equivocal pity, that the vete- 
ran was become doting and superannuated. 
The old man, now in his 95th year, indignant 
at this insidious attack, exerted his remaining 
vigour, and composed against the contests of the 
following season a comedy entitled UvmvTi, or 
The FlagarijWhich turned upon the accusations 
brought against him by Aristophanes. The 
aged dramatist had a complete triumph. He 
was first ; whilst his humbled antagonist was 
also vanquished by Ameipsias with the Kowis, 
though the play of Aristophanes was his favour- 
ite Ne^EXat. Notwithstanding his notorious ex- 
cesses, Cratinus lived to an extreme old age, 
dying B. C, 422, in his 97th year. The titles of 
38 of his comedies h ave been collected by Meur- 
sius, Kcenig, &c. His style was bold and ani- 
mated: and, like his younger brethren, Eupolis 
and Aristophanes, he fearlessly and unsparing- 
ly directed his satire against the iniquitous pub- 
lic oflicer and the profligate of private life. Nor 
yet are we to suppose that the comedies of Cra- 
tinus and his contemporaries contained nothing 
beyond broad jests or coarse invective and lam- 
poon. They were, on the contrary, marked by 
elegance of expression and purity of language ; 
elevated sometimes into philosophical dignity 
by the sentiments which they introduced, and 
graced with many a passage of beautiful idea 
and high poetry : so that Cluinctilian deems the 
Old comedy, after Homer, the most fitting and 
beneficial object for a young pleader's study. 
In short, the character of this stage in the comic 
drama cannot be more happily defined than 
by the words of the chorus in the Ranae ; its 
duty was — 

TToXXa fjilv ysXola ei- 

TTUv TToXAa 61 airovSaXa. — 389. 

Cratippus, I. a philosopher of Mitylene, who, 
among others, taught Cicero's son at Athens, 
After the battle of Pharsalia, Pompey visited the 
houseof Cratippus, where their discourse chief- 
ly turned upon Providence, which the warrior 
blamed and the philosopher defended. Phil, in 

Pomp. — Cic. in Offic. 1. II. An historian 

contemporary with Thucydides; Dionys. Hal. 

Cratylus, a philosopher, preceptor to Plato 
after Socrates. 

Cremutius Cordus. He wrote during the 
reign of Augustus, and is said to have read to 
that prince a history, in which he styled Bru- 
tus and Cassius the last of the Romans. Au- 
gustus did not take pleasure, like Caligula or 
Nero, in cruel or arbitrary acts; and he was so 
skilful a politician, that he never, like Tiberius, 
suspected a plot or apprehended a danger, when 
none in fact existed. He knew that bis throne 
was then too firmly established to be shaken by 
the empty echoes of liberty, and he heard, per- 
haps, with secret satisfaction, that Brutus and 
Cassius would have no successors among his 
subjects. The writings of Cordus, however, 
were suppressed under the reign of Tiberius; 
but his daughter Marcia saved a copy which 
was extant in the time of Seneca. The appella- 
tion of the last of the Romans which he bestow- 
415 



CR 



HISTORY, &c. 



CR 



ed on Brutus and Cassius, was made the pretext 
of a capital charge during the administration of 
Sejanus, who had taken umbrage at an observa- 
tion which had escaped him with regard to a 
statue of that minister, placed in the theatre of 
Pompey. Two infamous informers, Salrius 
Secundus and Pinarius Natta, came forward 
as his accusers. Their connexion with the 
minister of Tiberius was itself ominous of his 
fate. The emperor heard his defence in person, 
in the senate, with a stern countenance, which 
announced to him the sentence he was about to 
receive. Certain of death, he pleaded his cause 
with a spirit and eloquence which he perhaps 
might not have exerted had any hope of safety 
remained. He justified himself by the exam- 
ple of Livy, Pollio, and Messala , he mentioned 
Cicero's panegyric of Cato, which Caesar con- 
tented himself with answering by a similar pro- 
duction, and also a number of other composi- 
tions, as the epistles of Antony, and the ha- 
rangues of Brutus, all filled with opprobrious 
defamations of Augustus ; after which, having 
left the senate-house, he returned home, and re- 
solved to perish by abstaining from sustenance. 
He retired to his own chamber, where he partly 
exhausted his strength by the excessive use of 
the warm bath. That he might deceive his 
daughter, he pretended that he ate in his own 
apartment; and, in order to carry on the de- 
ception, he concealed, or threw overthe window, 
part of the provisions which were brought to him. 
While at supper with his family, he excused 
himself from partaking of their meal, on the pre- 
tence that he had already eaten sufficiently in 
his own chamber. He persisted in this absti- 
nence for three days; but on the fourth, the ex- 
treme exhaustion and weakness of his body be- 
came manifest. It was then that he embraced 
nis daughter, announced to her his approaching 
end, and informed her that she neither could 
preserve his existence longer, nor ought to at- 
tempt it. Having shut himself up in his cham- 
ber, he ordered the light to be completely ex- 
cluded, and expired at the very moment when 
his infamous accusers were deliberating in court 
on the forms and proceedings to be adopted at 
his trial. 

Creon. Vid. Fa-Ytlll. 

Creophilus, a Samian, who hospitably en- 
tertained Homer, from whom he received a 
poem in return. Some say that he was that 
poet's master, &c. Strab. 14. 

Cresphontes, a son of Aristomachus, who, 
with his brothers Temenus and Aristodemus, 
attempted to recover the Peloponnesus. Paus. 
4, c. 3, &c. 

Creusa, a daughter of Priam, king of Troy, 
by Hecuba, She married ^neas, by whom 
she had some children, among which was As- 
canius. When Troy was taken, she fled in the 
night with her husband ; but they were separat- 
ed in the midst of the confusion, and iEneas 
could not recover her, nor hear where she was. 
Cybele saved her, and carried her to her temple, 
of which she became priestess, according lo the 
relation of Virgil, who makes Creusa appear to 
her husband in a vision, while he was seeking 
her in the tumult of war. She predicted to 
^neas the calamities that attended him, the 
fame he should acquire when he came to Italy, 
and his consequent marriage with a princess of 
416 



the country. Paus. 10, c, IG, — Virg. Mn. 2, 
V. 562, &c. Vid. Part III, 

Crispinus, I. a praetorian, who, though ori- 
ginally a slave in Egypt, was, after the acquisi- 
tion of riches, raised to the honours of Roman 

knighthood by Domitian, Juv. 1, v, 26. II. 

A stoic philosopher, as remarkable for his lo- 
quacity as for the foolish and tedious poem he 
wrote to explain the tenets of his own sect, to 
which Horace alludes in the last verses of 1, 
Sat. 1, 

Crispus Sallustius, Vid. Sallustius. 

Flav. Jul. a son of the great Constantine, made 
Caesar by his father, and distinguished for val- 
our and extensive knowledge. Fausta, his step- 
mother, wished to seduce him; and when he 
refused, she accused him before Constantine, 
who believed the crime and caused his son to be 
poisoned, A. D. 326. 

Critias, one of the thirty tyrants set over 
Athens by the Spartans. He was eloquent and 
wellbred, but of dangerous principles; and he 
cruelly persecuted his enemies, and put them to 
death. He was killed in a battle against those 
citizens whom his oppression had banished. He 
had been among the disciples of Socrates, and 
had written elegies and other compositions, of 
which some fragments remain. Cic. 2, de Orat. 

Crito, T. one of the disciples of Socrates, who 
attended his learned preceptor in his last mo- 
ments, and composed some dialogues now lost. 

Diog. II. A Macedonian historian, who 

wrote an account of Pall en e of Persia, of the 
foundation of Syracuse, of the Getai, &c. 

Critobulos, I, a general of Phocis, at the 
battle of Thermopylae between Antiochus and 
the Romans. Paus. 10, c. 20. — -II. A son of 
Crito, disciple to Socrates. Diog. in Grit. 

Critolaus, I. a citizen of Tegea in Arcadia, 
who, with two brothers, fought against the two 
sons of Demostratus of Pheneus, to put an end 
to a long war between their respective nations. 
The brothers of Critolaus were both killed, and 
he alone remained to withstand his three bold 
antagonists. He conquered them ; and when, 
at his return, his sister deplored the death of one 
of his antagonists, to whom she was betrothed, 
he killed her in a fit of resentment. The offence 
deserved capital punishment ; but he was par- 
doned, on account of the services he had render- 
ed his country. He was afterwards general of 
the Achaeans, and it is said that he poisoned 
himself, because he hadbeen conquered at Ther- 
mopylae by the Romans. Cic. de Nat. D. 

II. A peripatetic philosopher of Athens, sent 
ambassador to Rome, &c. 140 B. C. Cic. 2, de 
Orat. 

Crcesus, the fifth and last of the Mermnadae, 
who reigned in Lydia, was son of Alyattes, and 
passed for the richest of mankind. He was the 
first who made the Greeks of Asia tributary to 
the Lydians. His court was the asyluni of 
learning; and iEsop, the famous fable-writer, 
among others, lived under his patronage. In a 
conversation with Solon, Croesus wished to be 
thought the happiest of mankind; but the phi- 
losopher apprized him of his mistake, and gave 
the preference to poverty and domestic virtue. 
Croesus undertook a war against Cyrus, the king 
of Persia, and marched to meet him with an 
army of 420,000 men and 60,000 horse. After 
a reign of 14 years, he was defeated, B. C. 548 ; 



cu 



HISTORY, &o. 



CU 



his capital was besieged, and he fell into the 
conqueror's hands, who ordered him to be burnt 
alive. The pile was already on fire, when Cy- 
rus heard the conquered monarch three times 
exclaim, Solon ! with lamentable energy. He 
asked him the reason of his exclamation, and 
Croesus repeated the conversation he had once 
had with Solon on human happiness. Cyrus 
was moved at the recital, and at the recollection 
of the inconstancy of human affairs, he ordered 
CrcEsus to be taken from the burning pile, and 
he became one of his most intimate friends. 
The kingdom of Lydia became extinct in his 
person, and the power was transferred to Persia. 
Croesus survived Cyrus. The manner of his 
death is unknown. He is celebrated for the im- 
mensely rich presents which he made to the 
temple of Delphi, from which he received an 
obscure and ambiguous oracle, which he inter- 
preted in his favour, and which was fulfilled in 
the destruction of his empire. Herodot. 1, c. 
26, &c. — Plut. in Solon. 8, c. 26. — Justin. 1, c. 7. 

Cronia, a, festival at Athens, in honour of 
Saturn. The Rhodians observed the same fes- 
tival, and generally sacrificed to the god a con- 
demned malefactor. 

Ctesias, I. a Greek historian and physician 
of Cnidos, taken prisoner by Artaxerxes Mne- 
mon at the battle of Cunaxa. He cured the 
king's wounds, and was his physician for 17 
years. He wrote a history of the Assyrians 
and Persians, which Justin and Diodorus have 
partially preferred to that of Herodotus. Some 
fragments of his compositions have been pre- 
served by Photius, and are to be found in Wes- 
seling's edition of Herodotus. Strab. 1. — Athen. 

12. — Plut. in Artax. II. A sycophant of 

Athens. III. An historian of Ephesus. 

Ctesibius, I. a mathematician of Alexandria, 
who flourished 135 years B. C. He was the 
inventor of the pump and other hydraulic in- 
struments. He also invented a clepsydra, or a 
water- clock. This invention of measuring time 
by water, was wonderful and ingenious. Water 
was made to drop upon wheels, which it turned. 
The wheels communicated their regular motion 
to a small wooden image, which, by a gradual 
rise, pointed with a stick to the proper hours 
and months, which were engraved on a column 
near the machine. This artful invention gave 
rise to many improvements; and the modern 
manner of measuring time with an hour-glass is 
an imitation of the clepsydra of Ctesibius. Vi- 

truv. de Archil. 9, c. 9. II. An historian, who 

flourished 254 years B. C.and died in his 104th 
year. Plut. in Dem. 

Ctesiphon, an Athenian, son of Leosthenes, 
who advised his fellow-citizens publicly to pre- 
sent Demosthenes with a golden crown for his 
probity and virtue. This was opposed by the 
orator iEschines, the rival of Demosthenes, who 
accused Ctesiphon of seditious views. Demos- 
thenes undertook the defence of his friend, in a 
celebrated oration still extant, and iEschines 
was banished. Demost. and Mchin. de Corona. 

Curia, a division of the Roman tribes. Ro- 
mulus originally divided the people into three 
tribes, and each tribe into 10 Curiae. Over each 
Curiaj was appointed a priest, who officiated at 
the sacrifices of his respective assembly. The 
sacrifices -were called Curionia, and the priest 
Curio. He was to be above the age of fifty. 

Part II.— 3 G 



His morals were to be pure and unexception- 
able, and his body free from all defects. The 
Curiones were elected by their respective Curiae, 
and above them was a superior priest called Cu- 
rio maximus, chosen by all the Curise in a pub- 
lic assembly. The word Curia was also 

applied to public edifices among the Romans. 
These were generally of two sorts, divine and 
civil. In the former were held the assemblies of 
the priests, and of every religious order, for the 
regulation of religious sacrifices and ceremonies. 
The other was appointed for the senate, where 
they assembled for the despatch of public busi- 
ness. The Curia were solemnly consecrated 
by the augurs before a lawful assembly could 
be convened there. There were three at Rome 
which more particularly claim our attention ; 
Curia Hostilia, built by King Tullus Hosti- 
lius ; Curia Pompeii, where Julius Caesar was 
murdered ; and Curia Augusti, the palace and 
court of the emperor Augustus. 

Curia Lex, de Comitiis, was enacted by M. 
Curius Dentatus, the tribune. It forbade the 
convening of the Comitia, for the election of 
magistrates, without a previous permission from 
the senate. 

Curiatii, a family of Alba, which was carried 
to Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and entered among 
the patricians. The three Curiatii, who en- 
gaged the Horatii, and lost the victory, were of 
this family. Flor. 1, c. 3. — Dionys. Hal. 5. — 
Liv. 1, c. 24. 

Curio, (Cl.) I. an excellent orator, who called 
Caesar in full senate, Omnium mulierum virum, 
et omnium virorum mulierem. Tacit. 21. Ann. 

c. 7. — Suet, in Cces. 49. — Cic. in Brut. II. 

His son, C. Scribonius, was tribune of the peo- 
ple, and an intimate friend of Caesar. He saved 
Caesar's life as he returned from the senate- 
house after the debates concerning the punish- 
ments which ought to be inflicted on the ad- 
herents of Catiline. He killed himself in Af- 
rica. Flor. 4, c. 2. — Plut. in Pomp. <^ Cces. 
i9.— Val. Max. 9, c. l.—lMcan. v. 268. 

Curius Dentatus Marcus Annius, a Ro- 
man, celebrated for his fortitude and frugality. 
He was three times consul, and was twice hon- 
oured with a triumph. He obtained decisive 
victories over the Samnites, the Sabines, and the 
Lucanians, and defeated Pyrrhus near Taren- 
tum. The ambassadors of the Samnites visited 
his cottage while he was boiling some vegetables 
in an earthen pot, and they attempted to bribe 
him by the ofier of large presents. He refused 
their ofl^ers with contempt, and said, I prefer my 
earthen pots to all your vessels of gold and sil- 
ver; and it is my wish to command those who 
are in possession of money, while I am deprived 
of it and live in poverty. Plut. in Cat. Cens. 
—Horat. 1, od. 12, v. A\.—Flor. 1, c. 15. 

CuRTius, M. a Roman youth, who devoted 
himself to the gods Manes for the safety of his 
country, about 360 years B. C. A wide gap, 
called afterwards Curtius lacus, had suddenly 
opened in the forum, and the oracle had said 
that it never would close before Rome threw 
into it whatever it had most precious. Curtius 
immediately perceived thatnoless than a human 
sacrifice was required. He armed himself, 
mounted his horse, and solemnly threw himself 
into the gulf, which instantly closed over his 
head. Liv. 7, c. 6. — Val. Max. 5, c. 6. 
417 



CY 



HISTORY, &o. 



CY 



CuRULis Magistratus, a state officer at Rome, 
who had the privilege of silting in an ivory 
chair in public assemblies. The dictator, the 
consuls, the censors, the praetors, and ediles, 
claimed that privilege, and therefore were called 
curules magistratus. The senators who had pass- 
ed through the abovemenlioned offices were 
generally carried to the senate-house in ivory 
chairs, as all generals in their triumphant pro- 
cession to the capital. When names of distmc- 
tion began to be known among the Romans, the 
descendants of curule magistrates were called 
nohiks ; the first of a family who discharged that 
office were known by the name of noti, and 
those that had never been in office were called 
ignoHles. 

Cyaraxes, or Cyaxares, I. son of Phraortes, 
was king of Media and Persia. He bravely 
defended his kingdom, which the Scythians had 
invaded. He made war against Alyattes, king 
of Lydia, and subjected to his power all Asia 
beyond the river Halys. He died, after a reign 
of 40 years, B. C. 585. Diod. 2.—Herodot. 1, 
c. 73 and 103.— — II. Another prince, supposed 
by some lo be the same as Darius the Mede. 
He was the son of Astyages, king of Media. 
He added seven provinces to his father's do- 
minions, and made war against the Assyrians, 
•whom Cyrus favoured. Xenoph. Cyrop. 1, 

Cydias, a painter who made a painting of the 
Argonauts. This celebrated piece was bought 
by the orator Hortensius for 164 talents. Plin. 
34. 

Cyn^egirus, an Athenian, celebrated for his 
extraordinary courage. He was brother to the 
poet jEschylus. After the battle of Marathon, 
he pursued the flying Persians to their ships, 
and seized one of their vessels with his right 
hand, which was immediately severed by the 
enemy. Upon this he seized the vessel with 
his left hand, and when he had lost that also, 
he still kept his hold with his teeth. Herodot. 
6, c. 114. — Justin. 2, c. 9. 

Cynici, a sect of philosophers, founded by 
Antisthenes the Athenian. They received this 
name a canind mordacitate, from their canine 
propensity to criticise the lives and actions of 
men, ot because, like dogs, they were not asham- 
ed to gratify their crimmal desires publicly. 
They were famous for their contempt of riches, 
for the negligence of their dress, and the length 
of their beards. Diogenes was one of their sect. 
They generally slept on the ground. Vid. Di- 
ogenes. Cic. 1, O^. 35 and 41. Vid. Antisthenes. 

Cynisca, a daughter of Archidamus, king of 
Sparta, who obtained the first prize m the chariot 
races at the Olympic games. Pans. 3, c. 8. 

Cyprianus, a native of Carthage, who, though 
born of heathen parents, became a convert to 
Christianity, and the bishop of his country. 
To be more devoted to purity and study, he 
abandoned his wife ; and, as a proof of his 
charity, he distributed his goods to the poor. 
He wrote 81 letters, besides several treatises, de 
Dei gratia, de virginum habitu, &c. and ren- 
dered his compositions valuable by the informa- 
tion he conveys of the discipline of the ancient 
church, and by the soundness and purity of his 
theology. He died a martyr, A. D. 258. The 
best editions of Cyprian are, that of Fell, fol. 
Oxon. 1682, and that reprinted Amst. 1700. 
Cypsblides, the name of three princes as 
418 



descendants of Cypselus, who reigned at Co- 
rinth during 73 years. Cypselus was succeeded 
by his son Periander, who left his kingdom, after 
a reign of 40 years, to Cypselus II. 

Cypselus, I. a king of Arcadia, who married 
the daughter of Ctesiphon, to strengthen him- 
self against the Heraclidae. Pans. 4, c. 3. 

II. A man of Corinth, son of Eetion and father 
of Periander. He destroyed the Bacchiadte, 
and seized upon the sovereign power, about 659 
years before Christ. He reigned 30 years, and 
was succeeded by his son. Periander had two 
sons, Lycophron and Cypselus,who was insane. 
Cypselus received his name from the Greek 
word KvipeXos, a coffer, because when the Bac- 
chiadaB attempted to kill him, his mother saved 
his life by concealing him in a cofter. Pans. 
5, c. 17.— Cic. Tusc. 5, c. 31.— Herodot. 1. c. 

114, 1. 5, c. 92, &,c.—Aristot. Polit. III. 

The father of Miltiades. Herodot. 6, c. 35. 

Cyrenaici, a sect of philosophers who follow- 
ed the doctrine of Aristippus. They placed 
their summum bonum in pleasure, and said that 
virtue ought to be. commended because it gave 
pleasure. Laeri. in Arist. — Cic. de Nat. D. 3. 

Cyriades, one of the thirty tyrants who ha- 
rassed the Roman empire in the reign of Gal- 
lienus. He died A. D. 259. 

Cyrillus, I. a bishop of Jerusalem, who died 
A. D. 386. Of his writings, composed in Greek, 
there remain 28 catacheses, and a letter to the 
emperor Constantine, the best edition of which 

is Milles, fol. Oxon. 1703. II. A bishop of 

Alexandria, who died A. D. 444. The best edi- 
tion of his writings, which are mostly controver- 
sial in Greek, is that of Paris, fol. 7 vols. 1638. 

Cyrsilus, an Athenian, stoned to death by 
his countrymen because he advised them to re- 
ceive the army of Xerxes, and to submit to the 
Dower of Persia. Demosth. de Corona. — Cic. 
'de Offlc. c. 11. 

Cyrus, I. a king of Persia, son of Cambyses 
and Mandane, daughter of Astyages king of 
Media. His father was of an ignoble family, 
whose marriage with Mandane had been con- 
summated on account of the apprehensions of 
Astyages. (^Vid. Astyages.^ Cyrus was ex- 
posed as soon as born ; but he was preserved by 
a shepherdess, who educated him as her own 
son. As he was playing with his equals in 
years, he was elected king in a certain diver- 
sion, and he exercised his power with such an 
independent spirit, that he ordered one of his 
play companions to be severely whipped for dis- 
obedience. The father of the youth, who was 
a nobleman, complained to the king of the ill 
treatment which his son had received from a 
shepherd's son. Astyages ordered Cyrus be- 
fore him, and discovered that he was Mandane's 
son, from whom he had so much to apprehend. 
He treated him with great coldness ; and Cyrus, 
unable to bear his tyranny, escaped from his 
confinement, and began to levy troops to de- 
throne his grandfather. He was assisted and 
encouraged by the ministers of Astyages, who 
w^ere displeased with the king's oppression. 
He marched against him, and Astyages was 
defeated in a battle and taken prisoner, B. C. 
559. From this victory the empire of Media 
became tributary to the Persians. Cyrus sub- 
dued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war 
against Croesus, king of Lydia, whom he con- 



DM 



HISTORY, &c. 



DA 



quered, B. C. 548. He invaded the kingdom of 
Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, by dry- 
ing the channels of the Euphrates, and march- 
ing his troops through the bed of the river, 
while the people were celebrating a grand fes- 
tival. He afterwards marched against Tomyris, 
the queen of the Messagetae, a Scythian na- 
tion, and was defeated in a bloody battle, B. C. 
530. The victorious queen, who had lost her 
son in a previous encounter, was so incensed 
against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, and 
threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, 
exclaiming, Satia te sanguine quern sitisti. Xe- 
nophon has written, the life of Cyrus ; but his 
history is not perfectly authentic. In the cha- 
racter of Cyrus, he delineates a brave and vir- 
tuous prince, and often puts in his mouth many 
of the sayings of Socrates. The chronology 
is false; and Xenophon, in his narration, has 
given existence to persons whom no other his- 
torian ever mentioned. The Cyropcedia, there- 
fore, is not to be looked upon as an authentic 
history of Cyrus the Great, but we must con- 
sider it as showing what every good and virtu- 
ous prince ought to be. Diod. 1. — Herodot. 1, 

c. 75, &c. — Justin, 1, c. 5 and 7, II. The 

younger Cyrus was the younger son of Darius 
Nothus, .and the brother of Artaxerxes. He 
was sent by his father, at the age of sixteen, 
to assist the Lacedaemonians against Athens. 
Artaxerxes succeeded to the throne at the death 
of Nothus ; and Cyrus, who was of an aspir- 
ing soul, attempted to assassinate him. He was 
discovered, and would have been punished with 
death, hadnot his mother, Parysatis, saved him 
from the hands of the executioner by her tears 
and entreaties. This circumstance did not in 
the least check the ambition of Cyrus; he was 
appointed over Lydia and the seacoast, where 
he secretly fomented rebellion, and levied troops 
under various pretences. At last, he took the 
field with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 
13,000 Greeks under the command of Clearchus. 
Artaxerxes met him with 900,000 men near 
Cunaxa. The battle was long and bloody, 
and Cyrus might have perhaps obtained the 
victory, had not his uncommon rashness proved 
his ruin. It is said that the two royal brothers 
met in person, and engaged with the most in- 
veterate fury, and their engagement ended in 
the death of Cyrus, 401 years B. C. It is said 
that in the letter he wrote to Lacedaemon, to 
solicit auxiliaries, Cyrus boasted his philoso- 
phy, his royal blood, and his ability to drink 
more wine than his brother without being in- 
toxicated. Plut. in Artax. — Diod. 14. — Justin. 

5, c. 11. III. A poet of Panopolis, in the 

age of Theodosius, Vid. Part I. 

D. 

Dacicus, a surname assumed by Domitian on 
his pretended victory over the Dacians. Juv. 

6, V. 204. 

D.EDALA, two festivals in Boeotia. One of 
these was observed at Alalcomenosby thePla- 
taeans, in a large grove, where they exposed, in 
the open air, pieces of boiled flesh, and carefully 
observed whither the crows that came to prey 
upon them directed their flight. All the trees 
upon which any of these birds alighted were 
immediately cut down, and with them statues 



were made called Dadala, in honour of Daeda- 
lus. — The other festival was of a more solemn 
kind. It was celebrated every sixty years, by all 
the cities of Boeotia, as a compensation for the 
intermission of thesmaller festivals for thatnum- 
ber of years, during the exile of the Plataeans. 
Fourteen of the statues, called Dsedala, were dis- 
tributed by lot among the Plataeans, Lebadaeans, 
C^oroneans, Orchomenians, Thespians, The- 
bans, Tanagraeans, and Chaeroneans, because 
they had effected a reconciliation among the 
Platagans, and caused them to be recalled from 
exile about the time that Thebes was restored 
by Cassander, the son of Antipater. During 
this festival, a woman in the habit of a bride- 
maid accompanied a statue which was dressed 
in female garments, on the banks of the Euro- 
tas. This procession was attended to the top of 
mount Cithaeron by many of the Boeotians, who 
had places assigned them by lot. Here an altar 
of square pieces of wood, cemented together like 
stones, was erected, and upon it were thrown 
large quantities of combustible materials. Af- 
terwards a bull was sacrificed to Jupiter, and an 
ox or heifer to Juno, by every one of the cities 
of Boeotia, and by the most opulent that attended. 
The poorest citizens offered small cattle ; and 
all these oblations, together with the Dsedala, 
were thrown in the common heap and set on 
fire, and totally reduced to ashes, 

D.EDALUS. ^Vid. Part III. 

Daidis, a solemnity observed by the Greeks. 
It lasted three days. The first was in com- 
memoration of Latona's labour ; the second in 
memory of Apollo's birth ; and the -third in 
honour of the marriage of Podalirius and the 
mother of Alexander, Torches were always 
carried at the celebration ; whence the name. 

Damagetos, a man of Rhodes, who inquired 
of the oracle what wife he ought to marry ; and 
received for answer, the daughter of the bravest 
of the Greeks. He applied to A ristomenes, and 
obtained his daughter in marriage, B, C. 670. 
Paus. 4, c. 24. 

Damascius, a stoic of Damascus, who wrote 
a philosophical history, the life of Isidorus, and 
four books on extraordinary events, in the age 
of Justinian. His works, which are now lost, 
were greatly esteemed according to Photius. 

Damippus, a Spartan, taken by Marcellus as 
he sailed out of the port of Syracuse. He dis- 
covered to the enemy that a certain part of the 
city was negligently guarded, and in conse- 
quence of this discovery, Syracuse was taken. 
PolycBn. 

Damis, a man who disputed with Aristode- 
mus, the right of reigning over the Messenians. 
Paus. 4, c. 10. 

Damnonh, a people of Britain, now supposed 
Devonshire. 

Damo, a daughter of Pythagoras, who, by or- 
der of her father, devoted her life to perpetual 
celibacy, and induced others to follow her ex- 
ample. Pythagoras at his death intrusted her 
with all the secrets of his philosophy, and gave 
her the unlimited care of his compositions, un- 
der the promise that she never would part with 
them. She faithfully obeyed his injunctions; 
and though in the extremest poverty, she refus- 
ed to obtain money by the violation of her fa- 
ther's commands. Laert. in Pythag. 

Damocles, one of the flatterers of Dionysius 
419 



DA 



HISTORY, &c. 



DA 



the elder, of Sicily. He admired the tyrant's 
wealth, and pronounced him the happiest man 
on earth. Dionysius prevailed upon him to un- 
dertake for a while the charge of royalty, and 
be convinced of the happiness which a sovereign 
enjoyed. Damocles ascended the throne, and 
while he gazed upon the wealth and splendour 
ihat surrounded him, he perceived a sword hang- 
ing over his head by a horse-hair. This so ter- 
rified him, that all his imaginary felicity vanish- 
ed at once, and he begged Dionysius to remove 
him from a situation which exposed his life to 
such fears and dangers. Cic. in Tuscul, 5, c. 21. 

Damocritus, I. a timid general of the Achae- 
ans, &c. Paus. 7, c. 13. 11. A Greek wri- 
ter, who composed two treatises, one upon the 
art of drawing an army in battle array, and the 

other concerning the Jews. III. A man who 

wrote a poetical treatise upon medicine. 

Damon, I. a victor at Olympia. Olymp. 102. 

— Paus. 4, c. 27. II. A poet arid musician 

of Athens, intimate with Pericles, and distin- 
guished for his knowledge of government and 
fondness of discipline. He was banished for 
his intrigues about 430 years before Christ. C. 
Nep. 15, c. 2.—Phit. in Pericl. III. A Py- 
thagorean philosopher, very intimate with Py- 
thias. When he had been condemned to death 
by Dionysius, he obtained from the tyrant leave 
to go and settle his domestic affairs, on promise 
of returning at a stated hour to the place of exe- 
cution. Pythias pledged himself to undergo 
the punishment which was to be inflicted on Da- 
mon, should he not return in time, and he con- 
sequently delivered himself into the hands of 
the tyrant. Damon returned at the appointed 
moment, and Dionysius was so struck with the 
fidelity of those two friends, that he remitted the 
punishment, and entreated them to permit him 
to share their friendship and enjoy their confi- 
dence. Val. Max. 4, c. 7. 

Damophila, a poetess of Lesbos, wife of 
Pamphilus. She was intimate with Sappho, 
and not only wrote hymns in honour of Diana 
and of the gods, but opened a school, where the 
younger persons of her sex were taught the va- 
rious powers of music and poetry. Philostr. 

Danaus. Vid. Part III. 

Daphnephoria, a festival in honour of Apol- 
lo, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians. 
It M^as then usual to adorn an olive bough with 
garlands of laurel and other flowers, and place 
on the top a brazen globe, on which were sus- 
pended smaller ones. In the middle was placed 
a number of crowns, and a globe of inferior 
size, and the bottom was adorned with a saffron- 
coloured garment. The globe on the top repre- 
sented the sun, or Apollo, that in the middle was 
an emblem of the moon, and the others of the 
stars. The crowns, which were 65 in number, 
represented the sun's annual revolution. This 
bough was carried in solemn procession by a 
beautiful youth of an illustrious family, and 
whose parents were both living. The youth 
was dressed in rich garments, which reached to 
the ground ; his hair hung loose and dishevelled, 
his head was covered with a golden crown, and 
he wore on his feet shoes called Iphicratidce^ 
from Iphicrates, an Athenian, who first invent- 
ed them. He was called Aacpvrj^opog, laurel- 
bearer, and at that time he executed the office 
of priest to Apollo. He was preceded by one of 
420 



his nearest relations, bearing a rod adorned with 
garlands, and behind him followed a train of 
virgins with branches in their hands. In this 
order the procession advanced as far as the tem- 
ple of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius, where sup- 
plicatory hymns were sung to the god. — This 
festival owed its origin to the following circum- 
stance: when an oracle advised the ^tolians, 
who inhabited Arne and the adjacent country, 
to abandon their ancient possessions, and go in 
quest of a settlement, they invaded the Theban 
territories, which at that time were pillaged by 
an army of Pelasgians. As the celebration of 
Apollo's festivals was near, both nations, who 
religiously observed it, laid aside all hostilities, 
and, accordmgto custom, cut down laurel boughs 
from mount Helicon and in the neighbourhood 
of the river Melas, and walked in procession in 
honour of the divinity. The day that this so- 
lemnity was observed, Polemates, the general of 
the Boeotian army, saw a youth in a dream that 
presented him with a complete suit of armour, 
and commanded the BoBotians to offer solemn 
prayers to Apollo,-and walk in procession with 
laurel boughs in their hands every ninth year. 
Three days after this dream, the Boeotian gene- 
ral made a sally, and cut off the greater part of 
the besiegers, who were compelled by this blow 
to relinquish their enterprise, Polemates im- 
mediately instituted a novennial festival to the 
god who seemed to be the patron of the Boeo- 
tians. Paus. Baiotic, &c. 

Daphnis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of Mercu- 
ry by a Sicilian nymph. It is supposed he was 
the first who wrote pastoral poetry, in which 
his successor Theocritus so happily excelled. 
From the celebrity of this shepherd, the name 
of Daphnis has been appropriated by the poets, 
ancient and modern, to express a person fond 
of rural employments, and of the peaceful in- 
nocence which accompanies the tending of 
flocks, JElian. V. H. 10, c. \^.—Diod. 4. 

Dardanides, a name given to ^neas, as de- 
scended from Dardanus. The word, in the plu- 
ral number, is applied to the Trojan women. 
Virg. JEn. 

Dardanus, a son of Jupiter and Electra, who 
killed his brother Jasius to obtain the kingdom 
of Etruria, after the death of his reputed father 
Corytus, and fled to Samothrace, and thence to 
Asia Minor,where he married Batia, the daugh- 
ter of Teucer, king of Teucria. Dardanus 
taught his subjects to worship Minerva ; and he 
gave them two statues of the goddess, one of 
which is well known by the name of Palladium. 
Virg. ^En. 2, v. 167. — Paus. 7, c. 4. — Hygin. 
fab. 155 and Tlb.—Apollod. Z.— Homer. 11. 20. 

Dares, a Phrygian, who lived during the 
Trojan war, in which he was engaged, and of 
which he wrote the history in Greek. This his- 
tory was extant in the age of jElian ; the Latin 
translation, now extant, is universally believed 
to be spurious, though it is attributed by some 
to Cornelius Nepos, The best edition is that of 
Smids cum not, var. 4to. and 8vo. Amst. 1702. 
Homer. II. 5, v, 10 and 27, 

Darius, a noble satrap of Persia, son of Hys- 
taspes, who conspired with six other noblemen 
to destroy Smerdis, who usurped the crown of 
Persia after the death of Cambyses. On the 
murder of the usurper, the seven conspirators 
universally agreed that he whose horse neighed 



d:^ 



HISTORY, &c. 



DA 



first should be appointed king. In consequence 
of this resolution, the groom of Darius previous- 
ly led his master's horse to a mare at a place 
near which the seven noblemen were to pass. 
On the morrow, before sunrise, when they pro- 
ceeded all together, the horse, recollecting the 
mare, suddenly neighed, and at the same time a 
clap of thunder was heard, as if in approbation 
of the choice. The noblemen dismounted from 
their horses, and saluted Darius king ; and a re- 
solution was made among them, that the king's 
wives and concubines should be taken from no 
other family but that of the conspirators, and that 
they should for ever enjoy the unlimited privi- 
lege of being admitted into the king's presence 
without previous introduction. Darius was 29 
years old when he ascended the throne, and he 
soon distinguished himself by his activity and 
military accomplishments. He besieged Baby- 
lon, which he took, after a siege of 20 months, 
by the artifice of Zopyrus. Prom thence he 
marched against the Scythians, and in his way 
conquered Thrace. This expedition was unsuc- 
cessful, and after several losses and disasters in 
the wilds of Scythia,the king retired with shame, 
and soon after turned his arms against the In- 
dians, whom he subdued. The burning of Sar- 
dis, which was a Grecian colony, incensed the 
Athenians, and a war was kindled between 
Greece and Persia. Darius was so exasperated 
against the Greeks, that a servant every evening, 
by his order, repeated these words : '-Remember, 
O king, to punish the Athenians." Mardonius, 
the king's son-in-law, was intrusted with the 
care of the" war, but his army was destroyed by 
the Thracians ; and Darius, more animated by 
his loss, sent a more considerable force under- 
the command of Datis and Artaphernes. They 
were conquered at the celebrated battle of Mar- 
athon, by 10.000 Athenians ; and the Persians 
lost in that expedition no less than 206,000 men. 
Darius was not disheartened by this severe blow, 
but he resolved to carry on the war in person, 
and immediately ordered a still larger army to 
be levied. He died in the midst of his prepara- 
tions, B. C. 485, after a reign of 36 years, in the 
65th year of his age. Herodot. 1, 2, &:c.—Diod. 
1. — Justin. 1, c. 9. — Plut. in Arist. — C. Nep. in 

Miltiad. The second king of Persia of that 

name, was also called OcTius or Nothus, because 
he was the illegitimate son of Artaxerxes by a 
concubine. Soon after the murder of Xerxes he 
ascended the throne of Persia, and married Pa- 
rysatis, his sister, a cruel and ambitious woman, 
by whom he had Artaxerxes Memnon, Ames- 
tris, and Cyrus the younger. He carried on 
many wars with success, under the conduct of 
his generals, and of his son Cyrus. He died B. 
C. 404, after a reign of 19 years, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Artaxerxes, who asked him 
on his deathbed, what had been the guide of 
his conduct in the management of the empire, 
that he might imitate him *? The dictates of jus- 
tice and religion, replied the expiring monarch. 

Justin. 5, c. 11.— Diod. 12. The third of 

that name was the last king of Persia, sur- 
named Codomanus. He was son of Arsanes and 
Sysigambis, and descended from Darius Nothus. 
The peace of Darius was early disturbed, and 
Alexander invaded Persia to avenge the injuries 
which the Greeks had suffered from the prede- 
cessors of Darius. The king of Persia met his 



adversary in person, at the head of 600,000 
men. This army was remarkable more for its 
opulence and luxury than for the military cou- 
rage of its soldiers ; and Athenaus mentions 
that the camp of Darius was crowded with 277 
cooks, 29 waiters, 87 cupbearers, 40 servants to 
perfume the king, and Q& to prepare garlands 
and flowers to deck the dishes and meals which 
^ippeared on the royal table. With these forces 
Darius met Alexander. A battle was fought 
near the Granicus, in which the Persians were 
easily defeated. Another was soon after fought 
near Issus ; and Alexander left 110,000 of the 
enemy dead on the field of battle, and took 
among the prisoners of war, the mother, wife, 
and children of Darius. The darkness of the 
night favoured the retreat of Darius, and he 
saved himself by flying in disguise on the horse 
of his armour-bearer. These losses weakened 
but discouraged not Darius •, he assembled ano- 
ther more powerful army, and the last decisive 
battle was fought at Arbela. The victory was 
long doubtful ; but the intrepidity of Alexander, 
and the superior valour of the Macedonians, 
prevailed over the effeminate Persians ; and 
Darius, sensible of his disgrace and ruin, fled 
towards Media. His misfortunes were now 
complete. Bessus, the governor of Bactriana, 
took away his life, in hopes of succeeding him 
on the throne ; and Darius was fouHd by the 
Macedonians in his chariot,covered with wounds 
and almost expiring, B. C. 331. He asked for 
water, and exclaimed, when he received it from 
the hand of a Macedonian : " It is the greatest 
of my misfortunes that I cannot reward thy hu- 
manity. Beg Alexander to accept my warmest 
thanks for the tenderness with which he has 
treated my wretched family, whilst I am doomed 
to perish by the hand of a man whom I have 
loaded with kindness." In him the empire of 
Persia was extinguished, 228 years after it had 
been first founded by Cyrus the Great. Diod. 
17. — Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 10, 11, &c. — Cur- 
tius. A son of Artaxerxes, declared succes- 
sor to the throne, as being the eldest prince. 
He conspired against his father's life, and was 
capitally punished. Plut. in Artax. 

Datames, a son of Camissares, governor of 
Caria, and general of the armies of Artaxerxes, 
The influence of his enemies at court obliged 
him to fly for safety, after he had greatly sig- 
nalized himself by his military exploits. He 
took up arms in his own defence, and the king 
made war against him. He was treacherously 
killed by Mithridates, who had invited him un- 
der pretence of entering into the most inviolable 
connexion and" friendship, 362 B. C. C. Nep. 
in Datam. 

Dataphernes, after the murder of Darius, 
betrayed Bessus into Alexander's hands. He 
also revolted from the conqueror, and was de- 
livered up by the Dahae. Curt. 7, c. 5 and 8. 

Datis, a general of Darius 1st, sent with an 
army of 200,000 foot and 10,000 horse, against 
the Greeks, in conjunction with Artaphernes: 
He was defeated at the celebrated battle of 
Marathon by Miltiad es, and some time after put 
to death by the Spartans. C. Nep. in Milt. 

Daunus, a son of Pilumnus and Danae. He 

came from Illyricum into Apulia, where he 

reigned over part of the country, which from him 

was called Daunia, and he was still on the throne 

421 



DE 



HISTORY, &c. 



DE 



"When Diomedes came to Italy. Ptol. 3, c. 1. — 
Mela. 2, c. i.—Strab. 5. 

Decebalus, a warlike king of the Daci, who 
made a succes'iful war against Dotnitian. He 
was conquered by Trajan, Domitian's successor, 
and he obtained peace. His active spirit again 
kindled rebellion, and the Roman emperor 
marched against him and defeated him. He 
destroyed himself, and his head was brought to 
Rome, and Dacia became a Roman province, A 
D. 103. Dio. 68. 

Decemviri, ten magistrates of absolute au- 
thority among the Romans. The tribunes de- 
manded that a code of laws might be framed for 
the use and benefit of the Roman people. This 
petition was complied with, and three ambassa- 
dors were sent to Athens, and all the other 
Grecian states, to collect the laws of Solon and 
of the other celebrated legislators of Greece. 
Upon the return of the commissioners, it was 
universally agreed that ten new magistrates,call- 
ed Decemviri^ should be elected from the senate 
to put the project into execution. Their power 
was absolute ; all other offices ceased after their 
election, and they presided over the city with re- 
gal authority. They were invested with the 
badges of the consul, in the enjoyment of which 
they succeeded by turns, and only one was pre- 
ceded by the fasces, and had the power of as- 
sembling the senate and confirming decrees. 
The first decemvirs were Appius Claudius, T, 
Genutius, P. Sextus, Sp. Veturius, C. Julius, 
A.Manlius, Ser. Sulpitius Pluriatius, T. Romu- 
lus, Sp. Posthumius, A. U. C. 303. Under 
them the laws which had been exposed to pub- 
lic view, that every citizen might speak his sen- 
timents, were publicly approved of as constitu- 
tional, and ratified by the priests and augurs in 
the most solemn and religious manner. These 
laws were ten in number, and were engraved on 
tables of brass ; two were afterwards added, and 
they were called the laws of the twelve tables, 
leges duodecim tabularum, and leges decemvi- 
rales. In the third year after their creation, the 
decemvirs became odious, on account of their 
tyranny ; and the attempt of Ap. Claudius to 
ravish Virginia was followed by the total aboli- 
tion of the office. There were other officers 

in Rome, called decemvirs, who were originally 
appointed, in the absence of the praetor, to ad- 
minister justice. Their appointment became 
afterwards necessary, and they generally assist- 
ed at sales called sicbhastationes, because a spear, 
hasta, was fixed at the door of the place where 
the goods were exposed to sale. They were 
called decemviri litibusjudicandis.—'The officers 
whom Tarquin appointed to guard the Sibylline 
books were also called decemviri. They were 
originally two in number, called duumviri, till 
the year of Rome 388, when their number was 
increased to ten, five of which were chosen from 
the plebeians and five from the patricians. Sylla 
increased their number to fifteen, called quin- 
decemvirs. 

Degia Lex, was enacted by M. Decius the 
tribune, A. U. C. 442, to empower the people 
to appoint two proper persons to fit and repair 
the fleets. 

Dscrus Mus, I. a celebrated Roman consul, 
who, after many glorious exploits, devoted him- 
self to the gods Manes for the safety of his coun- 
try, in a battle against the Latins, 338 years B. 
422 



C. His son Decius imitated his example, and 
devoted himself in like manner, in his fourth 
consulship, when fighting against the Gauls and 
Samnites, B. C. 296. His grandson also did 
the same in the war against Pyrrhus and the 
Tarentines, B. C. 280. II. Brutus, conduct- 
ed Ca3sar to the senate-house the day that he was 

murdered. III. (Cn. Metius, CI. Trajanus,) 

a native of Pannonia, sent by the emperor Philip 
to appease a sedition in Mcesia. Instead of 
obeying his master's command, he assumed the 
imperial purple, and soon after marched against 
him, and at his death became the only empe- 
ror. He signalized himself against the Per- 
sians ; and when he marched against the Goths, 
he pushed his horse in a deep marsh, from which 
he could not extricate himself, and he perished 
with all his army by the darts of the barbarians, 
A. D. 251, after a reign of two years. This 
monarch enjoyed the character of a brave man 
and of a great disciplinarian ; and by his justice 
and exemplary life, merited the title of Opti- 
mus, which a servile senate lavished upon him. 

Degurio, a subaltern officer in the Roman 
armies. He commanded a decuria, which con- 
sisted of ten men, and was the third part of a 
turma, or the 30th part of a legio of horse, which 
was composed of 300 men. The badge of the 
centurions was a vine rod or sapling, and each 
had a deputy called optio. There were certain 
magistrates in the provinces, called decuriones 
municipales, who formed a body to represent 
the Roman senate in free and corporate towns. 
They consisted of ten, whence the name ; and 
their duty extended to watch over the interest of 
th eir fellow-citizens, and to increase the reven ues 
of the commonwealth. Their court was called 
curia decurionum and minor senatus ; and their 
decrees, called decreta decurionum, were mark- 
ed with two D. D. at the top. They generally 
styled themselves civitatum patres curiales, and 
honorati municipiorum, senatores. They were 
elected with the same ceremonies as the Roman 
senators ; they were to be at least 25 years of 
age, and to be possessed of a certain sum of 
money. The election happened on the calends 
of March. 

Deioces, a son of Phraortes, by whose means 
the Medes delivered themselves from the yoke 
of the Assyrians. He presided as judge among 
his countrymen, and his great popularity and 
love of equity raised him to the throne, and he 
made himself absolute, B. C. 700. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Phraortes, after a reign of 53 
years. He built Ecbatana, according to Hero- 
dotus, and surrounded it with seven different 
walls, in the middle of which was the royal 
palace. Herodot. 1, c. 96, &.c. — Polycen. 

Deiotarus, a governor of Galatia,made king 
of that province by the Roman people. In the 
civil wars of Pompey and Csesar, Deiotarus fol- 
lowed the interest of the former. After the bat- 
tle of Pharsalia, Caesar severely reprimanded 
Deiotarus for his attachment to Pompey, depriv- 
ed him of part of his kingdom, and left him only 
the bare title of royalty. When he was accused 
by his grandson of attempts upon Caesar's life, 
Cicero ably defended him in the Roman senate. 
He joined Brutus with a large army, and faith- 
fully supported the republican cause. His wife 
was barren, but fearing that her husband might 
die without issue, she presented him with a beau- 



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HISTORY, &c. 



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tiful slave, and tenderly educated, as her o-wn, 
the children of this union. Deiotarus died in an 
advanced old age. Strab. 12. — lAican. 5, v. 55. 

Deiphobus, a son of Priam and Hecuba, who. 
after the death of his brother Paris, married He- 
len. His wife unworthily betrayed him, and in- 
troduced into his chamber her old husband Me- 
nelaus, to whom she wished to reconcile herself. 
He was shamefully mutilated and killed by Me- 
nelaus. He had highly distinguished himself 
during the war, especially in his two combats 
with Merion, and in that in which he slew 
Ascalaphus, son of Mars, Virg. jEn. 6, v. 495. 
— Homer. 11. 13. 

DELD0N,a king of Mysia, defeated by Crassus. 

Delia, a festival celebrated every fifth year in 
the island of Delos, in honour of Apollo. It was 
first instituted by Theseus, who, at his return 
from Crete, placed a statue there, which he had 
received from Ariadne. At the celebration, 
they crowned the statue of the goddess with gar- 
lands, appointed a choir of music, and exhibited 
horseraces. They afterwards led a dance, in 
■which they imitated, by their motions, the va- 
rious windings of the Cretan labyrinth, from 
which Theseus had extricated himself by Ari- 
adne's assistance. There was also another 

festival .of the same name, yearly celebrated by 
the Athenians in Delos. It was also instituted 
by Theseus, who, when he was going to Crete, 
made a vow that if he returned victorious he 
would yearly vioit, in a solemn manner, the tem- 
ple of Delos. The person employed in this an- 
nual procession were called Deliastce and Theo- 
ri. The ship, the same which carried Theseus, 
and had been carefully preserved by the Athe- 
nians, was called Theoria and Delias. When 
the ship was ready for the voyage, the priest of 
Apollo solemnly adorned the stern with gar- 
lands, and a universal lustration was made all 
over the city. The Theori were crowned with 
laurel, and before them proceeded men armed 
with axes, in commemoration of Theseus, 
who had cleared the way from Troezene to 
Athens, and delivered the country from robbers. 
When the ship arrived at Delos, they offered 
solemn sacrifices to the god of the island, and 
celebrated a festival in his honour. After this 
they retired to the ship, and sailed back to 
Athens, where all the people of the city ran in 
crowds to meet them. Every appearance of 
festivity prevailed at their approach, and the 
citizens opened their doors; and prostrated 
themselves before the Deliastse as they walked 
in procession. During this festival, it was un- 
lawful to put to death any malefactor ; and on 
that account the life of Socrates was prolonged 
for thirty days. Zenophon. Memor. tf» in Conv. 
— Plut. in Phced. — Senec. ep. 70. 

Delmattus, F1. Jul. a nephew of Constan- 
tine the Great, honoured with the title of Caesar, 
and put in possession of Thrace, Macedonia, 
and Achaia. His great virtues were unable to 
save him from a violent death, and he was as- 
sassinated by his own soldiers, &c. 

DELPms, the priestess of Delphi. Martial. 
9, ep. 43. 

Demades, an Athenian, who, from a sailor 
became an eloquent orator, and obtained much 
influence in the state. He was taken prisoner 
at the battle of Cheronaea, by Philip, and in- 
gratiated himself into the favour of that prince, 



by whom he was greatly esteemed. He was 
put to death, with his son, on suspicion of trea- 
son, B. C. 322. One of his orations is extant. 
Diod. 16 and 17. — Plv^t. in Dem. 

Demaratus, I. the son and successor of Aris- 
ton on the throne of Sparta, B. C. 526. He 
was banished by the intrigues of Cleomenes, his 
royal colleague, as being illegitimate. He re- 
tired into Asia, and was kindly received by 
Darius, son of Hystaspes, king of Persia. When 
the Persian monarch made preparations to in- 
vade Greece, Demaratus, though persecuted by 
the Lacedaemonians, informed them of the hos- 
tilities which hung over their head. Herodot. 
5, c. 75, &c. 1. 6, c. 50, &c. II. A rich citi- 
zen of Corinth, of the family of the Bacchiadee. 
When Cypselus had usurped the sovereign 
power of Corinth, Demaratus, with all his fam- 
ily, migrated to Italy, and settled at Tarquinii, 
658 years before Christ. His son, Lucuraon, 
was king of Rome, under the name of Tarquin- 
ius Priscus. Dionys. Hal. 

Demariste, the mother of Timoleon. 

Dematria, a Spartan mother, who killed her 
son because he returned from a battle without 
glory. Plut. Lac. Inst. 

Demetria, a festival in honour of Ceres, called 
by the Greeks Demeter. It was then customary 
for the votaries of the goddess to lash them- 
selves with whips made with the bark of trees. 
The Athenians had a solemnity of \he same 
name, in honour of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 

Demetrius, I. a son of Antigonus and Stra- 
tonice, surnamed Poliorcetes, destroyer of towns. 
At the age of 22, he was sent by his father 
against Ptolemy, who invaded Syria. He was 
defeated near Gaza ; but he soon repaired his 
loss by a victory over one of the generals of the 
enemy. He afterwards sailed with a fleet of 
250 ships to Athens, and restored the Athenians 
to liberty, by freeing them from the power of 
Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelling the gar- 
rison which was stationed there under Deme- 
trius Phalereus. After this successful expedi- 
tion, he besieged and took Mun}''chia, and de- 
feated Cassander at Thermopylae. His recep- 
tion at Athens, after these victories, was attend- 
ed with the greatest servility ; and the Athenians 
were not ashamed to raise altars to him as a god, 
and to consult his oracles. This uncommon 
success raised the jealousy of the successors of 
Alexander; and Seleacus, Cassander, and Ly- 
simachus, united to destroy Antigonus and his 
son. Their hostile armies met at Ipsus, B. C. 
301. Antigonus was killed in the battle; and 
Demetrius, after a severe loss, retired to Ephe- 
sus. His ill success raised him many enemies ; 
and the Athenians, who had lately adored him 
as a god, refused to admit him into their city. 
He soon after ravaged the territories of Lj'-sima- 
chus, and reconciled himself to Seleucus, to 
whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in mar- 
riage. Athens now laboured under tyranny; 
and Demetrius relieved it, and pardoned the in- 
habitants. The loss of his possessions in Asia, 
recalled him from Greece, and he established 
himself on the throne of Macedonia, by the 
murder of Alexander, the son of Cassander, 
Here he was continually at war with the neigh- 
bouring states ; and the superior power of his 
adversaries obliged him to leave Macedonia, 
after he had sat on the throne for seven years. 
423 



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HISTORY, &C. 



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He passed into Asia, and attacked some of the 
provinces of Lysimachus with various success ; 
but famine and pestilence destroyed the greatest 
part of his army, and he retired to tlie court of 
Seleucas for support and assistance. He met 
with a kind reception, but hostilities were soon 
begun ; and after he had gained some advan- 
tages over his son-in-laAv, Demetrius was totally 
forsaken by his troops in the field of battle, and 
became an easy prey to the enemy. Though 
he was kept in confinement by his son-in-law, 
yet he maintained himself like a prince, and 
passed his time in hunting, and in every labo- 
rious exercise. His son Antigonus offered Se- 
leucus all his possessions, and even his person, 
to procure his father's liberty ; but all proved 
unavailing, and Demetrius died in the 54th year 
of his age, after a confinement of three years, 
286 B. C. His remains .were given to Antigo- 
nus, and honoured with a splendid funeral pomp 
at Corinth, and thence conveyed to Demetrias. 
His posterity remained in possession of the 
Macedonian throne till the age of Perseus, who 
was conquered by the Romans. Demetrius has 
rendered himself famous for his fondness of 
dissipation when among the dissolute, and his 
love of virtue and military glory in the field of 
battle. He has been commended as a great war- 
rior; and his ingenious inventions, his warlike 
engines, and stupendous machines in his war 
with the Rhodians, justify his claims to that 
perfect character. He has been blamed for his 
voluptuous indulgences ; and his biographer ob- 
serves, that no Grecian prince had more wives 
and concubines than Poliorcetes. His obedience 
and reverence to his father have been justly ad- 
mired ; and it has been observed that Antigonus 
ordered the ambassadors of a foreign prince par- 
ticularly to remark the cordiality and friendship 
which subsisted between him and his son. Plui. 

in vita,. — Diod, 17. — Justin. 1, c. 17, &c. 

11. A prince who succeeded his father Antigo- 
nus on the throne of Macedonia. He reigned 
11 years, and was succeeded by Antigonus Do- 
son. Justin. 26, c. 2.—Polyb. 2. III. A 

son of Philip, king of Macedonia, delivered as 
a hostage to the Romans. His modesty de- 
livered his father from a heavy accusation laid 
before the Roman senate. When he returned 
to Macedonia, he was falsely accused by his 
brother Perseus, who was jealous of his popu- 
larity, and his father too credulously consented 
to his death, B. C. 180. Lav. 40, c. 20.— Justin. 

32, c, 2. IV. A prince, surnamed Soter, was 

son of Seleucus Philopater, the son of Antio- 
chus the Great, king of Syria. His father 
gave him as a hostage to the Romans. After 
the death of Seleucus, Antiochus Epiphanes, 
the deceased monarch's brother, usurped the 
kingdom of Syria, and was succeeded by his 
son Antiochus Eupator. This usurpation dis- 
pleased Demetrius, who was detained at Rome ; 
he procured his liberty, on pretence of going to 
hunt, and fled to Syria, where the troops re- 
ceived him as their lawful sovereign, B. C. 162. 
He put to death Eupator and Lysias, and es- 
tablished himself on his throne by cruelty and 
oppression. Alexander Bala, the son of An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, laid claim to the crown of 
Syria, and defeated Demetrius in a battle, m 
the 12th year of his reign. Strab, 16. — Appian. 

— Justin. 34, c. 3. V. The 2d, surnamed 

424 



Nicanor^ or Conqueror, vi?^ son of Soter, to 
whom he succeeded by the assistance of Ptolemy 
Philometer, after he had driven out the usurper 
Alexander Bala, B. C. 146. He married Cleo- 
patra, daughter of Ptolemy ; who was, before, 
the wife of the expelled monarch. Demetrius 
gave himself up to luxury and voluptuousness, 
and suffered his kingdom to be governed by his 
favourites. At that time a pretended son of 
Bala, called DiodorusTryphon, seized a part of 
Syria ; and Demetrius, to oppose his antagonist, 
made an alliance with the Jews, and marched 
into the east, where he was taken by the Par- 
ihians. Phraates, king of Parthia, gave him his 
daughter Rhodogyne in marriage ; and Cleopa- 
tra was so incensed at this new connexion, that 
she gave herself up to Antiochus Sidetes, her 
brother-in-law, and married him, Sidetes was 
killed in a battle against the Parthians, and De- 
metrius regained the possession of his kingdom. 
His pride and oppression rendered him odious, 
and his subjects asked a king of the house of 
Seleucus, from Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt; 
and Demetrius, unable to resist the power of 
his enemies, fled to Ptolemais, which was then 
in the hands of his wife Cleopatra. -The gates 
were shut up against his approach by Cleopa- 
tra ; and he was killed by order of the governor 
of Tyre, whither he had fled for protection. He 
was succeeded by Alexander Zebina, whom 
Ptolemy had raised to the throne, B. C. 127. 
Justin. 36, &c. — Appian. de Bell. Syr. — Joseph. 

VI. The 3d, surnamed Eucerus, was son 

of Antiochus Gryphus. After the example of 
his brother Philip, who had seized Syria, he 
made himself master of Damascus, B. C. 93, 
and soon after obtained a victory over his bro- 
ther. He was taken in a battle against the 
Parthians, and died in captivity, Joseph. 1. 

r-VII. Phalereus, a disciple of Theophras- 

tus, who gained such an influence over the 
Athenians, by his eloquence and the purity of 
his manners, that he was elected decennial ar- 
chon, B. C. 317, He so embellished the city, 
and rendered himself so popular by his muni- 
ficence, that the Athenians raised 360 brazen 
statues to his honour. Yet in the midst of all 
this popularity, his enemies raised a sedition 
against him, and he was condemned to death, 
and all his statues thrown down, after main- 
taining the sovereign power for 10 years. He 
fled without concern or mortification to the court 
of Ptolemy Lagus, where he met with kindness 
and cordiality. The Egyptian monarch con- 
sulted him concerning the succession of his 
children ; and Demetrius advised him to raise 
to the throne the children of Eurydice in pre- 
ference to the offspring of Berenice. This coun- 
sel so irritated Philadelphus, the son of Be- 
renice, that after his father's death he sent the 
philosopher into Upper Egypt, and there de- 
tained him in strict confinement. Demetrius, 
tired with his situation, put an end to his life 
by the bite of an asp, 284 B.C. According to 
some, Demetrius enjoyed the confidence of Phi- 
ladelphus, and enriched his library at Alexan- 
dria with 200,000 volumes. All the works of 
Demetrius, on rhetoric, history, and eloquence, 
are lost. The last edition of the treatise on 
rhetoric, attributed improperly to him, is that of 
Glasgow, 8vo. 1743. Diog. in vita. — Cic. in 
Brut. 4* de OJJic.—Plut. in Exit. VIII. A 



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HISTORY, &c. 



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cynic philosopher, disciple of Apollonius Thy- 
aneus, in the age of Caligula. The emperor 
wished to gain the philosopher to his interest by 
a large present ; but Demetrius refused it with 
indignation, and said, If Caligula wishes to bribe 
me, lei him send me his crown. Vespasian was 
displeased with his insolence, and banished him 
to an island. The cynic derided the punish- 
ment, and bitterly inveighed against the em- 
peror. He died in a great old age ; and Se- 
neca observes, that nature hoA brought him 
forth, to show mankind that an exalted genius can 
live securely without being corrupted by the vices 
of the surrounding world. Senec. — Philostr. in 
Apoll. IX. A writer, who published a his- 
tory of the irruptioDS of the Gauls into Asia. 

Democedes, a celebrated physician of Cro- 
tona, son of Calliphon, and intimate with Poly- 
crates. He was carried as a prisoner from Sa- 
mos toDarius, king of Persia, where he acquired 
great riches and much reputation by curing the 
king's foot and the breast of Atossa. He was 
sent to Greece as a spy by the king, and fled 
away to Crotona, where he married the daugh- 
ter of the wrestler Milo. jElian. V. H. 8, c. 
IS.—Herodot. 3, c. 124, &c. 

Demoghares, I. an Athenian, sent with some 
of his countrymen with an embassy to Philip, 
king of Macedonia. The monarch gavethem 
audience ; and when he asked them whai he 
could do to please the people of Athens, De- 
mochares replied, " Hang yourself " But Phil- 
ip mildly dismissed them, and bade them ask 
their countrymen, which deserved most the ap- 
pellation of wise and moderate, they who gave 
such ill language, or he who received it without 
any signs of resentment 1 Serwc. de Ira. 3. — 
jElian. V. H. 3, 7, 8, 12.— Cic. in Brut. 3, de 

Orat. 2. II. A poet of Soli, who composed 

a comedy on Demetrius Poliorcetes. Plut. in 

Dem. III. A statuary, who wished to make a 

statue of mount Athos. Vitruv. IV. A gen- 
eral of Pompey the younger, who died B. C. 36. 

Democritus, a celebrated philosopher of Ab- 
dera, disciple to Leucippus. He travelled over 
the greatest part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
in quest of knowledge, and returned home in the 
greatest poverty. There was a law at Abdera, 
which deprived of the honour of a funeral the 
man who had reduced himself to indigence ; and 
Democritus, to avoid ignominy, repeated before 
his countrymen one of his compositions called 
Diacosmus. It was received with such uncom- 
mon applause, that he was presented with 500 
talents ; statues were erected in his honour ; and 
a decree passed that the expenses of his funeral 
should be paid from the public treasury. He 
retired to a garden near the city, where he de- 
dicated his time to study and solitude ; and, ac- 
cording to some authors, he put out his eyes to 
apply himself more closely to philosophical in- 
quiries. He was accused of insanity, and Hip- 
pocrates was ordered to inquire into the nature 
of his disorder. The physician had a conference 
with the philosopher, and declared that not De- 
mocritus, but his enemies were insane. He con- 
tinually laughed at the follies and vanities of 
mankind, who distract themselves with care, 
and are at once a prey to hope and to anxiety. 
He told Darius, who was inconsolable for the 
loss of his wife, that he would raise her from the 
dead if he could find three persons who had gone 

Part II.— 3 H 



through life without adversity, whose names he 
might engrave on the queen's monument. The 
king's inquiries to find such persons proved un- 
availing, and the philosopher in some manner 
soothed the sorrow of his sovereign. He taught 
his disciples that the soul died with the body ; 
and therefore, as he gave no credit to the ex- 
istence of ghosts, some youths, to try his forti- 
tude, dressed themselves in a hideous and de- 
formed habit, and approached his cave in the 
dead of night with whatever could create terror 
and astonishment. The philosopher received 
them unmoved ; and without even looking at 
them, he desired them to cease making them- 
selves such objects of ridicule and folly. He 
died in the 109th year of his age, B. C. 361. 
His father was so rich, that he entertained 
Xerxes, with all his army, as he was marching 
against Greece. All the works of Democritus 
are lost. He was the author of the doctrine of 
atoms, and first taught that the Milky-way was 
occasioned by a confused light from a multitude 
of stars. He may be considered as the parent 
of experimental philosophy, in the prosecution 
of which he showed himself so ardent, that he 
declared he would prefer the discovery of one 
of the causes of the works of nature to the dia- 
dem of Persia. He made artificial emeralds, 
and tinged them with various colours ; he like- 
wise dissolved stones and softened ivory. Eu- 
seb. 14, c. 27. — Diog. in vita. — Mlian. V. H. 
4, c. 20.— Cic. de Finib.— Val. Max. 8, c. 7.— 
Strab. 1 and 15. 

Demodochus, a musician at the court of Al- 
cinous, who sang, in the presence of Ulysses, 
the secret amours of Mars and Venus, &c. Ho- 
mer. Od. 8, V. M.—Plut. de Mus. 

Demon, an Athenian, nephew to Demosthe- 
nes. He was at the head of the government 
during the absence of his uncle, and obtained a 
decree that Demosthenes should be recalled, and 
that a ship should be sent to bring him back. 

Demonax, a celebrated philosopher of Crete 
in the reign of Adrian. He showed no concern 
about the necessaries of life ; but when himgry, 
he entered the first house he met, and there sa- 
tisfied his appetite. He died in his 100th year. 

Demosthenes, a celebrated Athenian, son of 
a rich blacksmith, called Demosthenes, and of 
Cleobule. He was but seven years of age when 
his father died. His guardians negligently ma- 
naged his affairs, and embezzled the greatest 
part of his possessions. His education was total- 
ly neglected ; and for whatever advances he 
made in learning, he was indebted to his indus- 
try and application. He became the pupil of 
Isaeus and Plato, and applied himself to study 
the orations of Isocrates. At the age of 17 he 
gave an early proof of his eloquence and abili- 
ties against his guardians, from whom he ob- 
tained the retribution of the greatest part of his 
estate. His rising talents were, however, im- 
peded, by weak lungs, and a difficulty of pro- 
nunciation, especially of the letter p ; but these 
obstacles were soon conquered by unwearied 
application. His abilities as an orator raised 
him to consequence at Athens, and he wavS 
soon placed at the head of the government. 
In this public capacity he roused his country- 
men from their indolence, and animated them 
against the encroachments of Philip of Mace- 
donia. In the battle of Cheronasa, however, 
425 



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HISTORY, &c. 



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Demosthenes betrayed his pusillanimity, and 
saved his life by flight. After the death of 
Philip he declared himself warmly against his 
son and successor, Alexander, whom he brand- 
ed with the appellation of boy ; and when the 
Macedonians demanded of the Athenians their 
orators, Demosthenes reminded his countrymen 
of the fable of the sheep which delivered their 
dogs to the wolves. Though he had boasted 
that all the gold of Macedonia could not tempt 
him, yet he suffered himself to be bribed by 
a small golden cup from Harpalus. The tu- 
mults which this occasioned forced him to retire 
from Athens ; and in his banishment, which he 
passed at Troezene and JEgina, he lived with 
more effeminacy than true heroism. When 
Antipater made war against Greece, after the 
death of Alexander, Demosthenes was publicly 
recalled from his exile, and a galley was sent 
to fetch him from ^gina. His return was at- 
tended with much splendour, and all the citi- 
zens crowded at the Piraeus to see him land. 
His triumph and popularity, however, were 
short. Antipater and Craterus were near 
Athens, and demanded all the orators to be de- 
livered up into their hands. Demosthenes, with 
all his adherents, fled to the temple of Neptune 
in Calauria ; and when he saw that all hopes of 
safety were banished, he took a dose of poison, 
which he always carried in a quill, and expired 
on the day that the Thesmophoria were celebrat- 
ed, in the 60th year of his age, B. C. 322. The 
Athenians raised a brazen statue to his honour, 
with an inscription translated into this distich : 

Si tibi par menti robur, Vir magTie, fuisset, 
GrcBcia non MacedcB succubuisset Jikro. 

Demosthenes has been deservedly called the 
prince of orators ; and Cicero, his successful ri- 
val among the Romans, calls him a perfect mo- 
del, and such as he wished to be. These two 
great princes of eloquence have often been com- 
pared together ; but the judgment hesitates to 
which to give the preference. They both ar- 
rived at perfection ; but the measures by which 
they obtained it were diametrically opposite. 
Demosthenes has been compared, and with pro- 
priety, by his rival ^schines, to a siren, from 
the melody of his expression. No orator can 
be said to have expressed the various passions 
of hatred, resentment, or indignation, with more 
energy than he; and, as a proof of his uncom- 
mon application, it need only be mentioned, that 
he transcribed eight, or even ten times, the his- 
tory of Thucydides, that he might not only imi- 
tate, but possess the force and energy of the 
great historian. The best editions of his works 
arethatofWolfius,fol.Frankof 1604; that left 
unfinished by Taylor, Cantab. 4to. and that 
published in 12 vols. 8vo. 1720, &c. Lips, by 
Reiske and his widow. Plut. in vita. — Diod. 
16.— Cic. in Oral. &c.— Paws. 1, c. 8, 1. 2, c. 33. 

II. An Athenian general, sent to succeed 

Alcibiades in Sicily. He attacked Syracuse 
with Nicias, but his efforts were ineffectual. 
After many calamities, he fell into the enemy's 
hands, and his army was confined to hard labour. 
The accounts about the death of Demosthenes 
are various ; some believe that he stabbed him- 
self, whilst others suppose that he was put to 
death by the Syracusans, B. C. 413. Phit. in 

.Nic.— Thucyd. 4, Sac— Diod. 12. III. The 

426 



father of the orator Demosthenes. He was 
very rich, and employed an immense number 
of slaves, in the business of a sword cutler. 
Plut. m Dem. 

Demylus, a tyrant, who tortured the philoso- 
pher Zeno. Plut. de Stoic. Rep. 

Deodatus, an Athenian who opposed the 
cruel resolutions of Cleon against the captive 
prisoners of Mitylene. 

Dercyllidas, a general of Sparta, celebrated 
for his military exploits. He took nine different 
cities in eight days, and freed Chersonesus from 
the inroads of the Thracians by building a wall 
across the country. He lived B. C. 399. Diod. 
14. — Xenoph. Hist. GrcBC. 1, &c. 

DiAGORAS, I. an Athenian philosopher. His 
father's name was Teleclytus. From the great- 
est superstition, he became a most unconquer- 
able atheist : because he saw a man, who laid a 
false claim to one of his poems, and who per- 
jured himself, go unpunished. His great im- 
piety and blasphemies provoked his countrymen, 
and the Areopagites promised one talent to him 
who brought his head before their tribunal, and 
two if he were produced alive. He lived about 
416 years before Christ. Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 

23, 1. 3, c. 37, &c.— FaZ. Max. 1, c. 1. II. 

An athlete of Rhodes, 460 years before the 
Christian era. Pindar celebrated his merit in a 
beautiful ode, still extant, which was written in 
golden letters in a temple of Minerva. He saw 
his three sons crowned the same day at Olympia, 
and died through excess of joy. Cic. Tusc. 5. 
— Plut. in Pel. — Paus. 6, c. 7. 

DiALis, a priest of Jupiter at Rome, first insti- 
tuted by Numa. He was never permitted to 
swear, even upon public trials. Varro. L. L. 
4, c. 15. — Dionys. 2. — Liv. 1, c. 20. 

DiAMASTiGosTs, a fcstival at Sparta, in honour 
of Diana Orthia, which received that name air^) 
Tov txacTiyovv, from loMpping, because boys were 
whipped before the altar of the goddess. These 
boys, called Bomonicse, were originally freeborn 
Spartans; but, in the more delicate ages, they 
were of mean birth, and generally of a slavish 
origin. This operation was performed by an 
officer, in a severe and unfeeling manner; and 
that no compassion should be raised, the priest 
stood near the altar with a small light statue of 
the goddess, which suddenly became heavy and 
insupportable if the lash of the whip was more 
lenient or less rigorous. The parents of the 
children attended the solemnity, and exhorted 
them not to commit any thing, either by fear or 
groans, that might be unworthy of Laconian 
education. These flagellations were so severe, 
that the blood gushed in profuse torrents, and 
many expired under the lash of the whip with- 
out uttering a groan, or betraying any marks of 
fear. Such a death was reckoned very honour- 
able, and the corpse was buried with much so- 
lemnity, with a garland of flowers on its head. 
The origin of this festival is unknown. Some 
suppose that Lycurgus first instituted it. Ores- 
tes first introduced that barbarous custom, after 
he had brought the statue of Diana Taurica 
into Greece. There is another tradition, which 
mentions that Pausanias, as he was offering 
prayers and sacrifices to the gods, before he en- 
gaged with Mardonius, was suddenly attacked 
by a number of Lydians, who disturbed the sa- 
crifice, and were at last repelled with staves and 



BI 



HISTORY, &c. 



DI 



stones, the only weapons with which the Lace- 
dEemonians were provided at that moment. In 
commemoration of this, therefore, that whipping 
of boys was instituted at Sparta, and after that 
the Lydian procession. 

DiAsiA, festivals in honour of Jupiter, at 
Athens. They received their name, ano rov Sios 
Kai TTjs auris, from JupUer and misfort'une, be- 
cause, by making applications to Jupiter, men 
obtained relief from their misfortunes, and were 
delivered from dangers. During this festival 
things of all kinds were exposed to sale. 

DicEARCHUs, a Messenian, famous for his 
knowledge of philosophy, history, and mathe- 
matics. He was one of Aristotle's disciples. 
Nothing remains of his numerous compositions. 
He had composed a history of the Spartan re- 
public, which was publicly read over every year 
by order of the magistrates, for the improve- 
ment and instruction of youth. 

DicENEus, an Egyptian philosopher in the age 
of Augustus, who travelled into Scythia, where 
he ingratiated himself with the king of the coun- 
try, and by his instructions softened the wildness 
and rusticity of his manners. He also gained 
such an influence over the multitude, that they 
destroyed all the vines which grew in their coun- 
try, to prevent the riot and dissipation which the 
wine occasioned among them. He wrote all his 
maxims and his laws in a book, that they might 
not lose the benefit of them after his death. 

Dictator, a magistrate at Rome, invested 
with regal authority. This officer, whose ma- 
gistracy seems to have been borrowed from the 
customs of the Albans or Latins, was first cho- 
sen during the Roman wars against the Latins, 
The consuls being unable to raise forces for the 
defence of the slate, because the plebeians re- 
fused to enlist if they were not discharged from 
all the debts they had contracted with the patri- 
cians,- the senate found it necessar)'" to elect a 
new magistrate, with absolute and uncontrollable 
power, to take care of the state. The dictator 
remained in office for six months; after which 
he was again elected, if the afl^airs of the state 
seemed to be desperate; but if tranquillity was 
re-established, he generally laid down his power 
before the time was expired. He knew no su- 
perior in the republic, and even the laws were 
subjected to him. He w^as called dictator, be- 
cause dictus, named by the consul, or quoniam 
dictis ejus parcbat populus, because the people 
implicitly obeyed his command. He was named 
by the consul in the night, viva voce, and his 
election was confirmed by the auguries, though 
sometimes he was nominated or recommended 
by the people. As his power was absolute, he 
could proclaim war, levy forces, conduct them 
against an enemy, and disband them at pleasure. 
He punished as he pleased : and from his deci- 
sion there was no appeal, at least till later times. 
He was preceded by 24 lictors, with the fasces; 
during his administration, all other officers ex- 
cept the tribunes of the people, were suspended, 
and he was the master of the republic. But 
amidst all this independence he was not per- 
mitted to go beyond the borders of Italy, and he 
was always obliged to march on foot in his ex- 
peditions; and he never could ride, in difficult 
and laborious marches, without previously ob- 
taining a formal leave from the people. This 
office, so respectable and illustrious in the first 



ages of the republic, became odious by the per- 
petual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; and 
after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, 
on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a 
decree, which for ever after forbade a dictator 
to exist in Rome. The dictator, as soon as elect- 
ed, chose a subordinate officer, called his master 
of horse, magister equitum. This officer was 
respectable, but he was totally subservient to 
the will of the dictator, and could do nothing 
without his express order, though he enjoyed 
the privilege of using a horse, and had the same 
insignia as the praetors. This subordination, 
however, was some time after removed ; and 
during the second Punic war the master of the 
horse was invested with a power equal to that 
of the dictator. A second dictator was also cho- 
sen for the election of magistrates at Rome, af- 
ter the battle of Cannae. The dictatorship was 
originally confined to the patricians, but the ple- 
beians were afterwards admitted to share it. 
Titus Latins Flavus was the first dictator, A. 
U. C. 253. Dionys. Hal.—Cic. de Leg. 3.— 
Dio. — Plut. in Fab. — Appian. 3. — Polyb. 3. — 
Patera. 2, c. ^S.—Liv. 1, c. 23, 1. 2, c. 18, 1. 4, 
c. 57, 1. 9, c. 38. 

DiCTYs, a Cretan, who went with Idomeneus 
to the Trojan war. It is supposed that he wrote 
a history of this celebrated war, and that at 
his death he ordered it to be laid in his tomb, 
where it remained, till a violent earthquake in 
the reign of Nero opened the monument where 
he had been buried. This convulsion of the 
earth threw out his history of the Trojan war, 
which was found by some shepherds, and after- 
wards carried to Rome. This Inysterious tra- 
dition is deservedly deemed fabulous ; and the 
history of the Trojan war, which is now extant 
as the composition of Dictys of Crete, was com- 
posed in the 15th century, or, according to 
others, in the age of Constantine, and falsely 
attributed to one of the followers of Idomeneus. 
The edition of Dictys is by Masellus Venia, 
4to. Mediol. 1477. 

DiDiA Lex, de Sumptibus, by Didius, A. XJ. 
C. 606, to restrain the expenses that attended 
public festivals and entertainments, and limit 
the number of guests which generally attended 
them, not only at Rome, but in all the provinces 
of Italy. By it, not only those who received 
guests in these festive meetings, but the guests 
themselves, were liable to be fined. It was an 
extension of the Oppian and Fannian laws. 

Didius, I. a governor of Spain, conquered by 

Sertorius. Plut. in Sert. II. A man who 

brought Caesar the head of Pompey's eldest son. 

Plut. III. A governor of Britain, under 

Claudius. IV. Julianus, a rich Roman, who, 

after the murder of Pertinax, bought the empire 
which the praetorians had exposed to sale, A. D. 
192. His great luxury and extravagance ren- 
dered him odious; and when he refused to pay 
the money which he had promised for the impe- 
rial purple, the soldiers revolted against him, and 
put him to death, after a short reign. Severus 
was made emperor after him. 

Dido, called also Elissa, a daughter of Belus, 
king of Tyre, who married Sichaeus, or Sichar- 
bas, her uncle, who was priest of Hercules. 
Pygmalion, who succeeded to the throne of Tyre 
after Belus, murdered Sichseus, to get posses- 
sion of the immense riches which he possessed ; 
427 



DI 



HISTORY, &c. 



DI 



and Dido, disconsolate for the loss of a husband 
whom she tenderly loved, and by whom she was 
equally esteemed, set sail in quest of a settle- 
ment, with a number of Tyrians, to whom the 
cruelty of the tyrant became odious. According 
to some accounts, she threw into the sea the 
richesof her husband,whichPygmalion so great- 
ly desired; and by that artifice compelled the 
ships to fly with her, that had come by order of 
the tyrant to obtain the riches of Sichseus. A 
storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and 
she bought of the inhabitants as much land as 
could be covered by a bull's hide cut into thongs. 
Upon this piece of land she built a citadel call- 
ed Byrsa, ( Vid. Byrsa,) and the increase of 
population, and the rising commerce among her 
subjects, soon obliged her to enlarge her city 
and the boundaries of her dominions. Her 
beauty, as well as the fame of her enterprise, 
gained her many admirers ; and her subjects 
wished to compel her to mary larbas, king of 
Mauretania, who threatened them with a dread- 
ful war. Dido begged three months to give her 
decisive answer; and during that time she erect- 
ed a funeral pile, as if wishing, by a solemn 
sacrifice, to appease the manes of Sichseus, to 
whom she had promised eternal fidelity. When 
all was prepared, she stabbed herself on the pile 
in presence of her people, and by this uncom- 
mon action obtained the name of Dido, valiant 
woman, instead of Elissa. According to Virgil 
and Ovid, the death of Dido was caused by the 
sudden departure of iEneas, of whom she was 
deeply enamoured, and whom she could not ob- 
tain as a husband. This poetical fiction repre- 
sents jfEneas as living in the age of Dido, and 
introduces an anachronism of near 300 years. 
Dido left Phoenicia 247 years after the Trojan 
war, or the age of iEneas, that is, about 953 
years B. G. This chronological error proceeds 
not from the ignorance of the poets, but it is 
supported by the authority of Horace : — 

" Auifamansequere, autsibi co7ivenie7itiafinge" 

While Virgil describes, in a beautiful episode, 
the desperate love of Dido, and the submission 
of iEneas to the will of the gods ; he at the 
same time gives an explanation of the hatred 
which existed between the republics of Rome 
and Carthage, and informs his readers that their 
mutual enmity originated in their very first 
foundation, and was apparently kindled by a 
more remote cause than the jealousy and rival- 
ship of two flourishing empires. Dido, after 
her death, was honoured as a deity by her sub- 
jects. Justin. 18, c. 4, &c. — Paterc. 1, c. 6. — 
Virg. Mn.— Ovid. Met. 14, fab. 2.—Heroid. 

7. — Appian. Alex. Oros. 4. — Herodian. — 

Dionys. Hal. 

DiiiYMUs, a scholiast on Homer, surnamed 
XaXv£vr£f)o?, flourished B. C. 40. He wrote a 
number of books, which are now lost. The 
editions of his commentaries are, that in .2 vols. 
8vo. Venut. apud. Aid. 152S, and that of Paris, 
8vo. 1530. 

DiENECEs, a Spartan, who, upon hearing, 
before the battle of Thermopylae, that the Per- 
sians were so numerous that their arrows would 
darken the light of the sun, observed, that it 
■would be a great convergence, for they then 
should fight in the shade. Herodot. 7, c. 226. 

DiNARCHUs, a Greek orator, son of Sostratus, 
438 



and disciple to Theophrastus, at Athens. He 
acquired much money by his compositions, and 
suffered himself to be bribed by the enemies of 
the Athenians, 307 B. C. Of 64 of his ora- 
tions, only three remain. Cic. de Oral. 2, c. 53. 

DiNOCHAREs, an architect, who finished the 
temple of Diana at Ephesus, after it had been 
burnt by Erostratus. 

DiNOCRATEs, I. an architect of Macedonia, 
who proposed to Alexander to cut mount Athos 
in the form of a statue, holding a city in one 
hand, and in the other a basin, into which all 
the waters of the mountain should empty them- 
selves. This project Alexander rejected as too 
chimerical, but he employed the talents of the 
artist in building and beautifying Alexandria. 
He began to build a temple in honour of Arsi- 
noe, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 
which he intended to suspend a statue of the 
queen by means of loadstones. His death, and 
that of his royal patron, prevented the execu- 
tion of a work which would have been the ad- 
miration of future ages. Plin. 7, c. 37. — Mar- 

cell. 22i c. ^^.—Plut. in Alex. II. A Mes- 

senian, who behaved with great effeminacy and 
wantonness. He defeated Philopoemen, and 
put him to death B. C, 183. Pint, in Flam. 

DiNOLOcHus, a Syracusan, who composed 14 
comedies. jElian. de Anim. 6, c. 52. 

DiNON, the father of Clitarchus, who wrote 
a history of Persia in Alexander's age. He is 
esteemed a very authentic historian by C. Nep. 
in Conon. — Plut. in Alex. — Diog. 

DiocLEA, festivals in the spring at Megara, 
in honour of Diodes, who died in the defence 
of a certain youth to whom he was tenderly at- 
tached. There was a contention on his tomb, 
and the youth who gave the sweetest kiss wan 
publicly rewarded with a garland. Theocritus 
has described them in his 12 Jdyll. v. 27. 

DiocLEs, I. a general of Athens, &c. PolycBn. 

5. II. A comic poet of Athens. III. An 

historian, the first Grecian who ever wrote con- 
cerning the origin of the Romans and the fab- 
ulous history of Romulus. Plut. in Rom. 

IV. One of the four brothers placed over the 
citadel of Corinth by Archelaus, &c. Polyan. 6. 

DiocLETiANUs, I. (Caius Valerius Jovius) a 
celebrated Roman emperor, born of an obscure 
family in Dalmatia. He was first a common 
soldier, and by merit and success he gradually 
rose to the office of a general, and, at the death 
of Numerian, he was invested with the imperial 
purple. In his high station he rewarded the vir- 
tues and fidelity of Maximian, who had shared 
with him all the subordinate officers in the army, 
by making him his colleague on the throne. He 
created two subordinate emperors, Constantius 
and Galerius, whom he called Casars, whilst 
he claimed for himself and his colleague the su- 
perior title of Augustus. Diocletian has been 
celebrated for his military virtues ; and though 
he was naturally unpolished by education and 
study, yet he was the friend and patron of learn- 
ing with true genius. His cruelty, however, 
against the followers of Christianity has been 
deservedly branded with the appellation of un- 
bounded tyranny and insolent wantonness. Af- 
ter he had reigned 21 years in the greatest pros- 
perity, he publicly abdicated the crown at Nico- 
media, on the first of May, A. D. 304, and re- 
tired to a private station at Salona. Maximian, 



DI 



HISTORY, &c. 



DI 



his colleague,followed bis example, but not from 
voluntary choice ; and when be some time after 
endeavoured to rouse the ambition of Diocletian, 
and persuade him to reassume the imperial pur- 
ple, he received for answer, that Diocletian took 
now more delight in cultivating his little garden, 
than he formerly enjoyed in a palace when his 
power was extended over all the earth. He 
lived nine years after his abdicatioQ, iathe great- 
est security and enjoyment at Salona, and died 
in the 68th year of his age, Diocletian is the 
first sovereign who voluntarily resigned his 
power ; a philosophical resolution, which, in a 
later age, was imitated by the emperor Charles 
the fifth, of Germany. 

DiODoRUs, I. an historian, sumamed Siculus, 
because he was born in Sicily. He wrote a 
history of Egypt, Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, 
Rome, and Carthage, which was divided into 40 
books, of which only 15 are extant, with some 
few fragments. This valuable composition was 
the work of an accurate inquirer, and it is said 
that he visited all the places of which he has 
made mention in his history. It was the labour 
of 30 years, though the greater part may be con- 
sidered as nothing more than a judicious compi- 
lation from Berosus, Timseus, Theopompus, 
Callisthenes, and others. The author, however, 
is too credulous in some of his narrations, and 
often wanders far from the truth. His style is 
neither elegant nor too laboured ; butof great 
simplicity and unaffected correctness. He often 
dwells too long upon fabulous reports and tri- 
fling incidents, while events of the greatest im- 
portance to history are treated with brevity, and 
sometimes passed over in silence. His manner 
of reckoning, by the Olympiads and the Roman 
consuls, will be found very erroneous. The his- 
torian flourished about 44 years B . C . He spent 
much time at Rome to procure information and 
authenticate his historical narrations. The best 
edition of his works is that of Wesseling, 2 vols, 
fol. Amst. 1746. II. A stoic philosopher, pre- 
ceptor to Cicero. He lived and died in the house 
of his pupil, whom he instructed in the various 
branches of Greek literature. Cic. in Brut. 

Diogenes, I. a celebrated cynic philosopher 
of Sinope, banished from his country for coin- 
ing false money. From Sinope he retired to 
Athens, where he became the disciple of An- 
tisthenes, who was at the head of the cynics. 
Antisthenes, at first, refused to admit him into 
his house, and even struck him with a stick. 
Diogenes calmly bore the rebuke, and said, 
Strike me, Antisthenes, but never shall you find 
a stick sufficiently hard to remove me from your 
presence while there is any thing to be learnt, 
any information to be gained from your conver- 
sation and acquaintance. Such firmness re- 
commended him to Antisthenes, and he became 
his most devoted pupil. He dressed himself in 
the garment which distinguished the cynics, 
and walked about the streets with a tub on his 
head, which served him as a house and a place 
of repose. Such singularity, joined to the 
greatest contempt for riches, soon gained him 
reputation; and Alexander the Great conde- 
scended to visit the philosopher in his tub. He 
asked Diogenes if there was any thing in which 
he could gratify or oblige him. Get out of my 
sunshine, was the only answer which the phi- 
losopher gave. Such an independence of mind 



so pleased the monarch, that he turned to his 
courtiers, and said, " Were I not Alexander, I 
would wish to be Diogenes." He was once sold 
as a slave ; but his magnanimity so pleased his 
master, that he made him the preceptor of his 
children and the guardian of his estates. After 
a life spent in the greatest misery and indigence, 
he died B. C. 324, in the 96th year of his age. 

II. A stoic of Babylon, disciple of Chry- 

sippus. He went to Athens, and was sent as 
ambassador to Rome, with Carneades and Cri- 
tolaus, 155 years before Christ. He died in the 
88th year of his age, after a life of the most 
exemplary virtue. Some suppose that he was 
strangled by order of Antiochus, king of Syria, 
for speaking disrespectfully of his family in one 
of his treatises. Quintil. 1, c. 1. — Athen. 5, c. 

11. — Cic. d£ Offic. 3, c. 51. III. Laertius, an 

Epicurean philosopher, born in Cilicia. He 
wrote the lives of the philosophers, in ten books, 
still extant. This work contains an accurate 
account of the ancient philosophers, and is 
replete with all their anecdotes and particular 
opinions. It is compiled, however, without any 
plan, method, or precision, though much neat- 
ness and conciseness are observable through 
the whole. In this multifarious biography, the 
author does not seem particularly partial to any 
sect, except, perhaps, it be that of Potamon, of 
Alexandria, Diogenes died A. D. 222, The 
best editions of his works are that ef Meibo- 
mius, 2 vols. 4to, Amst, 1692, and that of Lips. 
8vo. 1759. 

DioGNETUs, a philosopher who instructed 
Marcus Aurelius in philosophy and in writing 
dialogues. 

DioMEDEs, son of Tydeus and Deiphyle, was 
king of ^tolia, and one of the bravest of the 
Grecian chiefs in the Trojan war. He engaged 
Hector and jEneas, and by repeated acts of 
valour obtained much military glory. He went 
with Ulysses to steal the Palladium from the 
temple of Minerva at Troy, and assisted in mur- 
dering Rhesus, king of Thrace, and carrying 
away his horses. At his return from the siege 
of Troy, he lost his way in the darkness of the 
night, and landed in Attica, where his com- 
panion plundered the country, and lost the Tro- 
jan Palladium. During his long absence, his 
wife .^giale forgot her marriage vows, and Di- 
omedes resolved to abandon his native country. 
He came to that part of Italy which has been 
called Magna GraBcia, where he built a city, 
called Argyripa, and married the daughter of 
Daunus, the king of the country. He died 
there in extreme old age, or, according to a cer- 
tain tradition, he perished by the hand of his 
father-in-law. His death was greatly lamented 
by his companions, who, in the excess of their 
grief, were changed into birds resembling swans. 
These birds took flight into a neighbouring 
island in the Adriatic, and became remarkable 
for the tameness with which they approached 
the Greeks, and for the horror with which the)'' 
shunned all other nations. They are called the 
birds of Diomedes. Altars were raised to Dio- 
medes, as to a god, one of which Strabo men- 
tions at Timavus. Virg. Mn. 1, v. 756, 1. 11, 
v.243,&c.— Oi^i^. Met. 14, i^h.Vd.—Afollod. 1, 
c. 8, 1. 3, c, l.—Hygin. fab, 97, 112, and 113.— 
Pans. 2, c. 30. 
Dion, I. a Svracusan, son of Hipparinus, fa- 
429 



m 



HISTORY, &c. 



m 



mous for his power and abilities. He was related 
to Dionysius, and often advised him, together 
with the philosopher Plato, who, at his request, 
had come to reside at the tyrant's court, to lay 
aside the supreme power. His great popularity 
rendered him odious in the eyes of the tyrant, 
who banished him to Greece. There he collect- 
ed a numerous force, and, encouraged by the in- 
fluence of his name and the hatred of his ene- 
my, he resolved to free his country from tyranny. 
He entered the port of Syracuse only with two 
ships, and in three days reduced under his power 
an empire which had already subsisted for fifty 
years, and which was guarded by 500 ships of 
war, and 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. The 
tyrant fled to Corinth, and Dion kept the power 
in his own hands, fearful of the aspiring ambi- 
tion of some of the friends of Dionysius. He 
was, however, shamefully betrayed and mur- 
dered by one of his familiar friends, called 
Callicrates, or Callipus, 354 years before the 
Christian era, in the 55th year of his age, and 
four years after his return from Peloponnesus. 
His death was universally lamented by the Sy- 
racusans, and a monument was raised to his 

memory. Diod.16. — C. Nep.invitd. II. Cas- 

sius, a native of Nicoea in Bithynia. His father's 
name was Apronianus. He was raised to the 
greatest offices of state in the Roman empire by 
Pertinax and his three successors. Naturally 
fond of study, he improved himself by unwea- 
ried application, and was ten years in collecting 
materials for a history of Rome, which he made 
public in 80 books, after a laborious employment 
of 12 years in composing it. This valuable his- 
tory began with the arrival of iEneas in Italy, 
and was continued down to the reign of the em- 
peror Alexander Severus. The 34 first books 
are totally lost, the 20 following are mutilated, 
and fragments are all that we possess of the last 
20. In the compilation of his extensive history, 
Dion proposed tohiraself Thucydides for a mo- 
del ; but he is not perfectly happy in his imita- 
tion. His style is pure and elegant, and his nar- 
rations are judiciously managed, and his reflec- 
tions learned ; but upon the whole he is credu- 
lous, and the bigoted slave of partiality, satire, 
and flattery. He inveighs agains the republi- 
can principles of Brutus and Cicero, and extols 
the cause of Caesar. Seneca is the object of his 
satire, and he represents him as debauched and 
licentious in his morals. Dion flourished about 
the 230th year of the Christian era. The best 
edition of his works is that of Reimarus, 2 vols. 

fol. Hamb. 1750. III. A famous Christian 

writer, surnamed Chrysostom, &c. 

DioNYsiA, festivals in honour of Bacchus 
among the Greeks. Their form and solemnity 
were first introduced into Greece from Egypt by 
a certain Melampus, and if we admit that Bac- 
chus is the same as Isis, the Dionysia of the 
Greeks are the same as the festivals celebrated 
by the Egyptians in honour of Isis. They were 
observed at Athens with more splendour and 
ceremonious superstition than in any other part 
of Greece. The years were numbered by their 
celebration, the archon assisted at the solemnity, 
and the priests that officiated were honoured 
with the most dignified seats at thepublic games. 
At first they were celebrated with great simpli- 
city, and the time was consecrated to mirth. It 
was then usual to bring a vessel of wine adorn- 
430 



ed with a vine branch, after which followed a 
goat, a basket of figs, and the ^aWoi. The wor- 
shippers imitated in their dress and actions the 
poetical fictions concerning Bacchus. They 
clothed themselves in fawnskins, fine linen, and 
mitres ; they carried thyrsi, drums, pipes, and 
flutes, and crowned themselves with garlands of 
ivy, vine, fir, &c. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, 
and the Satyrs, by the uncouth manner of their 
dress and their fantastical motions. Some rode 
upon asses, and others drove the goats to slaugh- 
ter for the sacrifice. In this manner both sexes 
joined in the solemnity, and ran about the hills 
and country, nodding their heads, dancing in 
ridiculous postures, and filling the air with hide- 
ous shrieks and shouts, and crying aloud, Evoe 
Bacche! lo! lo! Evoe! lacche! lobacchel 
Evohe ! Besides these, there were a number of 
persons called \iKvoipopoi, who carried ih.eXtKi>ov 
or musical van of Bacchus ; without their at- 
tendance none of the festivals of Bacchus were 
celebrated with due solemnity, and on that ac- 
count the god is often called Xikvit/h. The fes- 
tivals of Bacchus were almost innumerable. 
The name of the' most celebrated were the 
Dionysia ap^'*'""?'') ^^ LimnsB in Attica. The 
chief persons that officiated were fourteen wo- 
men, called yepaipai, venerable. They were ap- 
pointed by one of the archons, and before their 
appointment they solemnly took an oath, before 
the archon or his wife, that their body was free 

from all pollution. The greater Dionysia, 

sometimes called aaiKa or ra kut' oav, as bemg 
celehraXedwithin the city, were the most famous. 
They were supposed to be the same as the pre- 
ceding.—- — The less Dionysia, sometimes call- 
ed ra KUT^ aypovs, bccause celebrated in the coun- 
try, or Xrivaia, from \r]voq a winepress, were. to 
all appearance a preparation for the greater fes- 
tivals. They were celebrated in autumn. 

The Dionysia 0pavpovia, observed at Brauron 
in Attica, were a scene of lewdness, extrava- 
gance, and debauchery. The Dionysia wk- 

rn\ta were observed by the Athenians in honour 
of Bacchus Nyctelius. It was unlawful to re- 
veal whatever was seen or done during the cele- 
bration. The Dionysia called oi^ocpayia, be- 
cause human victims were offered to the god, or 
because the priests imitated the eating of raw 
jlesh, were celebrated with much solemnity. 
The priests put serpents in their hair, and by 
the wildness of their looks, and the oddity of 

their actions, they feigned insanity. The 

Dionysia apKaSiKa were yearly observed in Ar- 
cadia, and the children who had been instructed 
in the music of Philoxenus and Timotheus, 
were introduced in a theatre, where they cele- 
brated the festivals of Bacchus by entertaining 
the spectators with songs, dances, and different 
exhibitions. There were, besides these, others 
of inferior note. There was also one observed 
every three years, called Dionysia rjoiempt/fa, and 
it is said that Bacchus instituted it himself in 
commemoration of his Indian expedition, in 
which he spent three years. There is also an- 
other, celebrated every fifth year, as mentioned 

by the scholiast of Aristophanes. All these 

festivals in honour of the god of wine, were ce- 
lebrated by the Greeks with great licentious- 
ness, and they contributed much to the corrup- 
tion of morals among all ranks of people. They 
were also introduced into Tuscany, and from 



DI 



HISTORY, &c. 



DI 



thence to Rome. Among the Romans both sexes 
promiscuously joined in the celebration during 
the darkness of night. The drunkenness, the 
debauchery, and impure actions and indulgen- 
ces, which soon prevailed at the solemnity, call- 
ed aloud for the interference of the senate; and 
the consuls Sp. Posthumius Albinus and Q,. 
Martins Philippus, made a strict examination 
concerning the propriety and superstitious forms 
of the Bacchanalia. The disorder and pollu- 
tion which was practised with impuniiy by no 
less than 7000 votaries of either sex, was be- 
held with horror and astonishment by the con- 
suls; and the Bacchanalia were for ever ban- 
ished from Rome by a decree of the senate. 
They were again reinstituted there in length of 
time, but not with such licentiousness as before. 
Eurip. in Bacc. — Virg. Mn. 11, v. 737. — Diod. 
A.— Ovid. Met. 3, V. 533, 1. 4. v. 391, 1. 6, v. 587. 
DioNYsius, 1st, or the elder, was son of Her- 
mocrates. He signalized himself in the wars 
which the Syracusans carried on against the 
Carthaginians, and taking advantage of the 
power lodged in his hands, he made himself ab- 
solute at Syracuse. To strengthen himself in 
his usurpation, and acquire popularity, he in- 
creased the pay of the soldiers, and recalled 
those that had been banished. He vowed eternal 
enmity against Carthage, and experienced va- 
rious successes in his wars against that republic. 
He was ambitious of being thought a poet, and 
his brother Theodoras was commissioned to go 
to Olympia, and repeat there some verses in his 
name, with other competitors, for the poetical 
prizes. His expectations were frustrated, and 
his poetry was received with groans and hisses. 
He was not, however, so unsuccessful at Athens, 
where a poetical prize was publicly adjudged to 
one of his compositions. This victory gave him 
more pleasure than all the victories he had ever 
obtained in the field of battle. His tyranny and 
cruelty at home rendered him odious in the eyes 
of his subjects, and he became so suspicious, 
that he never admitted his wife or children to his 
private apartments without a previous examina- 
tion of their garments. He never trusted his 
head to a barber, but always burnt his beard. 
He made a subterraneous cave in a rock, said 
to be still extant, in the form of a human ear, 
which measured 80 feet in height and 250 in 
length. It was called the ear of Dionysius. The 
sounds of this subterraneous cave were all ne- 
cessarily directed to one common tympanum, 
which had a communication with an adjoining 
room where Dionysius spent the greater part of 
his time to hear whatever was said by those 
whom his suspicions and cruelty had confined in 
the apartments above. The artists that had 
been employed in making this cave were all put 
to death by order of the tyrant, for fear of their 
revealing to what purpose a work of such un- 
common construction was to be appropriated. 
His impiety and sacrilege were as conspicuous 
as his suspicious credulity. He took a golden 
mantle from the statue of Jupiter, observing that 
the son of Saturn had too warm a covering for 
the summer, and too cold for the winter, and he 
placed one of wool instead. He also robbed 
^sculapius of his golden beard, and plundered 
the temple of Proserpine. He died of an indi- 
gestion, in the 63d year of his age, B. C. 368, 
after a reign of 38 years. Authors, however, 



are divided about the manner of his death, and 
some are of opinion that he died a violent death. 
Some suppose that the tyremt invented the cata- 
pulta, an engine which proved of infinite service 
for the discharging of showers of darts and stones 
in the time of a siege. Diod. 13, 14, &c. — 
Justin. 20, c. 1, &c. — Xenoph. Htst. Gr<zc. — 
C. Nep. Timol.—Plut. in Diod. The se- 
cond of that name, surnamed the younger, was 
son of Dionysius the 1st, by Doris. He suc- 
ceeded his father as tyrant of Sicily, and by the 
advice of Dion, his brother-in-law, he invited 
the philosopher Plato to his court, under whom 
he studied for a while. The philosopher advised 
him to lay aside the supreme power, and in his 
admonitions he was warmly seconded by Dion. 
Dionysius refused to consent, and soon after 
Plaio was seized and publicly sold as a slave, 
Dion likewise,on account of his great popularity, 
was severely abused and insulted in his family, 
and his wife given in marriage to another. Such 
a violent behaviour was highly resented ; Dion, 
who was banished, collected some forces in 
Greece, and in three days rendered himself 
master of Syracuse, and expelled the tyrant B. 
C. 357. {Vid. Dion.) Dionysius retired to 
Locri, where he behaved with the greatest op- 
pression, and was ejected by the citizens. He 
recovered Syracuse ten years after his expul- 
sion : but his triumph was short, and the Corin- 
thians, under the conduct of Timoleon, obliged 
him to abandon the city. He fled to Corinth, 
where, to support himself, he kept a school, as 
Cicero observes, that he might still continue to 
be tyrant; and as he could not command over 
men, that he might siill exercise' his power over 
boys. It is said that he died from an excess of 
joy when he heard that a tragedy of his own 
composition had been awarded with a poetical 
prize. Dionysius was as cruel as his father, but 
he did not, like him, possess the art of retaining 
his power. This was seen and remarked by the 
old man, who, when he saw his son attempting 
to debauch the wives of some of his subjects, 
asked him, with the greatest indignation, whe- 
ther he had ever heard of his having acted so 
brutal a part in his younger days'? No, (answered 
the son) because you were not the son of a king. 
"Well, my son, (replied the old man,) never shalt 
thou be the father of a king, Justin. 21, c, 1, 
2, SiC— Diod. 15, &c.—^lian. V. H. 9, c. 8. 
— Quintil. 8, c. 6. — C. Nep. in Dion. — Cic. 

Tusc. 5, c. 2. III. An historian of Hali- 

carnassus, who left his country and came to re- 
side at Rome, that he might carefully study all 
the Greek and Latin writers, whose composi- 
tions treated ofthe Roman history. He formed 
an acquaintance with all the learned of the age, 
and derived much information from their com- 
pany and conversation. After an unremitted 
application during 24 years, he gave to the 
world his Roman antiquities, in 20 books, oi 
which only the 1 1 first are now extant, nearly 
containing the account of 312 years. His com- 
position has been greatly valued by the ancients 
as well as the moderns for the easiness of his 
style, the fidelity of his chronology, and the ju- 
diciousness of his remarks and criticism. Like 
a faithful historian, he never mentioned any 
thing but what was authenticated, and totally 
disregarded the fabulous traditions which fill 
and disgrace the pages of both his predecessors 
431 



DO 



HISTORY, &c. 



DO 



and followers. To the merits of the elegant 
historian, Dionysius, as may be seen in his 
treatises, has also added the equally respecta- 
ble character of the eloquent orator, the critic, 
and the politician. He lived during the Au- 
gustan age, and came lo Rome about 30 years 
before the Christian era. The best editions of 
his works are that of Oxford, 2 vols. fol. 1704, 
and that of Reiske, 6 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1774. 

IV. A tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus, in the 

age of Alexander the Great. After the deaih 
of the conqueror and of Perdiccas, he married 
Amestris, the niece of king Darius, and assum- 
ed the title of king. He was of such an un- 
common corpulence that he never exposed his 
person in public ; and when he gave audience 
to foreign ambassadors, he always placed him- 
self in a chair, which was conveniently made 
to hide his face and person from the eyes of the 
spectators. When he was asleep it was impos- 
sible to wake him without boring his flesh with 
pins. He died in the 55th year of his age. As 
his reign was remarkable for mildness and popu- 
larity, his death was severely lamented by nis 
subjects. He left two sons and a daughter, 

and appointed his widow queen regent. V. 

A writer in the Augustan age, called Periegetes. 
He wrote a very valuable geographical treatise 
in Greek hexameters, still extant. The best 
edition of his treatise is that of Henry Ste- 
phens, 4to. 1577, with the scholia, and that of 

Hill, 8vo. Lond. 1688. VI. A Christian 

■writer, A. D. 492, called Areopagita. The best 
edition of his works is that of Antwerp, 2 vols. 

fol. 1634. VII. The music master of Epami- 

nondas. C. Nep. VIII. A celebrated critic, 

Vid. Longinus. 

DioPHANTCJs, I. an Athenian general of the 
Greek mercenary troops in the service of Nec- 

tanebus, king of Egypt. Diod. 16. II. A 

Greek orator of Mitylene, preceptor to Tib. 

Gracchus. Cic. in Brut. III. A native of 

Alexandria, in the fourth century. He wrote 13 
books of arithmetical questions, of which six are 
still extant, the best edition of which is that in 
folio, Tolosae, 1670. He died in his 84th year, 
but the age in which he lived is uncertain. 
Some place him in the reign of Augustus, others 
under Nero and the Antonines. 

DioscoRiDES, I. a native of Cilicia, who was 
physician to Antony and Cleopatra, or lived, as 
some suppose, in the age of Nero. He was ori- 
ginally a soldier, but afterwards he applied him- 
self to study, and wrote a book upon medicinal 
herbs, of which the best edition is that of Sara- 

cenus, fol. Francof 1598. II. A man who 

wrote an account of the republic of Lacedaj- 
mon. A nephew of Antigonus. Diod. 19. 

DioTiME, a woman who gave lectures upon 
philosophy, which Socrates attended. Plut. in 
Symp. 

DiPHiLUs, I. the contemporary of Menander, 
was born at Sinope in Pontus, and died at 
Smyrna in Ionia. His comedies were celebrated 
for their wit, sense, and pleasantness; though 
some accused them of occasional dullness and 
insipidity, Plautus took his Casina from the 

KXepovfievoi of Diphilus. II. An Athenian 

general, A. U. C 311. III. An architect, so 

slow in finishing his works, that Diphilo tardior 
became a proverb. Cic. ad fratr. 3. 

DociMus, a man of Tarentum, deprived of his 
432 



military dignity by Philip, son of Amyntas, for 
indulging himself with hot baths. Polycem.. 4. 

DODoNiDEs, the priestesses who gave oracles 
in the temple of Jupiter in Dodona. According 
to some traditions, the temple was originally 
inhabited by seven daughters of Atlas, who 
nursed Bacchus. Their names were Ambrosia, 
Eudora, Pasithoe, Pylho, Plexaure, Coronis, 
Tythe or Tyche. In the latter ages, the oracles 
were always delivered by three old women, 
which custom was first established when Jupiter 
enjoyed the company of Dione, whom he per- 
mitted to receive divine honours in his temple 
at Dodona. The Boeotians were the only people 
of Greece who received their oracles at Dodona 
from men, for reasons which Strabo 1, 9, fully 
explains. 

DoLABELLA, (P. CoRN.) I. a Romau who mar- 
ried the daughter of Cicero. During the civil 
wars he warmly espoused the interest of J. 
Caesar, whom he accompanied at the famous 
battles at Pharsalia, Africa, and Munda. He 
was made consul by his patron, though M. An- 
tony, his colleague, opposed it. After the death 
of J. Csesar, he received the government of Sy- 
ria as his province. Cassius opposed his views, 
and Dolabella, for violence, and for the assas- 
sination of Trebonius, one of Caesar's murder- 
ers, was declared an enemy to the republic of 
Rome. He was besieged by Cassius in Laodi- 
cea, and when he saw that all was lost, he killed 
himself, in the 27th year of his age. He was 
of a small stature, which gave occasion to his 
father-in-law to ask him once, when he entered 
his house, who had tied him so cleverly to his 
sword. 31. Another, who conquered the 
Gauls, Etrurians, and Boii, at the lake Vadi- 

monis, B. C. 283, The family of the Dola- 

bellas distinguished themselves at Rome, and 
one of them (L. Corn.) conquered Lusitania, 
B.C. 99. 

DoLON, I. a Trojan, son of Eumedes, famous 
for his swiftness. Being sent by Hector to spy 
the Grecian camp by night, he was seized oy 
Dioraedes and Ulysses, to whom he revealed the 
situation, schemes, and resolutions of his coun- 
trymen, with the hope of escaping with his life. 
He was put to death by Diomedes, as a traitor. 
Homer. II. 10, v. 2U.— Virg. Mn. 12, v. 349, &C. 
■II. A poet. Vid. Susarion. 



Dominica, a daughter of Petronius, who mar- 
ried the emperor Valens. 

Domitia Lex, de Religione, was enacted by 
Domitius Ahenobarbus, the tribune, A. U. C- 
650. It transferred the right of electing priests 
from the college to the people. 

Domitia LoNG?NA,aRoman lady, who boasted 
of her debaucheries. She was the wife of the 
emperor Domitian. 

DoMiTiANus, Titus Flavins, son of Vespasian 
and Flavia Domatilla, made himself emperor of 
Rome at the death of his brother Titus, whom, 
according to some accounts, he destroyed by 
poison. The beginning of his reign promised 
tranquillity to the people, but their expectations 
were soon frustrated. Domitian became cruel, 
and gave way to incestuous and unnatural in- 
dulgences. He commanded himself to be called 
God and Lord in all the papers which were 
presented to him. He passed the greatest part 
of the day in catching flies,and killing them with 
a bodkin : so that it was wittily answered by 



DO 



HISTORY, &c. 



DR 



Vibius to a person who asked him who was with 
the emperor, Nobody, not even a fly. In the 
latter part of his reign, Domitian became sus- 
picious, and his anxieties were increased by the 
predictions of astrologers,but still more poignant- 
ly by the stings of remorse. He was so distrust- 
ful, even when alone, that round the terrace, 
where he usually walked, he built a wall with 
shinmg stone, that from them he might perceive, 
as in a looking-glass, whether any body folloAved 
him. All these precautions were unavailing ; 
he perished by the hand of an assassin, the 8th 
of September, A. D. 96, in the 45th year of his 
age and the 15th of his reign. He was the last 
of the twelve Caesars. He distinguished himself 
for his love of learning ; and in a little treatise 
which he wrote upon the great care which ought 
to be taken of the hair, to prevent baldness, he 
displayed much taste and elegance, according to 
the observations of his biographers. After his 
death he was publicly deprived by the senate of 
all the honours which had been profusely heap- 
ed upon him, and even his body was left in the 
open air without the honours of a funeral. This 
disgrace might proceed from the resentment of 
the senators, whom he had exposed to terror as 
well as to ridicule. He once assembled that au- 
gust body to know in what vessel a turbot might 
be most conveniently dressed. At another time 
they received a formal invitation to a feast, and 
when they arrived at the palace, they were in- 
troduced into a large gloomy hall "hung with 
black, and lighted with a few glimmering tapers. 
In the middle were placed a number of coffins, 
on each of which was inscribed the name of 
some one of the invited senators. On a sudden 
a number of men burst into the room, clothed 
in black, with drawn swords and flaming torch- 
es, and after they had for some time terrified the 
guests, they permitted them to retire. Such 
were the amusements and cruelties of a man 
who, in the first part of his reign, was looked 
upon as the father of his people and the restorer of 
learning and liberty. Suet, in vita. — Eutrop. 7. 

DoMiTiLLA, I, (Flavia,) a woman who mar- 
ried Vespasian, by whom she had Titus a year 
after her marriage, and 11 years after Domitian. 

II. A niece of the emperor Domitian, by 

whom she was banished. 

DoMiTius DoMiTiANUs, I. a general of Dio- 
cletian in Egypt. He assumed the imperial pur- 
ple at Alexandria, A. D. 288, and supported the 
dignity of emperor for about two years. He died 

a violent death. II. Lucius. Vid. jEnobar- 

bus. III. Cn. ^nobarbus, a Roman consul, 

who conquered Bituitus the Gaul, and left 20,000 
of the enemy on the field of battle, and took 3000 

prisoners. IV. A grammarian in the reign of 

Adrian. He was remarkable for his virtues an d 

his melancholy disposition. V. A Roman 

. who revolted from Antony to Augustus. He 
was at the battle of Pharsalia, and forced Pom- 
pey to fight by the mere force of his ridicule. 

VI. The father of Nero, famous for his 

cruelties and debaucheries. Suet, in Ner. 

VII. A tribune of the people, who conquered 
the Allobroges. Plut. VIII. A consul, dur- 
ing whose consulate peace was concluded with 

Alexander king of Epirus. Liv. 8, c. 17. 

IX. A consul under Caligula. He wrote some 
few things now lost. X. A Latin poet, called 



also Marsus, in the age of Horace. 
Part IT._3 I 



He wrote 



epigrams, remarkable for little besides their in- 
delicacy. Ovid, de Pont. 4, el. 16, v. 5. XL 

Afer, an orator, who was preceptor to Gluintil- 
ian. He disgraced his talents by his adulation, 
and by practising the arts of an informer under 
Tiberius and his successors. He was made a 
consul by Nero, and died A. D. 59. 

DoNATus, ^Lius, I. a grammarian who flou- 
rished A. D. 353. II. A bishop of Numidia, 

■a promoter of the Donatists, A. D. 311. III. 

A bishop of Africa, banished from Carthage A. 
D. 356. 

DoRSo, (C. Fabius,) a Roman, who, when 
Rome was in the possession of the Gauls, is- 
sued from the capitol, which was then besieged, 
to go and ofier a sacrifice, which was to be offer- 
ed on mount Cluirinalis. He dressed himself in 
sacerdotal robes, and carrying on his shoulders 
the statues of his country gods, passed through 
the guards of the enemy without betraying the 
least signs of fear. When he had finished his 
sacrifice, he returned to the capitol unmolested 
by the enemy, who were astonished at his bold- 
ness, and did not obstruct his passage or molest 
his sacrifice. Liv. 5, c. 46. 

DoRUs, a son of Hellen and Orseis, or, ac- 
cording to others, of Deucalion, who left Phthio- 
tis, where his father reigned, and went to make 
a settlement with some of his companions near 
mount Ossa. The country was called Doris, and 
the inhabitants Dorians. Herodot. l,*c. 56, &c. 

DosiADAs, a poet who wrote a piece of poetry 
in the form of an altar (Pojios) which Theocri- 
tus has imitated. 

Draco, I. a celebrated lawgiver of Athens. 
When he exercised the ofiice of archon, he made 
a code of laws, B. C. 623, for the use of the cit- 
izens, which, on account of their severity, were 
said to be written in letters of blood. By them, 
idleness was punished with as much severity as 
murder, and death was denounced against the 
one as well as the other. Such a code of rigo- 
rous laws gave occasion to a certain Athenian 
to ask of the legislator why he was so severe in 
his punishments; and Draco gave for answer, 
that as the smallest transgression had appeared 
to him deserving death, he could not find any 
punishment more rigorous for more atrocious 
crimes. These laws were at first enforced, but 
they were often neglected on account of their 
extreme severity, and Solon totally abolished 
them, except that one which punished a murder- 
er with death. The popularity of Draco was 
uncommon, but the gratitude of his admirers 
proved fatal to him. When once he appeared 
on the theatre, he was received with repeated 
applause, and the people, according to the cus- 
tom of the Athenians, showed their respect to 
their lawgiver by throwing garments upon him. 
This was done in such profusion, that Draco 
was soon hid under them, and smothered by the 
too great veneration of his citizens. Plut. in 
Sol. II. A man who instructed Plato in mu- 
sic. Id. de Music. 

Drances. Vid. Part III. 

Drimachps, a famous robber of Chios. When 
a price was set upon his head, he ordered a 
young man to cut it ofl" and go and receive the 
money. Such an uncommon instance of gene- 
rosity so pleased the Chians, that they raised a 
temple to his memory and honoured him as a 
god, Athen. 13. 

433 



DU 



HISTORY, &c. 



£B 



Drusilla LiviA, a daughter of Germanicus 
and Agrippina, famous for her debaucheries and 
licentiousness. Her brother Caligula was so 
tenderly attached to her, that in a dangerous ill- 
ness he made her heiress of all his possessions, 
and commanded that she should succeed him in 
the Roman empire. She died A. D. 38, in the 
23d year of her age, and was deified by her bro- 
ther Caligula, who survived her for someiime. 

Druso, an unskilful historian and mean usu- 
rer, who obliged his debtors, w^hen they could not 
pay him, to hear him read his compositions, to 
draw from them praises and flattery. Horai. 
1, Sai. 3, V. 86. 

Drusus, I. a son of Tiberius and Vipsania, 
who made himself famous by his intrepidity and 
courage in the provinces of lUyricum and Pan- 
nonia. He was raised to the greatest honours 
of the state by his father, but a blow which he 
gave to Sejanus, an audacious libertine, proved 
his ruin. Sejanus corrupted Livia, the wife of 
Drusus, and in conjunction with her he caused 
him to be poisoned by a eunuch, A. D. 23 



II. A son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who 
enjoyed offices of the greatest trust under Tibe- 
rius. His enemy Sejanus, however, eflfected 
his ruin by his insinuations ; Drusus was con- 
fined by Tiberius, and deprived of all aliment. 
He was found dead nine days after his confine- 
ment, A. D. 33. III. A son of the emperor 

Claudius,who died by swallowing a pear thrown 
in the air. IV. An ambitious Roman, grand- 
father to Cato. He was killed for his seditious 
conduct. Paterc. 1, c. 13. V. Livius, fa- 
ther of Julia Augusta, was intimate with Bru- 
tus, and killed himself with him after the battle 
of Philippi. Paterc. 2, c. 71. VI. M. Li- 
vius, a celebrated Roman, who renewed the pro- 
posals of the Agrarian laws, which had proved 
fatal to the Gracchi. He was murdered as he 
entered his house, though he was attended with 
a number of clients and Latins, to whom he 
had proposed the privileges of Roman citizens, 

B. C. 190. Cic. ad Her. 4, c. 12. VII. Nero 

Claudius, a son of Tiberius Nero and Livia, 
adopted by Augustus. He was brother to Ti- 
berius, who was afterwards made emperor. He 
greatly signalized himself in his wars in Ger- 
many and Gaul, against the Rhoeti and Vinde- 
lici, and was honoured with a triumph. He died 
of a fall from his horse in the 30th year of his 
age, B. C. 9. He left three children, Germani- 
cus, Livia, and Claudius, by his wife Antonia. 

Dion. VIII. Caius, an historian, who being 

one day missed from the cradle, was found the 
next on the highest part of the house, with his 

face turned towards the sun. The plebeian 

family of the Drusi produced eight consuls, two 
censors, and one dictator. The surname of 
Drusus was given to the family of the Livii, as 
some suppose, because one of them killed a 
Gaulish leader of that name. Virg. in 6, Mn. v. 
824, mentions the Drusi amonglhe illustrious 
Romans, and that perhaps more particularly 
because the wife of Augustus was of that family. 
DuiLLiA Lex, was enacted by M. Duillius, a 
tribune, A. U, C. 304. It made it a capital 
crime to leave the Roman people without its 
tribunes, or to create any new magistrate with- 
out a sufficient cause. Liv. 3, c. 55. Anoth- 
er, A. U. C. 392, to regulate what interest 
ought to be paid for money lent. 
434 



Duillius Nepos, C. a Roman consul, the 
first who obtained a victory over the naval pow- 
er of Carthage, B. C. 260. He took 50 of the 
enemy's ships, and was honoured with a naval 
triumph, the first that ever appeared at Rome. 
The senate rewarded his valour by permitting 
him to have music playing and torches lighted, 
at the public expense, every day while he was 
at supper. There were some medals struck in 
commemoration of this victory, and there still 
exists a column at Rome, which was erected on 
the occasion. Cic. de Senec. — Tacit. Ann. 1, 
c. 12. 

DuMNORix, a powerful chief among the ^dui. 
Cces. Bell. G. 1, c. 9. 

DuRis, an historian of Samos, who flourislied 
B. C. 257. He wrote the life of Agathocles of 
Syracuse, a treatise on tragedy, a history of 
Macedonia, «&c, Sirab. 1. 

DouMviRi, two noble patricians at Rome, first 
appointed by Tarquin to keep the Sybilline 
books, which were supposed to contain the fate 
of the Roman empire. These sacred books 
were placed in the capitol, and secured in a 
chest under the ground. They were consulted 
but seldom, and only by an order of the senate, 
when the armies had been defeated in war. or 
when Rome seemed to be threatened by an inva- 
sion or by secret seditions. These priests con- 
tinued in their original institution till the year 
U. C. 388, when a law was proposed by the tri- 
bunes to increase the number to ten. Some 
time after Sylla increased them to fifteen, known 

by the name of Cluin decemviri. There were 

also certain magistrates at Rome, called Duum- 
viri perduelliones sive capitales. They were 
first created by Tullus Hostilius, for trying such 
as were accused of treason. This office was 
abolished as unnecessary, but Cicero complains 
of their revival by Labienus the tribune. Oral, 
pro Rabir. Some of the commanders of the 
Roman vessels were also called Duumviri, 
especially when there were two together. They 
were first created A. U. C. 542. There were 
also in the municipal towns in the provinces 
two magistrates called Duumviri municipales. 
They were chosen from the Centurions, and 
their office was much the same as that of the 
two consuls at Rome. They were sometimes 
preceded by two lictors with the fasces. Their 
magistracy continued for five years, on which 
account they have been called Qmnquennales 
magistratus. 

Dymnus, one of Alexander's officers. He 
conspired with many of his fellow-soldiers 
against his master's life. The conspiracy was 
discovered, and Dymnus stabbed himself before 
he was brought before the king. Curt. 6, c. 7. 

Dysaules, a brother of Celeus, who insiiiu- 
ted the mysteries of Ceres at Celese. Pans. % 
c. 14. 

Dyscinetus, an Athenian archon. Pans. 4. 

E. 

Ebdome, a festival m honour of Apollo at 
Athens, on the seventh day of every lunar 
month. It was usual to sing hymns in honour 
of the god, and to carry about boughs of laurel. 

There was also another of the same name, 

celebrated by private families the seventh day 
after the birth of every child. 



DA 



HISTORY, &C. 



DA 



EcHECKATEs, a Thcssaliaii, wlio offered vio- 
lence to Phoebas, the priestess of Apollo's tem- 
ple of Delphi. From this circumstance a de- 
cree was made, by which no woman was ad- 
mitted to the office of priestess before the age of 
fifty. Diod. 4. 

EcHEMDs, I. an Arcadian, who conquered the 
Dorians when they endeavoured to recover Pe- 
loponnesus under Hyllus. Paus. 8, c. 5. II. 

A king of Arcadia, who joined Aristomenes 
against the Spartans. 

EcHESTRATUs, a SOU of Agis 1st, king of Spar- 
ta, who succeeded his father, B. C. 1058. He- 
rodot. 7, c. 204. 

Eetion, I. the father of Andromache, and of 
seven sons, was king of Thebes in Cilicia. He 
was killed by Achilles. From him the word 
EeiioTieus is applied to his relations or descend- 
ants. Homer. II. 12. II. The commander 

of the Athenian fleet conquered by the Mace- 
donians under Clytus, near the Echinades. 
Diod. 18. 

Egnatia Maximilla, a woman who accom- 
panied her husband into banishment under Ne- 
ro, &c. Tacit. Ann. 15, c. 71. 

Elaphebolia, a festival in honour of Diana 
the Huntress. In the celebration a cake was 
made in the form of a deer, e\a((,os, and offered 
to the goddess. It owed its institution to the 
following circumstance : when the Phocians had 
been severely beaten by the Thessalians, they 
resolved, by the persuasion of a certain Dei- 
phantus, to raise a pile of combustible materials, 
and burn their wives,children,and effects, rather 
than submit to the enemy. This resolution was 
unanimously approved by the women, who de- 
creed Deiphantus a crown for his magnanimity. 
When every thing was prepared, before they 
fired the pile, they engaged their enemies, and 
fought with such desperate fury, that they total- 
ly routed them, and obtained a complete victory. 
In commemoration of this unexpected success, 
this festival was instituted to Diana, and ob- 
served with the greatest solemnity, so that even 
one of the months of the year, March, was 
called Elaphebolion from this circumstance. 

Electra, a daughter of Agamemnon, king 
of Argos. She first incited her brother Orestes 
to revenge his father's death by assassinating 
his mother Clytemnestra. Orestes gave her in 
marriage to his friend Pylades, and she became 
mother of two sons, Strophius and Medon. Her 
adventures and misfonunes form one of the in- 
teresting tragedies of the poet Sophocles. Hy- 
gin. fab. 122.— Paws. 2, c. \Q.—Mlian. V. H. 
4, c. 26, &c. 

Electryon. Vid. Part III. 

Eleusinia, a great festival observed every 
fourth year by the Celeans, Phliasians, as also 
by the Pheneatae, Lacedaemonians, Parrhasians, 
and Cretans ; but more particularly by the peo- 
ple of Athens, every fifth year, at Eleusis in 
Attica, where it was introduced by Eumolpus, 
B. C. 1356. It was the most celebrated of all 
the religious ceremonies of Greece ; whence it 
is often called by way of eminence livcrrripta, the 
mysteries. If any one ever revealed it, it was 
supposed that he had called divine vengeance 
upon his head, and it was unsafe to live in the 
same house with him. Such a wretch was pub- 
licly put to an ignominious death. This festi- 
val was sacred to Ceres and Proserpine ; every 



thing contained a mysteiy, and Ceres herself 
was known only by the name of ax^Ssia, from 
the sorrow and grief (a%^of) which she suffered 
for the loss of her daughter. This mysterious 
secrecy was solemnly observed, and enjoined to 
all the votaries of the goddess ; and if any one 
ever appeared at the celebration, either inten- 
tionally or through ignorance, without proper 
introduction, he was immediately punished with 
tieath. Persons of both sexes and all ages were 
initiated at this solemnity ; and it was looked 
upon as so heinous a crime to neglect this sacred 
part of religion, that it was one of the heaviest 
accusations which contributed to the condemna- 
tion of Socrates. The initiated were under the 
more particular care of the deities, and therefore 
their life was supposed to be attended with more 
happiness and real security than that of other 
men. This benefit was not only granted during 
life, but it extended beyond the grave ; and they 
were honoured with the first places in the Ely- 
sian fields, while others were left to wallow in 
perpetual filth and ignominy.. Such as were 
guilty of murder, though against their will, and 
such as were convicted of witchcraft, or any 
heinous crime, were not admitted; and the Athe- 
nians suffered none to be initiated but such as 
were members of their city. This regulation, 
which compelled Hercules, Castor, and Pollux, 
to become citizens of Athens, was strictly ob- 
served in the first ages of the institution, but af- 
terwards, all persons, barbarians excepted, were 
freely initiated. The festivals were divided into 
greater and less mysteries. The less were insti- 
tuted from the following circumstance: Her- 
cules passed near Eleusis while the Athenians 
were celebrating the mysteries, and desired to be 
initiated. As this could not be done because he 
was a stranger, and as Eumolpus was unwilling 
to displease him on account of his great power, 
and the services which he had done to the Athe- 
nians, another festival was instituted without 
violating the laws. It was called iJiKpa, and 
Hercules was solemnly admitted to the celebra- 
tion and initiated. These less mysteries were 
observed at Agrae near the Ilissus. The greater 
were celebrated at Eleusis, from which place 
Ceres has been called Eleusinia. In later times 
the smaller festivals were preparatory to the 
greater, and no person could be initiated at 
Eleusis without a previous purification at Agra. 
This purification they performed by keeping 
themselves pure, chaste, and unpolluted during 
nine days, after which they came and offered 
sacrifices and prayers,wearing garlands of flow- 
ers, called icrnepa or ifiepa and having under 
their feet Aioj Kcoc^iov, Jupiter^s skin, which Avas 
the skin of a victim offered to that god. The 
person who assisted was called vSpaiwg from 
v6o>p, water, which was used at the purification, 
and they themselves were called, ixvcai, the ini- 
tiated. A year after the initiation at the less 
mysteries, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and 
were admitted in the greater, and the secrets of 
the festivals were solemnly revealed to them, 
from which they were called ecpopoi and aTonrai, 
inspectors. After this the priest, called hpocpav- 
rm, proposed to them certain questions, to which 
they readily answered. After this, strange and 
amazing objects presented themselves to their 
sight, hideous noises and bowlings were heard, 
and the trembling spectators were alarmed by 
435 



EL 



HISTORY, &e. 



EL 



sudden and dreaded apparitions. This was 
called avToipia, intuition. After this, the ini- 
tiated were dismissed wiih the barbarious words 
of Koy^ ojiira^. The garments in which they 
were initiated were held sacred, and of no less 
efficacy to avert evils than charms and incanta- 
tions. From this circumstance, therefore, they 
were never left off before they were totally unfit 
for wear, after which they were appropriated for 
children or dedicated to ihe goddess. The chief 
person that attended at the initiation was called 
l£(,o(pavTr];, the revealer of sacred things. He 
was a citizen of Athens, and held his office dur- 
ing life ; though among the Celeans and Phlia- 
sians it was limited to the period of four years. 
He was obliged to devote himself totally to the 
service of the deities ; his life was chaste and 
single, and he usually anointed his body with 
the juice of hemlock, which is said, by its ex- 
treme coldness, to extinguish, in a great degree, 
the natural heat. The Hierophantes had three 
attendants ; the first was called JoaJw;/os, torch- 
bearer, and was permitted to marry. The 
second was called Kvpj]^, a cryer. The third 
administered at the altar, and was called oem 

^oiiwL. This festival was observed in the 

month Baedromion on September, and continued 
nine days, from the 15th till the 23d, During 
that time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or 
present any petition, on pain of forfeiting a 
thousand drachmas, or, according to others, on 
pain of death. It was also unlawful for those 
who were initiated to sit upon the cover of a 
well ; to eat beans, mullets, or weasels. If any 
woman rode to Eleusis in a chariot, she was 
obliged by an edict of Lycurgus to pay 6000 
drachmas. The design of this law was to 
destroy all distinction between the richer and 
poorer sorts of citizens. The first day of the cele- 
bration was called aynpjxos, assembly, as it might 
be said that the worshippers first met together. 
The second day was called aXaSe nvcai, to the 
sea, you that are initiated, because they were 
commanded to purify themselves by bathing in 
the sea. On the third day sacrifices, and chiefly 
a mullet, were offered; as also barley from a 
field of Eleusis. These oblations were called 
Ova, and held so sacred, that the priests them- 
selves were not, as in other sacrifices, permitted 
to partake of them. On the fourth day, they 
made a solemn procession, in which the «aXa- 
6iov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried about in 
a consecrated cart, while on every side the peo- 
ple shouted x'^ioE ArinriTep Hail, Ceres! After 
these followed women, called Ki(ro(popoi, who car- 
ried baskets, in which were sesamum, carded 
wool, grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, 
reeds, ivy boughs, certain cakes, &c. The fifth 
was called H tmv XaniraSoiv rijiepa, the torch- 
day, because on the following night the people 
run about with torches in their hands. It was 
usual to dedicate torches to Ceres, and contend 
which should offer the biggest in commemora- 
tion of the travels of the goddess, and of her 
lighting a torch in the flames of mount Mlna.. 
The sixth day was called laKX"?, from lacchus, 
the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied 
his mother in her search of Proserpine, with a 
torch in his hand. From that circumstance his 
statue had a torch in his hand, and was carried 
in solemn procession from the Ceramicus to 
Eleusis. The statue, with those that accompa- 
436 



nied it, called laKxay'^Y'^h were crowned with 
myrtle. In the way, nothing was heard but sing- 
ing and the noise of brazen kettles, as the vota- 
ries danced along. The way through which 
they issued from the city was called lepa oSosj 
the sacred way ; the resting place, lepa ovkh), from 
a fig-tree which grew in the neighbourhood. 
They also stopped on a bridge over the Cephi- 
sus, where they derided those that passed by. 
After they had passed this bridge, they entered 
Eleusis by a place called nvariKr} eiav^oi, the my&- 
tical entrance. On the seventh day were sports, 
in which the victors were rewarded with a 
measure of barley, as that grain had been first 
sown in Eleusis. The eighth day was called 
Y^nihavpioiv rijiepa, because oucc iEsculapius, at 
his return from Epidaurus to Athens, was ini- 
tiated by the repetition of the less mysteries. It 
became customary, therefore, to celebrate them 
a second time upon this, that such as had not 
hitherto been initiated, might be lawfully ad- 
mitted. The ninth and last day of the festival 
was called H\ri ixvxoai, earthen vessels, "because 
it was usual to fill two such vessels with wine, 
one of which being placed towards the east, and 
the other towards the west ; which, after the 
repetition of some mystical words, were both 
thrown down ; and the wine being spilt on the 
ground, was offered as a libation. Such was 
the manner of celebrating the Eleusinian myste- 
ries, which have been deemed the most sacred 
and solemn of all the festivals observed by the 
Greeks. Some have supposed them to be 
obscene and abominable, and that from thence 
proceeded all the mysterious secrecy. They 
were carried from Eleusis to Rome in the reign 
of Adrian, where they were observed with the 
same ceremonies as before, though perhaps with 
more freedom and licentiousness. They lasted 
about 1800 years, and were at last abolished bv 
Theodosius the Great. Mlian. V. H. 12, c. 24. 
Cic. de Leg. 2, c. \^.—Paus. 10, c. 21, «&c.— 
Plut. 

Eleutheria, a festival celebrated at Plataea 
in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or the asserter 
of liberty, by delegates from almost all the cities 
of Greece. Its institution originated in this : 
after the victory obtained by the Grecians under 
Pausanias over Mardonius, the Persian general 
in the country of Plataea, an altar ancl statue 
were erected to Jupiter Eleutherius, who had 
freed the Greeks from the tyranny of the bar- 
barians. It was further agreed upon, in a 
general assembly, by the advice of Aristides the 
Athenian, that deputies should be sent every 
fifth year from the different cities of Greece to 
celebrate Eleutheria, festivals of liberty. The 
Platseans celebrated also an aniversary festival 
in memory of those who had lost their lives in 
that famous battle. There was also a festival of 
the same name observed by the Samians, in 
honour of the god of love. Slaves also, when 
they obtained their liberty, kept a holiday, which 
they called Eleutheria. 

Eliensis. and Eliaca, a sect of philosophers 
founded bv Phoedon of Elis, who was originally 
a slave, but restored to liberty by Alcibiades. 
Diog. — Strab. 

Elissa. Vid. Dido. 

Elpinice, a daughter of Miltiades, who mar- 
ried a man that promised to release from con- 
finement her brother and husband, whom the 



EN 



HISTORY, &c. 



EN 



laws of Athens had made responsible for the 
fine imposed on his father. C. Nep. in Cim. 

Empedocles, a philosopher, poet, and histo- 
rian of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished 
444 B. C. He was the disciple of Telauges 
the Pythagorean, and warmly adopted the doc- 
trine of transmigration. He wrote a poem upon 
the opinions of Pythagoras, very much com- 
mended, in which he spoke of the various bodies 
which nature had given him. He was first a 
girl, afterwards a boy, a shrub, a bird, a fish, 
and lastly Empedocles. His poetry was bold 
andanimated,and his verses were so universally 
esteemed, that they were publicly recited at the 
Olympic games with those of Homer and He- 
siod. Empedocles was no less remarkable for his 
humanity and social virtues than for his learn- 
ing. He showed himself an inveterate enemy 
to tyranny, and refused to become the sovereign 
of his country. He taught rhetoric in Sicily, 
and often alleviated the anxieties of his mind as 
well as the pains of his body with music. It is 
reported that his curiosity to visit the flames of 
the crater of ^tna proved fatal to him. Some 
maintain that he wished it to be believed that 
he was a god, and, that his death might be un- 
known, he threw himself into the crater and 
perished in the flames. His expectations, how- 
ever, were frustrated, and the volcano, by throw- 
ing up one of his sandals, discovered to the 
world that Empedocles had perished by fire. 
Others report that he lived to an extreme old 
age, and that he was drowned in the sea. 
Horat. 1, ep. 12, v. 20.— Cic. de Orat. 1, c. 50, 
&c. — Diog. in vita. 

Ennius, Ql. This poet, who has generally re- 
ceived the glorious appellation of the Father of 
Roman song, was a native of Rudiee, a town in 
Calabria, and lived from the year of Rome 515 to 
585. In his early youth he went to Sardinia ; 
and, if Silius Italicus may be believed, he served 
in the Calabrian levies, which, in the year 538, 
followed Titus Manlius to the war which he 
waged in that island against the favourers of the 
Carthaginian cause. After the termination of 
the campaign, he continued to live for twelve 
years in Sardinia. He was at length brought to 
Rome by Calo the censor, who, in 550, visited 
Sardinia, on returning as questor from Africa. 
At Rome he fixed his residence on the Aventine 
hill, where he lived in a very frugal manner, 
having only a single servant-maid as an attend- 
ant. He instructed, however, the patrician 
youth in Greek, and acquired the friendship of 
many of the most illustrious men in the state. 
Being distinguished (like jEschylus, the great 
father of Grecian tragedy) in arms as well as 
letters, he followed M. Fulvius Nobilior during 
his expedition to ^toliain 564; and in 569 he 
obtained the freedom of the city, through the 
favour of Q,uintus Fulvius Nobilior, the son of 
his former patron, Marcus. He was also pro- 
tected by the elder Scipio Africanus, whom he 
is said to have accompanied in all his campaigns. 
In his old age he obtained the friendship of Sci- 
pio Nasica; and the degree of intimacy subsist- 
ing between them has been characterized by the 
well-known anecdote of their successively feign- 
ing to be from home. He is said to have been 
intemperate in drinking, which brought on the 
disease called Morbus Articularis, a disorder re- 
sembling the gout, of which he died at the age 



of seventy, just afler he had exhibited his tra- 
gedy of Thyestes. There is still extant an epi- 
taph on this poet, reported to have been writ- 
ten by himself, strongly characteristic of that 
overweening conceit and that high estimation of 
his own talent, which are said to have formed 
the chief blemish of his character : — 

' Aspicite, O cives, senis Enni imaginis formam • 
flic vestrum panxit maxuma facta patrum. 
ISemo me lacrumis decor et, nee funera Jleiu 
Faxit — cur 7 volito vivusper era virum.' 

To judge by the fragments of his works which 
remain, Ennius greatly surpassed his predeces- 
sors, not only in poetical genius, but in the art 
of versification. By his time, indeed, the best 
models of Greek composition had begun to be 
studied at Rome. Ennius particularly professed 
to have imitated Homer, and tried to persuade 
his countrymen that the soul and genius of that 
great poet had revived in him, through the me- 
dium of a peacock, according to the process of 
Pythagorean transmigration. Accordingly, we 
find in the fragments of Ennius many imitations 
of the Iliad and Odyssey. It is, however, the 
Greek tragic writers whom Ennius has chiefly 
imitated ; and indeed it appears from the frag- 
ments which remain, that all his plays were ra- 
ther translations from the dramas of Sophocles 
and Euripides, on the same subjects which he 
has chosen, than original tragedies. They are 
founded on the old topics of Priam and Paris, 
Hector and Hecuba ; and truly Ennius, as well 
as most other Latin tragedians, seems to have 
anticipated Horace's maxim : — 

' Rectius liiacum carmen deducts in actus, 
Quam si proferres ignota indiciaque primus.^ 

The great work, however, of Ennius, and of 
which we have still considerable remains, was 
his Annals, or metrical chronicles,devoted to the 
celebration of Roman exploits, from the earliest 
periods to the conclusion of the Istrian war. 
These Annals were written by our poet in his 
old age ; at least, Aulus Gellius informs us, on 
the authority of Varro, that the twelfth book 
was finished by him in his sixty-seventh year. 
The Annals of Ennius were partly founded on 
those ancient traditions and old heroic ballads, 
which Cicero, on the authority of Cato's Ori- 
gines, mentions as having been sung at feasts 
by the guests, many centuries before the age of 
Cato, in praise of the heroes of Rome. Nie- 
buhr has attempted to show, that all the memo- 
rable events of Roman history had been versi- 
fied in ballads, or metrical chronicles, in the Sa- 
turnian measure, before the time of Ennius ; 
who, according to him, merely expressed in the 
Greek hexameter, what his predecessors had 
delivered in a ruder strain, and then maliciously 
depreciated these ancient compositions, in order 
that he himself might he considered as the 
founder of Roman poetry. The poem of En- 
nius, entitled Phagetica, is curious, — as one 
would hardly suppose, that in this early age, 
luxury had made such progress, that the culin- 
ary art should have been systematically or poet- 
ically treated. All that we know, however, of 
the manner in which it was prepared or served 
up, is from the Apologia of Apuleius. It was, 
which its name imports, a didactic poerri on 
eatables, particular! v fish, as Apuleius testifies : 
' 437 



EP 



HISTORY, &c. 



EP 



— * CI. Enuii edeo phagetica, quas versibus scrip- 
sit, iiinumerabilia piscium genera enumerat, 
quas scilicet curiose cognorat.' It is well known, 
that previous to the time of Ennius, this subject 
had been discussed both in prose and verse by 
various Greek authors, and was particularly- 
detailed in the poem of Archestratus, the Epicu- 
rean : — 



The bard 



Who sang of poultry, venison^ and lard, 
Poet and cook ' 

It appears from a passage of Apuleius, that the 
work of Ennius was a digest of all the previous 
books on this subject. Another poem of En- 
nius, entitled Epicharmus, was so called be- 
cause it was translated from the Greek work of 
Epicharmus, the Pythagorean, on the Nature 
of Things, in the same manner as Plato gave 
the name of Timesus to the book which he trans- 
lated from Timseus the Locrian. On the whole, 
the works of Ennius are rather pleasing and 
interesting, as the early blossoms of that-poetry 
which afterwards opened to such perfection, 
than estimable from their own intrinsic beauty. 
This applies to the poetical productions of En- 
nius; but the most curious point connected 
with his literary history is his prose translation 
of the celebrated work of Euhemerus, entitled, 
'lepa Avaypacprj. Euhemerus is generally sup- 
posed to have been an inhabitant of Messene, 
a city of Peloponnesus. Being sent, as he rep- 
resented, on a voyage of discovery by Cassan- 
der, king of Macedon, he came to an island 
called Panchaia, in the capital of which, Pana- 
ra, he found a temple of the Tryphilian Jupi- 
ter, where stood a column inscribed with a re- 
gister of the births and deaths of many of the 
gods. Among these, he specified Uranus, his 
sons Pan and Saturn, and his daughters Rhea 
and Ceres ; as also Jupiter, Juno, and Neptune, 
who were the offspring of Saturn. According- 
ly, the design of Euhemerus was to show, by 
investigating their actions, and recording the 
places of their births and burials, that the my- 
thological deities were mere mortal men, raised 
to the rank of gods on account of the benefits 
which ihey had conferred on mankind, — a sys- 
tem which, according to Meiners and Warbur- 
ton, formed the grand secret revealed at the ini- 
tiation into the Eleusinian mysteries. The 
translation by Ennius, as well as the original 
work, is lost ; but many particulars concerning 
Euhemerus, and the object of his history, are 
mentioned in a fragment of Diodorus Siculus, 
preserved by Eusebius. Some passages have 
also been saved by St. Augustine; and long 
quotations have been made by Lactantius, in 
his treatise De Falsa Religione. These, so far 
as they extend, may be regarded as the truest 
and purest sources of mythological history, 
though not much followed in our modern Pan- 
theons. 

Entellus, a famous athlete among the friends 
of ^neas. He was intimate with Eryx, and 
entered the lists against Dares, whom he con- 
quered in the funeral games of Anchises in 
Sicily. Virg. JEn. 5, v. 387, &c. 

Epaminondas, a famous Theban, descended 

from the ancient kings of Boeotia. His father's 

name was Polymnus. He has been celebrated 

for his private virtues and military accomplish- 

438 



ments. His love of truth was so great, that he 
never disgraced himself by falsehood. He 
formed a most sacred and inviolable friendship 
with Pelopidas, whose life he saved in a battle. 
By his advice Pelopidas delivered Thebes from 
the power of Lacedaemon. This was the signal 
of war. Epaminondas was set at the head of 
the Theban armies, and defeated the Spartans 
at the celebrated battle of Leuctra, about 371 
years B. C. Epaminondas made a proper use 
of this victorious campaign, and entered the 
territories of Lacedaemon with 50,000 men. 
Here he gained many friends and partisans ; 
but at his return to Thebes he was seized as a 
traitor for violating the laws of his country. 
When he was making the Theban arms vic- 
torious on every side, he neglected the law 
which forbade any citizen to retain in his hands 
the supreme power more than one month, and 
all his eminent services seemed unable to re- 
deem him from death. He paid implicit obe- 
dience to the laws of his country, and only beg- 
ged his judges that it might be inscribed on his 
tomb that he had suffered death for saving his 
country from ruin. This animated reproach 
was felt ; he was pardoned, and invested again 
with the sovereign power. He was successful 
in a war in Thessaly, and assisted the Eleans 
against the Lacedaemonians, The hostile ar- 
mies met near Man tinea, and while Epaminon- 
das was bravely fighting in the thickest of the 
enemy, he received a fatal wound in the breast, 
and expired, exclaiming that he died uncon- 
quered, when he heard that the Boeotians ob- 
tained the viciory, in the 48th year of his age, 
363 years before Christ. The Thebans severely 
lamented his death ; in him their power was 
extinguished, for only during his life they had 
enjoyed freedom and independence among the 
Grecian states. Epaminondas was frugal as 
well as virtuous, and he refused with indigna- 
tion the rich presents which were offered to him 
by Artaxerxes, the king of Persia. He is re- 
presented by his biographer as an elegant dancer 
and a skilful musician, accomplishments high- 
ly esteemed among his countrymen. Plut. in 
Par all. — C. JVep. in vita. — Xenoph. Quasi. 
GrcBc.—Diod. 15. — Polyb. 1, 

Ephetjb, a number of magistrates at Athens, 
first instituted by Demophoon, the son of The- 
seus. They were reduced to the number of 51 
by Draco, who, according to some, first estab- 
lished them. They were superior to the Areop- 
agites, and their privileges were great and nu- 
merous. Solon, however, lessened their power, 
and intrusted them only with the trial of man- 
slaughter and conspiracy against the life of a 
citizen. They were all more than fifty years 
old, and it was required that their manners 
should be pure and innocent, and their beha- 
viour austere and full of gravity. 

Ephori, powerful magistrates at Sparta, who 
were first created by Lycurgus ; or, according 
to some, by Theopompus, B. C. 760. They 
were five in number. Like censors in the state, 
they could check and restrain the authority of the 
kings, and even imprison them if guilty of irreg- 
ularities. They fined Archidamus for marry- 
ing a wife of small stature, and imprisoned Agis 
for his unconstitutional behaviour. They were 
much the same as the tribunes of the people at 
Rome, created to watch with a jealous eye over 



EP 



HISTORY, &c. 



EP 



the liberties and rights of the populace. They 
had the management of the public money, and 
were the arbiters of peace and war. 'I'heir of- 
fice was annual, and they had the privilege of 
convening,proroguing, and dissolving the great- 
er and less assemblies of the people. The for- 
mer was composed of 9000 Spartans, all in- 
habitants of the city ; the latter of 30.000 Lace- 
daemonians, inhabitants of the inferior towns 
and villages. C. Nep. in Paus. 3. — Aristot. 
Pol. 2, 7. 

Ephorus, an orator and historian of Cum^ 
in ^olia, about 352 years before Christ. He 
was disciple of Isocrates, by whose advice he 
wrote a history which gave an account of all 
the actions and battles that had happened be- 
tween the Greeks and barbarians for 750 years. 
It was greatly esteemed by the ancients. It is 
now lost. Quintil. 10, c. 1. 

Epicharmus, the first comic writer of whom 
we have any certain account, was a Syracusan 
by birth or emigration. It was about Olymp. 
70th, 1, B. C. 500,— thirty-five years after 
Thespis biegan to exhibit, eleven years after the 
commencement of Phrynichus, and just before 
the appearance of iEschylus as a tragedian, — 
that Epicharmus produced the first comedy pro- 
perly so called. Before him this department of 
the drama was, as we have every reason to be- 
lieve, nothing but a series of licentious songs 
and satiric episodes, without plot, connexion, or 
consistency. He gave to each exhibition one 
single and unbroken fable, and converted the 
loose interlocutions into regular dialogue. The 
subjects of his comedies, as we may infer from 
the extant titles of thirty-five of them, were 
chiefly mythological. Tragedy had, some few 
years before the era of Epicharmus, begun to 
assume its staid and dignified character. The 
woes of heroes and the majesty of the gods had, 
under Phrynichus, become its favourite theme. 
The Sicilian poet seems to have been struck 
with the idea of exciting the mirth of his audi- 
ence, by the exhibition of some ludicrous matter 
dressed up in all the grave solemnity of the 
newly-invented art. Discarding, therefore, the 
low drolleries and scurrilous invectives of the 
ancient Krw^ojJta, he opened a novel and less in- 
vidious source of amusement, by composing a 
set of burlesque dramas upon the usual tragic 
subjects. They succeeded ; and the turn thus 
given to comedy long continued ; so that when 
it once more returned to personality and satire, 
as it speedily did, tragedy and tragic poets were 
the constant objects of its parody and ridicule. 
The great changes thus effected by Epicharmus 
justly entitled him to be called the inventor of 
comedy. But his merits rest not here : he was 
distinguished for elegance in composition, as 
well as originality of conception. So many 
were his dramatic excellencies, that Plato terms 
him the first of comic writers; and, in a later 
age and foreign country, Plautus chose him as 
his model. The plays of Epicharmus, to judge 
from the fragments still left us, abounded in 
apothegms, little consistent with the idea we 
might otherwise have entertained of their na- 
ture, from our knowledge of the buff^ooneries 
whence his comedy sprung, and the writings of 
Aristophanes, his partially-extant successor. 
But Epicharmus was a philosopher and a Pytha- 
gorean. In the midst of merriment he failed 



not to inculcate, in pithy gnomae, the otherwise 
distasteful lessons of morality to the gay and 
thoughtless; and, sheltered by comic license, to 
utter offensive political truths, which, promul- 
ged under any other circumstances, might have 
subjected the sage to the vengeance of a des- 
potic government. We find Epicharmus still 
composing comedies, B, C. 485; and again du- 
ring the reign of Hiero, B. C. 477. He died at 
the age of ninety or ninety-seven years. 

Epiclides, a Lacedaemonian of the family of 
the Eurysthenidae. He was raised to the throne 
by his brother Cleomenes 3d, in the place of 
Agis, against the laws and constitution of Spar- 
ta. Paus. 2, c. 9. 

Epicraies, was a native of Ambracia in Epi- 
rus, and the imitator, accordi g to Athenaeus, 
of Antiphanes. He made Plato the subject of 
his ridicule ; and a long and curious fragment 
is preserved, where the disciples of that philos- 
opher are described as engaged in deep dis- 
cussion over a cucumber. 

Epictetds, a stoic philosopher ofHieropolis 
in Phrygia, originally the slave of Epaphrodi- 
tus, the freedman of Nero. Though driven 
from Rome by Domitian, he returned after the 
emperor's death, and gained the esteem of Ad- 
rian and Marcus Aurelius. Like the stoics, he 
supported the doctrine of the immortality of the 
soul, but he declared himself strongly against 
suicide, which was so warmly adopted by his 
sect. He died in a very advanced age. The 
earthen lamp of which he made use, was sold 
some time after his death at 3000 drachmas. 
His Enchiridion is a faithful picture of the stoic 
philosophy ; and his dissertations, which were 
delivered to his pupils, were collected by Arrian. 
His style is concise, and devoid of all ornament, 
full of energy and useful maxims. The value 
of his compositions is well known from the say- 
ing of the emperor Antoninus, who thanked 
the gods he could collect from the writings of 
Epictetus wherewath to conduct life with honour 
to himself and advantage to his country. 

Epicurus, a celebrated philosopher, son of 
Neocles and Cherestrata, born at Gargetius 
in Attica, He was early sent to school, where 
he distinguished himself by the brilliancy of 
his genius, and at the age of 12, when his pre- 
ceptor repeated to him this verse from He- 
siod : — 

Hrot jjitv npuTiffa ')(^aioi yivtr^ ^ &C. 

In the beginning of things the Chaos was 
created, 

Epicurus earnestly asked him who created it. 
To this the teacher answered, that he knew not, 
but only philosophers. " Then," says the youth, 
" philosophers henceforth shall instruct me." 
After having improved himself, and enriched 
his mind by travelling, he visited Athens, which 
was then crowded by the followers of Plato, the 
cynics, the peripatetics, and the stoics. Here 
he established himself, and soon attracted a 
number of followers by the sweetness and gra- 
vity of his manners, and by his social virtues. 
He taught them that the happiness of mankind 
consisted in pleasure, not such as arises from 
sensual gratification or from vice, but from the 
enjoyments of the mind and the sweets of virtue. 
This doctrine was warmly attacked by the phi- 
losophers of the different sects, and particularly 
439 



EP 



HISTORY, &c. 



ER 



by the stoics. When Leontium, one of his 
female pupils, was accused of prostituting her- 
self to her master and to all his disciples, the 
philosopher proved the falsity of the accusation 
by silence and an exemplary life. His health 
was at last impaired by continual labour, and he 
died of a retention of urine, which long sub- 
jected him to the most excrutiating torments, 
and which he bore with unparalleled fortitude. 
His death happened 270 years before Christ, in 
the 72d year of his age. His disciples showed 
their respect for the memory of their learned 
preceptor by the unanimity which prevailed 
among them. While philosophers in every sect 
were at war with mankind and among them- 
selves, the followers of Epicurus enjoyed perfect 
peace, and lived in the most solid friendship. 
The day of his birth was observed with univer- 
sal festivity, and during a month all his admi- 
rers gave themselves up to mirth and innocent 
amusement. Of all the philosophers of antiqui- 
ty, Epicurus is the only one whose writings de- 
serve attention for their number. He wrote no 
less than 300 volumes according to Diogenes 
Laertius ; and Chrysippus was so jealous of the 
fecundity of his genius, that no sooner had Epi- 
curus published one of his volumes than he im- 
mediately composed one, that he might not be 
overcome in the number of his productions. 
Epicurus, however, advanced truths and argu- 
ments unknown before; but Chrysippus said 
what others long ago had said, without showing 
any thing which might be called originality. 
The followers of Epicurus were numerous in 
every age and country, his doctrines were rapid- 
ly disseminated over the world, and when the 
gratification of the sense was substituted to the 
practice of virtue, the morals of mankind were 
undermined and destroyed. No philosopher has 
been the subject of so much eulogium, and, at 
the Game time, of so much reproach, because his 
doctrines were calculated to divide the opinions 
of mankind in regard to their influence upon the 
moral constitution of society, and do actually 
contain within themselves the elements of contra- 
diction ; but moreover because the opinions of 
his later disciples, and still more their conduct, 
deduced from one of these contrary interpreta- 
tions of his dogmas, have been too generally re- 
ceived for those of Epicurus himself. Diog. in 
vita. — Milan. V. H. 4, c 13. — Cic. de Nat. D. 
1, c. 24 and 25.— T-iisc. 3, 49, de finib. 2, c. 22. 

Epidauria, a festival at Athens in honour of 
iEsculapius. 

Epigoni, the sons and descendants of the 
Grecian heroes who were killed in the first The- 
ban war. The war of the Epigoni is famous 
in ancient history. It was undertaken ten years 
after the first. The sons of those who had per- 
ished in the first war resolved to avenge the 
death of their fathers, and marched against 
Thebes, under the command of Thersander; 
or, according to others, of Alcmaeon, the son of 
Amphiaraus. The Argives were assisted by the 
Corinthians, the people of Messenia, Arcadia, 
and Megara. The Thebans had engaged all 
their neighbours in their quarrel, as in one 
common cause, and the two hostile armies met 
and engaged on the banks of the Glissas. The 
fight was obstinate and bloody, but victory de- 
clared for the Epigoni, and some of the Thebans 
fled to Illyricum with Leodamus their general, 
440 



while others retired into Thebes, where tney 
were soon besieged and forced to surrender. In 
this war .«Egialeus alone was killed, and his fa- 
ther Adrastus was the only person who escaped 
alive in the first war. This whole war, as Pau- 
sanias observes, was written in verse ; and Cal- 
linus, who quotes some of the verses, ascribes 
them to Homer, which opinion has been adopt- 
ed by many writers. For my part, continues 
the geographer, I own that, next to the Iliad 
and Odyssey of Homer, I have never seen a 
finer poem. Pans. 9, c. 9 and 25. — Apollod. 1 
and 3. — Diod. 4. This name has been applied 
to the sons of those Macedonian veterans, who, 
in the age of Alexander, formed connexions 
with the women of Asia, 

Epimenides, an epic poet of Crete, contem- 
porary with Solon. His father's name was 
Agiasarchus, and his mother's Blasta. He is 
reckoned one of the seven wise men by those 
who exclude Periander from the number. While 
he was tending his flocks one day, he entered 
into a cave, where he fell asleep. His sleep 
continued for 40, or 47, or, according to Pliny, 
57 years ; and when he awoke, he found every 
object so considerably altered, that he scarce 
knew where he was. His brother apprized him 
of the length of his sleep to his great astonish- 
ment. It is supposed that he lived 289 years. 
After death he was revered as a god, and great- 
ly honoured by the Athenians, whom he had 
delivered from a plague, and to whom he had 
given many good and useful counsels. He is 
said to be the first who built temples in the 
Grecian communities, Cic. de Div. 1, c. 34. — 
Diog. in vita. — Pans. 1, c. 14. — Plut. in Sol. — 
Val. Max. 8, c. IS.—Strab. 10.— Plin. 7, c. 12. 

Epiochus, a son of Lycurgus, who received 
divine honours in Arcadia. 

EpmPANES, (illustrious,) a surname given to 

the Antiochuses, kings of Syria. A surname 

of one of the Ptolemies, the fifth of the house 
of the Lagidae. Strab. 17. 

Epiphanius, a bishop of Salamis, who was 
active in refuting the writings of Origen, but 
his compositions are more valuable for the frag- 
ments which they preserve than for their own 
intrinsic merit. The only edition is by Dionys. 
Petavius, 2 vols. Paris, 1622. The bishop died 
A. D. 403. 

Epitades, a man who first violated a law of 
Lycurgus, which forbade laws to be made. Plut, 
in Agid. 

Erasistratds, a celebrated physician, grand- 
son to the philosopher Aristotle. He discovered 
by the motion of the pulse the love which An- 
tiochus had conceived for his mother-in-law 
Stratonice, and was rewarded with 100 talents 
for the cure by the father of Antiochus. He was 
a great enemy to bleeding and violent physic. 
He died B. C. 257. Val. Max. 5, c. l.—Plut. 
in Demetr. 

Eratosthenes, son of Aglaus, was a native 
of Cyrene, and the second intrusted with the 
care of the Alexandrian library. He dedicated 
his time to grammatical criticism and philoso- 
phy, but more particularly to poetry and ma- 
thematics. He has been called a second Plato, 
the cosmographer, and the geometer of the 
world. He is supposed to be the inventor oi 
the armillary sphere. With the instruments 
with which the munificence of the Ptolemies 



EV 



HISTORY, &c. 



EU 



supplied the library of Alexandria, he was en- 
abled 10 measure the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
"which he called 20 1-2 degrees. He also mea- 
sured a degree of the meridian, and determined 
the extent and circumference of the earth with 
great exactness, by means adopted by the mod- 
erns. He starved himself after he had lived to 
his 82d year, B. C. 194. Some few fragments 
reinain of his compositions. He collected the 
annals of the Egyptian kings by order of one of 
the Ptolemies. Cic. ad Attic. 2, ep. 6. — Varro. 
de R. R. 1, c. 2. 

Eratostratus, an Ephesian, who burnt the 
famous temple of Diana, the same night that 
Alexander the Great was born. Thi burning, 
as some writers have observed, was not pre- 
vented or seen by the goddess of the place, who 
was then present at the labours of Olympias 
and the birth of the conqueror of Persia. Era- 
tostratus did this villany merely to eternize his 
name by so uncommon an action. Plut. iiu 
Alex.— Val. Max. 8, c. 14. 

Erechtheus. Vid. Part III. 

Erichthonius. Vid. Part III. 

Eriphanis, a Greek woman, famous for her 
poetical compositions. She was extremely fond 
of the himter Melampus, and, to enjoy his com- 
pany, she accustomed herself to live in the 
woods." Athen. 14. 

Erixo, a Roman knight, condemned by the 
people for having whipped his son lo death. 
Setiec. 1, de Clem. 14. 

Eropus, or ^ROPAS, a king of Macedonia, 
who, when in the cradle, succeeded his father 
Philip 1st, B. C. 602. He made war against the 
Illyrians, whom he conquered. Justin. 7, c. 2. 

JEros, a servant of whom Antony demanded 
a sword to kill himself Eros produced the in- 
strument, but instead of giving it to his master, 
he killed himself in his presence. Plut. in Anton. 

Erotia, a festival in honour of Eros, the god 
of love. It was celebrated by the Thespians 
every fifth year with sports and games, when 
musicians and others contended. If any quar- 
rels or seditions had arisen among the people, 
it was then usual to offer sacrifices and prayers 
to the god that he would totally remove them. 

Estiaia, solemn sacrifices to Vesta, of which 
it was unlawful to carry away any thing or 
communicate it to any body. 

ETEARcmjs, a king of Oaxus in Crete. ' After 
the death of his wife, he married a woman who 
made herself odious for her tyranny over her 
step-daughter Phronima. Etearchus gave ear to 
all the accusations which were brought against 
his daughter, and ordered her to be thrown into 
the sea. She had a son called Battus, who 
led a colony to Cyrene. Herodot. 4, c. 154. 

Eteocles. Vid. Part III. 

Eteonicus, a Lacedaemonian general, who, 
upon hearing that Callicratidas was conquered 
at Arginusas, ordered the messengers of this 
news to be crowned, and to enter Mitylene in 
triumph. This so terrified Conon, who besieged 
the town, that he concluded that the enemy had 
obtained some advantageous victory, and he 
raised the siege. Diod. 13. — Polyan. 1. 

Etesije, periodical northern winds of a gen- 
tle and mild nature, very common for five or 
six weeks in the months of spring and autumn. 
iMcret. 5, V. 741. 

Evagoras, a king of Cyprus, who retook Sa- 

PartIL-3K 



lamis, which had been taken from his father by 
the Persians. He made war against Artaxerxes, 
the king of Persia, with the assistance of the 
Egyptians, Arabians, and Tyrians, and ob- 
tained some advantage over the fleet of his ene- 
my. The Persians, however, soon repaired 
their losses, and Evagoras saw himself defeated 
by sea and land, and obliged to be tributary to 
the power of Artaxerxes, and to be stripped of 
all his dominions except the town of Salamis. 
He was assassinated soon after this fatal change 
of fortune, by a eunuch, 374 B. C. He left 
two sons, Nicocles, who succeeded him, and 
Protagoras, who deprived his nephew Evagoras 
of his possessions. Evagoras deserves to be 
commended for his sobriety, moderation, and 
magnanimity ; and if he was guilty of any po- 
litical error m the management of his kingdom, 
it may be said that his love of equity was a full 
compensation. His grandson bore the same 
name, and succeeded his father Nicocles. He 
showed himself oppressive, and his uncle Pro- 
tagoras took advantage of his unpopularity to 
deprive him of his power. Evagoras fled to 
Artaxerxes Ochus, who gave him a government 
more extensive than that of Cyprus, but his op- 
pression rendered him odious, and he was ac- 
cused before his benefactor, and by his orders 
put to death. C. Nep. 12, c. 'H.—Diod. 14.— 
Paus. 1, c. 3. — Justin. 5, c. 6. 

Evander, a son of the prophetess Carmente, 
king of Arcadia, An accidental murder obliged 
him to leave his country, and he came to Italy, 
where he drove the Aborigines from their an- 
cient possessions, and reigned in that part of the 
country where Rome was afte'rwards founded. 
It is said that he first brought the Greek alpha- 
bet into Italy, and introduced there the worship 
of the Greek deities. He was honoured as a 
god after death by his subjects, who raised him 
an altar on mount Aventine. Paus. 8, c. 43. 
— Liv. 1, c. 7. — Ital. 7. v. 18. — Dionys. Hal. 1, 
c. l.— Ovid.^Fast. 1, v. 500, 1. v. 91. 

Evangorides, a man of Elis, who wrote an 
account of all those who had obtained a prize at 
Olympia, where he himself had been victorious. 
Paus. 6, c. 8. 

Evax, an Arabian prince, who wrote to Nero 
concerning jewels, &c. Plin. 25, c. 2. 

EuBULE, an Athenian virgin, daughter of 
Leon, sacrificed with her sisters, by order of 
the oracle of Delphi, for the safety of her coun- 
try, which laboured under a famine. uElian. V. 
H. 12, c. 18. 

Edbulides, a philosopher of Miletus, pupil 
and successor of Euclid, Demosthenes was one 
of his pupils, and by his advice and encourage- 
ment to perseverance he was enabled to con- 
quer the difficulty he felt in pronouncing the 
letter R. He severely attacked the doctrines of 
Aristotle. Diog. 

EuBULUS, I. an Athenian orator, rival to De- 
mosthenes. II. A comic poet. III. An 

historian who wrote a voluminous account of 
Mithras. 

EucERUs, a man of Alexandria, accused of 
adultery with Octavia, that Nero might have 
occasion to divorce her. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 60. 

EucmDES, an Athenian who went to Delphi 
and returned the same day, a journey of about 
107 miles. The object of his journey was to 
obtain some sacred fire. 
441 



EV 



HISTORY, &C. 



EU 



EucLiDES, I. a native of Megara, disciple of 
Socrates, B. C. 404. When the Athenians had 
forbidden ail the people of Megara on pain of 
death to enter their city, Euclides disguised him- 
self in woman's clothes to introduce himself into 
the presence of Socrates. Dtog. m Socrate. 

II, A mathematician of Alexandria, who 

flourished 300 B. C. He distinguished himself 
by his writings on music and geometry, but 
particularly by 15 books on the elements of ma- 
thematics, which consist of problems and theo- 
rems with demonstrations. This work has been 
greatly mutilated by commentators. Euclid was 
so respected in his lifetime, that king Ptolemy 
became one of his pupils. Euclid established a 
school at Alexandria, which became so famous, 
that from his age to the time of the Saracen 
conquest, no mathematician was found but what 
had studied at Alexandria. He was so respect- 
ed, that Plato, himself a mathematician, being 
asked concerning the building of an altar at 
Athens, referred his inquiries to the mathema- 
tician of Alexandria. Val. Max. 8, c. 1*2. — Cic. 
de Oral. 3. c. 72. 

EuDAMiDAs, I. a son of Archidamus 4th, bro- 
ther to Agis 4th. He succeeded on the Spartan 
throne, aftef his brother's death, B. C. 330. 

Pau5. 3, c. 10. II. A son of Archidamus, 

king of Sparta, who succeeded B. C. 268.- 



III. The commander of a garrison stationed at 
Troezene by Craterus. 

EuDociA, the wife of the emperor Theodosius 
the younger, who gave the public some compo- 
sitions. She died A. D. 460. 

EuDOXiA, I. the wife of Arcadius, &c. II. 

A daughter of Theodosius the younger, who 
married the emperor Maximus, and invited 
Genseric the Vandal into Italy. 

EuDOxus, I. a son of ^schines of Cnidus, 
who distinguished himself by his knowledge of 
astrology, medicine, and geometry. He was 
the first who regulated the year among the 
Greeks, among whom he first brought from 
Egypt the celestial sphere and regular astrono- 
my. He spent a great part of his life on the top 
of a mountain, to study the motion of the stars, 
by whose appearance he pretended to foretell 
the events of faturity. He died in his .53d year, 
B. C. 352. I.uca%. 10, v. \^l.—Diog.—Pe- 

iron. 88. II. A native of Cyzicus, who sailed 

all round the coast of Africa from the Red 
Sea, and entered the Mediterranean by the 

columns of Hercules. III. A Sicilian, son 

of Agathocles. 

EvEMERUs, an ancient historian of Messenia, 
intimate with Cassander. He travelled over 
Greece and Arabia, and wrote a history of the 
gods, in which he proved that they all had been 
upon earth as mere mortal men. Ennius trans- 
lated it into Latin. It is now lost. 

EvEPHENUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
whom Dionysius condemned to death because 
he had alienated the people of Metapontum from 
his power. The philosopher begged leave of 
the tyrant to go and marry his sister, and pro- 
mised to return in six months. Dionysius con- 
sented by receiving Eucritus, who pledged him- 
self to die if Evephenus did not return in time. 
Evephenus returned at the appointed moment, 
10 the astonishment of Dionysius, and delivered 
his friend Eucritus from the death which threat- 
ened him. The tyrant was so pleased with 
442 



these two friends, that he pardoned Evephenus^ 
and begged to share their friendship and con- 
fidence. Pohjczn. 5. 

EvERGETES, a sumamc signifying benefactor, 
given to Philip of Macedonia, and to Antigonus 
Doson and Ptolemy of Egypt. It was also 
commonl}^ given to the kings of Syria and Pon- 
tus ; and we often see among the former an 
Alexander Evergetes, and among the latter a 
Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Roman 
emperors also claimed that epithet, so expres- 
sive -of benevolence and humanity. 

EuGE.vius, a usurper of the imperial title 
after the death of Valentinian the 2d, A. D. 
392. 

EuMiEUs, a herdsman and steward to Ulysses, 
who knew his master at his return home from 
the Trojan war after 20 years' absence, and as- 
sisted him in removing Penelope's suiters. He 
was originally the son of the king of Scyros, 
and, upon being carried away by pirates, he 
was sold as a slave to Laertes, who rewarded 
his fidelity and services. Homer. Od. 13, v. 403, 
1. 14, V. 3, 1. 15, V. 288, 1. 16 and 17. 

EuMELUS, I. one of the Bacchiadae, who wrote, 
among other things, a poetical history of Co- 
rinth, B. C. 750, of which a small fragment is 

still extant. Paus. 2, c. 1. 11. A king of 

the Cimmerian Bosphorus, who diedB. C. 304. 

EuMENEs, I. a Greek officer in the army of 
Alexander, son of a charioteer. He was the 
most worthy of all the officers of Alexander to 
succeed after the death of his master. He con- 
quered Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, of which 
he obtained the government, till the power and 
jealousy of Antigonus obliged him to retire. He 
joined his forces to those of Perdiccas, and de- 
feated Craterus and Neoptolemus. Neoptole- 
mus perished by the hands of Eumenes. When 
Craterus had been killed during the war, his 
remains received an honourable funeral from 
the hand of the conqueror ; and Eumenes, after 
weeping over the ashes of a man who once was 
his dearest friend, sent his remains to his rela- 
tions in Macedonia. Eumenes fought against 
Antipater, and conquered him ; and after the 
death of Perdiccas, his ally, his arms were di- 
rected against Antigonus, by whom he was con- 
quered chiefly by the treacherous conduct of his 
officers. This fatal battle obliged him to dis- 
band the greatest part of his army to secure 
himself a retreat; and he fled with only 700 
faithful attendants to Nora, a fortified place on 
the confines of Cappadocia, where he Avas soon 
besieged by the conqueror. He supported the 
siege for a year with courage and resolution, 
but some disadvantageous skirmishes so re- 
duced him, that his soldiers, grown desperate, 
and bribed by the offers of the enemy, had the 
infidelity to betray him into the hands of Anti- 
gonus. "The conqueror, from shame or remorse, 
had not the courage to visit Eumenes ; but when 
he was asked by his officers in what manner he 
wished him to be kept, he answered, Keep him 
as carefully as you would keep a lion. This 
severe command was obeyed ; but the asperity 
of Antigonus vanished in a few days, and Eu- 
menes, delivered from the weight of chains, was 
permitted to enjoy the company of his friends. 
Even Antigonus hesitated whether he should 
not restore 10 his liberty a man with whom he 
had lived in the greatest mtimacy while both 



EU 



HISTORY, &c. 



EU 



were subservient to ilie command of Alexander; 
and these secret emotions of pity and humanity- 
were not a little increased by the petitions of his 
son Demetrius for the release of Eumenes. But 
the calls of ambition prevailed ; and when An- 
tigonus recollected what an active enemy he had 
in his power, he ordered Eumenes to be put to 
death in the prison; (though some imagine he 
Avas murdered without the knowledge of his 
conqueror.) His bloody commands were exe-- 
cuted B. C. 315. Such was the end of a man 
who raised himself to power by merit alone. 
His skill in public exercises first recommended 
him to the notice of Philip ; and under Alexan- 
der his attachment and fidelity to the royal per- 
son, and particularly his military accomplish- 
ments, promoted him to the rank of a general. 
Even his enemies revered him; and Antigo- 
nus, by whose orders he perished, honoured his 
remains with a splendid funeral, and conveyed 
his ashes to his wife and family in Cappadocia. 
It has been observed that Eumenes had such a 
universal influence over the successors of Alex- 
ander, that none, during his lifetime, dared to 
assume the title of king ; and it does not a little 
reflect to his honour, to consider that the wars he 
carried on were not from private or interested 
motives, but for the good and welfare of his 
deceased benefactor's children. Plut. tf* C. Nep. 
in vita. — Diod. 19. — Justin. 13. — Curt. 10. — Ar- 
rian. II. A king of Pergamus, who succeed- 
ed his uncle Philetserus on the throne, B. C. 263. 
He made war against Antiochus, the son of Se- 
leucus, and enlarged his possessions by seizing 
upon many of the cities of the kings of Syria. 
He lived in alliance with the Romans, and made 
war against Prusias, king of Bithynia. He was 
a great patron of learning, and given much to 
wine. He died of an excess in drinking, after 
a reign of 22 years. He was succeeded by At- 
tains. Strah. 15. III. The second of that 

name, succeeded his father Attains on the throne 
of Asia and Pergamus. His kingdom was small 
and poor ; but he rendered it powerful and opu- 
lent; and his alliance with the Romans did not 
a little contribute to the increase of his domin- 
ions after the victories obtained over Antiochus 
the Great, He carried his arms against Prusias 
and Antigonus, and died B. C. 159, after a reign 
of .38 years, leaving the kingdom to his son At- 
tains second. He had been admired for his 
benevolence and magnanimity, and his love of 
learning greatly enriched the famous library of 
Pergamus, which had been founded by his pre- 
decessors, in imitation of the Alexandrian col- 
lection of the Ptolemies. His brothers were so 
attached to him, and devoted to his interest, that 
they enlisted among his bodj-'-guards, to show 
their fraternal fidelity. Strah. 13. — Justin. 31 

and 34. — Polyb. IV. A celebrated orator of 

Athens, about the beginning of the fourth cen- 
tury. Some of his harangues and orations are 
extant. V. An historical writer in Alexan- 
der's army. 

EuMENiDiA, festivals in honour of the Eume- 
nides, called by the Athenians aciivai Oeai, ven- 
erable goddesses. They were celebrated once 
every year with sacrifices of pregnant ewes, with 
offerings of cakes made by the most eminent 
youths, and libations of honey and wine. At 
Athens none but freeborn citizens were admit- 
ted, such as had led a life the most virtuous atid 



unsullied. Such only were accepted by the god- 
desses, who punished all sorts of wickedness in 
a severe manner. 

EuMOLPicE, the priests of Ceres, at the cele- 
bration of her festivals of Eleusis. All causes 
relatmg to impiety or profanation were referred 
to their judgment; and their decisions, though 
occasionally severe, were considered as general- 
ly impartial. The Eumolpidoe were descended 
from Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was 
made priest of Ceres by Erechtheus, king of 
Athens. He became so powerful after his ap- 
pointment to the priesthood .that he main tamed 
a war against Erechtheus. This war proved 
fatal to both ; Erechtheus and Eumolpus were 
both killed, and peace was re-established among 
their descendants, on condition that the priest- 
hood should ever remain in the family of Eu- 
molpus, and the regal power in the house of 
Erechtheus. The priesthood continued in the 
family of Eumolpus for 1200 years; and this 
is still more remarkable, because he who was 
once appointed to the holy oflice was obliged 
to remain in perpetual celibacy. Pans. 2, 
c. 14. 

Eumolpus. Vid. Part III. 

EuNAPius, a physician, sophist, and historian, 
born at Sardis. He flourisned in the reign of 
Valentinian and his successors, and wrote a his- 
tory of the Caesars, of which few fragments re- 
main. His life of the philosophers of his age is 
still extant. It is composed with fidelity and 
elegance, precision and correctness. 

EuNus, a Syrian slave, who inflamed the 
minds of the servile multitude by pretended in- 
spiration and enthusiasm. He filled a nut with 
sulphur in his mouth, and by artfully conveying 
fire to it, he breathed out flames to the astonish- 
ment of the people, who believed him to be a god 
or something more than human. Oppression 
and misery compelled 2000 slaves to join his 
cause, and he soon saw himself at the head of 
50,000 men. With such a force he defeated the 
Roman armies, till Perponna obliged him to sur- 
render by famine, and exposed on a cross the 
greatest part of his followers, B. C. 132. Plut. 
in Sert. 

EuPATOR, a son of Antiochus. The sur- 
name of Eupator was given to many of the 
Asiatic princes, such as Mithridates, &c. 
Stralj. 12. 

EuPEiTHES. Vid. Part III, 

EuPHAEs, succeeded Androcles on the throne 
of Messenia, and in his reign the first Messe- 
nian war began. He died B. C. 730. Pmis. 
4, c. 5 and 6. 

EuFHANTus, a poet and historian of Olynthus, 
son of Eubulides and preceptor to Antigonus, 
king of Macedonia. Diog. in Eucl. 

EuPHORBUs, I. a famous Trojan, son of Pan- 
thous, the first who wounded Patroclus, whom 
Hector killed. He perished by the hand of 
Menelaus, who hung his shield in the temple of 
Juno at Argos. Pythagoras, the founder of the 
doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigra- 
tion of souls, affirmed that he had been once 
Euphorbus, and that his soul recollected many 
exploits which had been done while it animated 
that Trojan's body. As a further proof of his 
assertion, he showed at first sight the shield of 
Euphorbus in the temple of Juno. Ovid. Met. 
15, V. \m.—Paus. 2, c. 11.— Horner. 11. IG and 
443 



EtJ 



HISTORY, &c. 



EU 



17. II. A physician of Juba, king of Mau- 

retania. 

EuPHORiON, I. a Greek poet of Chalcis in 
Euboea, in the age of Antiochus the Great. 
Tiberius took him for his model for correct 
writing, and was so fond of him that he hung 
his pictures in all the public libraries. His 
father's name was Polymnetus. He died in 
his 56th year, B. C. 220. Cicero, de Nat. 

D. 2, c. 64, calls him Obscurum. II. The 

son of jEschylus. He conquered four times 
with posthumous tragedies of his father's com- 
position ; and also wrote several dramas him- 
self One of his victories is commemorated 
in the argument to the Medea of Euripides ; 
where we are told that Euphorion was first, 
Sophocles second, and Euripides third with the 
Medea. Olymp. 87th, 2, 431. 

Euphrates, I. a disciple of Plato, who gov- 
erned Macedonia with absolute authority in 
the reign of Perdiccas, and rendered himself 
odious by his cruelty and pedantry. After the 
death of Perdiccas, he was murdered by Par- 

menio. II. A stoic philosopher in the age of 

Adrian, who destroyed himself, with the empe- 
ror's leave, to escape the miseries of old age, 

A. D. 118. Dio. Vid. Part III. 

EupoLis, was nearly of the same age with Aris- 
tophanes,and probablyexhibited for the first time 

B. C. 429. In B. C. 425, he was third with his 
'Novixriviai, wheu Ciatinus was second, and Aris- 
tophanes first. In B. C. 421, he brought out 
his MapiKcii and his KdXa/ces ; one at the Dionysia 
£p Arjvaiois, the Other at those iv aam ; and in 
a similar way his A.vT6\vK0i and ^KarpaTEvroi the 
following year. The titles of more than twenty 
of his comedies have been collected by Meur- 
sius. A few fragments remain. Eupolis was 
a bold and severe satirist on the vices of his day 
and city. In the Maptx-aj he attacked Hyper- 
bolus, in the A.vt6\vko5 an Athenian so named, 

in the 'Ao-rparetjrot Melanthius. In the BaTrral 

he inveighed against the effeminacy of his coun- 
trymen ; in his AaKeSatfioves he assailed Cimon, 
accusing him, amongst other charges, of an 
unpatriotic bias towards every thing Spartan. 
His death was generally ascribed to the ven- 
geance of Alcibiades, whom he had lampooned, 
probably in the BaTrral. By his orders, accord- 
ing to the common account, Eupolis was thrown 
overboard during the passage of the Athenian 
armament to Sicily, B. C. 415. Cicero, how- 
ever, calls this story a vulgar error ; since 
Eratosthenes, the Alexandrian librarian, had 
shown that several comedies were composed by 
Eupolis some time after the date assigned to 
this pseudo-assassination. His tomb, too, ac- 
cording to Pausanias, was erected on the banks 
of the ^sopusby the Sicyonians, which makes 
it most probable that this was the place of his 
death. 

Euripides, was the son of Mnesarchus and 
Clito, of the borough Phlya, and the Cecropid 
tribe. He was born, Olymp. 75th, 1. B. C. 
480, in Salamis (whither his parents had retired 
during the occupation of Attica by Xerxes,) on 
the very day of the Grecian victory near that 
island. Aristophanes repeatedly imputes mean- 
ness of extraction, by the mother's side, to Eu- 
ripides. He asserts that she was an herb-seller ; 
and, according to Aulus Gellius, Theopompus 
confirms the comedian's sarcastic insinuations. 
444 



Philochorus, on the contrary, in a work no lon- 
ger extant, endeavoured to prove that the mo- 
ther of our poet was a lady of noble ancestry. 
That there was some ground for the gibes of 
Aristophanes can hardly be questioned. In a 
city like Athens, where every person and every 
movement were exposed to the remark and the 
gossip of a prying and loquacious population 
the birth and parentage of a distinguished dra- 
matist must have been known to every spectator 
in the comedian's audience. Hence there could 
have been neither point nor poignancy in these 
endless jeerings, had not the fact, in which they 
turned, been matter of public notoriety. 1 he 
mother of Euripides then was probably of hum- 
ble station. His father, to whom the malicious 
Aristophanes never alludes, was, doubtless, a 
man of wealth and respectability ; for the cost- 
ly education which the young Euripides receiv- 
ed intimates a certain degree of wealth and con- 
sequence in his family. The pupil of Anax- 
agoras, Protagoras, andProdicus (an instructer 
so notorious for the extravagant terms which he 
demanded for his lessons) could not have been 
the son of persons- at that time very mean or 
very poor. In early life we are told that his 
father made him direct his attention chiefly to 
gymnastic exercises, and that in his seventeenth 
year he was crowned in the Eleusinian and 
Thesean contests. It does not appear, how- 
ever, that Euripides was ever actually a candi- 
date in the Olympian games. The genius of 
the young poet was not dormant whilst he was 
occupied in these mere bodily accomplishments ; 
and even at this early age he is said to have at- 
tempted dramatic composition. He seems to 
have also cultivated a natural taste for painting ; 
and some of his pictures were long afterwards 
preserved at Megara. At length, quitting the 
gymnasium, he applied .himself to philosophy 
and literature. Under the celebrated rhetori- 
cian Prodicus, one of the instructers of Pericles, 
he acquired that oratorical skill for which his 
dramas are so remarkably distinguished ; and 
from Anaxagoras he imbibed those philosoph- 
ical notions which are occasionally brought 
forward in his works. Here too Pericles was 
his fellow-disciple. With Socrates, who had 
studied under the same master, Euripides was 
on terms of the closest intimacy ; and from him 
he derived those moral gnomae so frequently 
interwoven into his speeches and narrations. 
Indeed Socrates was even suspected of largely 
assisting the tragedian in the composition of his 
plays. Euripides began his public career, as a 
dramatic writer, Olymp. 81st, 2, B. C. 455, in 
the twenty-fifth year of his age. On this occa- 
sion he was the third with a play entitled 
Pleiades. In Olymp. 84th, 4, B. C. 441, he won 
the prize. In Olymp. 87th, 2, B. C. 431, be was 
third with the Medea, the Philoctetes, the Diciys, 
and the Theristce, a satiric drama. His com- 
petitors were Euphorion and Sophocles. He 
was first with the Hippolytus, Olymp. 88th, 1, 
B. C. 428, the year of his master Anaxagoras's 
death : second, Olymp. 91st, 2, B. C. 415, with 
the Alexander (or Paris,) the Palamedes, the 
Troades, and the Sisyphus, a satiric drama. It 
was in this contest that Xenocles was first. 
Two years after this the Athenians sustained 
the total loss of their armament before Syracuse. 
In his narration of this disaster Plutarch gives 



EU 



HISTORY, &c. 



EU 



an anecdote, which, if true, bears a splendid 
testimony to the high reputation in which Eu- 
ripides was then held. Those amongst the cap- 
tives, he tells us, who could repeal any portion 
of that poet's works, were treated with kindness, 
and even set at liberty. The same author also 
informs us that Euripides honoured the soldiers 
who had fallen in that siege with a funeral 
poem, two lines of which he has preserved. 
The Andromeda was exhibited Olymp. 92d, 1, 

B. C. 412, the Orestes, Olymp. 93d, 1, B. C. 
408. Soon after this lime the poet retired into 
Magnesia, and from thence into Macedonia, to 
the court of Archelaus. As in the case of 
^schylus, the motives for this self-exile are ob- 
scure and uncertain. We know, indeed, that 
Athens was by no means the most favourable 
residence for distinguished literary merit. The 
virulence of rivalry raged unchecked in a licen- 
tious democracy, and the caprice of a petulant 
multitude would not afford the most satisfactory 
patronage to a high-minded and talented man. 
Report, too, insinuates that Euripides was un- 
happy in his own family. His first wife, Me- 
lito, he divorced for adultery ; and in his sec- 
ond, Ch^rila, he was not more fortunate. Envy 
and enmity amongst his fellow-citizens, infi- 
delity and domestic vexations at home, would 
prove no small inducements for the poet to ac- 
cept the invitation of Archelaus. In Macedonia 
be is said to have written a play in honour of 
that monarch, and to have inscribed it with his 
patron's name, who was so pleased with the 
manners and abilities of his guest as to appoint 
him one of his ministers. No further particu- 
lars are recorded of Euripides, except a few 
apocryphal letters, anecdotes, and apothegms. 
His death, which took place Olymp. 93d, 2, B. 

C. 406, if the popular account be true, was, like 
that of iEschylus, in its nature extraordinary. 
Either from chance or malice, the aged drama- 
tist was exposed to the attack of some ferocious 
hounds, and by them so dreadfully mangled as 
to expire soon afterwards in his seventy-fifth 
year. The Athenians entreated Archelaus to 
send thehody to the poet's native city for inter- 
nment. The request was refused; and, with 
every demonstration of grief and respect, Eu- 
ripides was buried at Pella. A cenotaph, how- 
ever, was erected to his memory at Athens, 
bearing the following inscription : — 

Mv^^a filv 'EXXa? uTraff' ^vpiiriSov' oaria 6' iff^et 

T^fj^laKeScJv' f] yap Se^aro repfia Piov. 
llarpls S' 'KWaSos 'EXAaj ^Adrivai' TrXeTcxTa 51 Mdv- 

TiprpaSj i.K ttoXXwi' Kal tov eiraivov syei. 

Euripides, in the estimation of the ancients, 
certainly held a rank much inferior to that of 
his two great rivals. The caustic wit of Aris- 
.tophanes, whilst it fastens but slightly on the 
failings of the giant iEschylus, and keeps re- 
spectfully aloof from the calm dignity of Sopho- 
cles, assails with merciless malice every weak 
point in the genius, character, and circumstan- 
ces of Euripides. He banters or reproaches 
him for lowering the dignity of tragedy, by ex- 
hibiting so many heroes as whining tattered 
beggars ; by introducing the vulgar affairs of 
ordinary life ; by the sonorous unmeaningness 
of his choral odes ; the meretricious voluptuous- 
ness of his music; the feebleness of his verses; 



and by the loquacity of all his personages, how- 
ever low their rank or unsuitable their charac- 
ter might be. He laughs at the monotonous 
construction of his clumsy prologues. He 
charges his dramas with an immoral tendency, 
and the poet himself with contempt of the gods 
and a fondness for new-fangled doctrines. He 
jeers his affectation of rhetoric and philosophy. 
In short, Aristophanes seems to regard Eurip- 
ides with a most sovereign contempt, bordering 
even upon disgust. The attachment of Socra- 
tes and the admiration of Archelaus may per- 
haps serve as a counterpoise to the insinuations 
of Aristophanes against the personal character 
of Euripides. As to his poetic powers, there is 
a striking diversity of opinion between the later 
comedians and the author of the Ranse ; for 
Menander and Philemon held him in high es- 
teem. Yet the exact Aristotle, whilst allowing 
to Euripides a pre-eminence in the excitement 
of sorrowful emotion, censures the general ar- 
rangement of his pieces, the wanton degrada- 
tion of his personages, and the unconnected na- 
ture of his choruses. Longinus, like Aristotle, 
ascribes to Euripides great power in working 
upon the feelings by depiction of love and mad- 
ness, but he certainly did not entertain the high- 
est opinion of his genius. He even classes him 
among those writers, who, far from possessing 
originality of talent, strive to conceal the real 
meanness of their conceptions, and as'Sume the 
appearance of sublimity by studied composition 
and laboured language. Diod. 13. — Val. Max. 
3, c, l.~Cic. In. 1, c. 50. Or. 3, c, l.—Arcad, 
1, 4, Offic. 3 ; Finib. 2, Tusc. 1 and 4, &c. 

EuRYALUs. Vid. Nisus. 

EuRYBiADEs, a Spartan general of the Gre- 
cian fleet at the battles of Artemisium and Sa- 
lamis against Xerxes, He has been charged 
with want of courage, and with ambition. He 
offered to strike Themistocles when he wished 
to speak about the manner of attacking the Per- 
sians ; upon which the Athenian said, Strike 
me, but hear me, Herodot. 8, c. 2, 74, &c, — 
Plut. in Them. — C. Ne'p. in Them. 

EuRYCLEs, I. an orator of Syracuse, who pro- 
posed to put Nicias and Demosthenes to death, 
and to confine to hard labour all the Athenian 
soldiers in the quarries. Plut. II. A Lace- 
daemonian at the battle of Actium on the side of 
Augustus. Id. in Anton. 

EuRYDAMUs, a wrestler of Gyrene, who, in a 
combat, had his teeth dashed to pieces by his 
antagonist, which he swallowed without show- 
ing any signs of pain or discontinuing the fight. 
^lian. V.H. 10, c. 19. 

EuRYDiCE, I. the wife of Amyntas, king of 
Macedonia. She had by her husband, Alexan- 
der, Perdiccas, and Philip, and one daughter 
called Euryone. A criminal partiality for her 
daughter's husband, to whom she offered her 
hand and the kingdom, made her conspire 
against Amyntas, who must have fallen a victim 
to her infidelity, had not Euryone discovered it. 
Amyntas forgave her. Alexander ascended the 
throne after his father's death, and perished by 
the ambition of his mother. Perdiccas, who 
succeeded him, shared his fate; bat Philip, who 
was the next in succession, secured himself 
against all attempts from his mother, and ascend- 
ed the throne with peace and universal satisfac- 
tion. Eurydice fled to Iphicrates, the Athenian 
445 



EU 



HISTORY, &c. 



FA 



general, for protection. The manner of her 

death is unknoAvn. C. Nep. in IpMc. 3. -11. 

A daughter of Amyntas, who married her uncle 
Aridseus, the illegitimate son of Philip. After 
the death of Alexander the Great, Aridaus as- 
cended the throne of Macedonia, but he was to- 
tally governed by the intrigues of his wife, who 
called back Cassander, and joined her forces 
with his to march against Polyperchon and 
Olympias. Eurydice was forsaken by her troops, 
Arid<£as was pierced through with arrows by 
order of Olympias, who commanded Eurydice 
to destroy herself either by poison, the sword, 
or the halter. She chose the latter. Vid. Part 

III. III. A daughter of Antipater, who 

married one of the Ptolemies. Paus. 1, 
c. 7. 

EuuYMEDON, a man who accused Aristotle of 
propagating profane doctrines in the Lyceum. 

EcRYPON, a king of Sparta, son of Sous. His 
reign was so glorious, that his descendants were 
called Eurypontidce. Paus. 3, c. 7. 

EuRYSTHENEs, a SOU of Aristodemus, who 
lived in perpetual dissention with his twin bro- 
ther Procles, while they both sat on the Spartan 
throne. It was unknown which of the two was 
born first ; the mother, who wished to see both 
her sons raised on the throne, refused to declare 
it, and they were both appointed kings of Sparta, 
by order of the oracle of Delphi, B. C. 1102. 
After the death of the two brothers, the Lacedae- 
monians, who knew not to what family the right 
of seniority and succession belonged, permitted 
two kings to sit on the throne, one of each fa- 
mily. The descendants of Eurysthenes were 
called EurysthenidcB ; and those of Procles, 
Proclidce. It was inconsistent with the laws of 
Sparta for two kings of the same family to as- 
cend the throne together, yet that law was 
sometimes violated by oppression and tyranny. 
Eurji-sthenes had a son called Agis, who suc- 
ceeded him. His descendants were called Agi- 
da.. There sat on the throne of Sparta 31 kings 
of the family of Eurysthenes, and only 24 of 
the Proclidae. The former were the more illus- 
trious. Herodot. 4, c. 147, 1. 6, c. 52.; — Paus. 3, 
c. 1. — C. Nep. in Ages. 

EuRYSTHEUs, Vid. Part III. 

EuRYTHioN, and Eurytion, a man of Hera- 
clea convicted of adultery. His punishment 
was the cause of the abolition of the oligarchi- 
cal power there. Aristot. 5, Polit. 

EusEBiA, an emperess, wife to Constantine, 
&c. She died A. D. 360, highly and deservedly 
lamented. 

EusEBius, a bishop of Csesarea in great fa- 
vour with the emperor Constantine. He was 
concerned in the theological disputes of Arius 
and Athanasius, and distinguished himself by 
his writings, which consisted of an ecclesiasti- 
cal history, the life of Constantine, Chronicon, 
Evangelical preparations, and other numerous 
treatises, most of which are now lost. The best 
edition of his Preparatio and Demonstratio 
Evangelica, is by Vigerus, 2 vols, folio ; Rotho- 
magi, 1628; and of his ecclesiastical history by 
Reading, folio Cantab. 1720. 

EusTATHius, I, a Greek commentator on the 
works of Homer. It is to be lamented the de- 
sign of Alexander Politus, begun at Florence in 
1735, and published in the first five books of the 
Iliad, is not executed, as a Latin translation of 
446 



these excellent commentaries is among the de 

siderata of the present day. II. A man who 

wrote a very foolish Romance in Greek, entitled 
de Jsvienice and Ismenes amoribus, edited by 
Gaulminus, 8vo. Paris, 1617. 

Euthycrates, I. a sculptor of Sicyon, son of 
Lysippus. He was peculiarly happy in the pro- 
portions of his statues. Those of Hercules and 
Alexander were in general esteem, and par- 
ticularly that of Medea, which was carried on a 

chariot by four horses. Plin. 34, c. 8. II. A 

man who betrayed Olynthus to Philip. 

EuTHYDEMUs, au orator and rhetorician, who 
greatly distinguished himself by his eloquence, 
&c. Strab. 14. 

EuTROPius, I. a Latin historian in the age of 
Julian, under whom he carried arms in the fa- 
tal expedition against the Persians. His origin, 
as well as his dignity, are unknown ; yet some 
suppose, from the epithet of CZarissmws prefixed 
to his history, that he was a Roman senator. 
He wrote an epitome of the history of Rome, 
from the age of Romulus to the reign of the em- 
peror Valens, to whom the work was dedicated. 
He wrote a treatise on medicine without being 
acquainted with the art. Of all his works, the 
Roman history alone is extant. It is composed 
with conciseness and precision, but without ele- 
gance. The best edition of Eutropius is that of 
Haverkamp, C^tm notis variorum, 8vo. L. Bat. 

1729 and 1760. 11. A famous eunuch at the 

court of Arcadius, the son of Theodosius the 
Great, &c. 

EuTYCLiDE, a woman who was thirty times 
brought to bed, and carried to the grave by 
twenty of her children. Pli7i. 7, c. 3. 

EuxENUS, a man who WTote a poetical history 
of the fabulous ages of Italy. Dionys. Hal. 1. 

EuxiPPE, a woman who killed herself because 
the ambassadors of Sparta had oifered violence 
to her virtue, &c. 

ExAGONUs, the ambassador of a nation in 
Cyprus, who came to Rome and talked so much 
of the power of herbs, serpents, &c. that the 
consuls ordered him to be thrown into a vessel 
full of serpents. These venomous creatures, far 
from hurting him, caressed him, and harmlessly 
licked him with their tongues. Plin. 28, c. 3. 

F 

Pabaria, festivals at Rome in honour of Car- 
na, wife of Janus, when beans {fabai) were pre- 
sented as an oblation. 

Fabia Lex, de ambitu, was to circumscribe 
the number of Sectatores, or attendants, which 
were allowed to candidates in canvassing some 
high office. It was proposed, but did not pass. 

Fabh, a noble and powerful family at Rome. 
They were once so numerous, that they took 
upon themselves to wage war against the Veien- 
tes. They came to a general engagement near 
the Cremera, in which all the family, consist- 
ing of 306 men, were totally slain, B. C. 447. 
There only remained one, whose tender age had 
detained him at Rome, and from him arose the 
noble Fabii in the following ages. The family 
was divided into six different branches, the Am- 
busti, the Maximi, the Vibulani, the Buteoms, 
the Dorsones, and the Pictores ; the three first of 
which are frequently mentioned in the Roman 
history, but the others seldom. Dionys. 9, c. 5. 



FA 



HISTORY, &c. 



FA 



^Ltv. % c. 48, &c.—Flor. 1, c. 2.— Ovid. Trist. 
2, V. 235— Virg. .En. 6, v. 845. 

Fabius, I. (Maximus Rullianus) was the first 
of the Fabii who obtained the suraame of 3Iax- 
imus, for lessening the power of the populace at 
elections. He was master of horse, and his vic- 
tories over the Samnites in that capacity nearly 
cost him his life, because he engaged the enem}' 
without the command of the dicta,tor. He was 
five times consul, twice dictator, and once cen- 
sor. He triumphed over seven different nations 
in the neighbourhood of Rome, and rendered 

himself illustrious by his patriotism. II. Rus- 

ticus, an historian in the age of Claudius and 
I\ ero. He was intimate wath Seneca ; and the 
encomiums which Tacitus passes upon his st}^le 
make us regret the loss of his compositions 



III. Q,. Maximus, a celebrated Roman, first sur- 
named Verrucosus, from a wart on his lip, and 
Agnicula^ from his inofiensive manners. From 
a dull and unpromising childhood he burst into 
deeds of valour and heroism, and was gradually 
raised by merit to the highest offices of the state. 
In his first consulship he obtained a victory over 
Liguria ; and the fatal battle of Thrasymenus 
occasioned his election to the dictatorship. In 
this important office, he began to oppose Anni- 
bal, not by fighting him in the open field, like 
his predecessors, but he continually harassed 
his army by countermarches and ambuscades, 
for which he received the surname of Cuncto.tor, 
or delayer. Such operations for the commander 
of the Roman armies gave ofience to some, and 
Fabius was even accused of cowardice. He, 
how-ever, still pursued the measures which pru- 
dence and reflection seemed to dictate as most 
salutary to Rome; and he patiently bore to see 
his master of horse raised to share the dictato- 
rial dignity with himself, by means of his ene- 
mies at home. Tarentum was obliged to surren- 
der to his arms after the battle of Cannae ; and on 
that occasion the Carthaginian enemy observed, 
that Fabius was the Annibal of Rome. When he 
had made an agreement with Annibal for the 
ransom of the captives, which was totally dis- 
approved by the Roman senate, he sold all his 
estates to pay the money, rather than forfeit his 
■word to the enemy. The bold proposal of 
young Scipio, to go and carry the war from Italy 
to Africa, was rejected by Fabius as chimerical 
and dangerous. He did not. however, live to 
see the success of the Roman arms under Scipio, 
andthe conquest ofCarthage by measures which 
he treated with contempt and heard with indig- 
nation. He died in the 100th year of his age, 
after he had been five times consul, and twice 
honoured with a triumph. Plut. in vita. — Flor. 

2, c. 6. — Liv. — Polyb. IV. His son bore the 

same name, and showed himself worthy of his 
noble father's virtues. During his consulship, 
he received a visit from his father on horseback 
in the camp: the son ordered the father to dis- 
mount, and the old man cheerfully obeyed, em- 
bracing his son, and saying, I wished to know 
"whether you knew what it was to be consul. 
He died before his father; and the Cunctator, 
"With the moderation of a philosopher, delivered 
a funeral oration over the dead body of his son. 

Plut. iro Fabio. V. Pictor, the first Roman 

who wrote an historical account of his country, 
from the age of Romulus to the year of Rome 
536. He flourished B, C. 235. The senti- 



ments expressed by Dionysius of Halicamassus, 
concerning Fabius Pictor's relation of events, 
in the early ages of Rome, and those of Poly- 
bius, on the occurrences of which he was him- 
self an eyewitness, enable us to form a pretty 
accurate estimate of the credit due to his whole 
history. Dionysius having himself written on the 
antiquities of Rome, was competent to deliver 
an opinion as to the works of those who had 
.preceded him in the same undertaking ; and it 
Avould rather have been favourable to the gene- 
ral view which he has adopted, to have estab- 
lished the credibility of Fabius. We may also 
safely rely on the judgment which Polybius has 
passed, concerning this old annalist's relation 
of the events of the age in which he lived, since 
Polybius had spared no pains to be thoroughly 
informed of whatever could render his own ac- 
count of them complete and unexceptionable. 
The work -which is now extant, and which is 
attributed to him, is a spurious composition. 
'VI. A Roman consul, surnamed Ambus- 



tus, because he was struck with lightning.- 

VII. Fabricianus, a Roman assassinated by his 
wife Fabia, that she might more freely enjoy 
the company of a favourite youth. His son was 
saved from his mother's cruelties, and when he 
came of age he avenged his father's death by 
murdering his mother and her adulterer. The 
senate took cognizance of the action, and pa- 
tronised the parricide. Plut. in Parall. 

VIII. A son of Paulus^milius, adopted into 
the famil}' of the Fabii. 

Fabricius, I. a Latin writer in the reign of 
Nero, who employed his pen in satirizing and 
defaming the senators. His wprks were burnt 
by order of Nero. II. Caius Luscinus, a cele- 
brated Roman, who, in his first consulship, 
obtained several victories over the Samnites and 
Lucanians, and was honoured with a triumph. 
Two years after, Fabricius went as ambassador 
to Pyrrhus. and refused with contempt the pre- 
sents, and heard with indignation the offers, 
which might have corrupted the fidelity of a less 
virtuous citizen. Pyrrhus had occasion to ad- 
mire the magnanimity of Fabricius ; but his 
astonishment was more powerfully awakened 
when he opposed him in the field of battle, and 
when he saw him make a discovery of the per- 
fidious offer of his physician, who pledged him- 
self to the Roman general for a sum of money 
to poison his royal master. A contempt of lux- 
ury and useless ornaments Fabricius wished to 
inspire among the people ; and, during his cen- 
sorship, he banished from the senate Cornelius 
Rufinus, who had been twice consul and dicta- 
tor, because he kept in his house more than ten 
pound w^eight of silver plate. He lived and died 
in the greatest poverty. His body was buried at 
the public charge, and the Roman people were 
obliged to give a dowry to his two daughters 
when they arrived at marriageable vears. Vol. 
Max. 2, c. 9, 1. 4, c. 4.— Flor. 1, c. 18.— Cic: 3, 
de Offic. — Plut. in Pyrrh. — Virg, ^n. 6, v. 
844. 

Fannia, a woman of Minturnae, who hospi- 
tably entertained Marius in his flight, though 
he had formerly sat in judgment upon her, and 
divorced her from her husband. 

Fannia Lex, de Suviptibus, by Fannius the 
consul, A. U. C. 593. It enactedthat no person 
should spend more than 100 asses a day at the 
447 



FE 



HISTORY, &c. 



FL 



great festivals, and 30 asses on other days, and 
ten at all other times. 

Fannius, (Caius,) an author in Trajan's 
reign, whose history of the cruelties of Nero is 
greatly regretted. 

Faunus. Vid. Part III. 

Fausta, I. a daughter of Sylla, &.c. Horat. 
1. Sat. 2, V. 64. -II. The wife of the empe- 
ror Constantine, disgraced for her cruelties and 
vices, 

Faustina, I. the wife of the emperor Antoni- 
nus, famous for her debaucheries. Her daugh- 
ter of the same name, blessed with beauty, live- 
liness, and wit, became the most abandoned of 

her sex. She married M. Aurelius. II. 

The third wife of the emperor Heliogabalus 
bore that name. 

Faustulus, a shepherd ordered to expose 
Romulus and Remus. He privately brought 
them up at home. Liv. 1, c. 4. — Justin. 43, c. 
2. — Plut. in Rom. 

Feciales, a number of priests at Rome, em- 
ployed in declaring war and making peace. 
When the Romans thought themselves injured, 
one of the sacerdotal body was empowered to 
demand redress, and, after the allowance of 33 
days to consider the matter, war was declared if 
submissions were not made, and the Fecialis 
hurled a bloody spear into the territories of the 
enemy in proof of intended hostilities. Liv. 1, 
c. 3, 1. 4, c. 30. 

Felix, M. Antomus, a freedman of Clau- 
dius Coesar, made governor of Judtea, Samaria, 
and Palestine. He is called by Suetonius the 
husband of three queens, as he married the two 
Drusilloe, one grand-daughter of Antony and 
Cleopatra, and the other a Jewish princess, sis- 
ter to Agrippa. The name of his third wife is 
unknown. Suet, in CI. 18. — Tacit. Ann. 12, 
c. 14. 

Fbralia, a festival in honour of the dead, 
observed at Rome the 17th or 21st of February. 
It continued for 11 days, during which time 
presents were carried to the graves of the de- 
ceased, marriages were forbidden, and the tem- 
ples of the gods were shut. 

Feri;b LATiNiG, festivals at Rome, instituted 
by Tarquin the Proud. The principal magis- 
trates of 47 towns in Latium usually assembled 
on the mount near Rome, where they altogether 
with the Roman magistrates offered a bull to 
Jupiter Latialis, of which they carried home 
some part after the immolation, after they had 
sworn mutual friendship and alliance. Ir con- 
tinued but one day originally, but in process of 
time four days were dedicated to its celebration. 
Dionys. Hal. 4, c. 49. — Cic. Ep. 6. — Liv. 21, 
&c. The feriaj among the Romans were certain 
days set apart to celebrate festivals, and during 
that time it was unlawful for any person to work. 
They were either public or private. The public 
were of four different kinds. The ferice stativce 
were certain immoveable days always marked 
in the calendar, and observed by the whole city 
with much festivity and public rejoicing. The 
fcria conceptiva were moveable feasts, and the 
day appointed for the celebration was always 
previously fixed by the magistrates or priests. 
Among these Avere the ferice Laiincs, which 
were first established by Tarquin, and observed 
by the consuls regularly before they set out for 
the nrovinces : the Compitalia, &c. The f erics 
448 



imperatives were appointed only by the com- 
mand of the consul, dictator, or praetor, as a pub- 
lic rejoicing for some important victory gained 
over the enemy of Rome. The ferice Nundince 
were regular days, in which the people of the 
country and neighbouring towns assembled to- 
gether, and exposed their respective commodi- 
ties to sale. They were called Nundinae, because 
kept every ninth day. The ferice privates Avere 
observed only in families, in commemoration of 
birthdays, marriages, funerals, and the like. 
The days on which the ferice were observed 
were called by the Romans festi dies, because 
dedicated to mirth, relaxation, and festivity. 

Fimbria, a Roman officer who besieged Mith- 
ridates in Pritane, and failed in his attempts 
to take him prisoner. He was deserted by his 
troops for his cruelty, upon which he killed him- 
self Plut. in IalcuU. 

FiRMius, M., a powerful native of SeleuQia, 
who proclaimed himself emperor, and was at 
last conquered by Aurelian. 

Flaccus, (Verrius,) a grammarian, tutor to 
the two grandsons of Augustus, and supposed 

author of the Capitoline marbles. A name 

of Horace. Vid. Hor alius. 

Flacilla, ^lia, the mother of Arca'^ius 
and Honorius, was daughter of Antoniuo, a 
prefect of Gaul. 

Flaminia Lex, agraria^ by C. Flaminius 
the tribune, A. U. C. 525. It required that the 
lands of Picenum, from which the Gauls Se- 
nones had been expelled, should be divided 
among the Roman people. 

Flaminius, C, a Roman consul of a turbu- 
lent disposition, who was drawn into a battle, 
near the lake of Thrasymenus, by the artifice 
of Annibal. Cic. de Inv. 2, c. 17. — Liv. 22, c. 
3, &c. — Polyh. Vid.. Flaminia Lex. 

Flaminius, or Flaminius, (T. Gt.) I. a cele- 
brated Roman, raised to the consulship A. U. 
C. 556. He was sent at the head of the Ro- 
man troops against Philip, king of Macedonia, 
and in his expedition he met with uncommon 
success. The Greeks gradually declared them- 
selves his firmest supporters, and he totally de- 
feated Philip on ihe confines of Epirus, and 
made allLocris, Phocis, and Thessaly, tributary 
to the Roman power. He granted peace to the 
conquered monarch, and proclaimed all Greece 
free and independent at the Isthmian games. 
He was afterwards sent ambassador to king 
Prusias, who had given refuge to Annibal, and 
there his prudence and artifice hastened out oi 
the world a man who had long been the terror oi 
the Romans. Flaminius was found dead in his 
bed, after a life spent in the greatest glory, in 
which he had imitated with success the virtues 

of his model Scipio. Plut. in vita. — Flor. 

II. Lucius, the brother of the preceding, sig- 
nalized himself in the wars of Greece. He was 
expelled from the senate for killing a Gaul. 
Plut. in Flam. III. Calp. Flamma, a tri- 
bune, who, at the head of 300 men, saved the 
Roman army in Sicily, B. C. 258, by engaging 
the Carthaginians and cutting them to pieces. 

Flavius, I. a Roman who informed Gracchus 
of the violent measures of the senate against 

him. II. A brother of Vespasian, &c. 

One of the names of the emperor Domitian. 
Juv. 4, V. 37. 

Floralia, games in honour of Flora at Rome. 



FU 



HISTORY, &c. 



GA 



They were instituted about the age of R,omu- 
lus, but they were not celebrated wiih regularity 
and proper attention till the year U. C. 580. 
They were observed yearly, and exhibited a 
scene of the most unbounded licentiousness. It 
is reported that Cato wished once to be present 
at the celebration, and that when he saw that 
the deference for his presence interrupted the 
feast, he retired. This behaviour so captivated 
the degenerate Romans, that the venerable sen- 
ator was treated with the most uncommon ap- 
plause as he retired. Val. Max. 2, c. 10. — Varro. 
de L. L. l.—Paterc. c. l.—Plin. 18, c. 29. 

Florus, (L. Annaeus Julius,) a Latin histo- 
rian of the same family which produced Seneca 
and Lucan, A. D. 116. He wrote an abridg- 
ment of Roman Annals in four books, composed 
in a florid and poetic style, and rather a pane- 
gyric on many of the great actions of the Ro- 
mans than a faithful and correct recital of their 
history. He also wrote poetry, and entered the 
lists against the emperor Adrian. 

FoNTEros Capito, a man who conducted 
Cleopatra into Syria by order of Antony. Plui. 
in Ant, 

FrontinuSj Sex. Jul. a celebrated geome- 
trician, who made himself known by the books 
he wrote on aqueducts and stratagems, dedi- 
cated to Trajan. He ordered at his death that 
no monument should be raised to his memory, 
saying, Memoria nostri durcd/it^ si vitam me- 
ruimus. The best edition of Frontiniis is that 
of Oudendorp, 8vo. L. Bat. 1779. 

Fronto, a preceptor of M. Antoninus, by 
whom he was greatly esteemed. 

Fdlvia ■ Lex was proposed but rejected, A. 
U. C. 628, by Flaccus Fulvius. It tended to 
make all the people of Italy citizens of Rome. 

FuLviA, I. a bold and ambitious woman, who 
married the tribune Clodius, and afterwards 
Curio, and at last M. Antony. She took a part 
in all the intrigues of her husband's triumvirate, 
and showed herself cruel as well as revengeful. 
Antony divorced her to marry Cleopatra, upon 
which she attempted to avenge her wrongs by 
persuading Augustus to take up arms against 
her husband. When this scheme did not suc- 
ceed, she raised a faction against Augustus, in 
which she engaged L. Antonius, her brother-in- 
law ; and when all her attempts proved fruitless, 
she retired into the east, where her husband re- 
ceived her with great coldness and indifference. 
This unkindness totally broke her heart, and 
she soon after died, about 40 years before the 

Christian era. Plut. in Cic. <^ Anton. II. 

A woman who discovered to Cicero the designs 
of Catiline upon his life. Pint, in Cic. 

Fulvius, I. a Roman senator, intimate with 
Augustus. He disclosed the emperor's secrets 
to his wife, who made it public to all the Roman 
matrons, for which he received so severe a re- 
primand from Augustus, that he and his wife 
hanged themselves. II. A friend of C. Grac- 
chus, who was killed in a sedition with his son. 
His body was throum into the river, and his 
widow was forbidden to put on mourning for 

his death. Plut. in Gracch. lit. Flaccus 

Censor, a Roman who plundered a marble tem- 
ple of Juno, to finish the building of one which 

he had erected to Fortune. Liv. 2.5, c. 2. 

IV. Ser. Nobilior, a Roman consul who went 
to Africa after the defeat of Regulus. He was 

Part II.— 3 L 



shipwrecked at his return with 200 Roman 
ships. His grandson Marcus was sent to Spain, 
where he greatly signalized himself. He was 
afterwards rewarded with the consulship. 

FijRii, a family which migrated from Medul- 
lia in Latium, and come to settle at Rome un- 
der Romulus, and was admitted among the pa- 
tricians. Camillus was of this family, and it 
was he who iirst raised it to distinction. Plut. 
in Camill. 

FiJRiA Lex, de Te.siamentis, by C. Furius the 
tribune. It forbade any person to leave as a leg- 
acy more than a thousand asses, except to the 
relations of the master who manumitted, with 
a few more exceptions. Cic. 1. Verr. 42. — 
Liv. 35. 

FuRius^ I. a military tribune with Camillus. 
He was sent against the Tuscans by his col- 
league. II. A Roman slave who obtained 

his freedom, and applied himself with unremit- 
ted attention to cultivat'C a small portion of land 
which he had purchased. He was accused be- 
fore a Roman tribunal of witchcraft, but hon- 
ourably acquitted.— — III. M. Bibaculus, a 
Latin poet of Cremona, who wrote annals in 
Iambic verse, and was universally celebrated 
for the wit and humour of his expressions. It 
is said that Virgil imitated his poetry, and even 
borrowed some of his lines. Horace, however, 
ridicules his verses^ Quintil. 8. c. 6, &c. — Ho- 
rat. 2, Sai. 5, v. 50. ' <■ 

FuRNTUs, a friend of Horace, who was con- 
sul, and distinguished himself by his elegant 
historical writings. 1 Sat. 10, v. 36. 

Fuscus, Arist. a friend of Horace, as con- 
spicuous for the integrity and propriety of his 
manners, as for his learning and abilities. 

FusHJs, a Roman actor, whom Horace ridi- 
cules. 2 Sat. 3, V. 60. He intoxicated him- 
self; and when on the stage, he fell asleep 
whilst he personated Ilione, when he ought to 
have been roused and moved by the cries of a 
ghost. 



G. 



GIbienus, a friend of Augustiis, beheaded by 
order of Sext. Pompey. It is maintained that 
he spoke after death. 

Gabinia Lex, de Comiiiis, by A. Gabinius, 
the tribune, A. U. C 614. It required that in 
the public assemblies for electing magistrates, 
the votes should be given by tablets n,nd not 
viva, voce. Another, de Militia, by A. Ga- 
binius the tribune, A. U. C. 685. It granted 
Pompey the power of carrying on the war 
against ihe pirates during three years, and of 
obliging all kings, governors, and states, to sup- 
ply hira with all the necessaries he wanted, over 
all the Mediterranean Sea, and in the maritime 

provinces, as far as 400 stadia from the sea. 

Another, de Usurd, by Aul. Gabinius the tri- 
bune, A. U. C. 685. It ordained that no action 
should be granted for the recovery of any money 
borrowed upon small interest to be lent upon 
larger. This was a usual practice at Rome, 
which obtained the name of versuram facere. 

Gabinius Aultijs. a Roman consul, who made 
war in Judsea. and re-established tranquillity 
there. He suffered himself to be bribed, and re- 
placed Ptolemy Auletes on the throne of Egypt. 
He was accused, at his return, of receiving 
449 



GA 



HISTORY, &C. 



GA 



bribes. Cicero, at the request of Pompey, ably 
defended him. He was banished, and died 
about 40 years before Christ, at Salona. 

GiETULicus, a poet who wrote some epigrams, 
in which he displayed great genius and wit, 

Galba, I. a surname of the first of the Sul- 
pitii, from the smallness of his stature. The 
word signifies a small worm, or, according to 
some, it implies, in the language of Gaul, fat- 
ness, for which the founder of the Sulpitian 

family was remarkable. II. Servius Sulpi- 

tius, a Roman, who rose gradually to the great- 
est offices of the state, and exercised his power 
in the provinces with equity and unremitted dil- 
igence. He dedicated the greatest part of his 
time to solitary pursuits, chiefly to avoid the 
suspicions of Nero, His disapprobation of the 
emperor's oppressive command in the provinces 
was the cause of new disturbances. Nero or- 
dered him to be put to death, but he escaped 
from the hands of the executioner, and was pub- 
licly saluted emperor. Irregularities in the em- 
peror's ministers greatly displeased the people ; 
and when Galba refused lo pay the soldiers the 
money which he had promised them when he 
was raised to the throne, they assassinated him 
in the 73d year of his age, and in the eighth of 
his reign, and proclaimed Olho emperor in his 
room, January 16th, A. D. 69, The virtues 
which had shone so bright in Galba when a 
private man, totally disappeared when he as- 
cended the throne ; and he who showed himself 
the most impartial judge, forgot the duties of an 
emperor and of a father of his people, Sueion. 

t^ Plut. in vita.— Tacit. III, A learned man, 

grandfather to the emperor of the same name. 

Suet, in Galb. 4. IV, Sergius, a celebrated 

orator before the age of Cicero, He showed 
his sons to the Roman people and implored their 
protection, by which means he saved himself 
from the punishment which either his guilt or 
the persuasive eloquence of his adversaries, M. 
Cato and L. Scribonius, urged as due to him. 
Cic. de Oral. 1, c. 53. ad Her. 4, c. 5, 

Galenus Claudius, a celebrated physician 
in the age of M. Antoninus and his successors, 
born at Pergamus, the son of an architect. He 
applied himself with unremitted labour to the 
study of philosophy, mathematics, and chiefly of 
physic. He was very intimate with Marcus 
Aurelius, the emperor, after whose death he re- 
turned to Pergamus, where he died in his 90th 
year, A. D. 193. He wrote no less than 300 
volumes, the greatest part of which were burnt 
in the temple of Peace at Rome, where they had 
been deposited. What remains of the works of 
Galen has been published, without a Latin trans- 
lation, in five vols. fol. Basil. 1538. Galen was 
likewise edited, together with Hippocrates, by 
Charterius, 13 vols, fol, Paris, 1679, but very in- 
correct. 

Galeria, I. the wife of Vitellius. II. Fus- 

tinia, the wife of the emperor Antoninus 
Pius. 

Galerius, a native of Dacia, made emperor 
of Rome by Diocletian. Vid. Mazimianus. 

Gallienus, (Publ. Lucinius,) son of the em- 
peror Valerian, He reigned conjointly with 
his father for seven years, and ascended the 
throne as sole emperor, A. D. 260, In his 
youth he showed his activity and military char- 
acter, in an expedition against the Germans and , 
450 



Sarmatoe ; but when he came to the purple, he 
delivered himself up to pleasure and indolence. 
His time was spent in the greatest debauchery. 
He often appeared with his hair powdered with 
golden dust ; and enjoyed tranquillity at home, 
while his provinces abroad were torn by civil 
quarrels and seditions ; and when he was ap- 
prized that Egypt had revolted, he only observed 
that he could live without the produce of Egypt. 
He was of a disposition naturally inclined to 
raillery ; and when his wife had been deceived 
by a jeweller, Gallienus ordered the malefactor 
to be placed in the circus, in expectation of be- 
ing exposed to the ferocity of a lion ; when the 
executioner, by order of the emperor, let loose 
a capon upon him. An uncommon laugh was 
raised upon this, and the emperor observed, that 
he who had deceived others should expect to be 
deceived himself The revolt of two of his of- 
ficers roused him to exertion; he marched 
against his antagonists, and put all the rebels to 
the sword, without showing the least favour 
either to rank, sex, or age. These cruelties 
irritated the people and the army; emperors 
were elected, and. no less than thirty tyrants 
aspired to the imperial purple. Gallienus re- 
solved boldly to oppose his adversaries ; but in 
the midst of his preparations, he was assassi- 
nated at Milan by one of his officers, in the 50th 
year of his age, A. D. 268. 

Gallus (Caius,) I, a friend of the great Afri- 
canus, famous for his knowledge of astronomy, 
and his exact calculations of eclipses, Cic. dM 

Senec. II. ^lius, the 3d governor of Egypt 

in the age of Augustus, III, Cornelius, a 

Roman knight, who rendered himself famous 
by his poetical as well as military talents. From 
the obscurity of his birth and of his original 
situation, little is known concerning the early 
years of Gallus, He is first mentioned in histo- 
ry as accompanying Octavius, when he march- 
ed to Rome, after the battle of Modena, to de- 
mand the consulship. He had soon so far in- 
gratiated himself with this leader, that we find 
him among the number of his advisers after the 
battle of Philippi, and counselling him, along 
with MiBcenas, to write in gentle terms to the 
senate, with assurances that he would offer no 
violence to the city, but would regulate all things 
with clemency and moderation. On the parti- 
tion of the lands, which followed the defeat of 
Brutus, Gallus was appointed to collect, from 
the cantons on the banks of the Po, a tribute 
which had been imposed on the inhabitants, in 
place of depriving them of their lands. After 
the battle of Actium, he was opposed to Antony 
in person, on the invasion of Egypt; and while 
Augustus took possession of Pelusium, its east- 
ern key, Gallus was employed to make himself 
master of Par?etonium, which was considered 
as its western barrier, Egypt having been re- 
duced to complete submission, its conqueror di- 
rected his whole attention towards the adminis- 
tration of its internal affairs. He accordingly 
took into his own hands the whole administra- 
tion, which, on his return to Rome, he deter- 
mined to devolve on a viceroy, supported by a 
great military force stationed in different parts 
of the kingdom. Gallus was the person whom 
he first invested with this prefecture ; and his 
long-tried fidelity, his attachment to his master, 
and his talents for conciliation, gave every pros- 



GA 



HISTORY, &a 



GE 



pect of a government which would be exercised 
with advantage to the prince who trusted him, 
and the people who were confided to his care ; 
and so long as he acted under the direction of 
Augustus, he manifested no defect either in ca- 
pacity or zeal. He opened new conduits from 
the Nile, and caused the old channels to be 
cleared ; he restored the rigour of the laws, pro- 
tected commerce, and encouraged arts ; and he 
founded another Alexandrian library, the for- 
mer magnificent collection of books havmg been 
accidentally burnt in the time of Julius Ccesar. 
By these means, Egypt for a while enjoyed, un- 
der the government of Gallus, a prosperity and 
happiness to which she had long been a stranger 
during the sway of the Ptolemies. But the ter- 
mination of the rule of this first prefect of Egypt 
did not correspond to its auspicious commence- 
ment. Elated with power, he soon forgot the 
respect that was due to his benefactor. He as- 
cribed every thing to his own merit — erecting 
statues to hiinself throughout all Egypt, and 
engraving a record of his exploits on the pyra- 
mids. In unguarded hours, and when under 
the influence of the double intoxication of pros- 
perity and wine, he applied to his master the 
most opprobrious and insulting expressions. In- 
discretion and vanity were quickly followed by 
acts of misgovernment and rapine. He plun- 
dered the ancient city of Thebes, and stripped 
itof its principal ornaments ; and he is even said, 
though on no very certain authority, to have 
filled up the measure of his offences by conspir- 
ing against the life of the emperor. In conse- 
quence of his misconduct, and of those unguard- 
ed expressions, which were probably conveyed 
to his master, with exaggeration, by some false 
friend or enemy, he was recalled, in the fifth 
year of his government ; and immediately after 
his return to Rome, one of his most intimate 
friends, called Largus, stood forth as his accuser. 
Augustus, in the meanwhile, forbade him his 
presence; and the charges, which now multi- 
plied from every quarter, were brought before 
the senate. Though Gallus had many friends 
among the poets, he had few among the senators. 
No one could refuse verses to Gallus ; but a fair 
. hearing was probably denied him. He was sen- 
tenced to perpetual exile, and his whole proper- 
ty was confiscated. Unable to endure the hu- 
miliation, which presented such a contrast to his 
former brilliant fortune, he terminated his exist- 
ence by a voluntary death. This sad conclu- 
sion to his once prosperous career took place in 
727, when he was in the 43d year of his age. 
The guilt or the misfortunes of Gallus as a 
statesman, have been long since forgotten, and 
he is now remembered only as a distinguished 
patron of learning, and as an elegant poet. Gal- 
lus was the friend of Pollio and Msecenas, and 
■rivalled them, through life, as an eminent pro- 
moter of the interests of literature. He pro- 
tected Parthenius Nicenus, a Greek author, 
who had been brought to Rome during the 
Milhridatic war, and who inscribed to him his 
collection of amorous mythological stories, en- 
titled, Jlepi ipwTiKOiv Tra^rj/iarcoj', declaring in his 
dedication, that he addressed the work to Gal- 
lus, as likely to furnish incidents which might 
be employecl by him in the poems he was then 
writing. But Gallus is best known to posterity 
as the patron of Virgil, whom he introduced to 



the notice of Ma&cenas, and was also instru- 
mental in obtaining for him restitution of his 
farm, after the partition of the lands among the 
soldiery. In gratitude for these and other fa- 
vours conferred on him, the Mantuan bard has 
introduced an elegant compliment to Gallus in 
the sixth eclogue ; and has devoted the tenth to 
the celebration of his passion for Lycoris. The 
elegies of Gallus consisted of four books, but 
they have now all perished; they were held, 
however, in high estimation so long as they 
survived. Ovid speaks of Tibullus as the suc- 
cessor of Gallus, and as his companion in the 
Elysian fields ; and he oftener than once al- 
ludes to the extensive celebrity which his verses 
had procured for himself as well as his mistress. 
Gluintilian ranks him as an elegiac poet with 
Tibullus and Propertius, though he thinks his 
style was somewhat harsher than that of either. 
Besides the four books of elegies, Gallus trans- 
lated or imitated from the Greek of Euphro- 
nion, a poem on the Grynean Grove, written in 
the manner of Hesiod. Though scarcely a 
vestige of the writings of Gallus remains, his 
name is still celebrated. ' The praises,' says 
Berwick, ' bestowed on him by his contempo- 
raries, particularly Virgil, have survived, and 
made posterity, at the distance of near two 
thousand years, anxious to hear his story. In 
vain did Augustus endeavour to suppress his 
fame — in vain did imperial resentment strive 
to obstruct his reputation. His name as a poet 
still lives, though his works, which gave ce- 
lebrity to that name, have totally perished.' 
He was passionately fond of the slave Lycoris 
or Cytheris, and celebrated her beauty in his 
poetry. Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Virs;. Eel. 6 and 

10.— Ovid. Amat. 3, el. 15, v. 29. IV. Vi- 

bius Gallus, a celebrated orator of Gaul, in 
the age of Augustus, of whose orations Seneca 
has preserved some fragments. V. A Ro- 
man who assassinated Decius, the emperor, and 
raised himself to the throne. He showed him- 
self indolent and cruel, and beheld with the 
greatest indifference the revolt of his provinces 
and the invasion of his empire by the barba- 
rians. He was at last assassinated by his sol- 
diers, A. D. 253.— VI. Flavins Claudius Con- 
stantinus, abrother of the emperor Julian, raised 
to the imperial throne, under the title of Caesar, 
by Constantius, his relation. He conspired 
against his benefactor, and was publicly con- 
demned to be beheaded, A. D. 354. 

Gellius, Aulus, a Roman grammarian in 
the age of M. Antoninus, about'130 A. D. He 
published a work which he called Nodes Atticce, 
because he composed it at Athens during the 
long nights of the winter. It is a collection of 
incongruous matter, which contains many frag- 
ments from the ancient writers, and often serves 
to explain antique monuments. It was origi- 
nally composed forthe improvement of his chil- 
dren, and abounds with many grammatical re- 
marks. The best editions of A, Gellius are, 
that of Gronovius, 4to. L. Bat. 1706, and that of 
Conrad, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1762. 

Greminiijs, an inveterate enemy of Marius. 
He seized the person of Marius, and carried 
him to Minturnae. Plut in Mario. 

Genseric, a famous Vandal prince, who 
passed from Spain to Africa, where he took 
Carthage. He laid the foundation of the Vaih 
451 



GI 



HISTORY, &c. 



GL 



dal kingdom in Africa, and in the course of his 
military expeditions, invaded Italy, and sacked 
Rome in July 455. 

Gentius, a king of lUyricum, who imprisoned 
the Roman ambassador at the request of Per- 
seus, king of Macedonia. This offence was 
highly resented by the Romans, and Gentius 
was conquered by Anicius, and led in triumph 
with his family, B. C. 169. Liv. 43, c. 19, &c. 

GEORGiC-i. Vid. Virgilius. 

Germanicus C;esar, a son of Dfusus and 
Antonia, the niece of Augustus. He was adopt- 
ed by his uncle Tiberius, and raised to the 
most important offices of the state. When his 
grandfather Augustus died, he was employed 
in a war in Germany, defeated the celebrated 
Arminius, and was revi/arded with a triumph 
at his return to Rome. Tiberius declared him 
emperor of the east, and sent him to appease 
the seditions of the Armenians. But the suc- 
cess of Germanicus in the east was soon looked 
upon with an envious eye by Tiberius, and his 
death was meditated. He was secretly poison- 
ed at DaphnCj near Antioch, by Piso, A. D. 19, 
in the thirty-fourth year of his age. The news 
of his death was received with the greatest 
grief and the most bitter lamentations, and Ti- 
berius seemed to be the only one who rejoiced 
in the fall of Germanicus. He had married 
Agrippina, by whom he had nine children, one 
of whom, Caligulaj disgraced the name of his 
illustrious father. In the midst of war he de- 
voted some moments to study, and he favourr 
ed the world with two Greek comedies, some 
epigrams, and a translation of Aratus in Latin 

verse. Suelon. This narne w^as common, in 

the age of the emperors, not only to those who 
had obtained victories over the Germans, but 
even to those who had entered the borders of 
their country at the head of an army. Domitian 
applied the name of Germanicus, which he him- 
self had vainly assumed, to the month of Sep- 
tember in honour of hiinself. S^ieL in Dom. 
l"^.— Martial. 9, ep. 2, v. 4. 

Geta, I. a man who raised seditions at Rome 
in Nero's rei^n, &c. Taeit. Hist. 2, c. 72 



II. Septimius, a son of the emperor Severus, 
brother to Caracalla. After his father's death 
he reigned at Rome conjointly with his brother ; 
but Caracalla, who envied his virtues, and was 
jealous of his popularity, murdered him in the 
arms of his mother Julia, who, in the attempt of 
defending the fatal blows from his body, receiv- 
ed a wound in her arm from the hand of her 
son, the 28th of March, A. D. 212. Geta had 
not reached the 23d year of his age, and the 
Romans had reason to lament the death of so 
virtuous a prince, while they groaned under the 
cruelties and oppression of Caracalla. 

Gisco, son of Hamilcon, the Carthaginian 
general, was banished from his country by the 
influence of his enemies. He was afterwards 
recalled, and empowered by the Carthaginians 
to punish, in what manner he pleased, those 
who had occasioned his banishment. He was 
satisfied to see them prostrate on the ground, 
and to place his foot on theii' neck, showing 
that independence and forgiveness are two of 
the most brilliant virtues of a great mind. He 
was made a general soon after in Sicily, against 
the Corinthians, about 309 years before the 
Christian era; and by his success and intrepi- 
452 



dity he obliged the enemies of his country to 
sue for peace. 

Gladiatorii Ludi, combats originally exhib- 
ited on the grave of deceased persons at Rome. 
They were first introduced at Rome by the 
Bruti, upon the death of their father, A. U. C. 
488. It was supposed that the ghosts of the 
dead were rendered propitious by human blood ; 
therefore, at funerals, it was usual to murder 
slaves in cool blood. In succeeding ages it 
was reckoned less cruel to oblige them to kill 
one another like men, than to slaughter them 
like brutes ; therefore the barbarity was covered 
by the specious show of pleasure and voluntary 
combat. Originally captives, criminals, or dis- 
obedient slaves, were trained up for combat; 
but when the diversion became more frequent, 
and was exhibited on the smallest occasion, to 
procure esteem and popularity many of the 
Roman citizens enlisted themselves among the 
gladiators, and Nero at one show exhibited no 
less than 400 senators and 600 knights. The 
people were treated with these combats not only 
by the great and opulent, but the very priests 
had their Ludi 'pcmlijicoles and Ludi sacer do- 
tales. It is supposed that there were no more 
than three pair of gladiators exhibited by the 
Bruti. Their numbers, however, increased 
with the luxury and power of the city ; and the 
gladiators became so formidable, that Spartacus, 
one of their body, had courage to take up arms, 
and the success to defeat the Roman armies, 
only with a train of his fellow-sufferers. When 
they were first brought upon the arena, they 
walked round the place with great pomp and 
solemnity, and after that they were matched in 
equal pairs with great nicety. They first had a 
skirmish with wooden files, called rudes or ar~ 
ma lusoria. After this the effective weapons, 
such as swords, daggers, &c. called arma decre- 
toria, were given them, and the signal for the 
engagement was given by the sound of a trum- 
pet. As they had all previously sworn to fight 
till death, or suffer death in the most excruciat- 
ing torments, the fight was bloody and obsti- 
nate ; and when one signified his submission by 
surrendering his arms, the victor was not per- 
mitted to grant him his life without the leav 
and approbation of the multitude. This was 
done by clenching the fingers of both hands be- 
tween each other, and holding the thumbs up- 
right close together, or bending back their 
thumbs. The first of these was called pollicem 
premere, and signified the Avish of the people to 
spare the life of the conquered. The other sign, 
cdWe^pollicem vertere, signified their disappro- 
bation, and ordered the victor to put his antago- 
nist to death. The combats of gladiators were 
sometimes different, either in weapons or dress; 
whence they were generally distinguished. The 
sec7i?orgs were armed with a sword and buckler, 
to keep off the net of ibeir antagonists, the rc- 
tiarii. The threccs, originally Thracians, were 
armed with a falchion and small round shield. 
The mijrmillones, called also galli, from their 
Gallic (Iress, were much the same as the secii- 
tores. They were, like them, armed with a 
sword, and on the top of their headpiece they 
wore the figure of a fish, embossed, called 
fiopjwpoi, whence their name. The hoplomachi, 
were completely armed from head to foot, as 
their name implies. The samnites, armed after. 



GO 



HISTORY, &c. 



GR 



the manner of the Samniies, wore a large shield, 
broad at the top, and growing more narrovv'' at 
the bottom, more conveniently to defend the 
upper parts of the body. The essedarh, gene- 
rally fought from the essedwn, or chariot used 
by the ancient Gauls and Britons. The anda- 
battz avaParai, fought on horseback, with a hel- 
met that covered and defended their faces and 
eyes. Hence, andabatarw/n more pugnare, is 
to fight blindfolded. The meridiani, engaged 
in the afternoon. The poUulatitii, were men 
of great skill and experience, and such as were 
generally produced by the emperors. The^s- 
cales, were maintained out of the emperor's 
treasury, fiscus. The dimachceri fought with 
two swords in their hands, whence their name. 
After these cruel exhibitions had been continued 
for the amusement of the Roman populace, 
they were abolished by Constantine the Great, 
near 600 years after their first institution. They 
were, however, revived under the reign of Con- 
stantius and his two successors, but Honorius 
for ever put an end to these cruel barbarities. 

Glaucus, I. a physician, crucified because 
Hephaestion died while under his care. Plut. 

in Alex. II. A son of Hippolytus, whose 

descendants reigned in Ionia. 

Gebar, a governor of Mesopotamia, who 
checked" the course of the Euphrates that it 
might not run rapidly through Babylon. Plin. 
6, c, 26. 

GoBRYAS, a Persian, one of the seven noble- 
men who conspired against the usurper Smer- 
dis. Vid. Darius. Herodot. 3, c. 70. 

GoRDiANus, M. Antonius Africanus, I. a son 
of Metius Marcellus, descended from Trajan by 
his mother's side. He applied himself to the 
study of poetry, and composed a poem in thirty 
books, upon the virtues of Titus Antoninus and 
M. Aurelius. After he had attained his 80th 
year in the greatest splendour and domestic 
tranquillity, he was roused from his peaceful 
occupations by the tyrannical reign of the 
Maximini, and he was proclaimed emperor by 
the rebellious troops of his province. He long 
declined to accept the imperial purple, but the 
threats of immediate death gained his compli- 
ance. Maximinus marched against him with 
the greatest indignation; and Gordian sent his 
son, with whom he shared the imperial dignity, 
to oppose the enemy. Young Gordian was 
killed, and the father, worn out with age, and 
grown desperate on account of his misfor- 
tunes, strangled himself at Carthage before he 
had been six weeks at the head of the em- 
pire, A. D. 236. He was universally lamented 

by the army and people. II. M. Antoninus 

Africanus, son of Gordianus, was instructed by 
Serenus Samnoticus, who left him his library, 
which consisted of 62.000 volumes. He passed 
into Africa, in the character of lieutenant to his 
father, who had obtained that province, and 
seven years after he was elected emperor in 
conjunction with him. He marched against the 
partisans of Maximinus, his antagonist, in Mau- 
retania, and was killed in a bloody battle on the 
25th of June A. D. 236, after a reign of about 
six weeks. He was of an amiable disposition, 
but he has been justly blamed by his biographers 
on account of his lascivious propensities, which 
reduced him to the weakness and infirmities of 
old age, though he was but in his 46th year at 



the time of his death. 



-III. M. Antoninus 



Pius, grandson of the first Gordian, was but 12 
years old when he was honoured with the title 
of CaBsar. He was proclaimed emperor in the 
16th year of his age, and his election was at- 
tended with universal marks of approbation. 
In the 18th year of his age he married Furia 
Sabina Tranquilina, daughter of Misitheus, a 
man celebrated for his eloquence and public 
^virtues. He conquered Sapor, and look many 
flourishing cities in the east from his adversary. 
In this success the senate decreed him a tri- 
umph, and saluted Misitheus as the guardian 
of the republic. Gordian was assassinated in 
the east, A. D. 244, by the means of Philip, 
who had succeeded to the virtuous Misitheus, 
and who usurped the sovereign power by mur- 
dering a warlike and amiable prince. The se- 
nate, sensible of his merit, ordered that the de- 
scendants of the Gordians should ever be free 
at Rome from all the heavy taxes and burdens 
of the state. During the reign of Gordianus, 
there was an uncommon eclipse of the sun, in 
which the stars appeared in the middle of the 
day. 

GoRDius, I. a Phrygian, who, though origi- 
nally a peasant, was raised to the throne. Dur- 
ing a sedition, the Phrygians consulted the ora- 
cle, and were told that all their troubles would 
cease as soon as they chose for their king the 
first man ihey met going to the temple of Jupi- 
ter mounted on a chariot. Gordius was the ob- 
ject of their choice, and he immediately conse- 
crated his chariot in the temple of Jupiter. The 
knot which tied the yoke to the draught tree 
was made in such an artful mariner that the ends 
of the cord could not be perceived. From this 
circumstance a report was soon spread that the 
empire of Asia was promised by the oracle to 
him that could untie the Gordian knot. Alex- 
ander, in his conquest of Asia, passed by Gor- 
dium ; and, as he wished to leave nothing un- 
done which might inspire his soldiers with cou- 
rage, and make his enemies believe that he was 
born to conquer Asia, he cut the knot with his 
sword; and from that circumstance asserted 
that the oracle was really fulfilled, and that his 
claims to universal empire were fully justified. 

Justin. 11, c. 7. — Curt. 3, c. 1. — Arrian. 1. 

II. A tyrant of Corinth. Aristot.. 

GoRGiAS, a celebrated sophist and orator, son 
of Carmantides, surnamed Leontinus, because 
born at Leontium in Sicily. He was sent by 
his countrymen to solicit the assistance of the 
Athenians against the Syracusans, and was 
successful in his embassy. He lived to his 108th 
year, and died B. C. 400. Only two fragments 
of his compositions are extant. Paus. 6, c. 17. 
— Cic. in Orcht. 22. &c. — Senect. 15, in Brut. 
Ib.— Quintil. 3 and' 12. 

GoRGus, the son of Aristomenes (he Messe- 
nian. He was married, when young, to a vir- 
gin, by his father, who had experienced the 
greatest kindness from her humanity, and had 
been enabled to conquer seven Cretans who had 
attempted his life, &c. Paus. 4, c. 19. 

Gracchus, (T. Sempronius,) I. father of Ti- 
berius and Caius Gracchus, twice consul and 
once censor, was distinguished by his integrity, 
as well as his prudence and superior ability ei- 
ther in the senate or at the head of the armies. 
He made war in Gaul, and met with much sue 
453 



GR 



HISTORY, &C. 



GY 



cess in Spain, He married Sempronia, of the 
family of the Scipios, a woman of great virtue, 
piety, and learning. Cic. de Oral. 1, c. 48. 
Their children, Tiberius and Caius, who had 
been educated under the watchful eye of their 
mother, rendered themselves famous for their 
eloquence, seditions, and an obstinate attach- 
ment to the interests of the populace, which at 
last proved fatal to them. With a winning elo- 
quence, affected moderation, and uncommon 
popularity, Tiberius began to renew the Agra- 
rian law, which had already caused such dissen- 
tions at Rome. ( Vid. Agraria.) By the means 
of violence, his proposition passed into a law, 
and he was appointed commissioner, with his 
father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother 
Caius, to make an equal division of the lands 
among the people. The riches of Attains, 
which were left to the Roman people by will, 
were distributed without opposition ; and Tibe- 
rius enjoyed the triumph of his successful en- 
terprise, when he was assassinated in the midst 
of his adherents by P. Nasica, while the popu- 
lace were all unanimous to re-elect him to serve 
the office of tribune the following year. The 
death of Tiberius checked for a while the friends 
of the people ; but Caius, spurred by ambition 
and furious zeal, attempted to remove every ob- 
stacle which stood in his way by force and vio- 
lence. He supported the cause of the people 
with more vehemence than Tiberius ; and his 
success served only to awaken his ambition, and 
animate his resentment against the nobles. 
With the privileges of atribune, he soon became 
the arbiter of the republic, and treated the pa- 
tricians with contempt. This behaviour hasten- 
ed the ruin of Caius, and in the tumult he fled 
to the temple of Diana, where his friends pre- 
vented him from committing suicide. This 
increased the sedition, and he was murdered by 
order of the consul Opimius, B. C. 121, about 
13 years after the unfortunate end of Tiberius. 
His body was thrown into the Tiber, and his 
wife forbidden to put on mourning for his death. 
Caius has been accused of having stained his 
hands in the blood of Scipio Africanus the 
younger, who was found murdered in his bed. 
Plut. m vita. — Cic. in Cat. 1, — Lucan. 6, v. 

796.— Mor, 2, c. 17, 1. 3, c. 14, &c. II. 

Sempronius, a Roman, banished to the coast of 
Africa for his adulteries with Julia, the daugh- 
ter of Augustus. He was assassinated by or- 
der of Tiberius, after he had been banished 14 
years, Julia also shared his fate. Tacit. Ann. 
i, c, 53. ^- ■ 

Granius Petronius, I. an officer who, being 
taken by Pompey's general, refused the life 
which was tendered to him ; observing that Cge- 
sar's soldiers received not but granted life. He 

killed himself Plut. in Ccbs. II. A son of 

the wife of Marius by a former husband.- 



III. Gluintus, a man intimate with Crassus and 
other illustrious men of Rome, whose vices he 
lashed with an unsparing hand, Cic. Brut. 43 
and 46. Orat. 2, c. 60, 

Gratianus, I. a native of Pannonia, father 
to the emperor Valentinian 1st. He was raised 
to the throne, though only eight years old ; and 
after he had reigned for some time conjointly 
with his father, he became sole emperor in the 
16th year of his age. He soon after took, as 
his imperial colleague, Theodosius, whom he 
454 



appointed over the eastern parts of the empire. 
His courage in the field is as remarkable as his 
love of learning and fondness for philosophy. 
He slaughtered 30,000 Germans in a battle, and 
supported the tottering state by his prudence 
and intrepidity. His enmity to the Pagan su- 
perstition of his subjects proved his ruin ; and 
Maximinus, who undertook the defence of the 
worship of Jupiter and of all the gods, wasjoin- 
ed by an infinite number of discontented Ro- 
mans, and met Gratian near Paris in Gaul. 
Gratian was forsaken by his troops in the field 
of battle, and was murdered by the rebels, A. D. 
383, in the 24th year of his age. II. a Ro- 
man soldier, invested with the imperial purple 
by the rebellious army in Britain, in opposition 
to Honorms. He was assassinated four months 
after by those very troops to whom he owed his 
elevation, A. D. 407. 

Gratius Faliscus, a Latin poet, contempo- 
rary with Ovid, and mentioned only by him 
among the more ancient authors. He wrote a 
poem on coursing, called Cynegeticon^ rnwch. 
commended for its elegance and perspicuity. 
It may be compared to the Georgics of Virgil, 
to which it is nearly equal in the number of 
verses. The latest edition is that of Arast. 4lo. 
1728, Ovid. Pont. 4, el. 16, v. 34, 

Gregorius, (Theod. Thaumaturgus,) I. a dis- 
ciple of Origen, afterwards bishop of Neocaesa- 
rea, the place of his birth. He died A. D. 266, 
and it is said that he left only seventeen idola- 
ters in his diocess, where he had found only 
seventeen Christians, Of his works are extant 
his gratulatory oration to Origen, a canonical 
epistle, and other treatises in Greek ; the best 

edition of which is that of Paris, fol. 1622. 

II. Nanzianzen, surnamed the Divine^ was 
bishop of Constantinople, which he resigned on 
its being disputed. His writings rival those of 
the most celebrated orators of Greece, in elo- 
quence, sublimity, and variety. His sermons 
are more for philosophers than common hear- 
ers, but replete with seriousness and devotion. 
Erasmus said that he was afraid to translate 
his works, from the apprehension of not trans- 
fusing into another language the smartness ana 
acumen of his style, and the stateliness and 
happy diction of the whole. He died A, D. 
389. The best edition is that of the Benedic- 
tines, the first volume of which, in fol, was pub- 
lished at Paris, 1778. III. A bishop of Nyssa, 

author of the Nicene creed. His style is repre- 
sented as allegorical and afiected ; and he has 
been accused of mixing philosophy too much 
with theology. His writings consist of com- 
mentaries on Scripture, moral discourses, ser- 
mons on mysteries, dogmatical treatises, pane- 
gyrics on saints ; the best edition of which is 
that of Morel], 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1615. The 
bishop died A. D, 396. IV. Another Chris- 
tian writer, whose works were edited by the 
Benedictines, in four vols. fol. Paris, 1705. 

Gryllus, a son of Xenophon, who killed 
Epaminondas, and was himself slain at the bat- 
tle of Mantinea, B, C, 363. Vid. Xenophon. 

Gyges, or Gyes, a Lydian, to whom Can- 
daules, king of the country, showed his wife 
naked. The queen was so incensed at this 
instance of imprudence and infirmity in her 
husband, that she ordered Gyges either to pre- 
pare for death himself or to murder Candaules. 



HA 



HISTORY, &c 



HE 



He chose the latter, and married the queen, and 
ascended the vacant throne about "/IS years be- 
fore the Christian era. He "was the first of the 
Mermnadae who reigned in Lydia. He reigned 
38 years, and distinguished himself by the im- 
mense presents which he made to the oracle of 
Delphi. Herodot, 1, c. 8. — Plat. dial. 10, de 
rep. — Val. Max, 7, c. \.—Cic. Offic. 3, 9. 

Gylippus, I. a Lacedaemonian, sent B. C. 
414, by his countrymen to assist Syracuse 
against the Athenians. He obtained a cele- 
brated victory over Nicias and Demosthenes, 
the enemy's generals, and obliged them to sur- 
render. He accompanied Lysander in his 
expedition against Athens, and was intrusted 
by the conqueror with the money which had 
been taken in the plunder, which amounted to 
1500 talents. As he conveyed it to Sparta, he 
had the meanness to unsew ihe bottom of the 
bags which contained it, and secreted about 
three hundred talents. His theft was discover- 
ed ; and, to avoid the punishment which he 
deserved, he fled from his country, and by this 
act of meanness, tarnished the glory of his vic- 
torious actions. Tibull. 4, el. 1, v. 199. — Pint. 

in Nicia. II. An Arcadian in the Rutulian 

war. Virg. ^n. 12, v. 272. 

Gymnasium. Vid. Part. I. 

Gymnosophist^, a certain sect of philoso- 
phers in India, who, according to some, placed 
their summurn bonum in pleasure, and their 
summum malum in pain. They lived naked, 
as iheir name implies, and for 37 years they 
exposed themselves in the open air, to the heat 
of the sun, the inclemency of the seasons, and 
the coldness of the night. They were often 
seen in the fields fixing their eyes full upon the 
disk of the sun from the time of its rising till 
the hour of its setting. Sometim.es they stood 
whole days upon one foot in burning sand, with- 
out moving or showing any concern for what 
surrounded them. Alexander was astonished 
at the sight of a sect of men who seemed to de- 
spise bodily pain, and who inured themselves 
to suffer the greatest tortures without uttering a 
groan or expressing any marks of fear. The 
conqueror condescended to visit them, and his 
astonishment was increased when he saw one 
of them ascend a burning pile with firmness 
and unconcern, to avoid the infirmities of old 
age, and stand upright on one leg and un- 
moved, when the flames surrounded him on 
every side. Vid. Calanus. The Brachmans 
were a branch of the sect of the Gymnosophistse. 
Vid. Brachma?j£s. — Strab. 15, &c. — Plin. 1, c. 
2.—Cic. Tusc. b.—lALcan. 3, v. 240.— Curt. 8, 
c. 9. — Dion. 



H. 



. HiBMON. Vid. Part III. 

Halotus, a eunuch, who used to taste the 
meat of Claudius. He poisoned the emperor's 
food by order of Agrippina. Tacit. Ann. 2, 
c. 66. 

Hannibal. Vid. Annibal. 

Hanno. Vid. Anno. 

Harmodius, a friend of Aristogiton, who de- 
livered his country from the tyranny of the Pi- 
sistratidaB, B. C. 510. {Vid. Aristogiton.) The 
Athenians, to reward the patriotism of these 
illustrious citizens, made a law that no one 



should ever bear the name of Aristogiton and 
Harmodius. Herodot. 5, c. 35. — Plin. 34, c. 8. 
— Scnec. Ir. 2. 

Harpagus, a general of Cyrus. He con- 
quered Asia Minor after he had revolted from 
Astyages, who had cruelly forced him to eat 
the flesh of his son, because he had disobeyed 
his orders in not putting to death the infant Cy- 
rus. Herodot. 1, c. 108. — Justin. 1, c. 5 and 6. 
. Harpalus, a man intrusted with the trea- 
sures of Babylon by Alexander. His hopes 
that Alexander would perish in his expedition, 
rendered him dissipated, negligent, and vicious. 
When he heard that the conqueror was return- 
ing with great resentment, he fled to Athens, 
where, with his money, he corrupted the ora- 
tors, among whom was Demosthenes. When 
brought to justice, he escaped with impunity to 
Crete, where he was at last assassinated by 
Thimbro, B , C . 325. Plut. in Phoc.—Diod.- 17. 

Harpalyce, I. the daughter of Harpalycus, 
king of Thrace. When her father's kingdom 
was invaded by Neoptolemus, the son of Achil- 
les, she repelled and defeated the enemy with 
manly courage. The death of her father, which 
happened soon after in a sedition, rendered her 
disconsolate ; she fled the society of mankind, 
and lived in the forests upon plunder and ra- 
pine. After her death the people of the country 
disputed their respective right to the posses- 
sions she had acquired by rapine, and they soon 
after appeased her manes by proper oblations 
on her tomb. Virg. jEn. 1, v. 321. — Hygin. 
fab. 193 and 252. 

Harpocration, I. a Platonic philosopher of 
Argos, from whom Stobaeus compiled his ec- 
logues. II. A sophist, called also ^lins. 

III. Valerius, a rhetorician of Alexandria, au- 
thor of a Lexicon on ten orators. 

Haruspex, a soothsayer at Rome, who drew 
omens by consulting the entiails of beasts that 
were sacrificed. He received the name of 
Aruspex, ah aris aspiciendis, and that of Ex- 
tispex, ah extis inspiciendis. The order of Arus- 
piceswas first established at Rome by Romulus, 
and the first Aruspices were Tuscans by origin, 
as they were particularly famous in that branch 
of divination. {Vid.Tages.) They were ori- 
ginally three, but the Roman senate yearly sent 
six noble youths, or, according to others, twelve, 
to Etruria, to be instructed in all the mysteries 
of the art. The office of the Haruspices con- 
sisted in observing these four particulars ; the 
beast before it was sacrificed ; its entrails; the 
flames which consumed the sacrifice ; and the 
flour, frankincense, &c. which was used. This 
custom of consulting the entrails of victims did 
not originate in Tuscany, but it was in use 
among the Chaldeans, Greeks, Egyptians, &c. 
and the more enlightened part ofmankind well 
knew how to render it subservient to their 
wishes or tyranny. Agesilaus, when in Eg}^pt, 
raised the drooping spirits of his soldiers by a 
superstitious artifice. He secretly wrote in his 
hand the word viKn, victory^ in large characters, 
and holding the entrails of a victim in his hand 
till the impression was communicated to the 
flesh, he showed it to the soldiers, and animated 
them by observing, that the gods signified their 
approaching victories even by marking it in the 
bodv of the sacrificed animals. Cic. de Div. 

Hecat^us, an historian of Miletus, born 549 
455 



HE 



HISTORY, &c. 



HE 



years before Christ, m the reign of Darius Hys- 
taspes. Hero dot. 2, c. 143, 

Hecatesia, a yearly festival observed by the 
Stratonicensians in honour of Hecate. The 
Athenians paid also particular worship to this 
goddess, who was deemed the patroness of fam- 
ilies and of children. From this circumstance 
the statues of the goddess were erected before 
the doors of the houses, and upon every new 
moon a public supper, was always provided at 
the expense of the richest people, and set in the 
streets, where the poorest of the citizens were 
permitted to retire and feast upon it while they 
reported that Hecate had devoured it. 

Hecatomboia, a festival celebrated in honour 
of Juno, by the Argians and people of ^gina. 
It receives its name from sKarov, & Povg, a sac- 
rifice of a hundred bulls, which were always 
offered to the goddess, and the flesh distributed 
among the poorest citizens. 

HECAroMPHONiA, a solemu sacrifice offered 
by ihe Messenians to Jupiter, when any of them 
had killed an hundred enemies^ Paus. 4, c. 19. 

Hector, son of king Priam and Hecuba, was 
the most valiant of all the Trojan chiefs that 
fought against the Greeks. He married An- 
dromache, the daughter of Eetion, by whom he 
had Astyanax. He was appointed captain of 
all the Trojan forces when Troy was besieged 
by the Greeks ; and the valour with which he 
behaved showed how well qualified he was to 
discharge that important office. He engaged 
with the bravest of the Greeks, and according 
to Hyginus, no less than 31 of the most valiant 
of the enemy perished by his hand. "When 
Achilles had driven back the Trojans towards 
the city. Hector, too great to fly, waited the ap- 
proach of his enemj'- near the Scean gaies, 
though his father and mother, with tears in their 
eyes, blamed their rashness, and entreated him to 
retire. The sight of Achilles terrified him, and 
he fled before him in the plain. The Greek 
pursued, and Hector was killed, and his body 
was dragged in cruel triumph by the conqueror 
round the tomb of Patroclus, whom Hector had 
killed. The body, after receiving the grossest 
insults, was ransomed by old Priam, and the 
Trojans obtained from the Greeks a truce of 
some days to pay the last offices to the greatest 
of their leaders. The Thebans boasted in the 
age of the geographer Pausanias that they had 
the ashes of Hector preserved in an urn, by or- 
der of an oracle; which promised them undis- 
turbed felicity if they were in possession of that 
hero's remains. The epithet of Ilectoreits is 
applied by the poets to the Trojans, as best ex- 
pressive of valour and intrepidity. Homer. II. 
1, &c.— Vio-g. Mn. 1, &c.— Ovid. Met. 12 and 
13. — Dicti/s Cret. — Dares Phryg. — Hygin. fab. 
90 and U2.—Paus. 1, 3, and 9, c. 18.— Quintil. 
Smyrn. 1 and 3. 

Hecuba, a daughter of Dymas, a Phrji-gian 
prince, or, according to others, of Cisseis, a 
Thracian king, was the second wife of Priam, 
king of Troy, and proved the chastest of wo- 
men, and the most tender and unfortunate of 
mothers. During the Trojan war she saw the 
greatest part of her children perish by the hands 
of the enemy, and, like a mother, she confessed 
her grief by her tears and lamentations, particu- 
larly at the death of Hector, her eldest son. 
When Troy was taken, Hecuba, as one of the 
456 



captives, fell to the lot of Ulysses, and embarked 
with the conquerors for. Greece. After this she 
threw herself into the sea, according to Hygi- 
nus, and the place w^as, from that circumstance, 
called Cyneum. Hecuba had a great number of 
children by Priam, among whom were Hector, 
Paris, Deiphobus, Pammon, Helenus, Polytes, 
Antiphon, Hipponous, Polydorus, Troilus ; and 
among the daughters, Creusa, Ilione, Laodice, 
Polyxena, and Cassandra. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 
761, 1. 13, V. blb.—Hygm. fab. III.— Virg. 
JEn. 3, V, U.—Jtw. 10, V. 2ll.—Strab. 13,- 
Dictys Cret. 4 and 5. — Apollod. 3, c. 12. 

Hegelochus, a general of 6000 Athenians 
sent to Mantinea to stop the progress of Epami- 
nondas. Diod. 15. 

Heqemon, I. a Thracian poet in the age of 
Alcibiades. He wrote a poem called Giganto- 
raachia, besides other works, jElian. V. H. 4, 

c. 11. II. Another poet, who wrote a poem 

on the war of Leuctra, &c. JElian. V. H. 8, c. 
11. 

Hegesius, I. a philosopher, who so eloquently 
convinced his auditors of their failings and fol- 
lies, and persuaded them that there were no 
dangers after death, that many were guilty of 
suicide. Ptolemy forbade him to continue his 

doctrines.. Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 34. II. A famous 

orator of Magnesia, who corrupted the elegant 
diction of Attica, by the introduction of Asiatic 
idioms. Cic. Orat. 67, 69. Brut. 83, — Strab. 
9. — Plut. in Alex. 

Hegesilochtis, I. one of the chief magis- 
trates of Rhodes in the reign of Alexander and 

his father Philip. 11. Another native of 

Rhodes, 171 years before the Christian era. 
He engaged his countrymen to prepare a fleet 
of 40 ships to assist the Romans against Per- 
seus, king of Macedonia. 

Hegesipyle, a daughter of Olorus king of 
Thrace, who married Miltiades and became 
mother of Cimon. Phtt. 

Hegetorides, a Thasian, who, upon seeing 
his country besieged by the Athenians, and a 
law forbidding any one on pain of death to speak 
of peace, went to the market-place with a rope 
about his neck, and boldly told his countrymen 
to treat him as they pleased, provided they 
saved the city from the calamities which the 
continuation of the war seemed to threaten. 
The Thasians were aM^akened, the law was 
abrogated, and Hegetorides pardoned, &c. 
Polyan. 2. 

Helena, I. the most beautiful woman of her 
age, sprung from one of the eggs which Leda, 
the wife of king Tyndarus, brought forth after 
her amour with Jupiter metamorphosed into a 
swan. Vid. Leda. According to some au- 
thors, Helen was daughter of Nemesis by Jupi- 
ter, and Leda was only her nurse; and to re- 
concile this variety of" opinions, some imagine 
that Nemesis and Leda are the same persons. 
Her beauty was so universally admired, even 
in her infancy, that Theseus, with his friend Pi- 
rithous, carried her away before she had attain- 
ed her tenth year, and concealed her at Aphid- 
nse, under the care of his mother iEthra. Her 
brothers Castor and Pollux, recovered her by 
force of arms, and she returned safe and unpol- 
luted to Sparta, her native country. The most 
celebrated of her suiters were Ulysses son of 
Laertes, Antilochus, son of Nestor, Sthenelus 



HE 



HISTORY, &c. 



HE 



son of Capaueus, Diomedes son of T3'deus, 
Philoctetes son of Pisan, Protesilaus son of 
Iphiclus, Eurj'-pilus son of Everaon, Ajax and 
Teucer sons "of Telamon, Pairoclus son of 
Mnoelius, Menelaus son of Atreus, Thoas. Ido- 
meneus, and Merion, Tyndarus was rather 
alarmed than pleased at the sight of sut:h a num- 
ber of illustrious princes, who eagerly solicited 
each to become his son-in-law. Ulysses advised 
the king tc» bind, by a solemn oath, all the suit- 
ers, that they would approve of the uninfluen- 
ced choice which Helen should make of one 
among them ; and engage to unite together and 
defend her person and character if ever any at- 
tempts M^ere made to ravish her from the arms 
of her husband. The advice of Ulysses was 
followed, the princes consented, and Helen fixed 
her choice upon Menelaus, and married him. 
Hermione was the early fruit of this union, 
which continued for three years with mutual 
happiness. After this, Paris, son of Priam 
king of Troy, came to Lacedasmon on pretence 
of sacrificing to Apollo. Pie was kindly receiv- 
ed by Menelaus, but shamefully abused his fa- 
vours,; and in his absence in Crete he corrupted 
the fidelity of his wife Helen, and persuaded her 
to follow him to Troy, B. C. 1198. The beha- 
viour of Helen, during the Trojan war, is not 
clearly known. When Paris was killed, in the 
ninth year of the war, she married Deiphobus, 
one of Priam's sons; and when Troy was taken, 
she made no scruple to betray him, and to intro- 
duce the Greeks into his chamber, to ingratiate 
herself with Menelaus. She returned to Spar- 
ta, and the love of Menelaus forgave the errors 
which she had committed. After she had lived 
for some years at Sparta, Menelaus died, and 
she was driven from Peloponnesus by Maga- 
penthes and Nicostratus, the illegitimate sons 
of her husband; she retired to Rhodes, where 
at that time Polyxo, a native of Argos, reigned 
over the country. Polyxo remembered that 
her widowhood originated in Helen, and that 
her husband Tlepolemus had been killed in the 
Trojan war, which had been caused by the de- 
baucheries of Helen : therefore she meditated 
revenge. While Helen one day retired to bathe 
in the river, Polyxo disguised her attendants in 
the habits of furies, and sent them v/ith orders 
to murder her enemy. Helen was tied to a tree 
and strangled, and her misfortunes were after- 
wards remembered, and the crimes of Polyxo 
expiated by the temple which the Rhodians 
raised to Helen Dendritis, or tied to a tree. 
There is a tradition mentioned by Herodotus, 
which says that Paris was driven, as he returned 
from Sparta, upon the coast of Egypt, where 
Proteus, king of the country, expelled him from 
his dominions for his ingratitude to Menelaus, 
and confined Helen. From that circumstance, 
therefore, Priam informed the Grecian ambassa- 
dors that neither Helen nor her possessions were 
in Troy, but in the hands of the king of Eg}'-pt. 
In spite of this assertion, the Greeks besieged 
the town, and took it after ten years siege ; and 
Menelaus, by visiting Egypt as he returned 
home, recovered Helen at the court of Proteus, 
and was convinced that the Trojan war had 
been undertaken on very unjust and unpardon- 
able grounds. Helen was honoured after death 
as a goddess, and the Spartans built her a tem- 
ple at Therapne, which had power of giving 
Part IL— 3 M 



beauty to all the deformed women who entered 
it. Helen, according to some, was carried into 
the island of Leuce after death, where she mar- 
ried Achilles, who had been one of her warmest 
admirers. Pans. 3, c. 19, &c. — Apollod. 3, c. 
10, &c. — Hygin. fab. 11.— Hero dot. '2,, c. 112. — 
Pktt. in Thes. &c. — Cic. d.e Office. 3. — Horat. 
3, od. 3. — Dictys Cret. 1, &c. — Quint. Smyrn. 
10, 13, &c.— Homer. II. 2, and Od. 4 and 15. 
II. A young woman of Sparta, often con- 
founded with the daughter of Leda. As she 
was going to be sacrificed because the lot had 
fallen upon her, an eagle came and carried away 
the knife of -the priest; upon which, she was 
released, and the barbarous custom ot ofl^ering 
human victims was abolished. III. A daugh- 
ter of the emperor Constantine, who married 

Julian. IV. The mother of Constantine. 

She died in her 80th year, A. D. 328. 

Helenus, a celebrated soothsayer, son of 
Priam and Hecuba, greatly respected by all the 
Trojans. When Deiphobus was given in mar- 
riage to Helen, in preference to himself, he re- 
solved to leave his country, and he retired to 
mount Ida, where Ulysses took him prisoner by 
the advice of Chalcas. As he was well ac- 
quainted with futurity, the Greeks made use of 
prayers, threats, and promises, to induce him to 
reveal the secrets of the Trojans ; and either the 
fear of death, or gratification of resentment, 
seduced him to disclose, to the enemies of his 
country that Troy couJd not be taken whilst it 
was in possession of the Palladium, nor before 
Philoctetes came from his retreat at Lemnos, 
and assisted to support the siege. After the ruin 
of his country, he fell to the share of Pyrrhus, 
the son of Achilles, and saved his life by warn- 
ing him to avoid a dangerous tempest, which in 
reality proved fatal to all those who set sail. 
This endeared him to Pyrrhus, and he received 
from his hand Andromache, the widow of his 
brother Hector, by whom he had a son called 
Cestrinus. This marriage, according to some, 
was consummated after the death of Pyrrhus, 
who lived with Andromache as his wife. Hele- 
nus was the only one of Priam's sons who sur- 
vived the ruin of his country. After the death 
of Pyrrhus, he reigned over part of Epirus, 
which he called Chaonia, in memory of his 
brother Chaon, whom he had inadvertently 
killed. Helenus received ^neas as he voyaged 
towards Italy, and foretold him some of the 
calamities which attended his fleet. The manner 
in which he received the gift of prophecy is 
doubtful. Vid. Cassajidra. Homer. 11. 6, v. 76, 

1. 7, V. Al.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 295, &c.— P«W5. 1, 
c. 11, 1. 2, c. ^Z.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 99 and 723, 
1. 15, V. 437. - 

HELiASTiE, a name given to the judees of the 
most numerous tribunal at Athens. They con- 
sisted of 1,000, and sometimes of 1.500; they 
were seldom assembled, and only upon matters 
of the greatest importance. Demosth. contr. 
Tim. — Diog. in Sol. 

Hrltcaon, a Trojan prince, son of Antenor. 
He married Laodice, the daughter of Priam, 
whose form Iris assumed to inform Helen of the 
state of the rival armies before Troy. Homer. 11. 

2, v. 123. 

Hruodorus, I. one of the favourites of Seleu- 
cus Philopator, king of Syria. He attempted 
to plunder the temple of the Jews, about 176 
457 



HE 



HISTORY, &c. 



HE 



years before Christ, by order of his master, &c. 
-II. A Greek mathematician of Larissa.- 



III. A famous sophist, the best editions of whose 
entertaining romance, called jEthiopica, are 
Commelin, 8vo. 1596, and Bourdelot, 8vo. Paris, 
1619. 

Heuogabalus, I. a deity among the Phceni- 

cians. II. M. Aurelius Antoninus, a Roman 

emperor, son of Varius Marcellus, called Helio- 
gabalus, because he had been priest of that 
divinity in Phoenicia. After the death of Macri- 
nus, he was invested with the imperial purple ; 
and the senate, however unwilling to submit to 
a youth only fourteen years of age, approved of 
his election, and bestowed upon him the title of 
Augustus. Heliogabalus made his grandmother 
MoBsa and his mother Soemias his colleagues 
on the throne ; and to bestow more dignity upon 
the sex, he chose a senate of women, over 
which his mother presided, and prescribed all 
the modes and fashions which prevailed in the 
empire. Rome, however, soon displayed a scene 
of cruelty and debauchery ; the imperial palace 
was full of prostitution, and the most infamous 
of the populace became the favourites of the 
prince. He raised his horse to the honours of 
the consulship, and obliged his subjects to pay 
adoration to the god Heliogabalus, which was 
no other than a large black stone, whose figure 
resembled that of a cone. To this ridiculous 
deity temples were raised at Rome, and the al- 
tars of the gods plundered to deck those of the 
new divinity. Such licentiousness soon displeas- 
ed the populace, and Heliogabalus, unable to ap- 
pease the seditions of the soldiers, whom his ra- 
pacity and debaucheries had irritated, hid him- 
self in the filth and excrements of the camp, 
where he was found in the arms of his mother, 
His head was severed from his body, the 10th of 
March, A. D. 222, in the 18th year of his age, 
after a reign of three years, nine months, and 
four days. He was succeeded by Alexander 
Severus. His cruelties were as conspicuous as 
his licentiousness. 

Hellanicus, I, a celebrated Greek historian, 
born at Mitylene. He wrote a history of the 
ancient kings of the earth, with an account of 
the founders of the most famous towns in every 
kingdom, and died B. C. 411, in the 85th year 
of his age. Paus. 2, c. 3. — Cic. de Orat. 2, c. 

53.—Aul. Gel. 15, c. 23. II. A brave ofiicer 

rewarded by Alexander. Curt. 5, c. 2. III. 

An historian of Miletus, who wrote a descrip- 
tion of the earth. 

Hellenes, the inhabitants of Greece. Vid. 
Hellen. 

Hellotia, two festivals, one of which was 
observed in Crete, in honour of Europa, whose 
bones were then carried in solemn procession, 
with a myrtle garland no less than twenty cu- 
bits in circumference, called cXXwrt?. The other 
festival was celebrated at Corinth with games 
and races, where young men entered the lists, 
and generally ran with burning torches in their 
hands. It was mstituted in honour of Minerva, 
surnamed Hellotis, ano tov e'Kov, from a certain 
pond of Marathon, where one of her statues 

was erected, or airo rov e.}^£iv tov iTTTTOv TOV TLeyaaov. 

because by her assistance Bellerophontook and 
managed the horse Pegasus, which was the ori- 
ginal cause of the institution of the festival. 
Others derive the name from Hellotis, a Corin- 
458 



thian woman, from the following circumstance : 
when the Dorians and the Heraclidse invaded 
Peloponnesus, they took and burnt Corinth j 
the inhabitants, and particularly the women, es- 
caped by flight, except Hellotis and her sister 
Eurytione, who took shelter in Minerva's tem- 
ple, relying for safety upon the sanctity of the 
place. When this was known, the Dorians set 
fire to the temple, and the two sisters perished 
in the flames. This wanton cruelty was follow- 
ed by a dreadful plague ; and the Dorians, to 
alleviate the misfortunes which they suffered, 
were directed by the oracle to appease the manes 
of the two sisters, and therefore they raised a 
new temple to the goddess Minerva, and estab- 
lished the festivals which bore the name of one 
of the unfortunate women. 

Helotje, and Helotes, the public slaves of 
Sparta, &c. Vid. Helos, Part I. 

Helvl4., the mother of Cicero. 

Heph^stl4, a festival in honour of Vulcan 
(ijiai^os) at Athens. There was then a race 
with torches between three young men. Each 
in his turn run a race with a lighted torch in 
his hand, and whoever could carry it to the end 
of the course before it was extinguished, obtain- 
ed the prize. They delivered it one to the other 
after they finished their course, and from that 
circumstance we see many allusions in ancient 
authors, who compare the vicissitudes of human 
affairs to this delivering of the torch, particu- 
larly in these lines of Lucretius 2 : — 

Inque brevi spatio mutantur sacla animantum, 
Et quasi cursores vital lampada tradunL 

Heph^stio, a Greek grammarian of Alex- 
andria, in the age of the emperor Verus. There 
remains of his compositions a treatise entitled 
Enchiridion de metris d^ poemate, the best edi- 
tion of W'hich is that of Pauw, 4to. JJUraj. 1726. 

HephjGstion, a Macedonian, famous for his 
intimacy with Alexander. He died atEcbatana, 
325 years before the Christian era. Alexander 
was so inconsolable at the death of this faithful 
subject, that he shed tears at the intelligence, 
and ordered the sacred fire to be extinguished, 
which was never done but at the death of a Per- 
sian monarch. The physician who attended 
Hephaestion in his illness was accused of neg- 
ligence, and by the king's order inhumanly put 
to death, and the games were interrupted. He 
was so like the king in features and stature, 
that he was often saluted by the name of Alex- 
ander. Curt. Arrian. 7, &c. — Plut. in Alex. — 
^lian. V. H. 7, c. 8. 

Heracleia, a fesrival at Athens, celebrated 
every fifth year, in honour of Hercules. The 
Thisbians and Thebans in Boeotia observed a 
festival of the same name, in which they offered 

apples to the god. There was also a festival 

at Sicyon in honour of Hercules. It continued 
two days, the first was called ovojxaTas, the se- 
cond TjpaKXeia. At a festival of the same name 

at Cos, the priest officiated with a mitre on his 

head, and in women's apparel. At LinduS; 

a solemnity of the same name was also observ- 
ed, and at the celebration nothing was heard 
but execration and profane words, and whoso- 
ever accidentally dropped any other words, was 
accused of having profaned the sacred rites. 

Heracleotes, a surname of Dionysius the 
philosopher. A philosopher of Heracleaj 



HE 



HISTORY, &c. 



HE 



"Who, like his master Zeno and all the stoics, 
firmly believed that pain was not an evil. A 
severe illness, attended with the most acute 
pains, obliged him to renounce his principles, 
and at the same time the philosophy of the sto- 
ics, about 264 years before the Christian era. 
He became afterwards one of the Cyrenaic sect, 
which placed the summum bonum in pleasure. 
He wrote some poetry, and chiefly treatises of 
philosophy. Diod. in vit. 

HERACLiDiE, the descendants of Hercules, 
greatly celebrated in ancient history. Hercules 
at his death left to his son Hyllus all the rights 
and claims which he had upon the Pelopon- 
nesus, and permitted him to marry lole as soon 
9.S he came of age. He soon after challenged 
to single combat Atreus, the successor of Eu- 
rystheus on the throne of Mycenee ; and it was 
mutually agreed that the undisturbed possession 
of the Peloponnesus should be ceded to whoso- 
ever defeated his adversary. Echemus accept- 
ed the challenge for Atreus, and Hyllus was 
killed, and the Heraclidas a second time de- 
parted from the Peloponnesus. Cleodaeus, the 
<;on of Hyllus, made a third attempt, and was 
equally unsuccessful ; and his son Aristoma- 
chus, some time after, met with the same unfa- 
vourable reception, and perished in the field of 
battle.' Aristodemas, Temenus, and Chres- 
phontes, the three sons of Aristomachus, en- 
couraged by the more expressive and less am- 
biguous word of an oracle, and desirous to 
revenge the death of their progenitors, assem- 
bled a numerous force, and with a fleet invaded 
all Peloponnesus. Their expedition was at- 
tended with success, and after some decisive 
battles they became masters of all the peninsula, 
which they divided among themselves two 
years after. The recovery of the Peloponnesus 
by the descendants of Hercules forms an inter- 
esting epoch in ancient history, which is uni- 
versally believed to have happened 80 years 
after the Trojan war, or 1104 years before the 
Christian era. This conquest was totally 
achieved about 120 years after the first attempt 
of Hyllus. ApoUod. 2, e. 7, &c. — Herodot. 9, c. 
26. — Paus. 1, c. 17. — Paterc. 1, c. 2. — Clemens. 
Alex. Strom. 1. — Tlmcyd. 1, c. 12, &c. — Diod. 
1, (fee. — Aristot. de Rep. 7, c. 26. 

Hekaclides, I. a philosopher of Heraclea in 
Pontus, for some time disciple of Speusippus 
and Aristotle. He lived about 335 years before 
the Christian era. Cic. Tasc. 5, ad Quint. 3. 

— Dlos;. in Pyth. II. A man who, after the 

retreat of Dionysius the younger from Sicily, 
raised cabals against Dion, in whose hands the 
sovereign power was lodged. He was put to 

death by Dion's order. C. Nep. in Dion. 

III. An architect of Tarentum, intimate with 
Philip, king of Macedonia. He fled to Rhodes 
on pretence of a quarrel with Philip, and set 
fire to the Rh'odian fleet. PolycBu. 

HERACLiTas, I. a celebrated Greek philoso- 

Eher of Ephesus, who flourished about 500 years 
efore the Christian era. His father's name 
was Hyson, or Heracion. Naturally of a mel- 
ancholy disposition, he passed his time in a sol- 
itary and unsocial manner, and received the 
appellation of the obscure philosopher, and the 
mourner, from his unconquerable custom of 
weeping at the follies, frailty, and vicissitude of 
human affairs. He employed his time m wri- 



ting different treatises, and one particularly, in 
which he supported that there was a fatal ne- 
cessity, and that the world was created from 
fire, which he deemed a god omnipotent and 
omniscient. His opinions about the origin of 
things were adopted by the stoics, and Hip- 
pocrates entertained the same notions of a su- 
preme power. He retired to the mountains, 
where for some time he fed on grass in com- 
mon with the wild inhabitants of the place. 
Such a diet was soon productive of a dropsical 
complaint, and the philosopher condescended 
to revisit the town. The enigmatical manner 
in which he consulted the physicians made his 
applications unintelligible, and be v/as left to 
depend for cure only upon himself. He fixed 
his residence on a dunghill, in hopes that the 
continual warmth which proceeded from it 
might dissipate the watery accumulation, and 
restore him to the enjoyment of his former 
health. Such a remedy proved ineffectual; and 
the philosopher, despairingof a cure by the ap- 
plication of ox-dung, suffered himself to die in 
the 60th year of his age. Some say that he was 
torn to pieces by dogs. Diog. in vita. — Clem. 

Alex. Str. 5. II. A lyric poet. III. a 

writer of Halicarnassus, intimate with Calli- 
machus. He was remarkable for the elegance 
of his style. 
Heraclius, I. a brother of Constantine, &c. 
■II. A Roman emperor. 



Her^a, festivals at Argos in honour of Juno, 
who was the patroness of that city. They were 
also observed by the colonies of the Argives 
which had been planted at Samos and .^Egina. 
There was a festival of the same name in 



Eiis, celebrated every fifth year, in which six- 
teen matrons wove a garment for the goddess. 
There were also others instituted by Hip- 



podamia, who had received assistance from Ju- 
no when she married Pelops. Sixteen matrons, 
each attended by a maid, presided at the cele- 
bration. The contenders were young virgins, 
who, being divided in classes according to 
their age, ran races each in their order, begin- 
ning with the youngest. She who obtained the 
victory was permitted to dedicate her picture to 

the goddess. There was also a solemn day 

of mourning at Corinth, which bore the same 
name, in commemoration of Medea's children, 
who were buried in Juno's temple. They had 
been slain by the Corinthians ; who, as it is re- 
ported, to avert the scandal which accompanied 
so barbarous a murder, presented Euripides 
with a large sum of money to write a play, in 
which Medea is repre^ented as the murderer of 

her children. Another festival of the same 

name at Pallene, with games, in which the vic- 
tor was rewarded with a garment. 

Herennius Senecio, I. a centurion sent in 
pursuit of Cicero by Antony. He cut off the 

orator's head. Phil, in Cic. II. Caius, a 

man to whom Cicero dedicates his book de Rhe- 
torica, a work attributed by some to Cornificius. 
III. Philo, a Phoenician, who wrote a bock 



on Adrian's reign. He also composed a trea- 
tise, divided into 12 parts, concerning the choice 
of books, &c. 

Hermathena, a statue, which represented 

Mercury and Minerva in the same body. This 

statue was generally placed in schools where 

eloquence and philosophy were taught, because 

459" 



HE 



HISTORY, &c. 



HE 



these two deities presided over the arts and sci- 
ences. 

HfiRMiAS, a Galatian philosopher in the se- 
cond century. His irrisio philosophoruvi gen- 
tilium was printed with Justin Martyr's works, 
fol. Paris, 1615 and 1636, and with the Oxford 
edition of Taiian, 8vo. 1700. 

Hermione, a daughter of Menelaus and 
Helen. She was privately promised in marriage 
to Orestes, the son of Agamemnon ; but her 
father, ignorant of his pre-engagement, gave her 
hand to Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, whose 
services he had experienced in the Trojan war. 
Pyrrhus, at his return from Troy, carried home 
Hermione and married her. Hermione, ten- 
derly attached to her cousin Orestes, looked 
upon Pyrrhus with horror and indignation. Ac- 
cording to others, however, Hermione received 
the addresses of Pyrrhus with pleasure. Her 
jealousy of Andromache, according to some, 
induced her to unite herself to Orestes, and to 
destroy Pyrrhus. She gave herself to Ores- 
tes, after this murder, and received the king- 
dom of Sparta as a dowry. Home?-. Od.4. — 
Eurip. in Andr, d^ Orest. — Ovid. Her. 8. — 
Propert. 1. 

Hermippus, a man who accused Aspasia, the 
mistress of Pericles, of impiety and prostitution. 
He was son of Lysis, and distinguished himself 
as a poet by forty theatrical pieces, and other 
compositions, some of which are quoted by 
Athenaeus. Plut. 

Hermogrates, I. a general of Syracuse against 
Nicias the Athenian. His lenity towards the 
Athenian prisoners was looked upon as treach- 
erous. He was banished from Sicily without 
even a trial, and was murdered as he attempted 
to return back to his country, B. C. 408. Plut. 

in Nic. &c. II. A Rhodian, employed by 

Artaxerxes to corrupt the Grecian states. 

III. A sophist, preceptor to Pausanias, the mur- 
derer of Philip. Diod. 16. 

Hrrmodorus. I. a philosopher of Ephesus, 
who is said to have assisted, as interpreter, the 
Roman decemvirs in the composition of the ten 
tables of laws which had been collected in 

Greece. Cic. Tusc. 5, c. 2Q.—Plin. 34, c. 5. 

II. A poet who wrote a book, called ISojiiim, on 
the laws of different nations. 

Hermogenes, I. an architect of Alabanda in 
Caria, employed in building the temple of Di- 
ana at Magnesia. He wrote a book upon his 

profession. II. A rhetorician in the second 

century, the best editions of whose Rhetorica are 
that of Sturmius, 3 vols. 12mo. Argent. 1571, 
and Laurentius, Genev. 1614. He died A. D. 
161, and it is said that his body was opened, 
and his heart found hairy, and of an extraordi- 
nary size. At the age of 25, as is reported, he 
totally lost his memory. 

Hermolaus, a young Macedonian, among the 
attendants of Alexander. As he was one day 
hunting with the king, he killed a wild boar 
which was coming towards him. Alexander, 
who followed close behind him, was so disap- 
pointed because the beast had been killed before 
he could dart at him, that he ordered Hermo- 
laus to be severely whipped. This treatment 
irritated Hermolaus, and he conspired to take 
away the king's life, with others who were 
displeased with the cruel treatment he had 
received. The plot was discovered by one of 
460 



the conspirators, and Alexander ordered him 
to be put to death. Curt. 8, c. 5. 

Hermotimus, a famous prophet of Clazomc- 
nae. It is said that his soul separated itself from 
his body, and wandered in every part of the 
earth to explain futurity ; after which it returned 
again, and animated his frame. His wife, who 
was acquainted with the frequent absence of his 
soul, took advantage of it, and burnt his body, 
as if totally dead, and deprived the soul of its 
natural receptacle. Hermotimus received divine 
honours in a temple at Clazomense, into which 
it was unlawful for women to enter. Plin. 7, 
c. 52, &c. — Ducian. 

Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus at Ses- 
tos, greatly enamoured of Leander, a youth of 
Abydos. These two lovers were so faithful to 
one another, that Leander in the night escaped 
from the vigilance of his family, and swam across 
the Hellespont, while Hero, in Sestos, directed 
his course by holding a burning torch on the top 
of a high tower. After many interviews of 
mutual affection and tenderness, Leander was 
drowned in a tempestuous night as he attempted 
his usual course; and Hero, in despair, threw 
herself down from her tower, and perished in the 
sea. Musaus de Leand. tf« Hero. — Ovid. Heroid. 
17 and 18.— Virg. G. 3, v. 258. 

Herodes, I. surnamed the Great and Ascalo- 
nita^ followed the interest of Brutus and Cassius, 
and afterwards that of Antony. He was made 
king of Judaea by means of Antony, and after 
the battle of Actium, he was continued in his 
power by his flattery and submission to Augus- 
tus. He rendered himself odious by his cruelty; 
and, as he knew that the day of his death 
would become a day of mirth and festivity, he 
ordered the most illustrious of his subjects to be 
confined, and murdered the very moment that he 
expired, that every eye in the kingdom might 
seem to shed tears at the death of Herod. He 
died in the 70th year of his age, after a reign of 40 
years. Josephus. II. Atticus. Vid. Atticus. 

Herodianus, a Greek historian, who flour- 
ished A. D. 247. He was born at Alexandria, 
and he was employed among the officers of the 
Roman emperors. He wrote a Roman history 
in eight books, from the death of Marcus Aure- 
lius to Maximinus. His style is peculiarly ele- 
gant, but it wants precision ; and the work, too, 
plainly betrays that the author was not a perfect 
master of geography. He is accused of being 
too partial to Maximinus, and too severe upon 
Alexander Severus. His book comprehends the 
history of 68 or 70 years, and he asserts that he 
has been an eyewitness of whatever he has 
written. The best editions of his history are 
that of Politian, 4to. Dovan, 1525, who after- 
wards published a very valuable Latin transla- 
tion ; and that of Oxford, 8vo. 1708. 

Herodotus, a celebrated historian of Hali- 
carnassus, whose father's name was Lyxes, and 
that of his mother Dyro. He fled to Samos 
when his country laboured under the oppressive 
tyranny of Lygdamis, and travelled over Egypt, 
Italv, and all Greece. He afterwards returned 
toHalicarnassus, and expelled the tyrant, which 
patriotic deed, far from gaining the esteem and 
admiration of the populace, displeased and irri- 
tated them so that Herodotus was obliged to fly 
to Greece from the public resentment. He pub- 
licly repeated at the Olympic games the history 



HE 



HISTORY, &c. 



HI 



which he had composed in his 39th year, B.C. 
445. It was received with universal applause. 
This celebrated composition, which has pro- 
cured its author the title of father of history, is 
written in the Ionic dialect. It is a history of 
the wars of the Persians against the Greeks, 
from the age of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale 
in the reign of Xerxes ; and besides this it gives 
an account of the most celebrated nations in the 
world. Herodotus had written another history 
of Assyria and Arabia, which is not extant. 
The life of Homer, generally attributed to him, 
is supposed not to be the production of his pen. 
The two best editions of this great historian are 
that of Wesseling, fol. Amsterdam, 1763, and 
that of Glasgow, 9 vols. 12mo. 1761. Cic. de 
leg. 1. de Oral. 2. — Dionys. Hal. 1. — Quintil. 
10, c. 1. — Plut. de mal. Herod. 

Heron, tw^o mathematicians, one of whom is 
called the ancient and the other the younger. 
The former, who lived about 100 years before 
Christ, w^as disciple of Ctesibius, and wrote a 
curious book, translated into Latin, under the 
title of Spiriticalium Liber, the only edition of 
which is that of Baldus, Aug. Vind. 1616. 

Herophilus, I. an impostor in the reign of 
J. Caesar, who pretended to be the grandson of 
Marius. He was banished from Rome by Cae- 
sar for his seditions, and w^as afterwards stran- 
gled in prison. II .A Greek physician, about 

570 years before the Christian era. He was one 
of the first.who dissected bodies. Pliny, Cicero, 
and Plutarch have greatly commended him. 

Hersilia, one of the Sabines, carried away 
by the Romans at the celebration of the Con su- 
alia. She was given and married to Romulus, 
though, according to some, she married Hostus, 
a youth of Latium, by whom she had Hostus 
Hostilius. After death she w^as presented with 
immortality by Juno, and received divine hon- 
ours under the name of Ora. Liv. 1, c. 11. — 
Ovid. Met. 14, v. 832. 

Hesiodus, a celebrated poet, bom at Ascra 
in BoEotia. His father's name was Dius, and 
his mother's Pycimede. He lived in the age of 
Homer, and even obtained a poetical prize in 
competition with him, according to Varro and 
Plutarch. Cluintilian, Philostratus, and others, 
maintain that Hesiod lived before the age of 
Homer; but Val. Paterculus, and others, sup- 
port that he flourished about 100 years after 
him. Hesiod is the first who wrote a poem on 
agriculture. This composition is called The 
Works a,nd the Days. His Thengony is a mis- 
cellaneous narration, valuable for the faithful 
account it gives of the gods of antiquity. His 
Shield of Hercules is but a fragment of a larger 
poem, in which it is supposed he gave an ac- 
count of the most celebrated heroines among 
the ancients. Hesiod, without being master of 
• the fire and sublimity of Homer, is admired for 
the elegance of his diction and the sweetness of 
his poetry. Besides these poems, he wrote oth- 
ers, now lost. Pausanius says that in his age 
Hesiod's verses were still written on tablets in 
the temple of the Muses, of which the poet was 
a priest. If we believe Oxm. Alexand. 6, Strom. 
the poet borrowed much from Muscevs. Virgil, 
in his Georgics, has imitated the compositions 
of Hesiod, and taken his ope7-a and dies for a 
model, as he acknowleds:es. Cicero strongly 
commends him, and the Greeks were so partial 



to his poetry and moral instructions, that they 
ordered their children to learn all by heart. He- 
siod was murdered by the sons of Ganyclor of 
Naupactum, and his body was thrown into the 
sea. Some dolphins brought back the body to 
the shore, which was immediately known, and 
the murderers were discovered by the poet's 
dogs and thrown mto the sea. If Hesiod flour- 
ished in the age of Homer, he lived 907 B. C. 
The best editions of this poet are that of Robin- 
son, 4to. Oxon. 1737 ; that of Loesner, 8vo. 
Lips. 1778, and that of Parma, 4to. 1785. Cic. 
Fam. 6, ep. 18. — Paus. 9, c. 3, &c. — Quiyitil. 

10, c. 1. — Pater c. — Varro. — Plut. de 7, Sep. <^ 
de Anion. Stag. 

Hesione. Vid. Part III. 

Hestchius, the author of a Greek lexicon in 
the beginning of the 3d century, a valuable 
work, which has been learnedly edited by Al- 
bert, 2 vols. fol. L. Bat. 1746. 

Hierax, (Antiochus,) king of Syria, and 
brother to Seleucus, received the surname of 
Hierax. Justin. 37, c. 3. 

HiERO, 1st, a king of Syracuse, after his 
brother Gelon, who rendered himself odious in 
the beginning of his reign by his cruelty and 
avarice. He made w-ar against Theron, the 
tyrant of Agrigenlum, and took Himera. He 
obtained three difierent crowns at the Olympic 
games, two in horseraces and one at^a chariot- 
race. Pindar has celebrated him as being vic- 
torious at Olympia. In the latter part of his 
reign, the conversation of Simonides, Epichar- 
mus, Pindar, &c. softened, in some measure, 
the roughness of his morals and the severity of 
his government, and rendered him the patron 
of learning, genius, and merit. He died, after a 
reign of 18 years, B. C. 467, leaving the crown 
to his brother Thrasybulus, who disgraced him- 
self by his vices and tyranny. Diod. 11. 

The second of that name, king of Syracuse, 
w^as descended from Gelon. He was unani- 
mously elected king by all the states of the 
island of Sicily, and appointed to carry on the 
w^ar against the Carthaginians. He joined his 
enemies in besieging Messana, which had sur- 
rendered to the Romans, but he was beaten by 
Appius Claudius, the Roman consul, and obli- 
ged to retire to Syracuse, where he was soon 
blocked up. Seeing all hopes of victory lost, 
he made peace with the Romans, and proved 
so faithful to his engagements during the fifty- 
nine years of his reign, that the Romans never 
had a more firm or more attached ally. He 
died in the 94th year of his acre, about 225 years 
before the Christian era. He was universally 
regretted, and all the Sicilians showed, by their 
lamentations, that they had lost a common 
father aud a friend. He liberally patronised 
the learned, and employed the talents of Archi- 
medes for the good of his country. He w-rote 
a book on a2:riculture, now lost. He was suc- 
ceeded bv Hieronvmus. Mlian. V. H. 4, 8.— 
Justin. 23, c. ^.—Flor. 2, c. 2.— Liv. 16. 
HiEROCLES, T. a persecutor oftheChri.itiaus un- 
der Diocletian, who pretended to find inconsis- 
tencies in Scripture, and preferred the miracles 
of Thyaneus to those of Christ. His writings 
were refuted by Lactantius and Eusebius. 

11. A Platonic philo^^opher, who taught at Alex- 
andria, and wrote a book on providence and fate, 
fragments of which are preserved by Photius; 

461 



HI 



HISTORY, &c. 



HI 



a commenlary on the golden verses of Pythago- 
ras ; and facetious moral verses. He flourished 

A. D. 485. The best edition is that of Asheton 
and Warren, 8vo. London, 1742. 

HiERONicA Lex, by Hiero, tyrant of Sicily, 
to settle the quantity of corn, the price and time 
of receiving it, between the farmers of Sicily 
and the collector of the corn-tax at Rome. This 
law, on account of its justice and candour, was 
continued by the Romans when they became 
masters of Sicily. 

HiERONYMus, I. a tyrant of Sicily, who suc- 
ceeded his father or grandfather Hiero, when 
only 15 years old. He rendered himself odious 
by his cruelty, oppression, and debauchery. He 
abjured the alliance of Rome, which Hiero had 
observed with so much honour and advantage. 
He was assassinated, and all his family was 
overwhelmed in his fall, and totally extirpated, 

B. C. 214. — — II. A Christian writer, commonly 
called SL Jerome, born in Pannonia, and distin- 
guished for his zeal against heretics. He wrote 
commentaries on the prophets, St. Matthew's 
Gospel, &c. a Latin version, known by the name 
of Vulgate, polemical treatises, and an account 
of ecclesiastical writers before him. Of his 
"Works, which are replete with lively animation, 
sublimity, and erudition, the best edition is that 
of Valarsius, fol. Veronae, 1734 to 1740, 14 vols. 
Jerome died A. D. 420, in his 91st year. 

HiLARius, a bishop of Poictiers, in France, 
who wrote several treatises, the most famous of 
"which is on the Trinity, in 12 books. The only 
edition is that of the Benedictine monks, fol. 
Paris, 1693. Hilary died A. D. 372, in his 
80th year. 

HiMiLco, I. a Carthaginian, sent to explore 
the western parts of Europe. Fest. Avien 



II. A son of Amilcar, who succeeded his father 
in the command of the Carthaginian armies in 
Sicily. He died with his army by a plague, 
B. C. 398. Justin. 19, c. 2. 

HippARCHiA, a woman in Alexander's age, 
who became enamoured of Crates, the cynic 
philosopher, because she heard him discourse. 
She wrote some things, now lost. Vid. Crates. 
Diocr. 6_ — Suidas. 

HippARCHUs, I. a son of Pisistratus, who suc- 
ceeded his father as tyrant of Athens, with his 
brother Hippias. He patronised some of the 
learned men of the age, and distinguished him- 
self by his fondness for literature. The seduc- 
tion of a sister of Harmodius raised him many 
enemies; and he was ar last assassinated by a 
desperate band of conspirators, with Harmodius 
and Arisio°:iton at their head, 513 vears before 
Christ. jElian. V. H. 8, c. 2. II. A mathe- 
matician and astronomer of Nicsea. - He first 
discovered that the interval between the vernal 
and the autumnal equinox is 186 days, 7 days 
longer than between the autumnal and vernal, 
occasioned by the eccentricity of the earth's or- 
bit. He divided the heavens into 49 constella- 
tions, 12 in the ecliptic, 21 in the northern, and 
16 in the southern hemisphere, and gave names 
to all the stars. He makes no mention of 
comets. From viewing a tree on a plain from 
different situations, which changed its apparent 
position, he was led to the discovery of the paral- 
lax of the planets, or the distance between their 
real or apparent position, viewed from the centre 
and from the surface of the earth. He deter- 
462 



mined longitude and latitude, and fixed the first 
degree of longitude at the Canaries. He like- 
wise laid the first foundations of trigonometry, 
so essential to facilitate astronomical studies. 
He was the first who, after Thales and Sulpicius 
Gallus, found out the exact time of eclipses, of 
which he made a calculation for 600 years. He 
died 125 years before the Christian era. Plin. 
2, c. 26, &c. 

HiPPARiNus, I. a son of Dionysius, who eject- 
ed Callipus from Syracuse, and seized the sove- 
reign power for 27 years. Polycen. 5. II. 

The father of Dion. 

HippiAS, I. a philosopher of Elis, who main- 
tained that virtue consisted in not being in want 
of the assistance of men. At the Olympic games 
he boasted that he was master of all the liberal 
and mechanical arts ; and he said that the ring 
upon his finger, the tunic, cloak, and shoes which 
he then wore were all the work of his own 
hands. Cic. de Orat. 3, c. 32. — -II. A son of 
Pisistratus, who became tyrant of Athens, after 
the death of his father, with his brother Hippar- 
chus. He was driven from his country, and 
fled to king Darius in Persia, and was killed at 
the battle of Marathon, fighting against the 
Athenians^ B. C. 490. He had five children by 
Myrrhine, the daughter of Callias. Herodot. 6. 
— Thucyd.l. 

Hippocrates, I. a celebrated physician of 
Cos, one of the Cyclades. He studied physic, 
in which his grandfather Nebrus was so emi- 
nently distinguished; and he improved himself 
by reading the tablets in the temples of the gods, 
where each individual had written down the dis- 
eases under which he laboured, and the means 
by which he had recovered. He delivered 
Athens from a dreadful pestilence in the begin- 
ning of the Peloponnesian war; and he was pub- 
licly rewarded with a golden crown, the privi- 
leges of a citizen of Athens, and the initiation 
atlhe grand festivals. He openly declared the 
measures which he had taken to cure a disease, 
and candidly confesses that of 42 patients which 
were intrusted to his care, only 17 had recovered, 
and the rest had fallen a prey to the distemper, 
in spite of his medical applications. He devoted 
all his time for the service of his country; and 
when Artaxerxes invited him, even by force of 
arms, to come to his court, Hippocrates firmly 
and modestly answered, that he was born to 
serve his countrymen, and not a foreigner. The 
experiments which he had tried upon the human 
frame increased his knowledge; and from his 
consummate observations, he knew how to mo- 
derate his own life, as well as to prescribe to 
others. He died in the 99th year of his age, B. C. 
361, free from all disorders of the mind and body; 
and after death he received, with the name of 
Great, ihe same honours which were paid to 
Hercules. He wrote in the Ionic dialect, at the 
advice of Democritus, though he was a Dorian. 
His memory is still venerated at Cos, and the 
present inhabitants of the island show a small 
house, which Hippocrates, as they mention, once 
inhabited. The best editions of his works are 
that of Fassius, Genev. fol. 1657; of Linden, 2 
vols. 8vo. Amst. 1665; and that of Mackius, 2 
vols. fol. Viennge, 1743. His treatises, especially 
the Aphorisvis, have been published separately. 

Plin. 7, c. 37.— Cic. de Orat. 3. II. The 

father of Pisistratus. 



HO 



HISTORY, &c 



HO 



HippOLYTUs, a Christian writer in the third 
century, whose works have been edited by Fa- 
bricius, Hamb. fol, 1716. 

HippoMACHUs, a musician, who severely re- 
buked one of his pupils because he was praised 
by the multitude, and observed that it was the 
greatest proof of his ignorance. Mlian. 2, V. 
H. c. 6. 

HiPPOMENEs, an Athenian archon, who ex- 
posed his daughter Limone to be devoured by 
horses, because guilty of adultery. Ovid, in lb. 
459. 

HippoNAX, a Greek poet, born at Ephesus, 
540 years before the Christian era. He culti- 
vated the same satirical poetry as Archilochus, 
and was not inferior to him in the beauty or 
vigour of his lines. His satirical raillery obliged 
him to fly from Ephesus. Vid Anthevias. Cic. 
ad famil. 7, ep. 24. 

HiRPiNus, Q,. a Roman, to whom Horace de- 
dicated his 2 od. 11, and also 1, ep. 16. 

HiRTius, AuLUs, I. a consul with Pansa, who 
assisted. Brutus when besieged at Mutina by 
Antony. They defeated Antony, but were both 
killed in battle, B. C. 43. Suet, in Aug. 10. 

II. An historian, to whom the 8th book of 

Caesar's history of the Gallic wars, as also that 
of the Alexandrian and Spanish wars, is attrib- 
uted. The style is inferior to that of Caesar's 
Commentaries. The author, who was Ccesar's 
friend and Cicero's pupil, is supposed to be the 
consul Hirtius. 

HisPANUs, a native of Spain: the word His- 
paniensis was also used, but generally applied 
to a person living in Spain, and not born there. 
Martial. 12, prczf. 

HisTi5:us, a tyrant of Miletus, who excited 
the Greeks to take up arms against Persia. 
Hero dot. 5, &c. 

HoMEROMASTix, a sumame given to Zoiius 
the critic. 

HoMEROS, I. a celebrated Greek poet, the most 
ancient of all the profane writers. The age in 
which he lived is not known, though some sup- 
pose it to be about 168 years after the Trojan 
war, or, according to others, 160 years before 
the foundation of Rome. According to Pater- 
culus, he flourished 968 years before the Chris- 
tian era, or 884, according to Herodus, who 
supposed him to be contemporary with Hesiod. 
The Arundelian Marbles fix his era 907 years 
before Christ, and made him also contemporary 
with Hesiod. No less than seven illustrious 
cities disputed the right of having given birth to 
the greatest of poets, as it is well expressed in 
these lines : — 

Smyrna^ Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, 

Argos, Athena, 
Orbis de patrid certat, Homere tua. 

He was called Melesigenes, because supposed 
to be born on the borders of the river Meles. 
There prevailed a report that he had established 
a school at Chios in the latter part of his life ; 
and, indeed, this opinion is favoured by the 
present inhabitants of the island, who still glory 
in showing to travellers the seats where the ven- 
erable master and his pupils sat in the hollow of 
a rock, at the distance of about four miles from 
the modern capital of the island. In his two 
celebrated poems, called the Iliad and Odyssey, 
Homer has displayed the most consummate 



knowledge of human nature, and rendered him- 
self immortal by the sublimity, the fire, sweet- 
ness and elegance of his poetry. In his Iliad, 
Homer has described the resentment of Achil- 
les, and its fatal consequences in the Grecian 
army before the walls of Troy. In the Odys- 
sey, the poet has for his subject the return of 
Ulysses into his country, with the many misfor- 
tunes which attended his voyage after the fall of 
Troy. These two poems are each divided into 
24 books, the same number as the letters of the 
Greek alphabet; and though the Iliad claims an 
uncontested superiority over the Odyssey, yet 
the same force, the same sublimity and elegance, 
prevail, though divested of its more powerful 
fire; and Longinus, the most refined of critics, 
beautifully compares the Iliad to the mid-day, 
and the Odyssey to the setting sun ; and observes, 
that the latter still preserves its original splen- 
dour and majesty, though deprived of its meri- 
dian heat. The poetry of Homer was so uni- 
versally admired, that, in ancient times, every 
man of learning could repeat with facility any 
passage in the Iliad or Odyssey; and, indeed, 
it was a sufficient authority to settle disputed 
boundaries or to support any argument. Mod- 
ern travellers are astonished to see the differ- 
ent scenes, which the pen of Homer described 
about 3,000 years ago, still existing in the same 
unvaried form ; and the sailor, who steers his 
course along the iEgean, sees all the promonto- 
ries and rocks which appeared to Nestor and 
Menelaus when they returned victorious from 
the Trojan war. The ancients had such vene- 
ration for Homer, that they not only raised tem- 
ples and altars to him, but offered-sacrifices, and 
worshipped him as a god. The inhabitants of 
Chios celebrated festivals every fifth year in his 
honour, and medals were struck, which repre- 
sented him sitting on a throne, holding his Iliad 
and Odyssey. In Egvpt, his memory was con- 
secrated by Ptolemy Philopater, who erected a 
magnificent temple, within which was placed a 
statue of the poet, beautifully surrounded with a 
representation of the seven cities which con- 
tendedforthe honour of his birth. The inhabit- 
ants of Cos, one of the Sporades, boasted that 
Homer was buried in their island ; and the 
Cyprians claimed the same honour, and said that 
he was born of Themisto. a female native of 
Cyprus. It is said that Pisistratus, tyrant of 
Athens, was the first who collected and arranged 
the Iliad and Odyssey in the manner in which 
they now appear to us; and that it is to the 
well-directed pursuits of Lycurgus that we are 
indebted for their preservation. Besides the Iliad 
and Odyssey, Homer wrote, according to the 
opinion of some authors, a poem upon Amphia.- 
raus's expedition against Thebes, besides the 
Phoceis. the Cercopse, the small Iliad, the Epi- 
cichlides, and the Batrachomyomachia, and 
many hymns to some of the gods. He borrow- 
ed from Orpheus, or, according to Suidas, (voce 
Corinnus,) he took his plan of the Iliad from 
Corinnus, an epic poet, who wrote on the Tro- 
jan war at the very time the Greeks besieged 
that famed cit}'. Of the numerous commenta- 
ries published on Homer, that of Eustathius, 
bishop of Thessalonica, is by far the most ex- 
tensive and erudite. Herodot. 2, c. 53. — Theo- 
crit. 16. — Aristot. Poet. — Strab. — Dio. Chrys^ 
33. Orat.—Pav,s. 2, 9, 10.— Heliodor. 3.— 
463 



HO 



HISTORY, &c. 



HO 



jElian. V. H. 13.— Val 
til. 1, 8, 10, \'2.—Paterc. 
— PLut. in Alex. &c. — 



Max. 8, c. S.—Quin- 
1, c. 5. — Dionys. Hal. 
•II. One of the Greek 



poets, called Pleiades, bom at Hierapolis, B. C. 

263. He wrote 45 tragedies, all lost. There 

were se\^en other poets, of inferior note, who 
bore the name of Homer, 

HoNORius, an emperor of the western em- 
pire of Rome, who succeeded his father Theo- 
dosius the Great, with his brother Arcadius. He 
was neither bold nor vicious, but he Avas of a 
modest and timid disposition, unfit for enterprise 
and fearful of danger. He conquered his ene- 
mies by means of his generals, and suffered 
himself and his people to be governed by minis- 
ters who took advantage of their imperial mas- 
ter's indolence and inactivity. He died of a 
dropsy, in the 39th year of his age, 15th of Au- 
gust, A. D. 423. He left no issue, though he 
married two wives. Under him and his bro- 
ther the Roman power was divided into two 
different empires. The successors of Honorius, 
who fixed their residence at Rome, were call- 
ed the emperors of the west ; and the succes- 
sors of Arcadius, who sat on the throne of Con- 
stantinople, were distinguished by the name of 
emperors of the eastern Roman empire. 

HoRAPOLLO, a Greek writer, whose age is 
unknown. His Hieroglypkica, a curious and 
entertaining book, has been edited by Corn, de 
Pauw, 4to. Ultraj. 1727. 

HoRATiA, the sister of the Horatii, killed by 
her brother for mourning the-death of the Cu- 
riatii. Cic. de Inv. 2, c. 20. 

HoRATius CocLES. {Vid. Codes.) Q.. 

Flaccus, a celebrated poet, born in the year 
689, at Venusia, or Venusium, (now Venosa,) 
a town situated on the confines on the ancient 
Apulia and Lucania ; at present the district of 
Basilicata in Calabria. He was the son of a 
freed man, who, it appears, had acquired as much 
wealth as enabled him to purchase a small farm, 
lying on the banks of the Aufidus, and in the 
immediate vicinity of Venusium. Here Horace 
passed his childhood, wandering sometimes to 
a distance from his paternal home, amid the 
wild and mountainous scenery of his native re- 
gion. When he was about ten years of age, 
his father sold the farm at Venusium, and came 
to the capital, where he was appointed a collec- 
tor of imposts. His son was placed under the 
care of the grammarian Orbilius Pupillus, with 
whom our young scholar read (though, it would 
appear, with no great relish) the most ancient 
poets of his country. He was also instructed 
in Greek literature ; and the writings of Homer, 
which were perused by him with much great- 
er profit and satisfaction than those of Livius 
or Ennius, first seem to have awakened in his 
breast a taste for poetry. After he had assumed 
the toga virilis, Horace completed his course of 
instruction by a residence at Athens, where he 
studied philosophy, along with the son of Cicero, 
Varus, and the young Messala. He was there 
at the time of the assassination of Caesar ; and 
the conspirators Brutus and Cassius, having 
shortly afterwards arrived in Greece, Horace, 
with most of the other young Romans who were 
then studying at Athens, joined the republican 
party; and the camp of Brutus became throng- 
ed with the heirs of those illustrious patricians 
who had formerly rallied around the standard of 
464 



Pompey. Horace continued nearly two years 
under the command of Brutus, and followed 
him to Macedonia, where he attained the rank 
of a military tribune. He was present at the fatal 
battle of Philippi, and much has been said of the 
cowardice he exhibited in that combat. Our 
poet himself acknowledges, in an ode imitated 
from Archilochus,that he threw away his shield, 
and fled with precipitation ; and there seems no 
reason to suppose that he saved himself earlier 
than others, or that he left the field of battle till 
all hopes of victory had vanished. His father 
had died during his absence, and it is likely 
that this small patrimony had been ruined or 
confiscated in the course of those civil dissen- 
sions, in which he had engaged on the vanquish- 
ed side. About this time he composed the odes 
which at present form the tenth and twent)^- 
eighth of the first book, and the seventh of the 
first book of satires. At length, in the year 
716, when he had reached the age of twenty- 
seven, he was recommended to the notice of 
Maecenas, first by Virgil, and subsequently by 
Varus, He was shortly afterwards presented 
in due form to this.distinguished patron of litera- 
ture; but he felt so overawed, that he spoke lit- 
tle and with much hesitation. Though this 
introduction laid the foundation of his future 
fame and fortune, Maecenas paid him no great 
attention at the first interview. To the poet's 
candid statement of his situation and circum- 
stances, he made but a brief answer, and dis- 
missed him after a short and unsatisfactory con- 
versation. He took no farther notice of him for 
the space of nine months, and Horace did not 
stoop to any servility or flattery, during the in- 
terval, to obtain his patronage. At the end of 
this period, Maecenas at length sent for him, 
and soon admitted him among the number of 
his domestic friends. From this time, Maecenas 
was somewhat more to Horace than a mere 
patron, or even acquaintance; and it appears, 
both from the odes and satires, that, notwith- 
standing the difference in rank and situation, a 
tender friendship subsisted between them. Vir- 
gil andPropertius were learned and skilful poets; 
but Horace was also a man of the world, of de- 
lightful conversation and accomodating temper, 
and a fit companion for patricians or statesmen. 
Horace was better rewarded for his fidelity, and 
the dangers he encountered for the sake of a 
patron, than his predecessors, Lucretius and 
Catullus, or his contemporary TibuUus. Mae- 
cenas bestowed on him a villa at Tibur, and ob- 
tained for him a grant of land in the eastern 
extremity of the Sabine territory. He also pro- 
cured for him the favour of Augustus, who of- 
fered him the situation of one of his private 
secretaries. This office would have removed 
him from the table of Maecenas, which he usual- 
ly frequented,to that of the emperor himself. The 
offer was declined, on the plea of bad health ; 
but, so far was the refusal from offending Au- 
gustus, that he continued to treat him with the 
utmost distinction and familiarity. With Au- 
gustus himself for his protector— with Maecenas, 
Tibullus, and Virgil, for his friends— enlivened 
by the smiles of Lalage— blessed with a tran- 
quil mind, and a competence with which he was 
satisfied— engaged in the composition of works 
which obtained for him the high esteem of his 
contemporaries,and which he foresaw would en- 



HO 



HISTORY, &c. 



HO 



sure him immortality, he attained, perhaps, the 
greatest felicity which an Epicurean life could 
afford. The manner in which he usually spent 
his time may be learned from his works : he 
passed it while at Rome, ia the most delectable 
lounging, and when he retired to the country, 
in the most delightful rural occupations. In this 
happy frame of mind, Horace lived till Novem- 
ber 746, when he expired suddenly at Rome. 
He was unable, in his last moments, to put his 
hand to his testament, but he nominated Au- 
gustus as his heir. His life terminated about 
the same time with that of Maecenas, though it 
seems uncertain whether he survived or prede- 
ceased his friend. He died at the age of fifty- 
seven, and his remains were deposited near the 
tomb of Maecenas, on the Esquiline Hill. The 
intellectual and moral character of Horace may 
be gathered from his writings, as accurately as 
the mode in which he passed his time. His 
mind was enlightened by study, and invigorated 
by observation. It was comprehensive, but not 
visionary — delicate, but not fastidious — too sa- 
gacious to be warped by prejudice. — too reflec- 
tive to be influenced by resentment. To infer 
the moral dispositions of a poet from the tone of 
sentiment which pervades his works, may be 
often a fallacious analogy ; but the soul of Hor- 
ace speaks so unequivocally through his odes 
and epistles, that we may safely consult them 
as the faithful mirrors of his heart. His moral 
qualities, perhaps, may not be so highly esti- 
mated as his iniellectual endowments ; but he 
was of a cheerful temper, and of great modera- 
tion, equanimity, and independence of mind. 
In early youth, when he first came to the capi- 
tal, after the battle of Philippi, he was somewhat 
of a coxcomb, both in his dress and manners, 
and much addicted to the promiscuous gallan- 
try which then prevailed. The advance of time 
scarcely saved him from the power of love ; and, 
at the age of fifty, he felt the full force of a pas- 
sion which he believed had been conquered. 
According to the principles of that sect to which 
he belonged, he adopted as a rule of conduct, 
that he should permit nothing to ruffle his tem- 
per. His heart was devoted to an indolence, 
which often arises from the conviction that hap- 
piness is not to be found in wealth, or power, or 
dignity. He was grateful to his benefactors, and 
warmly attached to his friends ; but he wrapped 
himself up in Epicurean indifference to the 
crimes, and follies, and projects, of the rest of 
mankind. Of these, however, though little 
affected by them, he was a constant and acute 
observer ; and his accurate, lively delineations 
of every species of human error and absurdity, 
form the most valuable, as well as the most 
characteristic portion of his agreeable compo- 
sitions. The works of Horace comprehend, 
1st, Odes ; 2d, Epodes ; 3d, Satires ; and 4th, 
Epistles. It seems to be universally agreed, that, 
as a lyric poet at least, Horace has little claim 
to the praise of originality. Even in those 
odes which are most original, and, so far as we 
know, are not translated or imitated from any 
lyric bard of Greece, the words, the phrases, 
and sentiments, are all Greek, and evidently 
proceed from a poet whose mind was imbued 
not only with the compositions of Alcseus, Pin- 
dar, and Sappho, the three writers whom he is 
supposed chieflv to have imitated, but also with 
Part II.~3 N 



the works of Homer, and of the great trage- 
dians. This particularly appears, as was to 
be expected, in the epithets attached to Greek 
places, heroes, or divinities. The odes which 
seem to be of the invention of the Latin poet, 
are chiefly of that sort which has been termed 
occasional. He willingly employed his muse 
to celebrate a festive day, to lament the depar- 
ture of a friend, or congratulate him on his re- 
turn, to record any pleasant occurrence of his 
own life, or any political event, which might 
reflect honour on his patrons. Being of this 
miscellaneous description, the odes of Horace 
cannot be all classed ; but the greater propor- 
tion of them may be reduced under four divi- 
sions, — amatory, convivial, moral, and polit- 
ical. Those of an amorous strain, are by far 
the most numerous. In them he celebrates his 
love for Lydia, Tyndaris, Lalage, Glycera, and 
many others, who were perhaps real mistresses, 
but with fictitious names. The passion he 
sings, is of alight trivial description, compared 
with that of tlie contemporary elegiac poets ; 
and both the style and sentiments are suited to 
the " grata protervitas" of his Glycera. The 
convivial odes consist of invitations to Mcece- 
nas, and other illustrious friends, to join his 
social board. He prepares for the entertain- 
ment; he provides the accompaniments of mu- 
sic and garlands of flowers, and he celebrates 
the happy influence of the gifts of Bacchus with 
fervid and joyous praises. Many of these con- 
vivial odes are tempered with moral reflections ; 
and some of them perhaps cannot be well dis- 
criminated from the third or moral class. Both 
in the moral and convivial odes, the friends to 
whom they are addressed are frequently re- 
minded of the shortness of life, and of its clo- 
sing scene — sometimes, indeed, with a moral 
scope, but oftener with a view of exciting to the 
enjo3''ment of the present hour,by a glance at the 
uncertainty and gloom of the future. In a his- 
tory of Roman poetry, the political odes of 
Horace are those which are most deserving of 
consideration. They are chiefly of his own 
composition, instead of being translated or imi- 
tated, like so many of the others, from the Greek; 
and as they refer to the most prominent events 
of Roman history, they afford some insight into 
the political discussions and state intrigues of 
the day. All of them are written in courtly and 
soothing language. They breathe that spirit of 
wisdom, moderation, and humanity, which now 
began to prevail in the councils of the prince ; 
and the mildest maxims of policy are inculcated 
amid bursts of lyric fancy. The epodes of 
Horace may be considered as intermediate com- 
positions between his odes and satires. They 
are in iambic measure, and a few of them are 
on similar topics with the odes; but the others 
consist of invectives, directed against the orator 
Cassius Severus — the poet Maevius — and Me- 
nas, the freedman of Sextus Pompey, who, be- 
ing admiral of his fleet, became so infamous 
duringthe civil wars by alternately deserting the 
service of Pompey and Octavius. Even to the 
second epode, containing the praises of acoun- 
trv life, a satirical and epigrammatic turn is 
given at the conclusion by putting them in the 
mouth of the usurer Alphius. In general, how- 
ever, the satire in these odes is coarse, violent, 
and personal, resemblinsr what is supposed to 
465 



HO 



HISTORY, &c. 



HO 



have been the style of the invectives of Archilo- 
chus and Lycambes, rather than that delicate 
tone of reproof and irony which Horace after- 
wards adopted in his own satires. Horace has 
now been described as the great master of Ro- 
man lyric poetry, whether amatory, convivial, 
or moral. We have still to consider him as a 
satiric, humorous, or familiar writer, in which 
character (though he chiefly valued himself on 
his odes) he is more instructive, and perhaps 
equally pleasing. He is also more an original 
poet in his satires than in his lyrical composi- 
tions. D, Heinsius, indeed, in his confused and 
prolix dissertation, De Satira Horatiand, has 
pointed out several passages, which he thinks 
have been suggested by the comedies and 
satiric dramas of the Greeks. If, however, we 
except the dramatic form which he has given 
to so many of his satires, it will be diflicult to 
find any general resemblance between them and 
those productions of the Greek stage which are 
at present extant. The epistles of Horace were 
written by him at a more advanced period of life 
than his satires, and were the last fruits of his 
long experience. Accordingly, we find in them 
more matured wisdom, more sound judgment, 
mildness, and philosophy, more of his own in- 
ternal feelings, and greater skill and perfection 
in the versification. The chief merit, however, 
of the epistles depends on the variety in the 
characters of the persons to whom they are 
addressed; and, in conformity with which, 
the poet changes his tone and diversifies his 
colouring. They have not the generality of some 
modern epistles, which are merely inscribed 
with the name of a friend, and may have been 
composed for the whole human race ; nor of 
some ancient idyls, where we are solely remind- 
ed of an individual by superfluous invocations 
on his name. Each epistle is written expressly 
for the entertainment, instruction, or reforma- 
tion of him to whom it is addressed. The poet 
enters into his situation with wonderful facility, 
and every word has a reference, more or less 
remote, to his circumstances, feelings, or preju- 
dices. In his satires, the object of Horace was 
to expose vice and folly ; but, in his epistles, he 
has also an eye to the amendment of a friend, 
on whose failings he gently touches, and hints, 
perhaps, at their correction. The celebrated 
work of Horace, commonly called the Ars Po- 
etica, which was written about the year 739, is 
usually considered as a separate and insulated 
composition. The critical works of Horace, 
which comprise one of his satires, the two epis- 
tles of the second book, and the Ars Poetica, 
have generally been considered, especially by 
critics themselves, as the most valuable part of 
his productions. Hurd has pronounced them 
' the best and most exquisite of all his writings;' 
and of the Ars Poetica, in particular, he says, 
* that the learned have long since considered it 
as a kind of summary of the rules of good 
writing, to be gotten by heart by every young 
student, and to whose decisive authority the 
greatest masters in taste and composition must 
finally submit.' Mr. Gifford, in the introduction 
to his translation of Juvenal, remarks that, * as 
an ethical writer, Horace has not many claims 
to the esteem of posterity ; but as a critic, he is 
entitled to all our veneration. Such is the 
soundness of his judgment, the correctness of 
466 



his taste, and the extent and variety of his 
knowledge, that a body of criticism might be se- 
lected from his works, more perfect in its kind 
than any thing which antiquity has bequeathed 
us.' S^^€t. in Aug. — Ovid. Trist. 4, el, 10, v. 49. 
Three brave Romans, born at the same 



birth, who fought against the three Curiatii, 
about 667 years before Christ, This celebrated 
battle was fought between the hostile camps of 
the people of Alba and Rome, and on their suc- 
cess depended the victory. In the first attack 
two of the Horatii were killed, and the only 
surviving brother, by joining artifice to valour, 
obtained an honourable trophy: by pretending 
to fly from the field of battle, he easily separated 
his antagonists ; and, in attacking them one by 
one, he was enabled to conquer them all. As he 
returned victorious to Rome, his sister reproach- 
ed him with the murder of one of the Curiatii, 
to whom she was promised in marriage. He 
was incensed at the rebuke, and killed his sister. 
This violence raised the indignation of the 
people ; he was tried, and capitally condemned. 
His eminent services, however, pleaded in his 
favour; the sentence of death was exchanged 
for a more moderate, but more ignominious 
punishment, and he was only compelled to pass 
under the yoke. A trophy was raised in the Ro- 
man Forum, on which he suspended the spoils 
of the conquered Curiatii. Cic. de Invent. 2, 
c. 26. — Liv. 1, c. 24, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 3. 
A consul, who dedicated the temple of Ju- 



piter Capitolinus. During the ceremony he was 
informed of the death of his son, but he did not 
forget the sacred character he then bore for the 
feelings of a parent, and continued the dedica- 
tion, after ordering the body to be buried. Liv. 2. 

HoRCiAS, the general of 3000 Macedonians, 
who revolted from Antigonus in Cappadocia. 
Polycen. 4. 

HoRMisDAs, a name which some of the Per- 
sian kings bore m the reign of the Roman em- 
perors. 

HoRTENsiA, a celebrated Roman lady, daugh- 
ter of the orator Hortensius, whose eloquence 
she had inherited in the most eminent degree. 
When the triumvirs had obliged 14,000 women 
to give upon oath an account of their posses- 
sions, to defray the expenses of the state, Hor- 
tensia undertook to plead their cause, and was 
so successful in her attempt, that 1000 of her 
female fellow-sufferers escaped from the ava- 
rice of the triumvirate. Val. Max. 8, c, 3. 

HoRTENsiA Lex, by Gl. Hortensius, the dic- 
tator, A. U. C. 367. It ordered the whole body 
of the Roman people to pay implicit obedience 
to whatever was enacted by the commons. The 
nobility, before this law was enacted, had claim- 
ed an absolute exemption. 

HoRTENsnis, Cl. This celebrated orator was 
born in the year 640. His first appearance in 
the Forum way at the early age of nineteen — 
that is, in 659; and his excellence, says Cice- 
ro, was immediately acknowledged, like that of 
a statue by Phidias, which only requires to be 
seen in order to be admired. The case in which 
he first appeared was of considerable responsi- 
bility for one so young and inexperienced, being 
an accusation, at the instance of the Roman 
province of Africa, against its governors for ra- 
pacity. It was heard before Scaevola andCras- 
sus, as judges— the one the ablest lawyer, the 



HO 



HISTORY, &c. 



HO 



other the most accomplished speaker, of his age ; 
and the young orator had the good fortune to 
obtain their approbation, as well as that of all 
who were present at the trial. His next plead- 
ing of importance was in behalf of Nicomedes, 
king of Bithynia, in which he even surpassed 
his former speech for the Africans. After this 
we hear little of him for several years. The 
imminent perils of the Social war, which broke 
out in 663, interrupted, in a great measure, the 
business of the Forum. Hortensius served in 
this alarming contest for one year as a volunteer, 
and in the folio wmg season as a military tribune. 
When, on the re-establishment ofpeace in Italy 
in 666, he returned to Rome, and resumed the 
more peaceful avocations to which he had been 
destined from his youth, he found himself with- 
out a rival. Crassus, as we have seen, died in 
662, before the troubles of Marius and Sylla. 
Antony, with other orators of inferior note, 
perished in 666, during the temporary and last 
ascendency of Marius, in the absence of Sylla. 
Sulpicius was put to death in ihe same year, 
and Cotta driven into banishment, from which 
he was not recalled until the return of Sylla to 
Rome, and his election to the dictatorship in 
670. Hortensius was thus left for some years 
without a competitor ; and after 670, with none 
of eminence but Cotta, whom also he soon out- 
shone. His splendid, warm, and animated 
manner was preferred to the calm and easy ele- 
gance of his rival. Accordingly, when engaged 
in a cause on the same side, Cotta, though ten 
years senior, was employed to open the case, 
while the more important parts were left to the 
managenient of Hortensius. He continued the 
undisputed sovereign of the Forum, till Cicero 
returned from his quaestorship in Sicily, in 679, 
when the talents of that orator first displayed 
themselves in full perfection and maturity. Hor- 
tensius was thus, from 666 till 679, a space of 
thirteen years, at the head of the Roman bar ; 
and being, in consequence, engaged during that 
long period, on one side or other, in every cause 
of importance, he soon amassed a prodigious 
fortune. He lived, too, with a magnificence 
corresponding to his wealth. An example of 
splendour and luxury had been set to him by 
the orator Crassus, who inhabited a sumptuous 
palace in Rome, the hall of which was adorned 
with four pillars of Hymettian marble, twelve 
feet high, which he brought to Rome in his 
sedileship, at a time when there were no pillars 
of foreign marble even in public buildings. 
The court of this mansion was ornamented by 
six lotus trees, which Pliny saw in full luxu- 
riance in his youth, but which were afterwards 
burnt in the conflagration in the time of Nero. 
He had also a number of vases, and two drink- 
ing-cups, engraved by the artist Mentor, but 
which were of such immense value that he was 
ashamed to use them. Hortensius had the same 
tastes as Crassus, but surpassed him and all 
his contemporaries in magnificence. His man- 
sion stood on the Palatine hill, which appears 
to have been the most fashionable situation in 
Rome, being at that time covered with the 
houses of Lutatius Catulus, iEmilius Scaurus, 
Clodius, Catiline, Cicero, and Caesar. The 
residence of Hortensius was adjacent to that 
of Catiline ; and though of no great exten.t, it 
was splendidly furnished. After the death of the 



orator, it was inhabited by Octavius Csesar, and 
formed the centre of the chief imperial palace, 
which increased from the time of Augustus to 
that of Nero, till it covered a great part of the Pal- 
atine Mount, and branched over other hills. Be- 
sides his mansion in the capital, he possessed 
sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli, andLau- 
rentum, where he was accustomed to give the 
most elegant and expensive entertainments. He 
'had frequently peacocks at his banquets, which 
he first served up at a grand augural feast, and 
which, saysVarrOjWere more commended by the 
luxurious, than by men of probity and austerity. 
His olive plantations he is said to have regularly 
moistened and bedewed with wine ; and on one 
occasion, during the hearing of an important 
case in which he was engaged along with Cicero, 
begged that he would change with him the pre- 
viously arranged order of pleading, as he was 
obliged to go to the country to pour wine on a 
fa.v our ite platanus, which grew near his Tuscu- 
lan villa. Notwithstanding this profusion, his 
heir found not less than 10,OK)0 casks of wine ia 
his cellar after his death. Besides his taste for 
wine, and fondness for plantations, he indulged 
a passion for pictures and fishponds. At his 
Tusculan villa, he built a hall for the reception 
of a painting of the expedition of the Argonauts, 
by the painter Cydias, which cost the enormous 
sum of a hundred and forty-four thousand ses- 
terces. At his country-seat, near Baoili, on the 
seashore, he vied with Lucullus and Philippus 
in the extent of his fishponds, which were con- 
structed at immense cost, and so formed that 
the tide flowed into them. Under the promon- 
tory of Bauli, travellers are yet shown the Pis- 
chuL Mirabilis, a subterraneous edifice, vaulted 
and divided by four rows of arcades ; and which 
is supposed by some antiquarians to have been 
a fish-pond of Hortensius. Yet such was his 
luxury, and his reluctance to diminish his sup- 
ply, that when he gave entertainments at Bauli, 
he generally sent to the neighbouring town of 
Puteoli to buy fish for supper. The eloquence 
of Hortensius procured him not only all this 
wealth and luxury, but the highest official 
honours of the state. He was sedile in 679, 
praetor in 682, and consul two years afterwards. 
The wealth and dignities he had obtained, and 
the want of competition, made him gradually 
relax from that assiduity by which they had 
been acquired, till the increasing fame of Cice- 
ro, and particularly the glory of his consulship, 
stimulated him to renew his exertions. But 
his habit of labour had been in some degree 
lost, and he never again recovered his former 
reputation. Cicero partly accounts for this de- 
cline, from the peculiar nature and genius of 
his eloquence. It was of that showy species 
called Asiatic, which flourished in the Greek 
colonies of Asia Minor, and was infinitely more 
florid and ornamental than the oratory oi 
Athens, or even of Rhodes, being full of bril- 
liant thoughts and of sparkliug expressions. 
This glowing style of rhetoric, though deficient 
in solidity and weight, was not unsuitable in a 
young man ; and being farther recommended 
by a beautiful cadence of periods, met with the 
utmost applause. But Hortensius, as he ad- 
vanced in life, did not prune his exuberance, 
or adopt a chaster eloquence ; and this luxury, 
and glitter of phraseologry, which even in his 
467 



HO 



HISTORY, &c. 



HO 



earliest years, had occasionally excited ridicule 
or disgust among the graver fathers of the 
senatorial order, being totally inconsistent with 
his advanced age and consular dignity, which 
required something more serious and compos- 
ed, his reputation diminished with increase of 
years ; and though the bloom of his eloquence 
might be in fact the same, it appeared to be 
somewhat withered. Besides, from his declin- 
ing health and strength, which greatly failed 
in his latter years, he may not have been able 
to give full etFect lo that showy species of rhet- 
oric in which he indulged. A constant tooth- 
ache, and swelling in the jaws, greatly impaired 
his power of elocution and utterance, and be- 
came at length so severe as to accelerate his 
end. A few months, however, before his death, 
which happened in 703, he pleaded for his 
nephew, Messala, who was accused of illegal 
canvassing, and who was acquitted, more in 
consequence of the astonishing exertions of his 
advocate, than the justice of his cause. So un- 
favourable, indeed, was his case esteemed, that 
however much the speech of Hortensius had 
been admired, he was received, on entering the 
theatre of Curio on the following day, with loud 
clamour and hisses, which were the more re- 
marked, as he had never met with similar treat- 
ment in ihe whole course of his forensic career. 
The speech, however, revived all the ancient 
admiration of the public for his oratorical tal- 
ents, and convinced them, that had he always 
possessed the same perseverance as Cicero, he 
would not have ranked second to that orator. 
Another of his most celebrated harangues was 
that against the Manilian law, which vested 
Pompey with such extraordinary powers, and 
was so warmly supported by Cicero. That 
against the sumptuary law proposed by Crassus 
and Pompey, in the year 683, which tended to 
restrain the indulgence of his own taste, was well 
adapted to Hortensius's style of eloquence ; and 
his speech was highly characteristic of his dis- 
position and habits of life. He declaimed, at 
great length, on the glory of Rome, which re- 
quired splendour in the mode of living followed 
by its citizens. He frequently glanced at the 
luxury of the consuls themselves, and forced 
them at length, by his eloquence and sarcastic 
declamation, to relinquish their scheme of do- 
mestic reirenchment. The speeches of Hor- 
tensius, it has been already mentioned, lost part 
of their effect by the orator's advance in years, 
but they suffered still more by being transferred 
to paper. As his chief excellence consisted in 
action and delivery, his writings were much 
inferior to what was expected from the high 
fame be had enjoyed ; and, accordingly, after 
death, he retained little of that esteem, which 
he had so abundantly possessed during his life. 
Although, therefore, 'his orations had been pre- 
served, thev would have given us but an imper- 
fect idea of the eloquence of Hortensius; but 
even this has been denied us, and we must, 
therefore, now chiefly trust for this oratorical 
character to the opinion of his great but unpre- 
judiced rival. The friendship and honourable 
competition of Hortensius and Cicero, present 
an agreeable contrast to the animosities of .^s- 
chines and Demosthenes, the two great orators 
of Greece. It was by means of Hortensius 
that Cicero was chosen one of the college of Au- 
468 



I gurs — a service of which his gratified vanity 
I ever appears to have retained an agreeable recol- 
lection. — In a few of his letters, indeed, written 
during the despondency of his exile, he hints a 
suspicion that Hortensius had been instrumen- 
tal in his banishment, with a view of engrossing 
to himself the whole glory of the bar ; but this 
mistrust ended with his recall, which Horten- 
sius, though originally he had advised him to 
yield to the storm, urged on with all the influ- 
ence of which he was possessed, Hortensius 
also appears to have been free from every feeling 
of jealousy or envy, which in him was still more 
creditable, as his rival was younger than him- 
self, and yet ultimately forced him from the su- 
premacy. Such having been their sentiments 
of mutual esteem, Cicero has done his oratoric 
talents ample justice — representing him as en- 
dued with almost all the qualities necessary to 
form a disiinguished speaker. His imagination 
was fertile — his voice was sweet and harmo- 
nious — his demeanour dignified — his language 
rich and elegant — his acquaintance with litera- 
ture extensive. So prodigious was his memory, 
that, without the aid of writing, he recollected 
every word he had meditated, and every sen- 
tence of his adversary's oration, even to the 
titles and documents brought forward to sup- 
port the case against him — a faculty which 
greatly aided his peculiarly happy art of reca- 
pitulating the substance of what had been said 
by his antagonist, or by himself He also origin- 
ally possessed an indefatigable application ; and 
scarcely a day passed in which he did not speak 
in the Forum, or exercise himself in forensic 
studies or preparation. But, of all the various 
arts of oratory, he most remarkably excelled in 
a happy and perspicuous arrangement of his 
subject. Cicero only reproaches him, and that 
but slightly, with showing more study and art 
in his gestures than was suitable for an orator. 
It appears, however, from Macrobius, that he 
w^as much ridiculed by his contemporaries, on 
account of his affected gestures. In pleading, 
his hands were constantly in motion, whence 
he was often attacked by his adversaries in the 
Forum for resembling an actor ; and, on one 
occasion, he received from his opponent the 
appellation of Dionysia, which was the name 
of a celebrated dancing girl. ^Esop and Ros- 
cius frequently attended his pleadings, to catch 
his gestures, and imitate them on the stage. 
Such, indeed, was his exertion in action, that it 
was commonly said that it could not be determi- 
ned whether people went to hear or to see him. 
Like Demosthenes, he chose and put on his 
dress with the most studied care and neatness. 
He is said, not only to have prepared his atti- 
tudes, but also to have adjusted the plaits of his 
gown before a mirror, when about to issue 
forth to the Forum ; and to have taken no less 
care in arranging them, than in moulding the 
periods of his discourse. He so tucked up his 
gown, that the folds did not fall by chance, but 
were formed with great care, by means of a 
knot artfully tied, and concealed in the plies 
of his robe, which apparently flowed carelessly 
around him. Macrobius also records a story 
of his instituting: an action of dama?:es against 
a person who had jostled him, while walking , 
in this elaborate dress, and had ruffled his toga, 
when he was about to appear in public with 



HY 



HISTORY, &c. 



lA 



his drapery adjusted according to the happiest 
arrangement— an anecdote which, whether true 
or false, shows by its currency the opinion en- 
tertained of his finical attention to every thing 
that concerned the elegance of his attire, or the 
gracefulness of his figure and attitudes. He 
also bathed himself in odoriferous waters, and 
daily perfumed himself with the most precious 
essences. This too minute attention to his per- 
son, and to gesticulation, appears to have been 
the sole blemish in his oratorical character ; 
and the only stain on his moral conduct, was 
his practice of corrupting the judges of the 
causes in which he was employed — a practice 
which must be, in a great measure, imputed to 
the defects of the judicial system at Rome ; for, 
whatever might be the excellence of the Roman 
laws, noihing could be worse than the proce- 
dure under which they were administered. 

HosTiA, the daughter of Hostius the poet, 
celebrated by Proper tins under the name of 
Cynthea. 

HosTius HosTiLius, a warlike Roman, pre- 
sented with a crown of boughs by Romulus, for 
his intrepid behaviour in a battle. Dlomjs. Hal. 

HYACiNTfflA, an annual solemnity at Amy- 
clee, in Laconia, in honour of Hyacinthus and 
Apollo. It continued for three days, during 
which time the people did not adorn their hair 
with garlands during their festivals, nor eat 
bread, but fed only upon sweetmeats.. They 
did not even sing pceans in honour of Apollo, or 
observe any of the solemnities which were usual 
at other sacrifices. On the second day of the 
festival there were a number of difierent exhi- 
bitions. The city began then to be filled with 
joy, and immense numbers of victims were of- 
fered on the altars of Apollo, and the votaries 
liberally entertained their friends and slaves. 
During this latter part of the festivity, all were 
eager to be present at the games, and the city 
" was almost desolate and without inhabitants. 
Athen. 4.— Ovid. Met. 10, v. 219.— Pans. 3, c. 
1 and 19. 

Hydrophoria, a festival observed at Athens, 
called a-rro rov (popeiv vSojp, from Carrying water. 
It was celebrated in commemoration of those 
who perished in the deluge of Deucalion and 
Og>'ges. 

Hyginus, C. Jul., a grammarian, one of the 
freedmen of Augustus. He was a native of 
Alexandria, or, according to some, he was a 
Spaniard, very intimate with Ovid. He was 
appointed librarian to the library of mount Pa- 
latine, and he was able to maintain himself by 
the liberality of C. Licinius. He wrote a my- 
thological history, which he called fables, and 
Poeticon Astronomicon, besides treatises on the 
cities of Italy, on such Roman families as were 
descended from the Trojans, a book on agricul- 
ture, commentaries on Virgil, the lives of great 
men, &c. now lost. The best edition of Hygi- 
nus is that of Munkerus, 2 vols. 8vo. Amst. 
1681. These compositions have been greatly 
mutilated, and their Incorrectness and their bad 
Latinity, have induced some to suppose that they 
are spurious. Sueton. de Gram. 

Hyllus, a son of Hercules and Dejanira, 
who, soon after his father's death, married lole. 
He, as well as his father, was persecuted by the 
envy of Eurystheus, and obliged to fly frorn the 
Peloponnesus, The Athenians gave a kind re- 



ception to Hyllus and the rest of the Heraclidse, 
and marched against Eurystheus, Hyllus ob- 
tained a victory over his enemies, and killed 
with his own hand Eurystheus, and sent his 
head to Alcmena, his grandmother. Some 
time after, he attempted to recover the Pelopon- 
nesus with the Heraclidas, and was killed in 
single combat by Echemus, king of Arcadia. 
Vid. Heraclidce, Hercules. Herodot. 7, c. 204, 
&.c.—Strab. 9. Vid. Part III. 

Hyperborei. Vid. Part I. 

Hyperides, an Athenian orator, disciple to 
Plato and Socrates, and long the rival of De- 
mosthenes. His father's name was Glaucippus. 
He distinguished himself by his eloquence, and 
the active part he took in the management of the 
Athenian republic. After the unfortunate bat- 
tle of Cranon, he was taken alive, and that he 
might not be compelled to betray the secrets of 
his country, he cut off his tongue. He was put 
to death by order of Antipater. B.C. 322. Only 
one of his numerous orations remains, admired 
for the sweetness and elegance of his style. It 
is said that Hyperides once defended the cour- 
tesan Phryne, who was accused of impiety ; and 
that when he saw bis eloquence ineffectual, he 
unveiled the bosom of his client, upon which 
the judges, influenced by the sight of her beauty, 
acquitted her. Plut. in Demost. — Cic. m Oral. 
1, &c. — Quintil. 10, &c. 

Hypsicratea, the wife of Mithridates, who 
accompanied her husband in man's clothes 
when he fled before Pompey. Plut. in Pomp. 

Hypsicrates, a Phoenician, who wrote a 
history of his country in the Phoenician lan- 
guage. This history was saved from the flames 
of Carthage, when that city was taken by Sci- 
pio, and translated into Greek. 

Hystaspes, a noble Persian, of the family of 
the Achaemenides. His father's name was Ar- 
sames. His son Darius reigned in Persia after 
the murder of the usurper Smerdis. It is said 
by Ctesias, that he wished to be carried to see 
the royal monument which his son had built 
between two mountains. The priests who car- 
ried him, as reported, slipped the cord with 
which he was suspended in ascending the moun- 
tain, and he died of the fall. Hystaspes was the 
first who introduced the learning and mysteries 
of the Indian Brachmans into Persia ; and to his 
researches in India the sciences were greatly 
indebted, particularly in Persia. Darius is called 
jyyste.spes, or son of Hystaspes, to distinguish 
him from his royal successors of the same name. 
Herodot. 1, c. 209, 1. 5, c. ^"i.— Ctesias. Fragm, 

I. 

Iambltcus, a Greek author, who wrote the 
life of Pythagoras and the history of his follow- 
ers, an exhortation to philosophy, a treatise 
against Porphyry's letters on the mysteries of 
the Egyptians, &c. He was a great favourite 
of the emperor Julian, and died A. D. 363. 

lAMiDiG, certain prophets among the Greeks, 
descended from lamus, a son of Apollo, who 
received the gift of prophecy from his father, 
which remained among his posterity. Paus. 6, 
C.2. 

Iarchas, and Jarchas, a celebrated Indian 
philosopher. His seven rings are famous for 
their power of restoring old men to the bloom 
469 



ID 



HISTORY, &c. 



IN 



and vigour of youth, according to the traditions 
of Philostr. in Apoll. 

Jason. Vid. Part. III. 

Ibis, a poem of the poet CallimachuSj in which 
he bitterly satirises the ingratitude of his pupil 
the poet Apollonius. Ovid has also written a 
poem which bears the same name, and which, 
in the same satirical language, seems, according 
to the opinion of some, to inveigh bitterly 
against Hyginus, the supposed hero of the com- 
position. Suidas. 

Ibycus, a lyric poet of Rhegium, about 540 
years before Christ. He was murdered by rob- 
bers, and at the moment of death he implored 
the assistance of some cranes which at that mo- 
ment flew over his head. Some time after, as 
the murderers were in the market-place, one of 
them observed some cranes mthe air, and said 

to his companions, ai i0vkov^ ekSikoi Trapeia-iv^ 
there are the birds that are conscious of the 
death of Ibycus. These words, and the recent 
murder of Ibycus, raised suspicions in the peo- 
ple ; the assassins were seized and tortured, and 
they confessed their guilt, Cic. Tusc. 4, c. 43. 
—.mian. V. H. 

Iccius. Horace writes to him, 1 od. 29, and 
ridicules him for abandoning the pursuits of 
philosophy and the muses for military employ- 
menis. 

IcETAS, a man who obtained the supreme 
power at Syracuse after the death of Dion. He 
attempted to assassinate Timoleon, B. C. 340. 
C. Nep. in Tim. 

L. IciLius, I. a tribune of the people, who made 
a law, A. U. C. 397, by which moant Aventine 
was given to the Roman people to build houses 

upon. Liv. 3, c. 54. II. A tribune who 

signalized himself by his inveterate enmity 
against the Roman senate. He took an active 
part in the management of aifairs after the mur- 
der of Virginia. 

Idanthyrsus, a powerful king of Scythia, 
who refused to give his daughter in marriage to 
Darius the 1st, king of Persia. This refusal 
was the cause of a war between the two na- 
tions, and Darius marched against Idanthyrsus 
at the head of 700,000 men. He was defeated, 
and retired to Persia, after an inglorious cam- 
paign. Strab. 13. 

Idomeneus, succeeded his father Deucalion 
on the throne of Crete, and accompanied the 
Greeks to the Trojan war, with a fleet of 90 
ships. During this celebrated war he rendered 
himself famous by his valour, and slaughtered 
many of the enemy. At his return, he made a 
vow to Neptune in a dangerous tempest, that if 
he escaped from the fury of the seas and storms, 
he would offer to the god whatever living crea- 
ture first presented itself to his eye on the Cretan 
shore. This was no other than his son, who 
came to congratulate his father upon his safe 
return. Idomeneus performed his promise to 
the god, and the inhumanity and rashness of 
his sacrifice rendered him so odious in the eyes 
of his subjects, that he left Crete, and migrated 
in quest of a settlement. He came to Italy, and 
founded a city on the coast of Calabria, which 
he called Salentum. He died in an extreme 
old age, after he had had the satisfaction of see- 
ing his new kingdom flourish and his subjects 
happy. According to the Greek scholiast of 
Lycophron, v. 1217, Idomeneus, during his 
470 



absence in the Trojan war, intrusted the man- 
agement of his kingdom to Leucos, to whom 
he promised his daughter Clisithere in marriage 
at his return. Leucos strengthened himself on 
the throne of Creie ; and Idomeneus, at his re- 
turn, found it impossible to expel the usurper. 
Ovid. Met. 13, v. ZbS.—Hygin. ^'2.— Homer. 
11. 11, &c. Od. 19.— Paus. 5, c. 25.— Ftr^-. 
JEn. 3, V. 122. 

Idrieus, the son of Euromus of Caria, brother 
to Artemisia, who succeeded to Mausolus, and 
invaded Cyprus. Diod. 16. — Polycen. 6. 

Ignatius, a bishop of Antioch, torn to pieces 
in the amphitheatre at Rome by lions, during a 
persecution, A. D. 107. His writings were let- 
ters to the Ephesians, Romans, &c., and he sup- 
ported the divinity of Christ, and the propriety 
of the episcopal order, as superior to priests and 
deacons. The best edition of his works is that 
of Oxon, in 8vo. 1708. 

Ilia, or Rhea. Vid. Part III. 

Iliaci Ludi, games instituted by Augustus, in 
commemoration of the victory he had obtained 
over Antony and Cleopatra. They are suppo- 
sed to be the same as the Trojani ludi and the 
Actia ; and Virgil says they were celebrated by 
iEneas. During these games were exhibited 
horseraces and gymnastic exercises. Virg. Mn. 
3, V. 280. 

Ilias, a celebrated poem, composed by Homer, 
upon the Trojan war. It delineates the wrath 
of Achilles, and all the calamities which befell 
the Greeks, from the refusal of that hero to ap- 
pear in the field of battle. It finished at the 
death of Hector, whom Achilles had sacrificed 
to the shades of his friend Patroclus. It is di- 
vided into 24 books. Vid. Homerus. 

Ilus. Vid. Part III. 

Inachi, a name given to the Greeks, particu- 
larly the Argives, from king Inachus. 

iNACHiDiE, the name of the eight first succes- 
sors of Inachus on the throne of Argos. 

Inoa, festivals in memory of Ino, celebrated 
yearly with sports and sacrifices at Corinth. 
An anniversary sacrifice was also oflered to Ino 
at Megara, where she was first worshipped, 

under the name of Leucothoe. Another in 

Laconia, in honour of the same. It was usual 
at the celebration to throw cakes of flour into 
a pond, which, if they sunk, were presages of 
prosperity ; but if they swam on the surface of 
the waters, they were inauspicious and very 
unlucky. 

Intaphernes, one of the seven Persian noble- 
men who conspired against Smerdis, who usurp- 
ed the crown of Persia. He was so disappointed 
at not obtaining the crown, that he fomented 
seditions against Darius, who had been raised 
to the throne after the death of the usurper. 
When the king had ordered him and all his 
family to be put to death, his wife excited the 
compassion of Darius, who pardoned her, and 
permitted her to redeem from death any one of 
her relations whom she pleased. She obtained 
her brother ; and when the king expressed his 
astonishment because she preferred him to her 
husband and children, she replied, that she 
could procure another husband, and children 
likewise : but that she could never have ano- 
ther brother, as her father and mother were 
dead. Intaphernes was put to death. Herodot. 
- Interrex, a supreme magistrate at Rome, 



JO 



HISTORY, &c. 



IS 



who was intrusted with, the care of the govern- 
ment after the death of a king, till the election 
of another. This office was exercised by the 
senators alone, and none continued in power 
longer than five days, or, according to Plu- 
tarch, only 12 hours. Liv. 1, c. 17. — Dionys. 
2, c. 15. 

loLAiA, a festival at Thebes, the same as that 
called Heracleia. It was instituted in honour of 
Hercules and his friend lolas, who assisted him 
in conquering the hydra. The place where the 
exercises were exhibited was called lolaion, 
where there were to be seen the monument of 
AmphitryoD, and the cenotaph of lolas, who 
was buried in Sardinia. These monuments 
were strewed with garlands and flowers on the 
day of the festival. 

Ion. Vid. Zones and Jonia, Part I. — A tra- 
gic poet of Chics. He began to exhibit, Olymp. 
Lxxxii. 2, B. C. 451. The number of his 
dramas is variously estimated at from twelve to 
forty. Bentley has collected the names of 
eleven. The same great critic has also shown 
that this Ion was a person of birth and fortune, 
distmct from Ion Ephesius, a mere begging 
rhapsodist. Besides tragedies, Ion composed 
dithyrambs, elegies, &c., and several works in 
prose. Like Euripides, he was intimate with 
Socrates. Ion was so delighted with being de- 
creed victor on one occasion in the tragic con- 
tests at Athens, that he presented each citizen 
with a vase of Chian pottery. We gather from 
a joke of Aristophanes, on a word taken from 
one of his dithyrambs, that Ion died before the 
exhibition of the Paz, B. C. 419. 

loNEs. Vid. Part I. 

loPHON, a son of Sophocles, whose plays 
he was suspected of exhibiting as his own. Be 
that as it may, he is represented as being the 
best tragic poet at the time when, the Ra7icB was 
■composed ; for Sophocles, Euripides, and Aga- 
thon were then dead. lophon is said to have 
contended against his father, with much ho- 
nour to himself as a dramatist. He, too, is the 
son who is reported to have brought the un- 
successful charge of dotage against the age of 
Sophocles. Vid. Sophocles. 

JoRNANDES, an historian who wrote on the 
Goths. He died A. D. 552. 

JosEPHDs Flavtos, a celebrated Jew, born 
in Jerusalem, who signalized his military abili- 
ties in supporting a siege of forty-seven days 
against Vespasian and Titus, in a small town of 
Judaea. When the city surrendered there were 
found not less than 40,000 Jews slain, and the 
number of captives amounted to 12,000. Jose- 
phus saved his life by flying into a cave, where 
40 of his countrymen had also taken refuge. 
He dissuaded them from committing suicide ; 
and when they had all drawn lots to kill one 
a;nother, Josephus fortunately remained the 
last, and surrendered himself to Vespasian. He 
wrote the history of the wars of the Jews, first 
in Syriac, and afterwards translated it into 
Greek. This composition so pleased Titus, that 
he authenticated it by placing his signature upon 
it, and by preserving it in one of the public li- 
braries. He finished another work, which he 
divided into twenty books, containing the history 
of the Jewish antiquities, in some places sub- 
versive of the authority and miracles mentioned 
in the Scriptures. He also wrote two books to 



defend the Jews against Apion, their greatest 
enemy ; besides an account of his own life, &c. 
Josephus has been admired for his lively and 
animated style, the bold propriety of his expres- 
sions, the exactness of his descriptions, and the 
persuasive eloquence of his orations. He has 
been called the Livy of the Greeks. Though, 
in some cases, inimical to the Christians, yet he 
has commended our Saviour so warmly, that St. 
Jerome calls him a Christian writer. Josephus 
died A. D. 93, in the 56th year of his age. The 
best editions of his works are Hudson's, 2 vols, 
fol. Oxon. 1720. and Havercamp's, 2 vols. fol. 
Amst. 1826, Suetonin Vesp. &c. 

JovtANUs, (Flavins Claudius,) a native of 
Pannonia, elected emperor of Rome by the sol- 
diers after the death of Julian. He at first re- 
fused to be invested with the imperial purple, 
because his subjects followed the religious prin- 
ciples of the late emperor ; but they removed 
his groundless apprehensions ; and, when they 
assured him that they were warm for Christian- 
ity, he accepted the crown. He made a dis- 
advantageous treaty with the Persians, against 
whom Julian was marched with a victorious 
army. Jovian died seven months and twenty 
days after his ascension, and was found in his 
bed sufibcatedby the vapours of charcoal, which 
had been lighted in his room, A. D. 364. Some 
attribute his death to intemperance. He burned 
a celebrated library at Antioch. Marcellin. 

IpmcRATEs, a celebrated general of Athens, 
who, though son of a shoemaker, rose from the 
lowest station to the highest ofiices in the state. 
He married a daughter of Cofys, king of 
Thrace, by whom he had a son ' called Mnes- 
theus, and died 380, B. C. When he was 
once reproached of the meanness of his origin, 
he observed, that he would be the first of his 
family, but that his detractor would be the last 
of his own. C. Nep. in Ephic. 

Iphigenia. Vid. Part III. 

Iphitus, a king of Elis, son of Praxonides, in 
the age of Lycurgus. He re-established the 
Olympic games 338 years after their institution 
by Hercules, or about 884 years before the Chris- 
tian era. This epoch is famous in chronological 
history, as every thing previous to it seems in- 
volved in fabulous obscurity. Paterc. 1, c. 8. — 
Pans. 5, c. 4. Vid. Part III. 

Iren^us, a native of Greece, disciple of Po- 
lycarp, and bishop of Lyons in France. He 
wrote on different subjects; but as what remains 
is in Latin, some suppose he composed in. that 
language, and not in Greek. Fragments of his 
works in Greek are, however, preserved, which 
prove that his style was simple, though clear 
and often animated. His opinions concerning 
the soul are curious. He suffered martyrdom, 
A. D. 202. The best edition of his works is that 
of Grabe, Oxon. fol. 1702. 

Irus, a beggar of Ithaca, who executed the 
commissions of Penelope's suiters. When Ulys- 
ses returned home, disguised in a beggar's dress, 
Irus hindered him from entering the gates, and 
even challenged him. Ulysses brought him to 
the ground with a blow, and dragged him out 
of the house. From his poverty originates the 
proverb Iro pauperior. Homer. Od. 8, v. 1 and 
^b.—Ovid. Trist. 3, el. 7, v. 42. 

IsADAS, a Spartan who, upon seeing the The- 
bans entering the city, stripped himself naked, 
471 



IS 



HISTORY, &c. 



JU 



and, with a spear and sword, engaged the ene- 
my. He was rewarded with a crown for his 
valour. Plut. 

IsJEUs, I. an orator of Chalcis, in EubcEa, who 
came to Athens, and became there the pupil of 
Lysias, and soon after the master of Demos- 
thenes. Ten of his sixty-four orations are ex- 
tant. Juv. 3, V. 74. — Plut. de 10 Orat. Dem. 

II. Another Greek orator, who came to 

Rome A. D. 17. He is greatly commended 
by Pliny the younger, who observes, that he al- 
ways spoke extempore, and wrote with elegance, 
unlaboured ease, and great correctness. 

IscHENiA, an annual festival at Olympia, in 
honour of Ischenus, the grandson of Mercury 
and Hierea, who, in time of famine devoted 
himself for his country, and was honoured with 
a monument near Olympia. 

IsDEGERDEs, a king of Persia, appointed by 
the will of Arcadius guardian to Theodosius 
the Second. He died in his 31st year, A. D. 
408. 

IsiA, certain festivals observed in honour of 
Isis, which continued nine days. They were 
abolished by a decree of the senate, A. U. C. 
696. They were introduced again, about 200 
years after, by Commodus. 

IsiDORus, I. a native of Charax, in the age of 
Ptolemy Lagus, who wrote some historical trea- 
tises, besides a description of Parthia. II. A 

disciple of Chrysostom, Q,Q.\\e& Pelusiota from 
his living in Egypt. Of his epistles 2012 re- 
main, written in Greek with conciseness and 
elegance. The best edition is that of Paris, fol. 

1638. III. A Christian Greek writer, who 

flourished in the 7th century. He is surnamed 
Hespalensis. His works have been edited, fol. 
de Breul, Paris, 1601. 

IsMENus, I. a Theban bribed by Timocrates 
of Rhodes, that he might use his influence to 
prevent the Athenians and some other Grecian 
states from assisting Lacedaemon, against which 
Xerxes was engaged in a war. Paus. 3, c. 9. 

II. A Theban general, sent to Persia with 

an embassy by his countrymen. As none were 
admitted into the king's presence without pros- 
trating themselves at his feet, Ismenias had re- 
course to artifice to avoid doing an action which 
would prove disgraceful to his country. When 
he was introduced he dropped his ring, and the 
motion he made to recover it from the ground 
was mistaken for the most submissive homage, 
and Ismenias had a satisfactory audience of the 
monarch. 

IsocRATEs, a celebrated orator, son of Theo- 
dorus, a rich musical insirument-maker at 
Athens, He was taught in the school of Gor- 
gias and Prodicus, but his oratorical abilities 
were never displayed in public, and Isocrates 
was prevented by an unconquerable timidity 
from speaking in the popular assemblies. He 
opened a school of eloquence at Athens, wheie 
he distinguished himself by the number, charac- 
ter, and fame of his pupils, and by the immense 
riches which he amassed. He was intimate 
with Philip of Macedon, and regularly corre- 
sponded with him; and to his familiarity with 
that monarch the Athenians were indebted for 
some of the few peaceful years which they pass- 
ed. The aspiring ambition of Philip, how- 
ever, displeased Isocrates ; and the defeat of the 
Athenians at Cheronceahad such an effeci upon 
472 



his spirits, that he did not survive the disgrace 
of his country, but died, after he had been four 
days without taking any aliment, in the 99th 
year of his age, about 338 years before Christ. 
Isocrates has always been much admired for the 
sweetness and graceful simplicity of his style, 
for the harmony of his expressions, and the dig- 
nity of his language. The conduct of the Athe- 
nians against Socrates highly displeased him, 
and, in spite of all the undeserved unpopularity 
of that great philosopher, he put on mourning 
the day of his death. About 31 of his orations 
are extant. Isocrates was honoured after death 
with a brazen statue by Timotheus, one of his 
pupils, and Aphareus, his adopted son. The 
best editions of Isocrates are that of Battie, 2 
vols. 8vo. Cantab. 1729, and that of Augur, 3 
vols. 8vo. Paris, 1782. Plut. de 10 Orat. &c. 
Cic. Orat. 20 de Inv. 2, c. 126. in Brut. c. 15. 
de Orat. 2, c. 6. — Q,ui7itilL 2, &c. — Pater c. 1, 
c;16. 

IsTHMiA, sacred games among the Greeks, 
which received their name from the Isthmus of 
Corinth, where they were observed and cele- 
brated in commemoration of Melicerta, They 
were interrupted after they had been celebrated 
with great regularity during some years, and 
Theseus at last reinstituted them in honour of 
Neptune, whom he publicly called his father. 
These games were observed every third, or rath- 
er fifth year, and held so sacred and inviolable, 
that even a public calamity could not prevent 
the celebration. When Corinth was destroyed 
by Mummius, the Roman general, they were 
observed with the usual solemnity, and the 
Sicyonians were entrusted with the superin- 
tendence, which had been before one of the 
privileges of the ruined Corinthians. The years 
were reckoned by the celebration of the Isth- 
mian games, as among the Romans from the 
consular government. Paus. 1, c. 44, 1. 2, c. 
1 and 2. — Plin. 4, c. 5. — Plut. in Thes. 

Italds. Vid. Part III, 

JuBA, I. a king of Numidia and Mauritania, 
who succeeded his father Hiempsal, and favour- 
ed the cause of Pompey against J. Cassar, He 
defeatedCurio, whom Caesar had sent to Africa, 
and after the battle of Pharsalia he joined his 
forces to those of Scipio, He was conquered 
in a battle at Thapsus, and totally abandoned 
by his subjects. He killed himself with Pe- 
treius, who had shared his good fortune and his 
adversity. His kingdom became a Roman pro- 
vince, of which Sallust was the first governor. 
Plut. in Pomp, tf* Cixs. — Flor. 4, c, 12. — Suet, 
in Cces. c, 35. — Dion. 41. — Mela, 1, c. 6. — 
Lucan. 3, &c. — CcBsar. de Bell. Civ. 2. — Pa- 

terc. 2, c. 54. II. The second of that name 

was the son of Juba the First. He was led 
among the captives of Rome to adorn the tri- 
umph of Caesar. He gained the hearts of the 
Romans by the courteousness of his manners, 
and Augustus rewarded his fidelity by giving 
him in marriage Cleopatra, the daughter of An- 
tony, and conferring upon him the title of king, 
and making him master of all the territories 
which his father once possessed. Juba wrote a 
history of Rome in Greek, which is often quoted 
and commended by the ancients, but of which 
onlv a few fragments remain. He also wrote 
on the history of Arabia and the antiquities of 
Assyria, chiefly collected from Berosus. Be- 



JU 



HISTORY, &.C. 



JU 



sides these, he composed some treatises upon 
the drama, Roman antiquities, the nature of 
animals, painting, grammar, &c. now lost. 
Strab. 11.— Suet, in Col. 26.—Flin. 5, c. 25 and 
32.— Dion. 51, &c. 

JuGURTHA, the illegitimate son of Manasta- 
bal, the brother of Micipsa. Micipsa and Manas- 
tabal were the sons of Massinissa, king of Nu- 
midia. Micipsa, who had inherited his father's 
kingdom, educated his nephew, with his two 
sons Adherbal and Hiempsal ; but as he was of 
an aspiring disposition, he sent him with a body 
of troops to the assistance of Scipio, who was be- 
sieging Numantia, hoping to lose a youth whose 
ambition seemed to threaten the tranquillity of 
his children. His hopes were frustrated; Ju- 
gurthashowed himself brave and active, and en- 
deared himself to the Roman general. Micipsa 
appointed him successor to his kingdom with his 
two sons, but the kindness of the father proved 
fatal to the children. Jugurtha destroyed Hiemp- 
sal, and stripped Adherbal of his possessions, 
and obliged him to fly to Rome for safety. The 
Romans listened to the well-grounded com- 
plaints of Adherbal, but Jugurtha's gold prevail- 
ed among the senators, and the suppliant mon- 
arch, forsaken in his distress, perished by the 
snares of his enemy. Caecilius Metell us was at 
last sent against Jugurtha, and his firmness and 
success soon reduced the crafty Numidian, and 
obliged him to fly among his savage neighbours 
for support. Marius and Sylla succeeded Me- 
tellus, and fought with equal success. Jugurtha 
was at last betrayed by his father-in-law Boc- 
chus, from whom he claimed assistance, and he 
was delivered into the hands of Sylla, after car- 
rying on a war of five years. He was exposed 
to the view of the Roman people, and dragged 
in chains to adorn the triumph of Marius. He 
was afterwards put in a prison, where he died 
six days after of hunger, B. C. 106. The name 
and the wars of Jugurtha have been immortal- 
ized by the pen of Sallust. Sallust. in Jug. — 
Flor. 3, c. \.—Paterc. 2, c. 10, &c.—Plut. in 
Mar. and Syll. — Eutrop. 4, c. 3. 

Julia Lex, prima de provinciis, by J. Caesar, 
A. U. C. 691. It confirmed the freedom of all 
Greece ; it ordained that the Roman magistrates 
should act there as judges ; that the governors, 
at the expiration of their office, should leave a 
scheme of their accounts in two cities of their 
province ; that the provincial governors should 
not accept of a golden crown, unless they were 
honoured with a triumph by the senate ; that no 
supreme commander should go out of his pro- 
vince, enter any dominions, lead an army, or 
engage in a war, without the previous appro- 
bation and command of the Roman senate and 

people. Another, de Sumptibus, in the age 

of Augustus. It limited the expense of provi- 
sions on the dies profesti, or days appointed for 
the transaction of business, to 200 sesterces ; on 
common calendar festivals to 300 ; and on all 
extraordinary occasions, such as marriages, 

births, &c. to 1000. Another, de provinciis, 

by J. Csesar, dictator. It ordained that no 
pretorian province should be held more than 
one year, and a consular province more than two 

years. Another, called also Campana agra- 

ria, by the same, A. U. C. 691. It required 
that ail the lands of Campania, formerly rented 
according to the estimation of the state, should 
Part II.— 3 O 



be divided among the plebeians, and that all the 
members of the senate should bind themselves 
by an oath to establish, confirm, and protect, 
that law. Another, de civitate, by L. J. Cae- 
sar, A. U. C. 664. It rewarded with the name 
and privileges of citizens of Rome all such as, 
during the civil wars, had remained the con- 
stant friends of the republican liberty. When 
that civil war was at an end, all the Italians 
were admitted as free denizens, and composed 

eight new tribes. Another, de judicibus, by 

J. Caesar. It confirmed the Pompeian law in a 
certain manner, requiring the judges to be cho- 
sen from the richest people in every century, al- 
lowing the senators and knights in the number, 

and excluding the tribuni cerarii. Another, 

de ambitu, by Augustus. It restrained the illi- 
cit measures used at elections, and restored to 
the comitia their ancient privileges, which had 
been destroyed by the ambition and bribery of 

J. Caesar. Another, by Augustus, de adulte- 

rio and pudicitia. It punished adultery with 
death. It was afterwards confirmed and en- 
forced by Domitian. Juverial. Sat. 2, v. 30, 

alludes to it. Another, called also Papia, or 

Papia PoppcBa, which was the same as the fol- 
lowing, only enlarged by the consuls Papius and 

Poppaeaus, A. U. C. 762. Another, de mari- 

tandis ordinibus, by Augustus. It proposed re- 
wards to such as engaged in matrimony, of a 
particular description. It inflicted punishment 
on celibacy, and permitted the patricians, the 
senators and sons of senators excepted, to inter- 
marry with the libertini, or children of those 
that had been liberti, or servants manumitted. 
Horace alludes to it when he speaks of lex ma~ 

rita. Another, de magestate, by J. Caesar. 

It punished with aqua et ignis inter dictio all 
such as were found guilty of the crimen majes- 
tatis, or treason against the state. 

Julia, I. a daughter of J. Caesar, by Cornelia, 
famous for her personal charms and for her vir- 
tues. She married Corn, Caepio, whom her fa- 
ther obliged her to divorce to marry Pompey the 
Great. Her amiable disposition more strongly 
cemented the friendship of the father and of the 
son-in-law; and her sudden death in child-bed, 
B. C. 53, broke all ties of intimacy and relation- 
ship, and soon produced a civil war. Plut. 

II. The mother of M. Antony. III. An aunt 

of J. Caesar, who married C. Marius. Her fu- 
neral oration was publicly pronounced by her 
nephew. IV. The only daughter of the em- 
peror Augustus, remarkable for her beauty, ge- 
nius, and debaucheries. She was tenderly lov- 
ed by her father, who gave her in marriage to 
Marcellus ; after whose death she was given to 
Agrippa, by whom she had five children. She 
became a second time a widow, and was mar- 
ried to Tiberius. Her lasciviousness and de- 
baucheries so disgusted her husband, that he 
retired from the court of the emperor ; and Au- 
gustus, informed of her lustful propensities and 
infamy, banished her from his sight, and con- 
fined her in a small island on the coast of Cam- 
pania. She was starved to death, A. D. 14, 
by order of Tiberius, who had succeeded to 

Augustus as emperor of Rome. Phd. V. 

A daughter of the emperor Titus. VI. A 

daughter of Julia, the wife of Agrippa, who 
married Lepidus, and was banished for her li- 
centiousness. VII. A daughter of Germani- 

473 



JU 



HISTORY, &c. 



jir 



cus and Agrippina, born in the island of Lesbos, 
A. D. 17. She married a senator called M. 
Vinucius, at the age of 16, and enjoyed the 
most unbounded favours in the court of her bro- 
ther Caligula, who is accused of being her first 
seducer^ She was banished by Caligula on 
suspicion of conspiracy. Claudius recalled her ; 
but she was soon after banished by the powerful 
intrigues of Messalina, and put to death about 
the 24th year of her age, Seneca, as some sup- 
pose,was banished to Corsica for having seduced 

ner. VIII. A celebrated woman, born in 

Phoenicia. She is also called Domna. She ap- 
plied herself to the study of geometry and philo- 
sophy, &c., and rendered herself conspicuous as 
much by her mental as by her personal charms. 
She married Septimius Severus, who, twenty 
years after this matrimonial connexion, was in- 
vested with the imperial purple. She is even 
said to have conspired against the emperor ; but 
she resolved to blot, by patronising literature, 
the spots which her debauchery and extrava- 
gance had rendered indelible in the eyes of vir- 
tue. Her influence, after the death of Severus, 
was for some time productive of tranquillity and 
cordial union between his two sons and succes- 
sors. Geta at last, however, fell a sacrifice to 
his brother Caracalla, and Julia was even 
wounded in the arm while she attempted to 
screen her favourite son from his brother's 
dagger. She starved herself when her ambi- 
tious views were defeated by Macrinus, who 
aspired to the empire in preference to her, 
after the death of Caracalla. 

JuLiANUs, a son of Julius Constantius, the 
brother of Constantine the Great, born at Con- 
stantinople. The massacre which attended the 
elevation of the sons of Constantine the Great 
to the throne, nearly proved fatal to Julian and 
to his brother Gallus. The two brothers were 
privately educated together, and taught the doc- 
trine of the Christian religion, and exhorted to 
be modest, temperate, and to despise the grati- 
fication of all sensual pleasures. Julian was some 
time after appointed over Gaul, with the title of 
Caesar, by Constans, and there he showed him- 
self worthy of the imperial dignity by his pru- 
dence, valour, and the numerous victories he ob- 
tained over the enemies of Rome in Gaul and 
Germany. His mildness, as well as his conde- 
scension, gained him the hearts of his soldiers ; 
and when Constans, to whom Julian was be- 
come suspected, ordered him to send him part of 
his forces to go into the east, the army imme- 
diately mutinied, and promised fidelity to their 
leader, by refusing to obey the orders of Con- 
stans. They even compelled Julian by threats 
and entreaties to accept of the title of indepen- 
dent emperor and of Augustus ; and the death 
of Constans, which soon after happened, left 
him sole master of the Roman empire, A. D, 
361. Julian then disclosed his religious senti- 
ments, and publicly disavowed the doctrines of 
Christianity, and offered solemn sacrifices to all 
the gods of ancient Rome. This change of re- 
ligious opinion was attributed to the austerity 
with which he received the precepts of Chris- 
tianity; or, according to others, to the literary 
conversation and persuasive eloquence of some 
of the Athenian philosophers. From this cir- 
cumstance, therefore, Julian has been called 
Apostate. After he had made his public entry at 
474 



Constantinople, he determined to continue the 
Persian war, and check those barbarians who 
had for 60 years derided the indolence of the 
Roman emperors. Wheii he had crossed the 
Tigris he burned his fleet, and advanced with 
boldness into the enemy's country. But the 
country of Assyria had been left desolate by the 
Persians, and Julian, without corn or provisions, 
was obliged to retire. As he could not convey 
his army again over the stream of the Tigris, 
he took the resolution of marching up the sources 
of the river, and imitating the bold return of the 
ten thousand Greeks. As he advanced through 
the country, he defeated the officers of Sapor, 
the king of Persia ; but an engagement proved 
fatal to him, and he received a deadly wound as 
he animated his soldiers to battle. He expired 
the following night, the 27th of June, A. D. 363, 
in the 32d year of his age. His last moments 
were spent in a conversation with a philosopher 
about the immortality of the soul, and he breath- 
ed his last without expressing the least sorrow 
for his fate or the suddenness of his death. Ju- 
lian's character has been admired by some and 
censured by others, "but the malevolence of his 
enemies arises from his apostacy. He was mo- 
derate in his successes, merciful to his enemies, 
and amiable in his character. He was frugal in 
his meals, and slept little, reposing himself on a 
skin spread on the ground. He awoke at mid- 
night, and spent the rest of the night in reading 
or writing, and issued early fi om his tent to pay 
his daily visit to the guards around the camp. 
When he passed throughAntioch in his Persian 
expedition, the inhabitants of the place, offend- 
ed at his religious sentiments, ridiculed his per- 
son, and lampooned him in satirical verses. The 
emperor made use of the same.arms for his de- 
fence ; and rather than destroy his enemies by 
the sword, he condescended to expose them to 
derision, and unveil their follies and debauche- 
ries in a humorous work ; which he called Miso- 
Tpogon,oT beard-hater. He was buried at Tarsus, 
and afterwards his body was conveyed to Con- 
stantinople. He distinguished himself by his 
writings as well as by his military character. 
Besides his Misopogon, he wrote Ihe history of 
Gaul. He also wrote two letters to the Athe- 
nians ; and besides, there are now extant sixty- 
four letters on various subjects. His Ca^sars is 
the most famous of all his compositions, being a 
satire upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius 
Cassar to Constantine. It is written in the form 
of a dialogue, in which the author severely at- 
tacks the venerable character of M. Aurelius, 
whom he had proposed to himself as a pattern ; 
and speaks in a scurrilous and abusive language 
of his relation Constantine. It has been observ- 
ed of Julian, that, like Caesar, he could employ 
at the same time his hand to write, his ear to 
listen, his eyes to read, and his mind to dictate. 
The best edition of his works is that of Span- 
heim, fol. Lips. 1696 ; and of the Caesars, that 
of Heusinsfer, 8vo. Gothas, 1741. Julian. — 
Socrat. — Eutrop. — Amm. — Liban, &c. 

JuLii, a family of Alba, brought to Rome by 
Romulus, where they soon rose to the great- 
est honours of the state. J. Caesar and Augus- 
tus were of this family ; and it was said, per- 
haps through flattery, that they were lineally de- 
scended from uEneas, the founder of Lavinium. 

Julius Cjesar, I. Vid. Casar. 11. Agri- 



JTJ 



HISTORY, &c. 



LA 



cola, a governor of Britain, A. C. 80, who first 
discovered that Britain was an island by sailing 
round it. His son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, 
has written an account of his life. Tacit, in 

Agric. III. Obsequens, a Latin writer, who 

flourished A. D. 214. The best edition of his 
book, de prodigiis, is that of Oudendorp, 8vo. 

L. Bat. 1730. IV. S. a prastor, &c. Cic. 

ad Her. 2, c. 13. V. Solinus, a writer. Vid. 

Solinus. VI. Titianus, a writer in the age 

of Diocletian. His son became famous for his 
oratorical powers, and was made preceptor in 
the family of Maximinus. Julius wrote a his- 
tory of all the provinces of the Roman empire, 
greatly commended by the ancients. He also 
wrote some letters, in which he happily imitated 
the style and elegance of Cicero, for which he 

was called the ape of his age. VII. Con- 

stantius, the father of the emperor Julian, was 
killed at the accession of the sons of Constan- 
tine to the throne, and his son nearly shared his 

fate. VIII. Pollux. Vid. Pollux. IX. 

Proculus, a Roman, who solemnly declared to 
his countrymen, after Romulus had disappeared, 
that he had seen him above in human shape, 
and that he had ordered him to tell the Romans 
to honour him as a god. Julius was believed. 

Plut. in Rom. — Ovid. X. Florus. Vid. 

Florus: XI. L. Caesar, a Roman consul, 

uncle to Antony the triumvir, the father of Cae- 
sar the dictator. He died as he was putting on 

his shoes. XII. Maximinus, a Thracian, 

who, from a shepherd, became an emperor of 
Rome. Vid. Maximinus. 

ItJLUS, I. the name of Ascanius, the son of 
.^neas. Vid. Ascanius. II. A son of As- 
canius, born in Lavinium. In the succession to 
the kingdom of Alba, ^neas Sylvius, the son 
of JEneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him. 
He was, however, made chief priest, Dionys. 
1. — Virg. j^n. 1, V. 271. Vid. Antonius Julius. 

JtJNiA Lex, Sacrata, by L. Junius Brutus, the 
first tribune of the people, A. U. C. 260. It 
ordained that the person of the tribune should 
be held sacred and inviolable; that an appeal 
might be made from the consuls to the tribune ; 
and ihat no senator should be able to exercise 

the office of a tribune. Another, A. U. C. 

627, v/hich excluded all foreigners from enjoy- 
ing the privileges or names of Roman citizens. 

JuNiA, I. a niece of Cato of Utica, who married 
Cassius, and died 64 years after her husband 
had killed himself at the battle of Philippi.- 



II. Calvina, a beautiful Roman lady, descend- 
ed from Augustus. She was banished by Clau- 
dius, and recalled by Nero. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 4. 

Junius, (Lupus,) a senator who accused Vi- 
tellius of aspiring to the sovereignty, &c. Tacit. 
Ann. 12, c. 42. Vid. Brutus. 

JuNONALiA, and Junonia, festivals at Rome in 
honour of Juno, the same as the Heraea of the 
Greeks. Vid. Hercea. Liv. 27, c. 37. 

JusTiNUs M. JuNiANUs, I. a Latin historian in 
the age of Antoninus, who epitomized the his- 
tory of Trogus Pompeius. This epitome, ac- 
cording to some traditions, was the cause that 
the comprehensive work of Trogus was lost. It 
comprehends the historj' of the Assyrian, Per- 
sian, Grecian, Macedonian, and Roman em- 
pires, &c. in a neat and elegant style. It is 
replete with many judicious reflections and 
animated harangues; but the author is often 



too credulous, and sometimes examines events 
too minutely, while others are related only in a 
few words, too often obscure. The indecency 
of many of his expressions is deservedly censu- 
red. The best editions of Justin are that of Ab. 
Gronovius. Svo. L. Bat. 1719, that of Hearne, 
8 vo. Oxon, 1703, and that of Barbou, 12mo. Pa- 
ris, 1770. II. Martyr, a Greek father, for- 
merly a Platonic philosopher, born in Palestine. 
He died in Egypt, and wrote two apologies for the 
Christians, besides his dialogue with a Jew, two 
treatises, &c. in a plain and unadorned style. 
The best editions of Justin Martyr are that of 
Paris, fol. 1636. Of his apologies, 2 vols. Svo. 
1700 and 1703, and Jebb's dialogue with Try- 

pho, published in London, 1722. III. An 

emperor of the east, who reigned nine years, 

and died A. D. 526. IV. Another, who died 

A. D. 564, after a reign of 38 years. V. An- 

other,whodied577,A.D. after a reign of ISyears. 
JuvENALis, (Decius Junius,) a poet, born at 
Aquinum in Italy. He came early to Rome, 
and passed some time in declaiming; after 
which he applied himself to write satires, 16 of 
which are extant. He spoke with virulence 
against the partiality of Nero for the pantomime 
Paris; and though all his satire and declama- 
tion were pointed against this ruling favourite 
of the emperor, yet Juvenal lived in security 
during the reign of Nero. After the death of 
Nero, the effects of the resentment of Paris were 
severely felt, and the satirist was sent by Domi- 
tian as governor on the frontiers of Egypt. Ju- 
venal was then in the 80th year of his age, and 
he suffered much from the trouble which at- 
tended his office, or rather his exile. He return- 
ed, however, to Rome after the death of Paris, 
and died in the reign of Trajan, A. D. 128. 
His writings are fiery and animated, and they 
abound with humour. He may be called, and 
with reason, perhaps, the last of the Roman po- 
ets. After him poetry decayed, and nothing 
more claims our attention as a perfect poetical 
composition. The best editions are those of 
Casaubon, 4to. L. Bat. 1695, with Persius, and 
of Hawkey, Dublin, 12mo. 1746, and of Grse- 
vius cum notis variorum, Svo. L. Bat. 1684. 

L. 

Labeo, (Antistius,) I. a celebrated lawyer in 
the age of Augustus, whose views he opposed, 
and whose offers of the consulship he refused. 
His works are lost. He was wont to enjoy the 
company and conversation of the learned for 
six months, and the rest of the year was spent in 
writing and composing. His father, of the same 
name, was one of Caesar's murderers. He kill- 
ed himself at the battle of Philippi. Horace 1, 
Sat. 3, V. 82, has unjustly taxed him with insan- 
ity, because, no doubt, he inveighed against his 
patrons. Appian Alex. 4. — Siiet. in Aug. 45. 
II. A tribune of the people at Rome, who 



condemned the censor Metullus to be thrown 
down from the Tarpeian rock, because he had 
expelled him from the senate. This rigorous 
sentence was stopped by the interference of an- 
other of the tribunes. III. CI. Fabius, a Ro- 
man consul, A. TJ. C. 571, who obtained a na- 
val victory over the fleet of the Cretans. He 
assisted Terence in composing his comedies, 

according to some. TV. Actius, an obscure 

475 



LA 



HISTORY, &c. 



LM 



poet, who reconciled himself to the favour of 
Nero by an incorrect translation of Homer into 
Latin. The work is lost, and only this curious 
line is preserved by an old scholiast; Perseus, 
1, V. 4 :— 

Crudum manducus Priamum, Priamique Pi- 
sinnos. 

Laberius, (J, Decimus,) a Roman knight, 
famous for his poetical talents in writing panto- 
mimes. J. Csesar compelled him to act one of 
his characters on the stage. The poet consent- 
ed with great reluctance, but he showed his re- 
sentment during the acting of the piece, by 
throwing severe aspersions upon J. Caesar, by 
warning the audience against his tyranny, and 
by drawing upon him the eyes of the whole 
theatre. Cassar, however, restored him to the 
rank of knight, which he had lost by appearing 
on the stage ; but to his mortification, when he 
went to take his seat among the knights, no one 
oifered to make room for him; and even his 
friend Cicero said, Recepissem te nisi anguste 
sederem. Laberius was offended at the affecta- 
tion and insolence of Cicero, and reflected upon 
his unsettled and pusillanimous behaviour du- 
ring the civil wars of Csesar and Pompey, by the 
reply of Mirum si anguste sedes, qui soles dua- 
bus sellis sedere. Laberius died ten months af- 
ter the murder of J. Csesar. Some fragments 
remain of his poetry. Macrob. Sat, 2, c. 3 and 
7. — Horat. 1, sat. 10. — Senec. de Controv. 18. — 
Suet, in Cess. 

Labienus, I. an officer of Caesar in the wars 
of Gaul. He deserted to Pompey, and was kill- 
ed at the battle of Munda. Cas. Bell. G. 6, &c. 

Liican. 5, v. 346. II. A Roman who fol- 
lowed the interest of Brutus and Cassius, and 
became general of the Parthians against Rome. 
He wa»s conquered by the officers of Augustus. 

Strab. 13 and U.—Dio. 48. III. Titus, a 

declaimer and historian, is chiefly known from 
some passages in Seneca, the rhetorician, who 
informs us that his history was marked by an 
excessive rage for liberty, and its vituperation 
of all ranks and classes of men. He used to 
read it aloud in assemblies of his fellow-citizens : 
but he was wont to pass over the more violent 
passages, saying, that what he thus omitted 
would be perused after his death. He was the 
first author whose works were burned by public 
authority. They were condemned to the flames, 
towards the close of the reign of Augustus, by 
a decree of the senate. Labienus could not 
endure to survive the records of his genius : he 
made himself be carried to the sepulchre of his 
ancestors, where he was shut in, and expired. 
It would appear, however, that all the copies of 
Labienus's history had not been destroyed ; for 
Caligula, while affecting to play the moralist 
and the patriot at the commencement of his 
reign, allowed his writings to be sought after, 
and read — since, as he remarked, it was of the 
utmost importance to him to encourage such 
compositions, in order that all the actions of 
his life should be transmitted to posterity. Suet, 
in Cal. 16. — Seneca. 

Labinetus, or Labynetus, a king of Baby- 
lon, &c. Herodot. 1, c. 74. 

Laches, I. an Athenian sent with Carias at 
the head of a fleet in the first expedition under- 
taken against Sicily in the Peloponnesian war. 
476 



Justin. 4, c. 3. II. An artist who finished 

the Colossus of Rhodes. 

Lacidas, a Greek philosopher ofCyrene, who 
flourished B. C. 241. His father's name was 
Alexander. He was disciple of Arcesilaus, 
whom he succeeded in the government of the 
second academy. He was greatly esteemed by 
king Attains, who gave him a garden, where 
he spent his hours in study. He taught his 
disciples to suspect their judgment, and never 
speak decisively. He disgraced himself by the 
magnificent funeral with which he honoured a 
favoiirite goose, and died through excess of 
drinking. Diog. 4. 

Lagtantius, a celebrated Christian writer, 
whose principal works are de ira divind, de Dei 
operibus, and his divine institutions, in seven 
books, in which he proves the truth of the Chris- 
tian religion, refutes the objections, and attacks 
the illusions and absurdities of Paganism. The 
expressive purity, elegance, and energy of his 
style have gained him the name of the Christian 
Cicero. He died A. D. 325. The best editions 
of his works are that of Sparke, 8vo. Oxon. 
1684, that of Biineman, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1739, 
and that of Du Fresnoy, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 
1748. 

L^LiANus, a general, proclaimed emperor in 
Gaul by his soldiers, A. D. 268, after the death 
of Gallienus. He was conquered by another 
general, called Posthumus, who also aspired to 
the imperial purple. 

L^Lius, C. a Roman consul, A. U. C. 614, 
surnamed Sapiens^ so intimate with Africanus 
the younger, that Cicero represents him, in his 
treatise De Amicitid, as explaining the real na- 
ture of friendship, with its attendant pleasures. 
He made war with success against Viriathus. 
It is said that he assisted Terence in the com- 
position of his comedies. 

Lxna, and Le^na, the mistress of Harmo- 
dius and Aristogiton. Being tortured because 
she refused to discover the conspirators, she bit 
off her tongue, totally to frustrate the violent 
efforts of her executioners. 

Laertes, a king of Ithaca, son of Arcesius 
and Chalcomedusa, who married Anticlea, the 
daughter of Autolycus. Ulysses was treated 
with paternal care by Laertes, though not really 
his son, and Laertes ceded to him his crown, and 
retired into the country, where he spent his lime 
in gardening. He was found in this mean em- 
ployment by his son at his return from the Tro- 
jan war, after 20 years' absence ; and imme- 
diately the father and son repaired to the palace 
of Penelope, the wife of Ulysses, whence all the 
suiters who daily importuned the princess were 
forcibly removed. Laertes was one of the Ar- 
gonauts, according to Apollodorus, 1, c. 9. — 
Homer. Od. 11 and 2i.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 32. 
Heroid. 1, v. 98. 

Laertius Diogenes. Vid. Diogenes. 

Ljeta, the wife of the emperor Gration, cele- 
brated for her humanity and generous senti- 
ments. 

L^TDs, I. a Roman whom Commodus con- 
demned to be put to death. This violence raised 
Laetus against Commodus ; he conspired against 

him, and raised Perlinax to the throne. II. 

A general of the emperor Severus, put to death 
for his treachery to the emperor ; or, according 
to others, on account of his popularity. 



LA 



HISTORY, &c. 



LA 



L^JviNUs, a Roman consul sent against Pyr- 
rhus, A. U, C. 474, He was defeated. 

Lagus, a Macedonian, of mean extraction. 
He received in marriage Arsinoe, the daughter 
of Meleager, who was then pregnant by king 
Philip, and being willing to hide the disgrace of 
his Wife, he exposed the child in the woods. An 
eagle preserved the life of the infant, and La- 
gus then adopted the child as his own, and call- 
ed him Ptolemy, This Ptolemy became king 
of Egypt after the death of Alexander. Ac- 
cording to other accounts, Arsinoe was nearly 
related to Philip king of Macedonia, and her 
marriage with Lagus was not considered as dis- 
honourable, because he was opulent and power- 
ful. The first of the Ptolemies is called Lagus, 
to distinguish him from his successors of the 
same name ; and the surname of Lagidas was 
transmitted to all his descendants on the Egyp- 
tian throne till the reign of Cleopatra, Antony's 
mistress, Plutarch mentions an anecdote, which 
serves to show how far the legitimacy of Ptole- 
my was believed in his age, A pedantic gram- 
marian, says the historian, once displaying his 
great knowledge of antiquity in the presence of 
Ptolemy, the king suddenly interrupted him 
with the question of, Prmj, tell me, sir, who 
was the father of Peleus ? Tell me, replied the 
grammarian, without hesitation, tell me, if you 
can, O king I 2vho the father of Lagus was? 
This reflection on the meanness of the mon- 
arch's birth did not in the least irritate his re- 
sentment, though the courtiers all glowed with 
indignation. Ptolemy praised the humour of 
the gramniarian, and showed his moderation 
and the mildness of his temper, by taking him 
under his patronage. Paus. Attic. — Justin. 13. 
— Curt. 4. — Plut. de ira cohib. — L/wcan. 1, v. 
684.— iteZ. 1, V, 196. 

Lais, a celebrated courtesan, daughter of 
Timandra, the mistress of Alcibiades, born at 
Hyccara in Sicily, She was carried away from 
her native country into Greece, when Nicias, 
the Athenian general invaded Sicily, She first 
began to sell her favours at Corinth for 10,000 
drachmas ; and the immense number of princes, 
noblemen, philosophers, orators and plebeians, 
who courted her embraces, show how much com- 
mendation is owed to her personal charms. The 
expenses which attended her pleasures gave 
rise to the proverb of Non ciiivis homini con- 
tingit adire Corinthum. Even Demosthenes 
himself visited Corinth for the sake of Lais ; 
but when he was informed by the courtesan 
that admittance to her bed was to be bought at 
the enormous sum of about 200Z. English money, 
the orator departed, and observed that he would 
not buy repentance at so dear a price. The 
charms which had attracted Demosthenes to 
Corinth had no influence upon Xenocrates. 
"When Lais saw the philosopher unmoved by 
her beauty, she visited his house herself ; but 
there she had no reason to boast of the licen- 
tiousness or easy submission of Xenocrates. 
Diogenes the cynic was one of her warmest ad- 
rairero, and though filthy in his dress and man- 
ners, yet he gained her heart and enjoyed her 
most unbounded favours. Lais ridiculed the 
austerity of philosophers, observing that the 
sages and philosophers of the age were not above 
the rest of mankind, for she found them at her 
door as often as the rest of the Athenians, The 



success which her debaucheries met at Corinth 
encouraged Lais to pass into Thessaly, and more 
particularly to enjoy the company of a favourite 
youth called Hippostratus. She was, however, 
disappointed ; the women of the place, jealous 
of her charms, and apprehensive of her corrupt- 
ing the fidelity of their husbajids,assassinated her 
in the temple of Venus, about 340 years before 
the Christian era. Some suppose that there 
were two persons of this name, a mother and 
her daughter. Cic. ad Fam. 9, ep, 26. — Ovid. 
Amor. 1, el, 5. — Plut. in. Alcib. — Paus. 2, c. 2, 

Lamachus, I, a son of Xenophanes, sent into 
Sicily with Nicias. He was killed B. C, 414, 
before Syracuse, where he displayed much cour- 
age and intrepidity, Plut. in Alcib. II. A. 

governor of Heraclea in Pontus, who betrayed 
his trust to Mithridates, after he had invited all 
the inhabitants to a sumptuous feast. 

Lamia, a famous courtesan, mistress to De- 
metrius Poliorcetes. Plut. in Dem. — Alhen. 
13.— JElian. V. H. 13, c, 9. Vid. Parts I. and III. 
Lamiacum Bellum happened after the death 
of Alexander, when the Greeks, and particular- 
ly the Athenians, incited by their orators, re- 
solved to free Greece from the garrisons of the 
Macedonians, Leosthenes was appointed com- 
mander of a numerous force, and marched 
against Antipater, who then presided overMa- 
cedonia, Antipater entered Thessaly at the 
head of 13,000 foot and 600 horse, 'and was 
beaten by the superior force of the Athenians 
and of their Greek confederates. Antipater, 
after this blow, fled to Lamia, B. C, 323, where 
he resolved, with all the courage and sagacity 
of a careful general, to maintain a siege with 
about the 8 or 9000 men that had escaped from 
the field of battle. Leosthenes, unable to take 
the city by storm, began to make a regular 
siege. His operations were delayed by the fre- 
quent sallies of Antipater ; and Leosthenes be- 
ing killed by the blow of a stone, Antipater 
made his escape out of Lamia ; and soon after, 
with the assistance of the army of Craterus, 
brought from Asia, he gave the Athenians bat- 
tle near Cranon; and though only 500 of their 
men were slain, yet they became so dispirited, 
that they sued for peace from the conqueror. 
Plut. in Demost. — Diod. 17. — Justin. 11, &c. 

Lamias ^lius, a governor of Syria, under 
Tiberius, He was honoured with a public fu- 
neral by the senate ; and as having been a re- 
spectable and useful citizen, Horace has dedi- 
cated his 26 od. lib. 1, to his praises, as also 3 
od. 17. Tacit. Ann. 6, c, 27, 

Lampedo, a woman ofLacedaemon, who wels 
daughter, wife, sister, and mother of a king. 
She lived in the age of Alcibiades, Agrippina, 
the mother of Claudius, could boast the same 
honours. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 22 and 37. — Plut. 
in Age. — Plato in 1, Ale. — Plin. 7, c, 41. 
Lampeto. Vid. Part III. 
Lampridius jElius, a Latin historian in the 
fourth century, who wrote the lives of some of 
the Roman emperors. His style is inelegant, 
and his arrangement injudicious. His life of 
Commodus, Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, 
&c, is still extant, and to be found in the works 
of the Histories Augustce Scriptores. 

Lampteria, a festival at Pellene in Achaia, 
in honour of Bacchus, who was surnamed 
Lampter from \auretv, to shine, because, during 
477 



LA 



HISTORY, &c. 



LE 



this solemnity, which was observed in the night, 
the worshippers went to the temple of Bac- 
chus with lighted torches in their hands. Paus. 
4, c. 21. 

Lamus. Vid. Part III, 

Lanassa, a daughter of Agathocles, who 
married Pyrrhus, whom she soon after forsook 
for Demetrius. Plut. 

Laocoon. Vid. Part III. 

Laodamia, a daughter of Alexander, king of 
Epirus, by Olympia, the daughter of Pyrrhus. 
She was assassinated in the temple of Diana, 
where she had fled for safety during a sedition. 
Her murderer, called Milo, soon after turned 
his dagger against his own breast, and killed 
himself. Justin. 28, c. 3. 

Lao DICE, I. a daughter of Agamemnon, call- 
ed also Electra. Homer 11. 9. II. A sister 

of Mithridates, who married Ariarathes, king 
of Cappadocia, and afterwards her own brother 
Mithridates. She attempted to poison Mithri- 
dates, for which she was put to death. III. 

A queen of Cappadocia, put to death by her sub- 
jects for poisoning live of her children. tV. 

A sister and wife of Antiochus2d. She put to 
death Berenice, whom her husband had married. 
Vid. Antiochus 2d, She was murdered by 

order of Ptolemy Evergetes, B. C. 246. V. 

A daughter of Demetrius, shamefully put to 
death by Ammonius, the tyrannical minister of 

the vicious Alexander Bala, king of Syria. 

VI. The mother of Seleucus. Nine months 
before she brought forth, she dreamt that Apollo 
had presented her with a precious stone, on 
which was engraved the figure of an anchor, 
commanding her to deliver it to her son as soon 
as born. Not only the son that she brought 
forth, called Seleucus, but also all his successors 
of the house of the Seleucidae, had the mark of 
an anchor upon their thigh. Justin. Appian. 
in Syr. mentions this anchor, though in a dif- 
ferent manner. 

La5medon. Vid. Part III. 

Largus, a Latin poet, who wrote a poem on 
the arrival of Antenor in Italy, where he built 
the town of Padua. He composed with ease 
and elegance. Ovid, ex Pont. 4 ep. 16, v. 17. 

Lartios Florus, (T.) I. a consul who ap- 
peased a sedition raised by the poorer citizens, 
and was the first dictator ever chosen at Rome, 
B. C. 498. He made Spurius Cassius his mas- 
ter of horse. Z/i-y. 2, c. 18. II. Spurius, one 

of the three Romans who alone withstood the 
fury of Porsenna's army at the head of abridge, 
while the communication was cutting down be- 
hind them. His companions were Codes and 
Herminius. Vid. Codes. Liv. 2, c. 10 and 18. 

—Dionys. Hal.— Val. Max. 3, c. 2. The 

name of Lartius has been common to many 
Romans. 

Lassus, or Lasus, a dithyrambic poet, born at 
Hermione in Peloponnesus, about 500 years be- 
fore Christ, and reckoned among the wise men 
of Greece by some. He was acquainted with 
music. Some fragments of his poetry are to be 
found in Athenaeus. He wrote an ode upon 
the Centaurs, and a hymn to Ceres, without 
inserting the letter S in the composition. Athen. 
10. 

LasthenIa, a woman who disguised herself 
to come and hear Plato's lessons. Diog. 

Lateranus Plautus, a Roman consul elect, 
478 



A. D. 65. A conspiracy with Piso against the 
emperor Nero proved fatal to him. He was led 
to execution, where he refused to confess the 
associates of the conspiracy, and did not even 
frown at the executioner, wlio was as guilty as 
himself; but when a first blow could not sever 
his head from his body, he looked at the execu- 
tioner, and shaking his head, he returned it to 
the hatchet with the greatest composure, and it 
was cut off. There exists now a celebrated pal- 
ace at Rome which derives its name from its 
ancient possessors, the Laterani. 

Laudamia, I. a daughter of Alexander, king 
of Epirus, and Olympias, daughter of Pyrrhus, 
killed in a temple of Diana by the enraged pop- 
ulace. Justin. 28, c. 3. II. The wife of 

Protesilaus. Vid. Laodamia. 

Lavinia. Vid. Part III, 

Laurentalia, certain festivals celebrated at 
Rome in honour of Laurentia, on the last day 
of April and the 23d of December. They were, 
in process of time, part of the Saturnalia. Ovid. 
Fast. 3, V. 57. 

Leander. Vid Hero. 

Legio, a corps- of soldiers in the Roman ar- 
mies, whose numbers have been different at dif- 
ferent times. The legion under Romulus con- 
sisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, and was soon 
after augmented to 4000, after the admission of 
the Sabines into the city. "When Annibal was 
in Italy it consisted of 5000 soldiers, and after- 
wards it decreased to 4000, or 4500. Marius 
made it consist of 6200, besides 700 horse. This 
was the period of its greatness in numbers. Livy 
speaks of ten, and even eighteen, legions kept 
at Rome. They were distributed over the Ro- 
man empire, and their stations were settled and 
permanent. The peace of Britain was protect- 
ed by three legions ; sixteen were stationed on 
the banks of the Rhine and Danube, viz. two 
in Lower, and three in Upper Germany ; one in 
Noricum, one in Rhaetia, three in Mcesia, four 
in Pannonia, and two in Dacia. Eight were 
stationed on the Euphrates, six of which re- 
mained in Syria, and two in Cappadocia; while 
the remote provinces of Egypt, Africa, and 
Spain, -were guarded each by a single legion. 
Besides these, the tranquillity of Rome was pre- 
served by 20,000 soldiers, who, under the titles 
of city cohorts and of praetorian guards, watched 
over the safety of the monarch and of the capi- 
tal. The legions were distinguished by differ- 
ent appellations, and generally borrowed their 
name from the order in which they were first 
raised, as prima, secunda, tertia, quarta, &c. 
Besides this distinction, another more expres- 
sive was generally added, as from the name of 
the emperor who imbodied them, as Augusta, 
Claudiana, GaBiana, Flavia, Vlpia, Trajana, 
Antoniana, &c. ; from the provinces or quar- 
ters where they were stationed, as Britannicay 
Cyrenica, Gallica, &c. ; from the provinces 
which had been subdued by their valour, as 
Parthica, Scythica, Arabica, Africana, &c. ; 
from the names of the deities whom their gene- 
rals particularly worshipped, asMinervia, Apol- 
linaris, &c. ; or from more trilling accidents, 
as Martia, Fulminatrix, Rapax^ Adjuirix, &c. 
Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, each 
cohort into three mampuli, and every manipu- 
lus into three centuries or ordines. The chief 
commander of the legion was called legatuSf 



LE 



HISTORY, &c. 



LE 



lieutenant. The standards borae by the legions 
were various. In the first ages of Rome a wolf 
was the standard, in honour of Romulus. Ma- 
rius changed them all for the eagle, being a re- 
presentation of that bird in silver, holding some- 
times a thunderbolt in its claws. The Roman 
eagle ever after remained in use, though Tra- 
jan made use of the Dragon. 

Leleges. Vid. Part I. 

Lelex, I. an Egyptian, who came with a 
colony to Megara, where he reigned about 200 
years before the Trojan war. His subjects were 
called from him Leleges, and the place Lelegeia 

mcenia. Paus. 3, c. 1. II. A Greek, who 

was the first king of Laconia in Peloponnesus. 
His subjects were also called Leleges, and the 
country where he reigned Lelegia. Id. 

Lentui.us, a celebrated family at Rome, which 
produced many great men in the common- 
wealth. The most illastrious were, — I. Corn. 
Lentulus, surnamed Sura. He joined in Cati- 
line's conspiracy, and assisted in corrupting the 
Allobroges. He was convicted in full senate by 
Cicero, and put in prison, and afterwards exe- 
cuted. II. Cn. Lentulus, surnamed Gcctuli- 

cus, was made consul A. D. 26, and was, some 
time after, put to death by Tiberius, who was 
jealous of his great popularity. He wrote a 
history, nientioned by Suetonius, and attempted 

also poetry. III. P. Corn. Lentulus, a prce- 

tor, defeated by the rebellious slaves in Sicily. 
IV. P. Lentulus, a friend of Brutus, men- 
tioned by Cicero, {de Orat. 1, c. 48,) as a great 
and consummate statesman. The consulship 
was in the femily of the Lentuli in the years of 
Rome 427, 479, 517, 518, 553, 555, 598, &c. 
Tacit. Ann. — Liv. — Flor. — Plin. — Plut. — Eu- 
trop. 

Leo, I. a native of Byzantium, who flourished 
350 years before the Christian era. His philo- 
sophical and political talents endeared him to 
his countrymen, and he was always sent upon 
every important occasion as ambassador to 
Athens, or to the court of Philip, king of Mace- 
donia. This monarch was sensible that his 
views and claims to Byzantium would never 
succeed while it was protected by the vigilance 
of such a patriotic citizen. To remove him he 
had recourse to artifice and perfidy. A letter 
was forged, in which Leo made solemn promises 
of betraying his country to the king of Mace- 
donia for money. This was no sooner known 
than the people ran enraged to the house of 
Leo, and the philosopher, to avoid their fury, 
and without attempting his justification, stran- 
gled himself He had written some treatises 
upon physic, and also the history of his country 
and the wars of Philip, in seven books, which 

have been lost. Plut. II. An emperor of 

the east, surnamed the Thracian. He reigned 
17 years, and died A. D. 474, being succeeded 
by Leo the Second for 10 months, and after- 
wards by Zeno. 

Leocorion, a monument and temple erected 
by the Athenians to Pasithea, Theope, and Eu- 
bule, daughters of Leos, who immolated them- 
selves when an oracle had ordered that, to stop 
the raging pestilence, some of the blood of the 
citizens must be shed. JElian. 12, c. 28. — Cic. 
N. D. 3, c. 19. 

Leonatus, one of Alexander's generals. His 
father's name was Eunus. After the death of 



Alexander, at the general division of the prov- 
inces, he received for his portion that part of 
Phrygia which borders on the Hellespont. He 
aspired to the sovereignty of Macedonia, and 
secretly communicated to Eumenes the different 
plans he meant to pursue to execute his designs. 
He passed from Asia into Europe, to assist Anti- 
paler against the Athenians, and was killed in 
a battle which ^as fought soon after his arrival. 
Historians have mentioned, as an instance of the 
luxury of Leonatus, that he employed a number 
of camels to procure some earth from Egypt to 
wrestle upon, as, in his opinion, it seemed better 
calculated for that purpose. Plut. in Alex. — 
Curt. 3, c. 12, 1. 6, c. 8. — Justin. 13, c. 2. — 
Diod. 18. — C. Nep. in Eum. 

Leonidas, a celebrated king of Lacedaemon, 
of the family of the Euristhenidae, sent by his 
countrymen to oppose Xerxes, king of Persia, 
who had invaded Greece with about five millions 
of souls. He was offered the kingdom of Greece 
by the enemy if he would not oppose his views ; 
but Leonidas heard the proposal with indigna- 
tion, and observed, that he preferred death for 
his country to an unjusi though extensive do- 
minion over it. Before the engagement Leonidas 
exhorted his soldiers, and told them all to dine 
heartily, as they were to sup in the realms of 
Pluto. The battle was fought at Thermopylae, 
and the 300 Spartans, who alone had refused to 
abandon the scene of action, withstood the ene- 
my with such vigour, that they were obliged to 
retire, wearied and conquered, during three suc- 
cessive days, till Ephialtes, a Trachinian, had 
the perfidy to conduct a detachment of Persians 
by a secret path up the mountains, whence they 
suddenly fell upon the rear of the Spartans and 
crushed them to pieces. Only one escaped of 
the 300 ; he returned home, where he was treat- 
ed with insult and reproaches for flying inglo- 
riously from a battle in which his brave com- 
panions, with their royal leader, had perished. 
This celebrated battle, which happened 480 
years before the Christian era, taught the 
Greeks to despise the number of the Persians, 
and to rely upon their own strength and intre- 
pidity. Temples were raised to the fallen hero ; 
and festivals, called Li?o?ii<ie«, yearly celebrated 
at Sparta, in which freeborn youths contended. 
Leonidas, as he departed for the battle from La- 
cedaemon, gave no other injunction to his wife, 
but after his death to marry a man of virtue 
and honour, to raise from her children deserving 
of the name and greatness of her first husband. 
Herodot. 7, c. 120, &c.— C. Nep. in Them.— 
Justin. 2. — Val. Max. 1, c. 6. — Paus. 3, c. 4. — 

Plut. in L/yc. (^ Cleom. II. A king of Sparta 

after Are us II. 257 years before Christ. He 
was driven from his kingdom by Cleombrotus, 
his son-in-law, and afterwards re-established. 

Leontium, a celebrated courtesan of Athens, 
who studied philosophy under Epicurus, and 
became one of his most renowned pupils. Me- 
trodorus shared her favours in the most un- 
bounded manner, and by him she had a son, to 
whom Epicurus was so partial, that he recom- 
mended him to his executors on his dying bed. 
Leontium not only professed herself a warm ad- 
mirer and follower of the doctrines of Epicurus, 
but she even wrote a book in support of them 
against Theophrastus. This book was valuable, 
if we believe the testimony and criticism of Ci- 
479 



LE 



HISTORY, &c. 



LI 



cero, who praised the purity and elegance of its 
style, and the truly Attic turn of the expressions. 
Leontium had also a daughter, called Danae, 
who married Sophron. Cic. de Nat. D. I, c. 33. 

Leos, a son of Orpheus. Vid. Leocorion. 

Leosthene.s, I. an Athenian general. Vid. 

Lamiacum. Diod. 17 and 18. — Strab. 9. 

II. Another general of Athens, condemned on 
account of the bad success which attended his 
arms against Peparelhos. 

Leotychides, I. a king of Sparta, son of 
Menares, of the family of the Proclidse. He was 
set over the Grecian fleet, and by his courage 
and valour he put an end to the Persian war at 
the famous battle of Mycale. It is said that he 
cheered the spirits of his fellow-soldiers at My- 
cale, v/ho were anxious for their countrymen in 
Greece, by raising a report that a battle had been 
fought at Plataea, in which the barbarians had 
been defeated. This succeeded, and though the 
information was false, yet a battle was fought at 
Plataea, in which the Greeks obtained the vic- 
tory the same day that the Persian fleet was de- 
stroyed at Mycale. Leotychides was accused of 
a capital crime by the Ephori ; and, to avoid 
the punishment which his guilt seemed to de- 
serve, he fled to the temple of Minerva at Tegea, 
where he perished, B. C. 469, after a reign of 
22 years. He was succeeded by his grandson 
Archidamus, who assisted the Phocians in 
plundering the temple of Delphi. Pans. 3, c. 

7 and 8. — Diod. 11. II. A son of Agis, king 

of Sparta, by Timsea. The legitimacy of his 
birth was disputed by some, and it was generally 
believed that he was the son of Alcibiades. He 
was prevented from ascending the throne of 
Sparta by Lysander, though Agis had declared 
him upon his deathbed his lawful son and heir, 
and Agesilaus was appointed in his place. C. 
Nep. in Ages. — Plut. — Paus. 3, c. 8. 

Lepida Domitia, a daughter of Drusus and 
Antonia, great niece to Augustus, and aunt to 
the emperor Nero. She is described by Taci- 
tus as infamous in her manners, violent in her 
temper, and yet celebrated for her beauty. She 
was put to death by means of her rival Agrip- 
pina, Nero's mother. Tacit. 

Lepidus, M, ^MiLius, I. a Roman, celebrated 
as being one of the triumvirs with Augustus 
and Antony. He was of an illustrious family, 
and, like the rest of his contemporaries, he was 
remarkable for his ambition, to which was add- 
ed a narrowness of mind, and a great deficiency 
of military abilities. He was sent against Cae- 
sar's murderers and some time after he leagued 
with M. Antony, who had gained the heart of 
his soldiers by artifice, and that of their com- 
mander by his address. When his influence 
and power among the soldiers had made him 
one of the triumvirs, he showed his cruelty, like 
his colleagues, by his proscriptions ; and even 
suffered his own brother to be sacrificed to the 
dagger of the triumvirate. He received Africa 
as his portion in the division of the empire ; but 
his indolence soon rendered him despicable in 
the eyes of his soldiers and of his colleagues ; 
and Augustus, who was well acquainted with 
the unpopularity of Lepidus, went to his camp, 
and obliged him to resign the power to which 
he was entitled as being a triumvir. After this 
degrading event, he sunk into obscurity, and 
retired, by order of Augustus, to Cerceii, a small 
480 



town on the coast of Latium, where he ended 
his days in peace, B. C. 13, and where he was 
forgotten as soon as out of power. Appi<m. — 

Plut. in Aug. — Flor. 4, c. 6 and 7. II. A son 

of Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus. He 
was intended by Caius as his successor in the 
Roman empire. He committed adultery with 
Agrippina when young, Dion, 59. 

Leptines, I. a son of Herraocrates, of Syra- 
cuse, brother to Dionysius. He was sent by 
his brother against the Carthaginians, and ex- 
perienced so much success that he sunk fifty of 
their ships. He was afterwards defeated by 
Mago, and banished by Dionysius. He was 
killed in a battle with the Carthaginians. Diod, 

15. II. A famous orator at Athens, who 

endeavoured to unload the people from oppres- 
sive taxes. He was opposed by Demosthenes. 

Lesches, a Greek poet of Lesbos, who flour- 
ished B. C. 600. Some suppose him to be the 
author of the little Iliad, of which only a few 
verses remain quoted by Paus. 10, c. 25. 

Leugippus, a celebrated philosopher of Ab- 
dera, about 428 years before Christ, disciple of 
Zeno. He was 'the first who invented the fa- 
mous system of atoms, and of a vacuum, which 
was afterwards more fully explained by Demo- 
critus and Epicurus. Many of his hypotheses 
have been adopted by the moderns with advan- 
tage. Diogenes has written his life. Vid. 
Part III, 

Leucon, a tyrant of Bosphorus, who lived in 
great intimacy with the Athenians. He was a 
great patron of the useful arts, and greatly en- 
couraged commerce. Strab. — Diod. 14. 

LEUTYcniDEs. Vid. Leotychides. 

LiBANius, a celebrated sophist of Antioch, in 
the age of the emperor Julian. He was edu- 
cated at Athens, and opened a school at An- 
tioch, which produced some of the best and most 
of the literary characters of the age. When 
Julian had imprisoned the senators of Antioch 
for their impertinence, Libanius undertook the 
defence of his fellow-citizens. Some of his ora- 
tions, and above 1600 of his letters are extant ; 
they discover much affectation and obscurity of 
style. Julian submitted his writings to the 
judgment of Libanius with the greatest con- 
fidence, and the sophist freely rejected or ap- 
proved, and showed that he was more attached 
to the person than the fortune and greatness of 
his prince. The time of his death is unknown. 
The best edition of Libanius seems to be that 
of Paris, fol. 1606, with a second volume pub- 
lished by Morell, 1627. His epistles have been 
edited by Wolf, fol. 1738. 

LiBERALiA, festivals yearly celebrated in hon- 
our of Bacchus the 17th of March, much the 
same as the Dionysia of the Greeks. Varro. 

LiBO, a friend of the first triumvirate, who 
killed himself, and was condemned after death. 

LiBON, a Greek architect, who built the fa- 
mous temple of Jupiter Olympius. He flourish- 
ed about 450 years before the Christian era. 

LicHEs, an Arcadian, who found the bones 
of Orestes buried at Tegea, &c. Herodot. 

LiciNiA Lex, was enacted by L. Licinius 
Crassus and Cl. Mutius, consuls, A. U. C. 657. 
It ordered all the inhabitants of Italy to be en- 
rolled on the list of citizens, in their respec- 
tive cities. Another, by C. Licinius Cras- • 

sus the tribune, A. U. C. 608. It transferred 



la 



HISTORY, &c. 



LI 



the right of choosing priests from the college to 
the people. It was proposed, but did not pass, 

Another, by C. Licinius Stolothe tribune. 

It forbade any person to possess 500 acres of 
laud, or keep more than 100 head of large cattle 

or 500 of small. Another, by P. Licinius 

Varus, A. U. C. 545, to settle the day for the 
celebration of the Ludl ApoUinares which was 

before uncertain. Another, by P. Licinius 

Crassus Dives, B. C. 110. It was the same as 
the Fannian law, and farther required that no 
more than 30 asses should be spent at any table 
on the calends, nones, or nundina?, and only 
three pounds of fresh and one of salt meat on 
ordinary days. None of the fruits of the earth 

were forbidden. Another, de sodalitiis, by 

M. Licinius the consul, 690. It imposed a se- 
vere penalty on party clubs, or societies assem- 
bled or frequented for election purposes, as com- 
ing' under the definition of ambitus, and of of- 
fering violence in some degree to the freedom 

and independence of the people. Another, 

called also jEbuLia, by Licmius and ^butius 
the tribunes. It enacted, that when any law 
was preferred with respect to any office of 
power, the person who proposed the bill, as well 
as his colleagues in office, his friends and rela- 
tions, should be declared inca.pable of being in- 
vested With the said office or power. 

LiciNiA, I. the wife of C. Gracchus, who at- 
tempted to dissuade her husband from.his sedi- 
tious measures by a pathetic speech. She was 
deprived of her dowry after the death of Caius. 

II, The wife of Maecenas, distinguished 

for conjugal tenderness. She was sister to Pro- 
culeius, and bore also the name of Terentia. 
Horat. 2, od. 12, v. 13. 

Licinius, (C.) I. a tribune of the people, cele- 
brated for the consequence of his family, for his 
intrigues and abilities. He was a plebeian, and 
was the first of that body who was raised to the 
office of a master of horse to the dictator. He 
made a law which permitted the plebeians to 
share the consular dignity with the patricians, 
A. U. C. 388. He reaped the benefits of this 
law, and was one of the first plebeian consuls. 
The law was proposed and passed by Licinius, 
as it is reported, at the instigation of his ambi- 
tious wife, who WELs jealous of her sister who had 
married a patrician, and who seemed to be of a 
higher dignity in being the wife of a consul. 
Liv. 6, c. M.—Plut. II. C. Calvus, a cele- 
brated orator and poet in the age of Cicero. He 
distinguished himself by his eloquence in the 
forum, and his poetry, which some of the an- 
cients have compared to Catullus. His ora- 
tions are greatly commended by Cluintilian. 
Some believe that he wrote annals quoted by 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. He died in the 
30th year of his age. Quintil. — Cic. in Brut. 

81. III. Macer, a Roman accused by Cicero 

when praetor. He derided the power of his ac- 
cuser, but when he saw himself condemned, he 
grew so desperate that he killed himself. Plut. 

-IV. P. Crassus, a Roman, sent against 

Perseus, king of Macedonia. He was at first 
defeated, but afterwards repaired his losses and 

obtained a complete victory, &c. V. Caius 

Imbrex, a comic poet in the age of Africanus, 
preferred by some to Ennius and Terence. His 
Nsevia andNeseraare quoted by ancient authors, 
but of all his poetry only two verses are preserv- 

Part II.— 3 P 



ed, Aul. Gel.—^Yl. Mucianus, a Roman who 
wrote about the history and geography of the 
eastern countries, often quoted by Pliny, He 

lived in the reign of Vespasian, VII. P. Te- 

gula, a comic poet of Rome, about 200 years be- 
fore Christ, He is ranked as the fourth of the 
best comic poets which Rome produced. Few 
lines of his compositions are extant. He wrote 
an ode, which was sung all over the city of Rome 
-by nine virgins during the Macedonian war. 

Liv. 31, c. 12. VIII. Varro Mui^na, a 

brother of Proculeius, who conspired against 
Augustus with Fannius Caepio, and suffered for 
his crime. Horace addressed his 2 od. 10, to 
him, and recommended equanimity in every 

situation. Dio. 54. IX. C. Flavins Vale- 

rianus, a celebrated Roman emperor. His fa- 
ther was a poor peasant of Dalmatia, and him- 
self a common soldier in the Roman armies. His 
valour recommended him to the notice of Gale- 
rius Maximianus, who took him as a colleague 
in the empire, and appointed him over the pro- 
vince of Pannonia and Rhcetia. Constantine, 
who was also one of the emperors, courted the 
favour of Licinius, and made his intimacy more 
durable by giving him his sister Constantia in 
marriage, A. D. 313. The continual successes 
of Licinius, particularly against Maximinus, in- 
creased his pride, and rendered him jealous of 
the greatness of his brother-in-law. The per- 
secutions of the Christians, whose doctrines 
Constantine followed, soon caused a rupture, 
and ill-fortune attended Licinius ; he was con- 
quered, and fled to Nicomedia, where soon the 
conqueror obliged him to surrender, and to re- 
sign the imperial purple. Constantine ordered 
him to be strangled at Thessalonica, A. D. 324. 
His family was involved in his ruin. The ava- 
rice, licentiousness, and cruelty of Licinius, are 
as conspicuous as his misfortunes. He was 
an enemy to learning, and his aversion totally 
proceeded from his ignorance of letters and the 
rusticity of his education. His son by Con- 
stantia bore also the same name. He was hon- 
oured with the title of Cassar when scarce 20 
months old. He was involved in his father's 
ruin, and put to death by order of Constantine, 

LiGARiDs, Ql. a Roman pro-consul of Africa, 
after Confidius, In the civil wars he followed 
the interests of Pompey, and was pardoned when 
Ccesar had conquered his enemies, Cassar, 
however, and his adherents, were determined 
upon the ruin of Ligarius ; but Cicero, by an 
eloquent oration, still extant, defeated his ac- 
cusers, and he was pardoned. He became af- 
terwards one of Cassar's murderers. Cic. pro 
leg. — Plut. in CcBsar. 

LiMNATiDiA, a, festival in honour of Diana. 

LiTAVictJs, one of the ^dui, who assisted 
Caesar with 10,000 men. Cces. Bell. G. 7, c. 37. 

LiTHOBOLiA, a festival celebrated at Troezene, 
in honour of Lamia and Auxesia, who came 
from Crete, and were sacrificed by the fury of 
the seditious populace, and stoned to death. 
Hence the name of the solemnity, \idoPo\ia, 
lapidation. 

Li VIA Drusilla, a celebrated Roman lady, 
daughter of L. Drusus Calidianus. She mar- 
ried Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had 
the emperor Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, 
The attachment of her husband to the cause of 
Antony was the beginning of her greatness. 
481 



LI 



HISTORY, &c. 



LI 



Augustus saw her as she fled from tlie danger 
which threatened her husband, and he resolved 
to marry her, though she was then pregnant. 
Her children by Drusus were adopted by the 
emperor ; and, that she might make the succes- 
sion of her son Tiberius more easy and undis- 
puted, Livia is accused of secretly involving in 
one common ruin the heirs and nearest rela- 
tions of Augustus. She is also charged with 
having murdered her own husband, to hasten 
the elevation of Tiberius. If she was anxious 
for the aggrandizement of her son, Tiberius 
proved ungrateful, and hated a woman to whom 
he owed his life, his elevation, and his greatness. 
Livia died in the 86th year of her age, A. D. 29. 
Tiberius showed himself as undutiful after her 
death as before, for he neglected her funeral, 
and expressly commanded that no honours, 
either private or public, should be paid to her 

memory. Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 3. Suet, in 

Aug. ^ Tib. — Dion. Cass. 

Li VIA Lex, de sociis^ proposed to make all the 
inhabitants of Italy free citizens of Rome. M. 
Livius Drusus, who framed it, was found mur- 
dered in his house before it passed. Ano- 
ther, by M. Livius Drusus the tribune, A. U. 
C. 662, which required that the judicial power 
should be lodged in the hands of an equal num- 
ber of knights and senators, 

Livius Andronicus, I, a native of Magna 
Grsecia, was the first who attempted to establish 
at Rome a regular theatre, or to connect a dra- 
matic fable,free from the mummeries, the ballet, 
and the melodrama of the ancient satires. Tira- 
boschi asserts, that when his country was finally 
subdued by the Romans, in 482, Livius was 
made captive and brought to Rome. It is gene- 
rally believed that he there became the slave,and 
afterwards the freedman of Livius Salinator, 
from whom he derived one of his names ; these 
facts, however, do not seem to rest on any au- 
thority more ancient than the Eusebian Chron- 
icle. The precise period of his death is un- 
certain ; but in Cicero's dialogue De Senectute. 
Cato is introduced saying, that he had seen 
old Livius while he was himself a youth. Now 
Cato was born in 519, and since the period of 
youth among the Romans was considered as 
commencing at fifteen, it may be presumed that 
the existence of Livius was at least protracted 
till the year 534 of the city. It has been fre- 
quently said, that he lived till the year 546 be- 
cause Livy mentions that a hymn composed by 
this ancient poet was publicly sung in that year, 
to avert the disasters threatened by an alarming 
prodigy ; but the historian does not declare that 
it was written for the occasion, or even recently 
before. The earliest play of Livius was repre- 
sented in 513 or 514, about a year after the ter- 
mination of the first Punic war. Osannus, a 
modern German author, has written a learned 
and chronological dissertation on the question, 
in which of these years the first Roman play 
was performed ; but it is extremely difficult for 
us to come to any satisfactory conclusion on a 
subject which, even in the time of Cicero, was 
one of doubt and controversy. Like Thespis, 
and other dramatists in the commencement of 
the theatrical art, Livius was an actor, and for 
a considerable time the sf^le performer in his 
own pieces. Afterwards, however, his voice 
failing, in consequence of the audience insisting 
482 



on a repetition of favourite passages, he intro- 
duced a boy who relieved him, by declaiming in 
concert with the flute, while he himself executed 
the corresponding gesticulations in the mono- 
logues, and in the parts where high exertion was 
required, employmg his OAvn voice only in the 
conversational and less elevated scenes. It was 
observed that his action grew more lively and 
animated, because he exerted his whole strength 
in gesticulating, while another had the care and 
trouble of pronouncing. ' Hence,' continues 
Livy, ' the practice arose of reciting those pas- 
sages which required much modulation of the 
voice, to the gesture and action of the comedian. 
Thenceforth the custom so far prevailed, that 
the comedians never pronounced any thing 
except the verses of the dialogues:' and this 
system, which one should think must have com- 
pletely destroyed the theatric illusion,continued, 
under certain modifications, to subsist on the 
Roman stage during the most refined periods of 
taste and literature. The popularity of Livius 
increasing from these performances, as well as 
from a propitiatory hymn he had composed, and 
which had been followed by great public suc- 
cess, a building was assigned to him on the 
Aventine hill. This edifice was partly con- 
verted into a theatre, and was also inhabited by 
a troop of players, for whom Livius wrote his 
pieces, and frequently acted along with them. 
It has been disputed whether the first drama 
represented by Livius Andronicus at Rome was 
a tragedy or comedy. However, this may be, it 
appears from the names which have been pre- 
served of his plays, that he wrote both tragedies 
and comedies. These titles, which have been 
collected by Fabricius and other writers, are 
Achilles, Adonis, jEgisthus, Ajax, Andromeda, 
Antiopa, Centauri, Equus Trojanus, Helena, 
Hermione, Ino, Lydius, Protesilaodamia, Se- 
reniis, Tereus, Teucer, Virgo. Such names 
also evince that most of his dramas were trans- 
lated or imitated from the works of his country- 
men of Magna Grsecia, or from the great trage- 
dians of Greece. Thus, jEschylus wrote a 
tragedy on the subject of ^gisthus. There is 
still an Ajax of Sophocles extant, and he is 
known to have written an Andromeda : Sto- 
baeus mentions the Antiopa of Euripides. Four 
Greek dramatists, Sophocles, Euripides, Anax- 
andrides, and Philssterus, composed tragedies 
on the subject of Tereus ; and Epicharmus, as 
well as others, chose for their comedies the story 
of the Sirens. Little, however, except the titles, 
remains to us from the dramas of Livius. The 
longest passage we possess in connexion, ex- 
tends only to four lines. It forms part of a hymn 
to Diana, recited by the chorus, in the tragedy 
of Ino, contains an animated exhortation to 
a person about to proceed to the chase, and 
testifies the vast improvement effected by Li- 
vius on the Latin tongue. As this is the only 
passage among the fragments of Livius, from 
which a connected meaning can be elicited, 
we must take our opinion of his poetical 
merits from those who judg:ed of them while 
his writings were yet wholly extant. Cicero 
has pronounced an unfavourable decision, de- 
claring that they scarcely deserved a second 
perusal. They long, however, continued popu- 
lar in Rome, and were read by the youths in 
schools even during the Augustan age of poetry. 



LI 



HISTORY, Sic. 



LI 



It is evident, indeed, that during that golden pe- 
riod of Roman literature, there prevailed a taste 
corresponding to our black-leiier rage, which 
led to an. inordinate admiration of the works of 
Livius, and to the bitter complaints of Horace, 
that they should be extolled as perfect, or held 
up by old pedants to the imitation of youth in 
an age when so much better models existed. 
But although Livius may have been too much 
read in the schools, and too much admired in an 
age which could boast of models so greatly 
superior to his writings, he is at least entitled to 
praise, as the inventor among the Romans of a 
species of poetry w^hich was afterwards carried 
by them to much higher perfection. By trans- 
lating the Odyssey, too, into Latin verse, he 
adopted the means which, of all others, were 
most likely to foster and improve the infant lite- 
rature of his country — as he thus presented it 
with an image of the most pure and perfect 
taste, and at the same time with those wild and 
romantic adventures, which are best suited 
to attract the sympathy and interest of a half- 
civilized nation. This happy influence could 
not be prevented, even by the use of the rugged 
Saturniati verse, which led Cicero to compare 
the translation of Livius to the ancient statutes, 

which might be attributed to Dsedalus. II. 

M. Salmator, a Roman consul sent against 
the Illyrians. The success with which he 
finished his campaign, and the victory which 
some years after he obtained over Asdrubal, 
who was passing into Italy with a reinforcement 
for his brother Annibal, show how deserving he 
was to be at the head of the Roman armies. 
Liv. III, Titus. This writer, though un- 
questionably the greatest historian of Rome, 
has been but slightly mentioned, either by those 
authors of his own country who were contem- 
porary with him, or by those who succeeded 
him ; and we, in consequence, have little infor- 
mation concerning the circumstance of his life. 
He was born at Padua, of a consular family, in 
the year of Rome 695. The place of his birth 
was one of the most ancient and distinguished 
municipal states of the Roman empire. Titus 
Livius Optatus was the first of the Livian fa- 
mily who came to it from Rome ; and from him 
was descended Caius Livius, the father of the 
historian. Many of the poets and literary men 
of R,ome were brought in early youth to the 
capital. Livy, however, seems to have received 
his early instruction in his native city. Soon 
after his arrival at Rome, he composed some 
dialogues on philosophical and political ques- 
tions, which he addressed to Augustus. These 
dialogues, which are now lost, procured for him 
the favour of the emperor, who gave him free 
access to all those archives and records of the 
state which might prove serviceable in the pro- 
secution of the. historical researches in which he 
was employed. He also allotted him apartments 
in his own palace. It appears that Livy availed 
himself of the good graces of the emperor, only 
for the purpose of facilitating the hi.storical re- 
searches in which he was engaged. We do not 
hear that he accepted any pecuniary favours, or 
even held any public employment. It has been 
conjectured by some writers, from a passage in 
Suetonius, that he had for a short while super- 
intended the education of Claudius, who after- 
"wards succeeded to the empire. But though the 



expressions scarcely authorize this inference, 
they prove, that at Livy's suggestion, Claudius 
undertook in his youth to write a history of 
Rome, from the death of Julius Caesar, and ihus 
acquired the habit of historical composition, 
which he continued after his accession ; being 
better qualified, as Gibbon remarks, to record 
great actions than to perform them. Livy con- 
tinued for nearly twenty years to be closely oe- 
■cupied in the composition of his history. Dur- 
ing this long period his chief residence was at 
Rome, or in its immediate vicinity. Though 
Livy's great work was not finished till the year 
745 or 746, he had previously published parts of 
it, from time to time, by which means he early 
acquired a high reputation with his country- 
men, who considered him as holding the same 
rank, in the class of their historians, which 
Virgil occupied among their poets, and Cicero 
among their orators. His fame reached even 
the remotest extremities of the Roman empire. 
An inhabitant of Cadiz was so struck with his 
illustrious character, that he travelled all the 
way from the city to Rome on purpose to see 
him, and, having gratified his curiosity, straight- 
way returned to Spain. Although his history 
was completed, as we have seen, in 745, Livy 
continued to reside at Rome till the death of 
Augustus, which happened in 765. On the 
accession of Tiberius, he returned to Padua, 
where he survived five years longer, and at 
length died at the place of his birth, in 770, and 
in the 76th year of his age. Livy is supposed 
to have been twice married. By one of his 
wives he left several daughters and a son, to 
whom he addressed an epistle or short treatise 
on the subject of rhetoric, in which, while de- 
livering his opinion concerning the authors most 
proper to be read by youth, he says, that they 
ought first to study Demosthenes and Cicero, 
and next, such writers as most closely resem- 
ble these excellent orators. After his death, 
statues were erected to Livy at Rome ; for we 
learn, from Suetonius, that the mad Caligula 
had nearly ordered that all his images, as well 
as those of Virgil, should be removed from the 
public libraries. His more rational subjects, 
nevertheless, regarded Livy as the only histo- 
rian that had yet appeared, whose dignity of 
sentiment, and majesty of expression, rendered 
him worthy to record the story of the Roman 
republic. The work of Livy comprehends the 
whole history of Rome, from its foundation to 
the death of Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, 
which happened in the year 744. It consisted 
of 140, or according to some, of 142 books ; 
but of these, as is well known, only thirty-five 
are now extaiit : and it must be admitted that 
the most valuable portion of Livy's history has 
perished. The commencement of those dissen- 
sions, which ended in the subversion of the li- 
berties of Rome, and the motives by which the 
actors on the great political stage were influen- 
ced would have given scope for more interesting 
reflection, and more philosophic deduction, than 
details of the wars with the Sabines and Sam- 
nites, or even of those with the Carthaginians 
and Greeks. Stronger reliance might also have 
been placed on this portion of the history, than 
on that by which it was preceded. The au- 
thor's account of the civil wars of Marius and 
Sylla, of Pompey and Cnesar, may have been 
483 



LO 



HISTORY, &c. 



LU 



derived from those who were eyewitnesses of 
these destructive contests, and he himself was 
living an impartial and intelligent observer of 
all the subsequent events which his history re- 
corded. Both Lord Bolingbroke and Gibbon 
have declared, that they would willingly give 
up what we now possess of Livy, on the terms 
of recovering what we have lost. It would lead 
into a field of discussion much too extensive to 
enter into any investigation concerning even a 
few of the most important mistakes which have 
been imputed to Livy. Inexperienced in mili- 
tary affairs, numerous blunders have been at- 
tributed to him with regard to encampments, 
circumvalations, sieges, and in general all war- 
like operations. He did not, like Polybius, Sal- 
lust, or Diodorus Siculus, take the pains to 
visit the regions which had been the theatre of 
the great events he commemorates. Hence, 
many mistakes in geography, and much con- 
fusion with regard to the situation of towns 
and the boundaries of districts. ' Considered 
in this view,' says Gibbon, ' Livy appears mere- 
ly as a man of letters, covered with the dust of 
his library, little acquainted with the art of war, 
and careless in point of geography.' Livy, be- 
sides, was not a very learned or zealous antiqua- 
ry ; and hence he has fallen into many errors 
of chronology, as also into mistakes concerning 
the ancient manners and institutions of the Ro- 
mans. Into various inadvertences and contra- 
dictions he has been betrayed by carelessness 
or haste. Thus, having discovered an inscrip- 
tion on a breastplate, which was at variance, 
as to a particular fact, with the common nar- 
rative of the annalists, he states it to be decisive 
against them ; yet, subsequently, hurried away 
by the crowd of historians whom he followed, 
he forgets both himself and the confidence due 
to the breastplate, and subscribes to the accura- 
cy of the annalists whose narrative is falsified. 
Sometimes, when there are two relations, by 
two different authors, varying from each other, 
he follows the one in one part of his history, 
and yet assents to the other in a subsequent pas- 
sage. Sometimes the same incidents are twice 
related, as having occurred in different years 
— a confusion into which he was led by the vast 
number of annalists whom he consulted, and the 
discrepancy in Roman chronology, some writers 
following Cato, and others Varro, who disagreed 
by two years in the epoch which they fixed for 
the foundation of Rome. Considering the pe- 
riod in which he lived, the impartiality and sin- 
cerity of Livy passed through a fiery ordeal. 
But though his youth was spent in a period of 
civil war and violent faction, he seems to have 
imbibed none of the feelings of a partisan ; and 
in this respect, perhaps, his residence at Padua, 
far from the dissensions and excitement of the 
capital, was favourable to his impartiality. The 
absolute domination of Augustus, and the fa- 
vour which, on Livy's arrival at Rome, the em- 
peror extended to him, might well have corrupt- 
ed the fidelity of a republican historian. But he 
honoured the memory of the conquered patriots 
in the court of the conquering prince. The 
best editions of Livy will be found to be those 
of Maittaire, 6 vols. 12mo. London, 1722 ; of 
Drachenborch, 7 vols. 4to. Amst. 1731, and of 
Ruddiraan, 4 vols. 12mo. Edin. 1751. 
LocusTA, a celebrated woman at Rome, ini 
484 



the favour of Nero. She poisoned Claudius 
and Britannicus, and at last attempted to de- 
stroy Nero himself, for which she was ex- 
ecuted. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 66, &c. — Suet, in 
Mr. 33. 

LoLLiA Paulina, a beautiful woman, daugh- 
ter of M. Lollius, who married C. Memmius 
Regulus, and afterwards Caligula. She was 
divorced and put to death by means of Agrip- 
pina. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 1, &c. 

Lollius, M. a companion and tutor of C. 
Caesar, the son-in-law of Tiberius. He was con- 
sul,and offended Augustus by his rapacity in the 
provinces. Horace has addressed two of his 
epistles to him, &c. Tacit Ann. 3. 

LoNGiMANUs, a surname of Artaxerxes, from 
his having one hand longer than the other. The 
Greeks called him Macrochir. C. Nep. in Reg. 

LoNGiNUs,(Dionysius Cassius,) I. a celebrated 
Greek philosopher and critic of Athens. He 
was preceptor of the Greek language, and after- 
wards minister to Zenobia, the famous queen 
of Palmyra, and his ardent zeal and spirited ac- 
tivity in her cause, proved at last fatal to him. 
When the emperor Aurelian entered victorious 
the gates of Palmyra, Longinus was sacrificed 
to the fury of the Roman .soldiers, 'A. D, 273. 
At the moment of death he showed himself great 
and resolute ; and with a philosophical and un- 
paralleled firmness of mind, he even repressed 
the tears and sighs of the spectators who pitied 
his miserable end. Longinus rendered his name 
immortal by his critical remarks on ancient au- 
thors. His treatise on the sublime gives the 
world reason to lament the loss of his other valu- 
able compositions. The best editions of this 
author are that of Tollius, 4to. Traj. ad Rhen. 

1694, and that of Toup, 8vo. Oxon. 1778. 

II. A lawyer whom, though blind and respect- 
ed, Nero ordered to be put to death, because he 
had in his possession a picture of Cassius, one 
of CaBsar's murderers. Juv. 10, v. 6. 

LoNGUs, a Greek author, who wrote a novel 
called the amours of Daphnis and Chloe. The 
age in which he lived is not precisely known. 
The best editions of this pleasing writer are that 
of Paris, 4to. 1754, and that of Villoison, 8vo. 
Paris, 1778. 

LucANUs, M. ANNiGus, I. a native of Cordu- 
ba in Spain. He was early removed to Rome, 
where his rising talents, and more particularly 
his lavished praises and panegyrics,recommend- 
ed him to the emperor Nero. This intimacy was 
soon productive of honour, and Lucan was rais- 
ed to the dignity of an augur and quaestor be- 
fore he had attained the proper age. The poet 
had the imprudence to enter the lists against his 
imperial patron ; he chose for his subject Or- 
pheus, and Nero took the tragical story of 
Niobe. Lucan obtained an easy victory, but 
Nero became jealous of his poetical reputation, 
and resolved upon revenge. The insults to which 
Lucan was daily exposed, provoked at last his 
resentment, and he joined Piso in a conspiracy 
against the emperor. The whole was discover- 
ed, and the poet had nothing left but to choose 
the manner of his execution. He had his veins 
opened in the warm bath, and as he expired, he 
pronounced with great energy the lines which, 
in his Pharsalia, 1. 3, v. 630—642, he had put 
into the mouth of a soldier who died in the 
same manner as himself. Some have accused 



LU 



HISTORY, &c. 



LU 



him of pusillanimity at the moment of his death, 
and say that, lo free himself from the punish- 
ment which threatened him he accused his own 
mothei, and involved her in the crime of which 
he was guilty. This circumstance, which throws 
an indelible blot upon the character of Lucan, 
is not mentioned by some writers, who observe 
that he expired with all the firmness of a philo- 
sopher. He died in his 26th year, A. D. 65. 
Of all hi3 compositions none but his Pharsalia 
remains. This poem, which is an account of the 
civil wars of Cassar and Pompey, is unfinished. 
Opinions are various as to the merits of the po- 
etry, Lucan, to use the words of Gluintilian, is 
more an orator than a poet. He wrote a poem 
upon the burning of Rome, now lost. It is said 
that his wife, Polla Argentaria, not only assist- 
ed him in the composition of his poem, but even 
corrected it after his death. Scaliger says that 
Lucan rather barks than sings. The best edi- 
tions of Lucan are those of Oudendorp, 4to. L. 
Bat. 1728, of Bentley, 4to. printed at Strawber- 
ry-hill, 1760, and of "Barbou, 12mo. Paris, 1767. 
Quintil. 10. — Suet. — Tacit. Ann. 15, &c. — 

Martial. 7, ep. 20. II. Ocellus, or Ucellus, 

an ancient Pythagorean philosopher, whose 
age is unknown. He wrote, in the Attic dialect 
a book on the nature of the universe, which he 
deemed eternal, and from it were dra"v\Ti the 
systems adopted by Aristotle, Plato, and Philo 
Judeeus. This work was first translated into 
Latin by Nogarola. Another book of Ocellus 
on laws, written in the Doric dialect, was 
greatly esteemed by Archytas and Plato, a 
fragment of which has been preserved by Sto- 
bseus, of which, however. Ocellus is disputed to 
be the author. There is an edition of Ocellus, 
with a learned commentary, by C. Emman.Viz- 
zanius, Bononise, 1646, in 4to. 

LuccEros, L. a celebrated historian. He 
composed histories of the Social war, and of 
the Civil wars of Sylla, which were so highly 
esteemed by Cicero, that he urged him, in one 
of his letters, to undertake a history of his con- 
sulship, in which he discovered and suppressed 
the conspiracy of Catiline. From a subsequent 
letter to Atticus we learn that Lucceius had 
promised to accomplish the the task suggested 
to him. It is probable, however, that it never 
was completed — his labours having been inter- 
rupted by the civil wars, in which he followed 
the fortunes of Pompey, and was indeed one of 
his chief advisers in adopting the fatal resolution 
of quitting Italy. Cic. ad Fam. 5, ep. 12, &c. 

LucEREs, a body of horse, composed of Ro- 
man knights, established by Romulus and Ta- 
tius. It received its name either from Ldtcumo, 
an Etrurian, who assisted the Romans against 
the Sabines, or from lucus, a grove where Rom- 
ulus had erected an asylum, or a place of re- 
fuge for all fugitives, slaves, homicides, &c. 
that he might people his city. The Luceres 
were some of these men, and they were in- 
corporated with the legions. Property 4. el. 1, 
V. 31. 

LuciANus, a celebrated writer of Samosata. 
His father was poor in his circumstances, and 
Lucian was early bound to one of his uncles, 
who was a sculptor. The employment highly 
displeased him ; he made no proficiency in the 
art, and resolved to seek his livelihood by better 
means. He visited different places ; and An- 



tioch, Ionia, Greece, Italy, Gaul, and more par- 
ticularly Athens, became successively acquaint- 
ed with the depth of his learning and the power 
of his eloquence. The emperor M. Aurelius 
was sensible of his merit, and appointed him 
register to the Roman governor of Egypt. He 
died A. D. 180, in his 90th year, and some of 
the moderns have asserted that he was torn to 
pieces by dogs for his impiety, particularly for 
ridiculing the religion of Christ. The works 
of Lucian, which are numerous, and written in 
the Attic dialect, consist partly of dialogues, 
in which he introduces different characters, with 
much dramatic propriety. His style is easy, 
simple, elegant, and animated ; and he has 
stored his compositions with many lively sen- 
timents, and much of the true Attic wit. He 
also wrote the life of Sostrates, a philosopher 
of Bceotia, as also that of the philosopher De- 
monax. Some have also attributed to him, 
with great impropriety, the life of Apollonius 
Thyaneus. The best editions of Lucan are 
that of Graevius, 2 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1687, and 
that of Reitzius, 4 vols. 4to. Amst. 1743. 

Lucifer. Vid. Part III; 

LuciLius, (C.) I. a Roman knight, who was 
born in the year 605, at Suessa, a towTi in the 
Auruncian territory. He was descended of a 
good family, and was the maternal granduncle 
of Pompey the Great. In early youth he served 
at the siege of Numantia, in the same camp 
with Marius and Jugurtha, under the younger 
Scipio Africanus, whose friendship and protec- 
tion he had the good fortune to acquire. On 
his return to Rome from his Spanish campaign, 
he dwelt in a house which had been built at the 
public expense, and had been inhabited by Se- 
leucus Philopater, prince of Syria, whilst he 
resided in his youth as a hostage at Rome. Lu- 
cilius continued to live on terms of the closest 
intimacy with the brave Scipio and wiseLselius. 
These powerful protectors enabled him to satir- 
ise the vicious without restraint or fear of pun- 
ishment. In his writings he drew a genuine 
picture of himself, acknowledged his faults, 
made a frank confession of his inclinations, gave 
an account of his adventures, and, in short, ex- 
hibited a true and spirited representation of his 
whole life. Fresh from business or pleasure, 
he seized his pen while his fancy was yet warm, 
and his passions still awake, — while elated with 
success or depressed by disappointment. All 
these feelings, and the incidents which occa- 
sioned them, he faithfully related, and made 
his remarks on them with the utmost freedom. 
Unfortunately, however, the writings of Lucil- 
ius are so mutilated, that few particulars of his 
life and manners can be gleaned from them. 
Little farther is known concerning him, than 
that he died at Naples, but at what age has been 
much disputed. Eusebius and most other wri- 
ters have fixed it at 45, which, as he was born 
in 605, would be in the 651st year of the city. 
But M. Dacier and Bayle assert that he must 
have been much older at the time of his death, 
as he speaks in his satires of the Licinian law 
against exhorbitant expenditure at entertain- 
ments, which was not promulgated till 657 or 
658. Lucilius did not confine himself to invec- 
tives on vicious mortals. In the first book of 
his satires, he appears to have declared war on 
the false gods of Olympus, whose plurality he 
485 



LU 



HISTORY, &c. 



LtJ 



denied, and ridiculed the simplicity of the peo- 
ple, who bestowed on an infinity of gods the 
venerable name of father, which should be re- 
served for one. Qtcmtil. 10, c. 1. — Cic. de Oral. 

2. — Horat. II. Lucinus, a famous Roman, 

who fled with Brutus after ihe battle of Pin- 
lippi. Tiiey were soon after overtaken by a 
party of horse, and Lucilius suffered himself 
to be severely wounded by the dart of the ene- 
my, exclaiming that he was Brutus. He was 
tak'Ji and carried to the conquerors, whose 
clemency spared his life. Plut. 

LuciLLA, a daughter of M. Aurelius, cele- 
brated for the virtues of her youth, her beauty, 
debaucheries, and misfortunes. At the age of 
sixteen her father sent her to Syria to marry the 
emperor Verus, who was then employed in a 
war with the Parthians and Armenians. The 
conjugal virtues of Lucilla were great at first, 
but when she saw Verus plunge himself into 
debauchery and dissipation, she followed his ex- 
ample. At her return to Rome she saw the 
incestuous commerce of her husband with her 
mother, and at last poisoned him. She after- 
wards married an old but virtuous senator, by 
order of her father, and was not ashamed soon 
to gratify the criminal sensualities of her brother 
Commodus. The coldness and indifference with 
which Commodus treated her afterwards deter- 
mined her on revenge, and she, with many illus- 
trious senators, conspired against his life, A. D. 
185. The plot was discovered, Lucilla was 
banished, and soon after put to death by her 
brother, in the 38th year of her age. 

Lucius, a writer, called by some Saturantius 
Apuleius. He was born in Africa, on the bor- 
ders of Numidia. He studied poetry, music, 
geometry, &c. at Athens, and warmly embraced 
the tenets of the Platonists. He cultivated 
magic, and some miracles are attributed to his 
knowledge of enchantments. He wrote in Greek 
and Latin, with great ease and simplicity ; his 
style, however, is sometimes affected, though his 
eloquence was greatly celebrated in his age. 
Some fragments of his compositions are still ex- 
tant. He flourished in the reign of M. Aure- 
lius. The word Lucius is a praenomen com- 
mon to many Romans, of whom an account is 
given under their family names. 

LucRETiA, a celebrated Roman lady, daugh- 
ter of Lucretius, and wife of Tarquinius Collati- 
nus. The beauty and innocence of Lucretia in- 
flamed the passions of Sextus,the son ofTarquin. 
He cherished his flame, and secretly retired 
from the camp, and came to the house of Lucre- 
tia, where he met with a kind reception. In the 
dead of night he introduced himself to Lucretia, 
who refused to his entreaties what her fear of 
shame granted to his threats. She yielded to her 
ravisher when he threatened to murder her, and 
to slay one of her slaves and put him in her bed. 
Lucretia in the morning sent for her husband 
and her father, and, after she had revealed to 
them the indignities she had suffered from the 
son of Tarquin, and entreated them to avenge 
her wrongs, she stabbed herself with a dagger 
which she had previously concealed under her 
clothes. Brutus, who was present at the tragi- 
cal death of Lucretia, kindled the flames of re- 
bellion, and the republican or consular govern- 
ment was established at Rome, A. U. C. 244. 
Liv. 1, c. 57, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 4, c. 15. — 
48G" 



Ovid. Fast. % v. 141.— Val. Max. 6, c. 1.- 
Plut. — August, de Cic. D. 1, c. 19. 

Lucretius Carus, (T.) I. was the most re- 
markable of the Roman writers, as he united 
the precision of the philosopher to the fire and 
fancy of the poet; and, while he seems to have 
had no perfect model among the Greeks, has 
left a production unrivalled, (perhaps not to be 
rivalled,) by any of the same kind in later ages. 
Of the life of Lucretius very little is known : 
he lived at a period abounding with great poli- 
tical actors, and full of portentous events — a 
period when every bosom was agitated with 
terror or hope, and when it must have been the 
chief study of a prudent man, especially if a 
votary of philosophy and the Muses, to hide 
himself as much as possible amid the shades. 
The year of his birth is uncertain. According 
to the chronicle of Eusebius, he was born in 
658, being thus nine years younger than Cicero, 
and two or three younger than Caesar. To 
judge from his style, he might be supposed older 
than either ; but this, as appears from the ex- 
ample of Sallust, is no certain test, as his ar- 
chaisms may hav.e arisen from the imitation of 
ancient writers : and we know that he was a 
fond admirer of Ennius. One of the dearest, 
perhaps the dearest friend of Lucretius, was 
Memmius, who had been his school-fellow, and 
whom, it is supposed he accompanied to Bithy- 
nia when appointed to the government of that 
province. The poem DeReruvi Natura, if not 
undertaken at the request of Memmius, was 
doubtless much encouraged by him ; and Lucre- 
tius, in a dedication expressed in terms of man- 
ly and elegant courtesy, very different from the 
servile adulation of some of his great successors, 
tells him, that the much-desired pleasure of his 
friendship, was what enabled him to endure 
any toil or vigil ; — 

' Sed tua me virtus tamen, et sperata voluptas 
Suavis amiciti^B, quemvis ecferre laborem 
Suadet, et inducit nocieis vigilare serenas? 

The life of the poet was short, but happily was 
sufficiently prolonged to enable him to complete 
his poem, though, perhaps, not to give some 
portions of it their last polish. According to 
Eusebius, he died in the 44th year of his age, by 
his own hands, in a paroxysm of insanity, pro- 
duced by a filter, which Lucilia, his wife or 
mistress, had given him, with no design of de- 
priving him of life or reason, but to renew or 
increase his passion. Others suppose that his 
mental alienation proceeded from melancholy, 
on account of the calamities of his country, and 
the exile of Memmius — circumstances which 
were calculated deeply to affect his mind. There 
seems no reason to doubt the melancholy fact 
that he perished by his own hand. The poem 
of Lucretius, De Rerum Natura^ which he 
composed during the lucid intervals of his mal- 
ady, is, as the name imports, philosophic and 
didactic in the strictest acceptation of these 
terms. The poem of Lucretius contains a full 
exposition of the theological, physical,and moral 
system of Epicurus. It has been remarked by 
an able writer, ' that all the religious systems of 
the ancient Pagan world were naturally perish- 
able, from the quantity of false opinions, and 
vicious habits and ceremonies that were attach- 
ed to them.' He observes even of the barba- 



LU 



HISTORY, &c. 



LU 



rous Angio Saxons, that, ' as the nation advan- 
ced in its active intellect, it began to be dissatis- 
fied with its mythology. Many indications exist 
of this spreading alienation, which prepared the 
northern mind Tor the reception of the nobler 
truths of Christianity.' A secret incredulity of 
this sort seems to have been long nourished 
in Greece, and appears to have been imported 
into Rome with its philosophy and literature. 
The more pure and simple religion of early 
Rome was quickly corrupted, and the multitude 
of ideal and heterogeneous beings which super- 
stition introduced into the Roman worship, led 
to its total rejection. This infidelity is very ob- 
vious in the writings of Ennius, who translated 
Euhemerus's work on the Deification of Human 
Spirits, while Plautus dramatized the vices of 
the father of the gods and tutelar deity of Rome. 
The doctrine of materialism was introduced at 
Rome during the age of Scipio and Lselius ; 
and perhaps no stronger proof of its rapid pro- 
gress and prevalence can be given, than that 
Csesar, though a priest, and ultimately Pontifex 
Maximus, boldly proclaimed in the senate, that 
death is the end of all things, and that beyond 
it there is neither hope nor joy. This state of 
the public mind was calculated to give a fashion 
to the system of Epicurus. According to this 
distinguished philosopher, the chief good of man 
is pleasure, of which the elements consist, in 
having a body free from pain, and a mind tran- 
quil and exempt from perturbation. Of this 
tranquillity there are, according to Epicurus, as 
expounded by Lucretius, two chief enemies, 
superstition, or slavish fear of the gods, and the 
dread of death. In order to oppose these two 
foes to happiness, he endeavours, in the first 
place, to show that the world was formed by a 
fortuitous concourse of atoms, and that the gods, 
who, according to the popular theology, were 
constantly interposing, take no concern what- 
ever in human afiairs. We do injustice to Epi- 
curus when we estimate his tenets by the re- 
fined and exalted ideas of a philosophy purified 
by faith, without considering the superstitious 
and polluted notions prevalent at his time. ' The 
idea of Epicurus,' as observed by Dr. Drake, 
' that it is the nature of gods to enjoy an immor- 
tality in the bosom of perpetual peace, infinitely 
remote from all relations to this globe, free from 
care, from sorrow, and from pain, supremely 
happy in themselves,and neither rejoicing in the 
pleasures, nor concerned for the evils of human- 
ity — though perfectly void of any rational foun- 
dation, yet possesses much moral charm when 
compared with the popular religions of Greece 
and Rome: The felicity of their deities consist- 
ed in the vilest debauchery ; nor was there a 
crime, however deep its die, that had not been 
committed and gloried in by some one of their 
numerous objects of worship.' Never, also, 
could the doctrine, that the gods take no con- 
cern in human affairs, appear more plausible 
than in the age of Lucretius, when the destiny 
of man seemed to be the sport of the caprice of 
such a monster as Sylla. With respect to the 
other great leading tenet of Lucretius and his 
master — the mortality of the soul — still greater 
injustice is done to the philosopher and poet. It 
is affirmed, and justly, by a great Apostle, that 
life and immortality have been brought to light 
by the gospel ; and yet an author who lived be- 



fore this dawn is reviled because he asserts, that 
the natural arguments for the immortality of the 
sou], afforded by the analogies of nature or prin- 
ciple of moral retribution, are weak and incon- 
clusive ! In fact, however, it is not by the truth 
of the system or general philosophical views in 
a poem, (for which no one consults it,) that its 
value is to be estimated ; since a poetical work 
may be highly moral on account of its details, 
even when its systematic scope is erroneous or 
apparently dangerous. Notwithstanding pas- 
sages which seem to echo Spinosism, and almost 
to justify crime, the Essay on Man is rightly 
considered as the most moral production of our 
most moral poet. In like manner, where shall 
we find exhortations more eloquent than those 
of Lucretius, against ambition, and cruelty, and 
luxury, and lust — against all the dishonest plea- 
sures of the body, and all the turbulent passions 
of the mind. In the whole history of Roman 
taste and criticism, nothing appears to us so ex- 
traordinary as the slight mention that is made 
of Lucretius by succeeding Latin authors; and, 
when mentioned, the coldness with which he is 
spoken of by all Roman critics and poets, with 
the exception of Ovid, Perhaps the spirit of 
free-ihinking which pervaded his writings, ren- 
dered it unsuitable or unsafe to extol even his 
poetical talents. There was a time, when, in 
this country, it was thought scarcely decorous 
or becoming to express high admiration of the 
genius of Rosseau or Voltaire. Paterc. 2, c, 

36. — Quintil. 3, c. 1, 1. 10, c, 1. II. Cluin- 

tus, a Roman who killed himself because the 
inhabitants of Sulmo, over which he v/as ap- 
pointed with a garrison, seemed to favour the 
cause of J. Csesar, Cces. Bell. Civ. 1, c. 18. 

He is called Vespillo. III. Sp. Tricipitinus, 

father of Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, was made 
consul after the death of Brutus, and soon after 
died himself. Horatius Pulvillus succeeded 

him. Liv. 1, c. 58. — Plui. in Piib. IV. 

Osella, a Roman, put to death by Sylla because 
he had applied for the consulship without his 
permission. Plut. 

LucTATius Catulus, (C.) I. a Roman consul 
with Marius. He assisted his colleague in con- 
quering the Cimbrians. Vid. Cvmhricum Bel- 
lum. He was eloquent as well as valiant, and 
wrote the history of his consulship which is 
lost. Cic. de Oral. — Varro de L. L. — Ftor. 2, 

c. 2. II. C. Catulus, a Roman consul, who 

destroyed the Carthaginian fleet. Vid Catulus. 

LucuLLEA, a festival established by the Greeks 
in honour of Lucullus, who had behaved with 
great prudence and propriety in his province. 
Plut. in Luc. 

Lucullus, (Lucius Licinius,) I. a Roman 
celebrated for his fondness of luxury, and for his 
military talents. He was born about 115 years 
before the Christian era, and soon distinguished 
himself by his proficiency in the liberal arts, par- 
ticularly eloquence and philosophy. His first 
military campaign was in the Marsian war, 
where his valour and cool intrepidity recom- 
mended him to public notice. His mildness 
and constancy gained him the admiration and 
confidence of Sylla, and from this connexion he 
derived honour, and during his qusestorship in 
Asia and praetorship in Africa, he rendered him- 
self more conspicuous by his justice, modera- 
tion, and humanity. He was raised to the con- 
487 



LU 



HISTORY, &c. 



LU 



bulship A. U, C. 680, and intrusted with the care 
of the Mithridatic war, and first displayed his 
military talents in rescuing his colleague Coita, 
whom the enemy had besieged in Chalcedonia, 
This was soon followed by a celebrated victory 
over the forces of Mithridates, on the borders of 
the Granicus, and by the conquest of all Bithy- 
nia. His victories by sea were as great as those 
by land, and Mithridates lost a powerful fleet 
near Lemnos. Such considerable losses weak- 
ened the enemy, and Mithridates retired with 
precipitation towards Armenia, to the court of 
king Tigranes, his father-in-law. His flight 
was perceived, and Lucullus crossed the Eu- 
phrates with great expedition, and gave battle 
to the numerous forces which Tigranes had al- 
ready assembled to support the cause of his son- 
in-law. According to the exaggerated account 
of Plutarch, no less than 100,000 foot, and near 
55,000 horse of the Armenians, lost their liv^es 
in that celebrated battle. All this carnage was 
made by a Roman army amounting to no more 
than 18,000 men, of whom only five were killed 
and 100 wounded daring the combat. The 
taking of Tigranocerta, the capital of Armenia, 
was the consequence of this immortal victory, 
and Lucullus there obtained the greatest part of 
the royal treasures. This continual success, 
however, was attended wdth serious consequen- 
ces. The severity of Lucullus, and the haugh- 
tiness of his commands, ofiended his soldiers, 
and displeased his adherents at Rome. Pom- 
pey was soon after sent to succeed him, and to 
continue the Mithridatic war ; and the inter- 
view which he had with Lucullus began with 
acts of mutual kindness, and ended in the most 
inveterate reproaches and open enmity, Lu- 
cullus was permitted to retire to Rome, and 
only 1600 of the soldiers who had shared his 
fortune and his glories were suffered to accom- 
pany him. He was received with coldness at 
Rome, and he obtained with difficulty a triumph, 
which was deservedly claimed by his fame, his 
successes, and his victories. In this ended the 
days of his glory; he retired to the enjoyment 
of ease and peaceful society, and no longer inter- 
ested himself in the commotions which disturb- 
ed the tranquillity of Rome. He dedicated his 
time to studious pursuits and to literary conver- 
sation. His house was enriched with a valuable 
library, which was opened for the service of the 
curious and of the learned. Lucullus fell into 
a delirium in the last part of his life, and died in 
the 67th or 68th year of his age. The people 
showed their respect for his merit by their wish 
to give him an honourable burial in the Campus 
Martins; but their offers were rejected, and he 
was privately buried by his brother in his estate 
at Tusculum. Lucullus has been admired for 
his many accomplishments, but he has been cen- 
sured for his severity and extravagance. The 
expenses of his meals were immoderate, his halls 
were distinguished by the different names of the 
gods; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted 
to surprise him, they were astonished at the 
costliness of a supper which had been prepared 
upon the word of Lucullus, who had merely 
said to his servants that he would sup in the hall 
of Apollo. In his retirement, Lucullus was fond 
of artificial variety ; subterraneous caves and 
passages were dug under the hills on the coast 
of Campania, and the sea water was conveyed 
488 



round the house and pleasure-grounds, where 
the fishes flocked in such abundance that not 
less than 25,000 pounds worth were sold at his 
death. In his public character Lucullus was 
humane and compassionate, and he showed his 
sense of the vicissitudes of human affairs by 
shedding tears at the sight of one of the cities 
of Armenia which his soldiers reduced to ashes. 
He was a perfect master of the Greek and Latin 
languages, and he employed himself for some 
time to write a concise history of the Marsi in 
Greek hexameters. Such are the striking char- 
acteristics of a man who meditated the conquest 
of Parthia, and for a while gained the admira- 
tion of all the inhabitants of the east by his jus- 
tice and moderation, and who might have dis- 
puted the empire of the world with a Caesar or 
a Pompey, had not, at last, his fondness for re- 
tirement withdrawn him from the reach of am- 
bition. Cic.pro Arch. 4. — Quisat. Ac. 2, c, 1. — 
Plut. in vita. — I^lor. 3, c. 5. — Sirab. — Appian. 
in Mithr. &c. — Orosius 6, &c. II. A con- 
sul, who went to Spain, &c. 

LucuMO, the firsi name of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus, afterwards changed into Lucius. The word 
is Etrurian, and signifies prince or chief. Plut. 
in Bom. 

LuPERCALiA, a yearly festival, observed at 
Rome the ISthof Februry, in honour of the god 
Pan, It was usual first to sacrifice two goats 
and a dog, and to touch with a bloody knife the 
foreheads of two illustrious youths, who always 
were obliged to smile when they were touched. 
The blood was wiped away with sol't wool dip- 
ped in milk. After this the skins of the victims 
were cut in thongs, with which whips were 
made for the youths. "With these whips the 
youths ran about the streets, all naked except 
the middle, and whipped freely all those they 
met. Women, in particular, were fond of re- 
ceiving the lashes, as they superstitiously believ- 
ed that they removed barrenness and eased the 
pains of childbirth. This festival, as Plutarch 
mentions, was first instituted by the Romans in 
honour of the she-wolf which suckled Romulus 
and Remus. This opinion is controverted by 
others; and Livy, with Dionysius of Halicar- 
nassus, observes that they were introduced into 
Italy by Evander. The name seems to be bor- 
rowed from the Greek name of Pan, Ia/ccbus, 
from \vKOi, a wolf; not only because these cere- 
monies were, like the Lycsean festivals, observed 
in Arcadia, but because Pan, as god of the shep- 
herds, protected the sheep from the rapacity of 
the wolves. The priests who officiated at the 
Lupercalia were called Jjwperci. Augustus for- 
bade any person above the age of fourteen to 
appear naked, or to run about the streets during 
the Lupercalia. Cicero, in his philipics, re- 
proaches Antony for having disgraced the dig- 
nity of the consulship by running naked, and 
armed with a whip, about the streets. It was 
during the celebration of these festivals that 
Antony offered a crown to J. Csesar, which the 
indignation of the populace obliged him to re- 
fuse. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 427.— Farm />. i. 5, 
c. 3. 

LuPERcr, a number of priests at Rome, who 
assisted at the celebration of the Lupercalia, in 
honour of the god Pan, to whose service they 
were dedicated. This order of priests was the 
most ancient and respectable of all the sacerdo- 



LY 



HISTORY, &c. 



LY 



tal offices. It was divided into two separate col- 
leges, called Fabiani and Quintiliani, from Fa- 
bius and Cluintilius, two of their highpriests. 
The former were instituted in honour of Romu- 
lus, and the latter of Remus. To these two sa- 
cerdotal bodies, J. Csesar added a third, called 
from himself, the Julii, and this action contrib- 
uted not a little to render his cause unpopular, 
and to betray his ambitious and aspiring views. 
Vid. Lupercalia. Plut. in Rom. — Dio. Cas. 
A.b.— Virg. ^n. 8, v. 663. 

Lupus, I, a comic writer of Sicily, who wrote 
a poem on the return of Menelaus and Helen to 
Sparta, after the destructton of Troy. Ovid, ex 

Pont. 4, ep. 16, v. 26. II. P. Rut. a Roman 

who, contrary to the omens, marched against the 
Marsi, and was killed with his army. Horat. 
2, Sat. 1, V. 68. 

Iiuscius LAViNros, was the contemporary 
and enemy of Terence, who, in his prologues, 
has satirised his injudicious translations from 
the Greek : — 

' Qui bene, vertendo et eas describendo male. 
Ex Greeds bonis, Latinas fecit non bonus.' 

In particular, we learn from the prologue to the 
Phormio, that he was fond of bringing on the 
stage frantic youths, committing all those ex- 
cesses of folly and distraction which are sup- 
posed to be produced by violent love. Donatus 
has afforded us an account of the plot of his 
Phasma, which was taken from Menander. 
Part of the old Scotch ba]lad, the Heir of 
Linne, has a curious resemblance to the plot of 
this play of Luscius Lavinius. 

Lyc^a, festivals in Arcadia, in honour of 
Pan, the god of shepherds. They are the same 

as the Lupercalia of the Romans. A festival 

at Argos in honour of Apollo Lycaeus, who de- 
livered the Argives from wolves, &c. 

Lycambes, the father of Neobule. He prom- 
ised his daughter in marriage to the poet Ar- 
chilocus, and afterwards refused to fulfil his en- 
gagement when she had been courted by a man 
whose opulence had more influence than the 
fortune of the poet. This irritated Archilocus ; 
he wrote a bitter invective against Lycambes 
and his daughter, and rendered them both so 
desperate by the satire of his composition, that 
they hanged themselves. Horat. ep, 6, v. 13. 
— Ovid, in lb. 52. — Aristot. Rhet. 3. 

Lyciscus, a Messenian of the family of the 
^pytidae. When his daughters were doomed 
by lot to be sacrificed for the good of their coun- 
try, he fled with them to Sparta, and Aristode- 
mus upon this cheerfully gave his own children, 
and soon after succeeded to the throne. Pans. 
4, c. 9. 

Lycomedes, I. an Arcadian, who, with 500 
chosen men, put to flight 1000 Spartans and 
500 Argives, &c. Diod. 15. II. An Athe- 
nian, the first who took one of the enemy's ships 
at the battle of Salamis. Plut. Vid. Part III. 

Lycon, a philosopher of Troas, son of Astyo- 
nax, in the age of Aristotle. He was greatly 
esteemed by Eumenes, Antiochus, &c. He 
died in the 74th year of his age. Diog. in vit. 

Lycophron, I. a son of Periander, king of 
Corinth. The murder of his mother Melissa, 
by his father, had such an efiectupon him, that 
he resolved never to speak to a man who had 
been so wantonly cruel against his relations. 

Part II.— 3 Q. 



This resolution was strengthened by the advice 
of Procles, his maternal uncle ; and Periander 
at last banished to Corcyra a son whose disobe- 
dience and obstinacy had rendered him odious. 
Cypselus, the eldest son of Periander, being in- 
capable of reigning, Lycophron was the only 
surviving child who had any claim to the crown 
of Corinth. But when the infirmities of Peri- 
ander obliged him to look for his successor, Ly- 
cophron refused to come to Corinth while his 
father was there, and he was induced to leave 
Corcyra, only on promise that Periander would 
come and dwell there while he remained mas- 
ter of Corinth. ' This exchange, however, was 
prevented. The Corcyreans, who were appre- 
hensive of the tyranny of Periander, murdered 
Lycophron before he left that island. Herodot. 

Z.— Aristot. II. A brother of Thebe, the 

wife of Alexander, tyrant of Pherse. He assist- 
ed his sister in murdering her husband, and he 
afterwards seized the sovereignty. He was 
dispossessed by Philip of Macedonia. Plut. — 

Diod. 16. III. A famous Greek poet and 

grammarian, born at Chalcis in Euboea. He 
was one of the poets who flourished under Pio- 
lemy Philadelphus, and who, from their num- 
ber, obtained the name of Pleiades. Lycophron 
died by the wound of an arrow. He wrote tra- 
gedies, the titles of twenty of which have been 
preserved. The only remaining composition 
of this poet is called Cassandra, or Alexandra. 
It contains 1474 verses, whose obscurity has 
procured the epithet of Tenebrosus to its au- 
thor. It is a mixture of prophetical effusions, 
which, as he supposes, were given by Cassan- 
dra during the Trojan war. The best editions 
of Lycophron, are that of Basil, 1546, fol. en- 
riched with the Greek commentary of Tzetzes ; 
that of Canter, 8vo. apud Commelin, 1596 ; and 
that of Potter, fol. Oxon. 1702. Ovid, in lb. 
533.— Stat. 5. Sylv. 3. 

Lycoris, a freedwoman of the senator Vo- 
lumnius, also called Cytheris, and Volum7iia, 
from her master. She was celebrated for her 
beauty and intrigues. The poet Gallus was 
greatly enamoured of her, and his friend Vir- 
gil comforts him in his 10th eclogue, for the loss 
of the favours of Cytheris, who followed M. 
Antony's camp, and was become the Aspasia 
of Rome. The charms of Cleopatra, however, 
prevailed over those of Cytheris, and the un- 
fortunate courtesan lost the favours of Antony 
and of all the world at the same time. Lycoris 
was originally a comedian. Vi7'g. Ed. 10. — 
CyDid. A. A. 3, V. 537. 

Lycortas, the father of Polybius, who flour- 
ished B. C. 184. He was chosen general of the 
Achaean league," and he revenged the death of 
Philopoemen, &c. Plut. 

Lycurgides, annual days of solemnity ap- 
pointed in honour of the lawgiver of Sparta. 

The patronymic of a son of Lycurgus, 

Ovid, in lb. v. 503. 

Lycurgus, I. an oratoi' of Athens, surnamed 
Ibis, in the age of Demosthenes, famous for his 
justice and impartiality when at the head of the 
government. He was one of the thirty orators 
whom the Athenians refused to deliver up to 
Alexander. Some of his orations are extant. 
He died about 330 years before Christ. Diod. 

16. II. A celebrated lawgiver of Sparta, son 

of king Eunomus, and brother to Polydectes. 
489 



LY 



HISTORY, &c. 



LY 



He succeeded his brother on the Spartan throne ; 
but when he saw that the widow of Polydectes 
was pregnant, he refused to marry his brother's 
widow, who wished to strengthen him on his 
throne by destroying her own son Chariiaus, 
and leaving him in the peaceful possession of 
the crown. The integrity with which he acted, 
when guardian of his nephew Chariiaus, united 
with the disappointment and the resentment of 
the queen, raised him many enemies, and he at 
last yielded to their satire and malevolence, and 
retired to Crete ; but he returned home at the 
earnest solicitations of his countrymen. The 
disorder which reigned at Sparta induced him 
to reform the government ; and the more effec- 
tually to execute his undertaking, he had re- 
course to the oracle of Delphi. He was re- 
ceived by the priestess of the god with every 
mark of honour, his intentions were warmly 
approved by the divinity, and he was called the 
friend of gods, and himself rather god than man. 
After such a reception from the most celebrated 
oracle of Greece, Lycurgus found no difficulty 
in reforming the abuses of the state, and all were 
equally anxious in promoting a revolution which 
had received the sanction of heaven. This hap- 
pened 884 years before the Christian era. Ly- 
curgus first established a senate, which was 
composed of 28 senators, whose authority pre- 
served the tranquillity of the state, and main- 
tained a due and just equilibrium between the 
kings and the people, by watching over the in- 
trusions of the former, and checking the sedi- 
tious convulsions of the latter. All distinction 
was destroyed ; and by making an equal and im- 
partial division of the land among the members 
of the commonwealth, Lycurgus banished lux- 
ury, and encouraged the useful arts. The use of 
money, either of gold or silver, was forbidden ; 
and the introduction of heavy brass and iron 
coin brought no temptations to the dishonest,and 
left every individual in the possession of his ef- 
fects without any fears of robbery or violence. 
All the citizens dined in common, and no one 
had greater claims to indulgence and luxury 
than another. The intercourse of Sparta with 
other nations was forbidden, and few were per- 
mitted to travel. The youths were intrusted to 
the public master as soon as they had attained 
their seventh year, and their education was left 
to the wisdom of the laws. They were taught 
early to think, to answer in a short and laconic 
manner, and to excel in sharp repartee. They 
were instructed and encouraged to carry things 
by surprise, but if ever the theft was discovered, 
they were subjected to a severe punishment. 
Lycurgus was happy and successful in estab- 
lishing and enforcing these laws, and by his 
prudence and administration the face of affairs 
in Lacedaemon was totally changed, and it gave 
rise to a set of men distinguished for their intre- 
pidity, their fortitude, and their magnanimity. 
After this, Lycurgus retired from Sparta to Del- 
phi, or, according to others, to Crete ; and before 
nis departure, he bound all the citizens of Lace- 
daemon by a solemn oath, that neither they nor 
their posterity would alter, violate, or abolish 
the laws which he had established before his 
return. He soon after put himself to death, 
and he ordered his ashes to be thrown into the 
sea, fearful lest, if they were carried to Sparta, 
ihe citizens should call themselves freed from 
490 



the oath which they had taken, and empowered 
to make a revolution. The wisdom and the 
good effect of the laws of Lycurgus have been 
firmly demonstrated at Sparta, where, for 700 
years, they remained in force ; but the legisla- 
tor has shown himself inhumane in ordering 
mothers to destroy such of their children whose 
feebleness or deformity in their youth seemed to 
promise incapability of action in maturer years, 
and to become a burden to the staie. His reg- 
ulations about marriage must necessarily be 
censured, and no true conjugal felicity can be 
expected from the union of a man with a person 
whom he perhaps never knew before, and whom 
he was compelled to choose in a dark room, 
where all the marriageable women in the state 
assembled on stated occasions. Lycurgus has 
been compared to Solon, the celebrated legisla- 
tor of Athens ; and it has been judiciously ob- 
served, that the former gave his citizens morals 
conformable to the laws which he had estab- 
lished, and that the latter had given the Athe- 
nians laws which coincided with their customs 
and manners. The ofiice of Lycurgus de- 
manded resolution, and he showed himself in- 
exorable and severe. In Solon artifice was re- 
quisite, and he showed himself mild and even 
voluptuous. The moderation of Lycurgus is 
greatly commended, particularly when we re- 
collect that he treated with the greatest human- 
ity and confidence Alcander, a youth who had 
put out one of his eyes in a seditious tumult. 
Lycurgus had a son called Antiorus, who left 
no issue. The Lacedaemonians showed their 
respect for their great legislator by yearly cele- 
brating a festival in his honour, called Lycur- 
gidse or Lycurgides. The introduction of money 
into Sparta, in the reign of Agis, the son of Ar- 
chidamus, was one of the principal causes which 
corrupted the innocence of the Lacedsemonians, 
and rendered them the prey of intrigue and of 
faction. The laws of Lycurgus were abrogated 
by Philopcemen, B. C. 188, but only for a little 
time, as they were soon after re-established by 
the Romans. Plut. in vita. — Justin. 3, c. 2, 
&LC.—Strab. 8, 10, 15, &.c.—Dionys. Hal. 2.— 
Pauc. 3, c. 2. Vid. Part III. 

Lycus, an oflicer of Alexander in the interest 
of Lysimachus. He made himself master of 
Ephesus by the treachery of Andron, &c. Po- 
lycen. 5. Vid. Part I. and III. 

Lygdamis, or Lygdamus, I, a general of the 
Cimmerians, who passed into Asia Minor, and 
took Sardis, in the reign of Ardyes, king of 

Lydia. Callim. II. An athlete of Syracuse, 

the father of Artemisia, the celebrated queen 
of Halicarnassus. Herodot. 7, c. 99. 

Lyncest^e, a noble family of Macedonia, 
connected with the royal family. Justin. 11, c. 
2, &c. 

Lyncestes, (Alexander,) a son-in-law of An- 
tipater, who conspired against Alexander and 
was put to death. Curt. 7, &c. 

Lysander, I. a celebrated general of Sparta, 
in the last years of the Peloponnesian war. He 
drew Ephesus from the interest of Athens, and 
gained the friendship of Cyrus the younger. 
He gave battle to the Athenian fleet, consisting 
of 120 ships, at iEgospotamos, and destroyed it 
all, except three ships, with which the enemy's 
general fled to Evagoras, king of Cyprus. In 
this celebrated battle, which happened 405 years 



LY 



HISTORY, &c. 



LY 



before the Christian era, the Athenians lost 
3000 men, and with them their empire and in- 
fluence among the neighbouring states, Ly- 
sander well knew how to take advantage of his 
victory, and the following year Athens, worn 
out by a long war of 27 years, and discouraged 
by its misfortunes, gave itself up to the power 
of the enemy, and consented to destroy the Pi- 
raeus, to deliver up ail its ships, except 12, to 
recall all those who had been banished ; and, in 
short, to be submissive in every degree to the 
power of Lacedasmon. Besides these humilia- 
ting conditions, the government of Athens was 
totally changed, and 30 tyrants were set over it 
by Lysander. This glorious success, and the 
honour of having put an end to the Peloponne- 
sian war, increased the pride of Lysander. He 
had already begun to pave his way to universal 
power, by establishing aristocracy in the Gre- 
cian cities of Asia, and now he attempted to 
make the crown of Sparta elective. In the pur- 
suit of his ambition he used prudence and arti- 
fice ; and as he could not easily abolish a form 
of government which ages and popularity had 
confirmed, he had recourse to the assistance of 
the gods. His attempt, however, to corrupt the 
oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Jupiter Ammon, 
proved ineffectual ; and he was even accused of 
using bribes by the priests of the Libyan temple. 
The sudden declaration of war against the The- 
bans saved him from the accusations of his ad- 
versaries, and he was sent, together with Pau- 
sanias, against the enemy. The plan of his mili- 
tary operations was discovered, and the Haliar- 
tians, whose ruin he secretly meditated, attacked 
him unexpectedly, and he was killed in a bloody 
battle which ended in the defeat of his troops, 394 
years before Christ. His body was recovered by 
his colleague Pausanias, and honoured with a 
magnificent funeral. In the midst of all his 
pomp, his ambition, and intrigues, he died ex- 
tremely poor, and his daughters were rejected 
by two opulent citizens of Sparta, to whom they 
had been betrothed during the life of their father. 
This behaviour of the lovers was severely pun- 
ished by the Lacedaemonians, who protected 
from injury the children of a man whom they 
hated for his sacrilege, his contempt of religion, 
and his perfidy. The father of Lysander, whose 
name was Aristoclites or Aristocrates, w^as de- 
scended from Hercules, though not reckoned of 
the race of the Heraclidse. Plut d^ C. Nep. in 

vita. — Diod. 13. II. A grandson of the great 

Lysander. Pans. 

Lysandra, a daughter of Ptolemy Lagus, who 
married Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus. 
She was persecuted by Arsinoe, and fled to Se- 
leucus for protection. Paus. 1, c. 9, &c. 

Lysias, a celebrated orator, son of Cephalus, 
a native of Syracuse. His father left Sicily and 
went to Athens, where Lysias was born and 
carefully educated. In his i5th year he accom- 
mnied the colony which the Athenians sent to 
Thurium, and after a long residence there he 
returned home in his 47th year. He distin- 
guished himself by his eloquence, and by the 
simplicity, correctness, and purity of his ora- 
tions, of which he wrote no less than 425, ac- 
cording to Plutarch, though the number may 
with more probability be reduced to 230. Of 
these 34 are extant, the best editions of which 
are that of Taylor, 8vo. Cantab. 1740, and that 



of Auger, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1783. He died in 
the 81st year of his age, 378 years before the 
Christian era. Plut. de Orat. — Cic. de Brut, 
de Orat. — Qitintil. 3, &c. — Diog.2. 

Lysicles, an Athenian, sent with Chares in- 
to Boeotia, to stop the conquests of Philip of 
Macedonia. He was conquered at Chaeronaea, 
and sentenced to death for his ill conduct there. 

Lysimachus, I. a son of Agathocles, among 
the generals of Alexander. After the death of 
that monarch, he made himself master of part of 
Thrace, where he built a town which he called 
Lysimachia. He sided with Cassander and Se- 
leucus against Antigonus and Demetrius, and 
fought with them at the celebrated battle of Ip- 
sus. He afterwards siezed Macedonia, after 
expelling Pyrrhus from the throne, B. C. 286 ; 
but his cruelty rendered him odious, and the 
murder of his son, Agathocles, so offended his 
subjects, that the most opulent and powerful re- 
volted from him, and abandoned the kingdom. 
He pursued them to Asia, and declared war 
against Seleucus, who had given them a kind re- 
ception. He was killed in a bloody battle, 281 
years before Christ, in the 80th year of his age, 
and his body was found in the heaps of slain 
only by the fidelity of a little dog, which had 
carefully watched near it. It is said that the 
love and respect of Lysimachus for his learned 
master Callisthenes proved nearly fatal to him. 
He, as Justin mentions, was thrown* into the 
den of a hungry lion, by order of Alexander, 
for having given Callisthenes poison to save his 
life from ignominy and insult; and when the 
furious animal darted upon him, he wrapped 
his hand in his mantle, and boldly thrust it into 
the lion's mouth, and by twisting his tongue, 
killed an adversary ready to devour him. This- 
act of courage in his self-defence recommended 
him to Alexander. He was pardoned, and ever 
after esteemed by the monarch. Justin. 15, c. 

3, &c.—niod. 10, &c.—Patts. 1, c. 10. II. 

An Acarnanian, preceptor to Alexander the 
Great. He used to call himself Phoenix, his 
pupil Achilles, and Philip Peleus. Plut. in 
Alex. — Justin. 15, c. 3. 

Lysippus, a famous statuary of Sicyon. He 
was originally a whitesmith, and afterwards 
applied himself to painting, till his talents and 
inclination taught him that he was born to excel 
in sculpture. He flourished about 325 years 
before the Christian era, in the age of Alex- 
ander the Great. The monarch was so partial 
to the artist, that he forbade any sculptor but 
Lysippus to make his statue. Lysippus excel- 
led in expressing the hair, and he was the first 
who made the head of his statues less large, 
and the body smaller than usual, that they might 
appear taller. This was observed by one of his 
friends, and the artist gave for answer, that his 
predecessors had represented men in their na- 
tural form, but that he represented them such 
as they appeared. Lysippus made no less than 
600 statues, the most admired of which were 
those of Alexander ; one of Apollo of Taren- 
tum, 40 cubits high; one of a man coming out 
of a bath with which Agrippa adorned his 
baths ; one of Socrates ; and those of the 25 
horsemen who were drowned in the Granicus. 
These were so valued that in the age of Augus- 
tus they were bought for their weight in gold. 
Plut. in Alex.— Cic. in Brut. c. 1(34, ad Her. 
491 



MA 



HISTORY, i&c. 



MA 



4, c. U8.—Plin. 37, c. l.—PaUrc. 1, c. 11.— 
Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 240. 

Lysistratus, a brother of Lysippus, He 
was the first artist who ever made a statue with 
wax. Plin. 34, c. 8, 1. 35, c. 12. 

M. 

Macar, a son of Criasius or Crinacus, the 
first Greek who led a colony to Lesbos. His 
four sons took possession of the four neighbour- 
ing islands, Chios, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes, 
which were called the seats of the Macares or 
the blessed {iiaxap, beatus.) Dionys. Hal. 1. — 
Homer. 11. 2i.—Diod. 5.— Mela. 2, c. 7. 

Macareus, a son of ^olus, who debauched 
his sister Canace, and had a son by her. The 
father, being informed of the incest, ordered the 
child to be exposed, and sent a sword to his 
daughter, and commanded her to destroy her- 
self Macareus fled to Delphi, where he became 
priest of Apollo. Ovid. Met.Heroid. ll,in lb.563. 

Macedonicum Bellum, was undertaken by 
the Romans against Philip, king of Macedonia, 
some few months after the second Punic war, 
B. C. 200. The cause of this war originated in 
the hostilities whichPhilip had exercised against 
the Achseans. the friends and allies of Rome. 
The consul Fiarainius had the care of the war, 
and he conquered Philip on the confines of Epi- 
rus, and afterwards in Thessaly. The Mace- 
donian fleets were also defeated; Euboea was 
taken ; and Philip, after continual losses, sued 
for peace, which was granted him in the fourth 
year of the war. The ambition and cruelty of 
Persius, the son and successor of Philip, soon 
irritated the Romans. Another war was un- 
dertaken, in which the Romans suffered two de- 
feats. This, however, did not discourage them : 
Paulus .^milius was chosen consul in the 60th 
year of his age, and intrusted with the care of 
the war. He came to a general engagement 
near the city of Padua, and 20,000 of the Ma- 
cedonian soldiers were left on the field of battle. 
This decisive blow put an end to the war, 
which had already continued for three years, 
168 years before the Christian era. Perseus, 
and his sons Philip and Alexander were taken 
prisoners, and carried to Rome to adorn the tri- 
umph of the conqueror. About fifteen years 
after, new seditions were raised in Macedonia, 
and the false pretensions of Andriscus, who 
called himself the son of Perseus, obliged the 
Romans to send an army to quell the commo- 
tions. Andriscus at first obtained many con- 
siderable advantages over the Roman forces, till 
at last he was conquered and delivered to the 
consul Matellus, who carried him to Rome. 
After these commotions, which are sometimes 
called the third Macedonian war, Macedonia 
was finally reduced into a Roman province, and 
governed by a regular proconsul, about 148 
years before the Christian era. 

Macedonicus, a surname given to Metellus, 
from his conquests in Macedonia. It was also 
given to such as had obtained any victory in 
that province. 

Macer. There appears to have been two 
poets who bore the name of Macer, during the 
Augustan age, both of considerable note and 
both friends of Ovid. The elder, called ^mi- 
lius, who was born at Verona, was of greater 
493 



age than Ovid, though he sometimes conde- 
scended to read his works to his youthful friend. 
These were poems on birds and serpents, and 
on the virtues of different sorts of herbs. They 
were written in hexameters, and were chiefly 
translated from Nicander, a Greek poet of Co- 
lophon. Macer also composed a piece, entitled 
T/ieriaca, on wild animals, from which Isido- 
rus and others have saved about half a dozen of 
verses. Nonius Marcellus adds, chat he wrote 
a Theogony, from which he cites a single line. 
He also published a book on the subject of 
Bees ; but it is not certain whether this work 
was in prose or in verse. Tibullus inscribed 
one of his elegies to this Macer, on occasion of 
his setting out on some military expedition. It 
would appear that, at his departure from Rome, 
Macer had boasted that, however deeply he 
seemed involved in the snares of love, yet his 
heart was free, and that he now only panted for 
military fame. But Tibullus addresses Cupid, 
bids him follow Macer to the field, and threat- 
ens, that if he did not bring him back, he would 
himself desert the service of love, and forget his 
fondness for the fair, amid the various duties of 
a soldier. It is probable that Macer never re- 
turned from this expedition, since, according to 
the Eusebian Chronicle, he died in 737, during 
the consulate of Furnius and Silanus. As his 
death took place in that year, he must be a dif- 
ferent poet from the Macer to whom Ovid ad- 
dressed one of his epistles from Pontus, which 
was not written till after his banishment to that 
country, in 762. With this second Macer Ovid 
had travelled in his youth through the different 
cities of Asia and Sicily : — 

Te duce magnificas AsicB perspeximus urbes ; 
Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis. . 

Macer was the author of one of those numerous 
poems on the Trojan war, which went under 
the name of Homeri Paralipomena. 

Tu eanis esterno quicquid restabat Homero^ 
Ne careant summa Tro'ica bella manu. 

In this poem he followed the historic order of 
events, beginning with the departure of the ex- 
pedition from Greece, and ending with the com- 
mencement of the wrath of Achilles — intermin- 
gling with the heroic part of the composition a 
great number of love adventures, as those of 
Paris and Helen, of Protesilaus and Laodamia, 
which occurred previous to the siege of Troy, 
or immediately after its commencement. Ovid. 
Trist, 4, el. 10, v. 44. ex Pont. 2, ep. 10.— 

Quintil. 10, c. 1. L. Claudius, a pro-prsetor 

of Africa in the reign of Nero. He assumed 
the title of emperor, and was put to death by 
order of Galba. 

Maghaon, Vid. Part III. 

Macrianus, (Titus Fulvius Julius), an Egyp- 
tian of obscure birth, who, from a private sol- 
dier, rose to the highest command in the army, 
and proclaimed himself emperor when Valerian 
had been made prisoner bv the Persians, A. D. 
260. When he had supported his dignity for a 
year in the eastern parts of the world, Macria- 
nus marched towards Rome, to crush Gallienus, 
who had been proclaimed emperor. He was 
defeated in lUyricum by the lieutenant of Gal- 
lienus, and put to death with his son, at his own 
request, A. D. 262. 



MM 



HISTORY, &c. 



MA 



Macrinus, (M. Opilius Sevenis,) a native of 
Africa, who rose from the most ignominious 
condition to the r£ink of praefect of the praetorian 
guards, and at last of emperor, after the death 
of Caracalla,whom he sacrificed to his ambition, 
A. D. 217. The beginning of his reign was 
popular ; the abolition of the taxes, and an af- 
fable and complaisant behaviour endeared him 
to his subjects. These promising appearances 
did not long continue, and the timidity which 
Macrinus betrayed in buying the peace of the 
Persians by a large sum of money, soon ren- 
dered him odious. Heliogabalus was proclaim- 
ed emperor, and Macrinus attempted to save his 
life by flight. He was, however, seized in Cap- 
padocia, and his head was cut off and sent to 
his successor, June 7th, A. D, 218. MacrintLS 
reigned about two months and three days. 
His son, called Diadumenianus, shared his fa- 
ther's fate. 

Macro, a favourite of the emperor Tiberius, 
celebrated for his intrigues, perfidy, and cruelty. 
He destroyed Sejanus, and raised himself upon 
the ruins of that unfortunate favourite. He was 
accessary to the murder of Tiberius, and con- 
ciliated the good opinion of Caligula, by prosti- 
tuting to him his own wife, called Ennia. He 
soon after became unpopular, and was obliged 
by Caligula to kill himself, together with his 
wife, A. D. 38. 

MACROBros, a Latin writer, who died A. D. 
415. Some suppose that he was chamberlain 
to the emperor Theodosius II, but this appears 
groundless, when we observe that Macrobius 
was a follower of paganism, and that none were 
admitted t6 the confidence of the emperor, or to 
the enjoyment of high stations, except such as 
were of the Christian religion. Macrobius has 
rendered himself famous for a composition call- 
ed Saturnalia ; a miscellaneous collection of an- 
tiquities and criticisms, supposed to have been 
the result of a conversation of some of the learn- 
ed Romans, during the celebration of the Sa- 
turnalia. This was written for the use of his 
son, and the bad latinity which the author has 
often introduced, proves that he was not born 
in a part of the Roman empire where the La- 
tin tongue was spoken, as he himself candidly 
confesses. The Saturnalia are useful for the 
learned reflections they contain, and particu- 
larly for some curious observations on the two 
greatest epic poets of antiquity. Besides this, 
Macrobius wrote a commentary on Cicero's 
somnium Scipionis, which is likewise com- 
posed for the improvement of the author's son, 
and dedicated to him. The best editions are 
that of Gronovius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1670, and that 
of Lips. 8vo. 1777. 

; Madetes, a general of Darius, who bravely 
defended a place against Alexander. The con- 
queror resolved to put him to death, though 
thirty orators pleaded for his life. Sisygambis 
prevailed over the almost inexorable Alexander, 
and Madetes was pardoned. Curt. 5, c. 3. 

Madyes, a Scythian prince who pursued the 
Cimmerians in Asia, and conquered Cyaxares, 
B.C. 623. He held for some time the supreme 
power of Asia Minor, Herodot. 8, c. 103. 

MiEMACTERiA, sacrificcs offered to Jupiter at 
Athens in the winter month Maemacterion, 

MffiONiDES, a surname of Homer. Ovid. 

MjEviDs, a poet of inferior note in the Au- 



gustan age, who made himself known by his A- 
liberal attacks on the character of the first wri- 
ters of his time, as well as by his affected compo- 
sitions. His name would have sunk in oblivion 
if Virgil had not ridiculed him in his third 
eclogue, and Horace in his 10th epode. 

Magi, a religious sect among the eastern na- 
tions of the world, and particularly in Persia. 
They had great influence in the political, as well 
as religious affairs of the state, and a monarch 
seldom ascended the throne without their pre- 
vious approbation. Zoroaster was founder of 
their sect. They paid particular homage to fire, 
which they deemed a deity, as pure in itself, and 
the purifier of all things. In their religious 
tenets they had two principles, one good, the 
source of every thing good ; and the other evil, 
from whence sprung all manner of ills. Their 
professional skill in the mathematics and philo- 
sophy rendered every thing familiar to them, 
and from their knowledge of the phenomena of 
the heavens, the word Magi was applied to all 
learned men ; and in process of time, the Magi, 
from their experience and profession, were con- 
founded with the magicians who impose upon 
the superstitious and credulous. Hence the 
word Magi and magicians became sjTionymous 
among the vulgar. Smerdis, one of the Magi, 
usurped the crowTi of Persia after the death of 
Cambyses, and the fraud was not discovered till 
the seven noble Persians conspired against the 
usurper, and elected Darius king. From this 
circumstance there was a certain day on which 
none of the Magi were permitted to appear in 
public, as the populace had the privilege of mur- 
dering whomsoever of them they met. Strab. 
— Cic. de Div. 1. Herodot. 3, c. 62, &c. 

MAGNENTros, an ambitious Roman, who dis- 
tinguished himself by his cruelty and perfidy. 
He conspired against the life of Constans, and 
murdered him in his bed. This cruelty was 
highly resented by Constantius ; and the assas- 
sin, unable to escape from the fury of his an- 
tagonist, murdered his own mother and the rest 
of his relations, and afterwards killed himseli 
by falling upon a sword which he had thrust 
against a wall. He was the first of the follow- 
ers of Christianity who ever murdered his law- 
ful sovereign. A, D. 353. , 

Magnes, the Athenian, was of the same age 
as Chionides. All his comedies have perish- 
ed; but such of their titles as are preserved 
confirm the opinion that the materials of Athe- 
nian comedy were derived from other sources 
than mythology. The plays of Magnes were 
probably much of the same nature with those 
of Aristophanes. Indeed two of them, the Ba- 
rpaxoi and the "OpviOeg, had the very titles which 
are borne by two of the surviving dramas of 
the latter poet, Magnes, whilst in his prime, 
was an active and popular writer, full of wit 
and invention ; but in his old age he fell into 
disrepute : his services were forgotten by an 
ungrateful audience, and he was left to die in 
neglect and obscurity. 

Mago, I. a Carthaginian general, sent against 
Dionysius tyrant of Sicily. He obtained a vic- 
tory, and granted peace to the conquered. In 
a battle, which soon after followed this treaty of 
peace, Mago was killed. His son of the same 
name succeeded to the command of the Cartha- 
ginian army, but he disgraced himself by flying 
493 



MA 



HISTORY, &c. 



MA 



at the approach of Timoleon, who had come to 
assist the Syracusans. He was accused in the 
Carthaginian senate, and he prevented by sui- 
cide the execution of the sentence justly pro- 
nounced against him. His body was hung on 

a gibbet, and exposed to public ignominy. 

II. A brother of Annibal the Great. He was 
present at the battle of Cannae, and was deputed 
by his brother lo carry to Carthage the news of 
the celebrated victory which had been obtained 
over the Roman armies. His arrival at Car- 
thage was unexpected ; and, more powerfully 
to astonish his countrymen, on account of the 
victory at Cannse, he emptied in the senate- 
house the three bushels of golden rings which 
had been taken from the Roman knights slain 
in battle. He was afterwards sent to Spain, 
where he defeated the two Scipios, and was 
himself, in another engagement, totally ruined. 
He retired to the Beleares, which he conquer- 
ed ; and one of the cities there still bears his 
name, and is called Portus Magonis, Port Ma- 
hon. After this, he landed in Italy with an 
army, and took possession of part of Insubria. 
He was defeated in a battle by Gtuintilius Va- 
rus, and died of a mortal wound, 203 years be- 
fore the Christian era. Liv. 30, &c. — C. JYep. 
in Ann. 8, gives a very different account of his 
death, and says he either perished in a ship- 
wreck or was murdered by his servants. Per- 
haps Annibal had two brothers of that name. 

III. A. Carthaginian, more known by the 

excellence of his writings than by his military 
exploits. He wrote 28 volumes upon hus- 
bandry ; these were preserved by Scipio at the 
taking of Carthage, and presented to the Roman 
senate. They were translated into Greek by 
Cassius Dionysius of Utica, and into Latin by 
order of the Roman senate, though Cato had 
already written so copiously upon the subject ; 
and the Romans, as it has been observed, con- 
sulted the writings of Mago with greater ear- 
nestness than the books of the Sibylline verses. 

Columella. IV. A Carthaginian, sent by his 

countrymen to assist the Romans against Pyr- 
rhus and the Tarentines, with a fleet of 120 
sail. This offer was politely refused by the 
Roman senate. This Mago was father of As- 
drubal and Hamilcar. Val. Max. 

Maherbal, a Carthaginian, who was at the 
siege of Saguntum, and who commanded the 
cavalry of Annibal at the battle af Cannae. He 
advised the conqueror immediately to march to 
Rome, but Annibal required time to consider on 
so bold a measure ; upon which Maherbal ob- 
served, that Annibal knew how to conquer, but 
not how to make a proper use of victory. 

Majorianus, Jul. (Valerius,) an emperor of 
the western Roman empire, raised to the impe- 
rial throne A. D. 457. He signalized himself 
by his private as well as public virtues. He was 
massacred, after a reign of 37 years, by one of 
his generals. 

Mamercus, a tyrant of Catana, who surren- 
dered to Timoleon. His attempts to speak in 
a public assembly at Syracuse were received 
with groans and hisses ; upon which he dashed 
his head against a wall, and endeavoured to de- 
stroy himself The blows were not fatal, and 
Mamercus was soon after put to death as a rob- 
ber, B. C. 340. Poly an. 5.— C. Ncp. in. Tim. 

MamertIni, a mercenary band of soldiers, 
494 



which passed from Campania into Sicily at the 
request of Agathocles. When they were in the 
service of Agathocles, they claimed the privi- 
lege of voting at the election of magistrates at 
Syracuse, and were ordered to leave Sicily. In 
their M'^ay to the coast, they were received with 
great kindness by the people of Messana, and 
soon returned perfidy for hospitality. They 
murdered all the males in the city, and render- 
ed themselves masters of the place. After this 
violence, they assumed the name of Mamertini, 
and called their city Mamertina, from a provin- 
cial-word, which, in their language, signified 
Martial or warlike. The Mamertines were af- 
terwards defeated by Hiero, and totally disabled 
to repair their ruined affairs. Pint, in Pyrrh.&c. 

Mamilia Lex, de limitibus, by the tribune 
Mamilius. It ordained that in the boundaries 
of the lands, five or six feet of land should be 
left uncultivated, which no person could convert 
into private property. It also appointed com- 
missioners to see it carried into execution. 

Mamilii, a plebeian family at Rome, de- 
scended from the Aborigines. They first lived 
at Tasculum, from whence they came to Rome. 
Liv. 3, c. 29. 

Mamilius Ogtavius. Vid. Manilius. 

Mamxjrius Veturius. Vid. Ancile, Part III. 

Mamurra, a Roman knight, born at Formiae. 
He followed the fortune of J. Caesar in Gaul, 
where he greatly enriched himself. He built a 
magnificent palace on mount Coslius, and was 
the first who incrusted his walls with marble. 
Catullus has attacked him in his epigrams. 
Formiae is sometimes called Mamurrarum urbs. 
Plin. 36, c. 6. 

Manginus, C. a Roman general, who, though 
at the head of an army of 30,000 men, was de- 
feated by 4000 Numantians, B. C. 138. He 
was dragged from the senate, &c. Cic. in Orat. 
1, c. 40. 

Mandane, a daughter of king Astyages, 
married by her father to Cambyses, an ignoble 
person of Persia. Vid. Cyrus. 

Mandanes, an Indian prince and philoso- 
pher, whom Alexander invited by his ambassa- 
dors, on pain of death, to come to his banquet, 
as being the son of Jupiter. The philosopher 
ridiculed the threats and promises of Alexan- 
der, &c. Strab. 15. 

Mandubratius, a young Briton, who came 
over to Caesar in Gaul. His father, Imraanu- 
entius, was king in Britain, and had been put 
to death by order of Cassivelaunus. Cas. Bell. 
G. 5, c. 20. 

Manetho, a celebrated priest of Heliopolis 
in Egypt, surnamed the Mendesian, B. C. 261. 
He wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, which 
has been often quoted and commended by the 
ancients, particularly by Josephus. It was 
chiefly collected from the writings of Mercury, 
and from the journals and annals which were 
preserved in the Egyptian temples. This his- 
tory has been greatly corrupted by the Greeks. 
The author supported that all the gods of the 
Egyptians had been mere mortals, and had all 
lived upon earth. This history, which is now 
lost, had been epitomised, and some fragments 
of it are still extant. There is extant a Greek 
poem ascribed to Manetho, in which the power 
of the stars, which preside over the birth and 
fate of mankind, is explained. The Apoteles- 



MA 



HISTORY, &o. 



MA 



mata of this author were edited in 4to. by Gro- 
novius, L. Bat. 1698. 

Manilia Lex, by Manilius the tribune, A. 
U. C. 678. It required that all the forces of 
Lucullus and his province, together with 
Bithynia, which was then under the command 
of Glabrio, should be delivered to Pompey, and 
that this general should, without any delay, de- 
clare war against Mithridates, and still retain 
the command of the Roman fleet, and the em- 
pire of the Mediterranean, as before. 

Manilius, I. a Roman who married the 
daughter of Tarquin. He lived at Tusculum, 
and received his father-in-law in his house 
when banished from Rome, &c. Liv. 2, c. 15. 

II. Caius, a celebrated mathematician and 

poet of Antioch, who wrote a poetical treatise 
on astronomy, of which five books are extant, 
treating of the fixed stars. The style is not 
elegant. The age in which he lived is not 
known, though some suppose that he flourished 
in the Augustan age. No author, however, in 
the age of Augustus, has made mention of 
Manilius. The best editions of Manilius are 
those of Bentley, 4to. London, 1739, and Sto- 
eberus, 8vo. Argentor, 1767. 

Manlius ToRauATus, I. a celebrated Ro- 
man, whose youth was distinguished by a lively 
and cheerful disposition. These promising tal- 
ents were, however, impeded by a difiiculty of 
speaking ; and the father, unwilling to expose 
his son's rusticity at Rome, detained him in the 
country. The behaviour of the father was pub- 
licly censured, and MariusPomponius the tri- 
bune cited him. to answer for his unfatherly be- 
haviour to his son. Young Manlius was in- 
formed of this, and with a dagger in his hand 
he entered the house of the tribune, and made 
him solemnly promise that he would drop the 
accusation. This action of Manlius endeared 
him to the people, and soon after he was chosen 
military tribune. In a war against the Gauls 
he accepted the challenge of one of the enemy, 
whose gigantic stature and ponderous arms had 
rendered him terrible and almost invincible in 
the eyes of the Romans. The Gaul was con- 
quered, and Manlms stripped him of his arms ; 
and, from the collar (iorquis) which he took 
from the enemy's neck, he was ever after sur- 
named Torquatus. Manlius was the first Ro- 
man who was raised to the dictatorship without 
having been previously consul. The severity 
of Torquatus lo his son has been deservedly 
censured. This father had the courage and 
heart to put to death his son, because he had 
engaged one of the enemy, and obtained an hon- 
ourable victory, without his previous permis- 
sion. This uncommon rigour displeased many 
of the Romans ; and though Torquatus was 
honoured with a triumph, and commended by 
the senate for his services, yet the Roman youth 
showed their disapprobation of the consul's se- 
verity by refusing him at his return the homage 
which every other conqueror received. Some 
time after, the censorship was offered to him ; 
but he refused it, observing, that the people 
could not bear his severity nor he the vices of 
the people. From the rigour of Torquatus, all 
edicts, and actions of severity and justice have 
been called Manliana edicta. Liv. 7, c, 10. — 

Vol. Max. 6, c. 9. II. Marcus, a celebrated 

Roman, whose valour was displayed in the field 



of battle, even at the early age of sixteen- 
When Rome was taken by the Gauls, Manlius, 
with a body of his countrymen, fled into the 
capitol, which he defended when it was sudden- 
ly surprised in the night by the enemy. This 
action gained him the surname of Capitolinus ; 
and the geese, which by their clamour had 
awakened him to arm himself in his own de- 
fence, were ever after held sacred among the 
Romans. A law which Manlius proposed, to 
abolish the taxes on the common people, raised 
the senators against him. The dictator. Corn. 
Cossus, seized him as a rebel, but the people 
put on mourning, and delivered from prison 
their common father. This did not in the least 
check his ambition ; he continued to raise fac- 
tions, and even secretly to attempt to make him- 
self absolute, till at last the tribunes of the peo- 
ple themselves became his accusers. He was 
tried in the Campus Martins ; but when the 
distant view of the capitol which Manlius had 
saved, seemed to influence the people in his fa- 
vour, the court of justice was removed, and 
Manlius was condemned. He was thrown 
down from the Tarpeian rock, A. U. C. 371 ; 
and, to render his ignominy still greater, none 
of his family were afterwards permitted to bear 
the surname of Marcus, and the place where 
his house had stood was deemed unworthy to 
be inhabited. Liv. 5, c. 31, 1. 6, c. 5. — Flor. 1, 
c. 12 and 26.— FaZ. Max. 6, c. ^.— Virg. jEn. 

6, V. 825. III. Imperiosus, father of Manlius 

Torquatus, was made dictator. Vid. Manlius 

TorquMtus. IV. Volso, a Roman consul, 

who received an army of Scipio in Asia, and 
made war against the Gallo-Grecians, whom he 
conquered. He was honoured "with a triumph 
at his return, though it was at first strongly op- 
posed. Flor. 3, c. 11. — Liv. 38, c, 12, &c.— — 
V. Caius, or Aulus, a senator sent to Athens 
to collect the best and wisest laws of Solon, A. 

U. C. 300.— Li-y. 2, c. 54, 1. 3, c. 31. VI. 

Another in whose consulship the temple of Ja- 
nus was shut. VII. a Roman appointed 

judge between his son Silanus and the province 
of Macedonia. When all the parties had been 
heard, the father said: " It is evident that my 
son has sufiered himself to be bribed, therefore 
I deem him unworthy of the republic and of my 
house, and I order him to depart from my pres- 
ence." Silanus was so struck at the rigour of 
his father, that he hanged himself. Val. Max. 
5, c. 5. 

Mansuetus, J. a friend of Vitellius, who en- 
tered the Roman armies, and left his son, then 
very young, at home. The son was promoted 
by Galba, and soon after met a detachment of 
the partisans of Vitellius in which his father 
was. A battle was fought, and Mansuetus was 
wounded by the hand of his son, &c. Tacit. 
Hist. 3, c. 25. 

MarcellInus Ammianus, a celebrated his- 
torian, who carried arms under Constantius, 
Julian, and Valens, and wrote a history of 
Rome from the reign of Domitian, where Sue- 
tonius stops, to the emperor Valens. His style 
is neither elegant nor laboured, but it is greatly 
valued for its veracity, and in many of the ac- 
tions he mentions the author was nearly con- 
cerned. This history was composed at Rome, 
where Ammianus retired from the noise and 
troubles of the camp, and does not betray that 
49^ 



MA 



HISTORY, &C. 



MA 



severity against the Christians which other 
writers have manifested, though the author was 
warm in favour of Paganism, the religion which 
for a while was seated on the throne. It was 
divided into thirty-one books, of which only the 
eighteen last remain, beginning at the death of 
Magnenlius. The best editions of Ammianus 
are those of Gronovius, fol. and 4to. L. Bat. 
1693, and of Ernesti, 8vo. Lips. 1773. 

Margellus, I. (Marcus Claudius,) a famous 
Roman general, who, after the first Punic war, 
had the management of an expedition against 
the Gauls, where he obtained the Spolia opima, 
by killing with his own hand Veridomarus, the 
king of the enemy. Such success rendered him 
popular, and soon after he was intrusted to op- 
pose Annibal in Italy. He was the first Ro- 
man who obtained some advantage over this 
celebrated Carthaginian, and showed his coun- 
trymen that Annibal was not invincible. The 
troubles which were raised in Sicily by the Car- 
thaginians at the death of Hieronymus, alarmed 
the Romans, and Marcellus, in his third con- 
sulship, was sent with a powerful force against 
Syracuse. He attacked it by sea and land, but 
his operations proved ineffectual, and the in- 
vention and industry of a philosopher, vid.At' 
cAimedes, were able to baffle all the efforts, and 
to destroy all the great and stupendous machines 
and military engines of the Romans during three 
successive years. The perseverance of Marcel- 
lus at last obtained the victory. The inatten- 
tion of the inhabitants durmg their nocturnal 
celebration of the festivals of Diana, favoured 
Ms operations ; he forcibly entered the town, 
and made himself master of it. The conqueror 
enriched the capital of Italy with the spoils of 
Syracuse, and when he was accused of rapa- 
ciousness, for stripping the conquered city of all 
its paintings and ornaments, he confessed that 
he had done it to adorn the public buildings of 
Rome, and to introduce a taste for the fine arts 
and elegance of the Greeks among his country- 
men. After the conquest of Syracuse, Marcel- 
lus was called upon by his country to oppose a 
second time Annibal. In this campaign he be- 
haved with greater vigour than before; the 
greatest part of the towns of the Samnites, which 
had revolted, were recovered by force of arms, 
and 3000 of the soldiers of Annibal made pris- 
oners. Some time after, an engagement with 
the Carthaginian general proved unfavourable ; 
Marcellus had the disadvantage; but on the 
morrow a more successful skirmish vindicated 
his military character, and the honour of the 
Roman soldiers. Marcellus, however, was not 
sufficiently vigilant against the snares of his 
adversary. He imprudently separated himself 
from his camp, and. was killed in an ambuscade, 
in the 60th year of his age, in his fifth consul- 
ship, A. U. C 546. His body was honoured 
with a magnificent funeral by the conqueror, 
and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to 
his son. Marcellus claims our commendation for 
his private as well as public virtues ; and the 
humanity of a general will ever be remembered, 
who, at the surrender of Syracuse, wept at the 
thought that many were going to be exposed to 
the avarice and rapaciousness of an incensed 
soldiery, which the policy of Rome and the laws 
of war rendered inevitable. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 855. 

— Pater c. 2, c. ^'^.—PUt. in vita, &c. II. 

49e 



One of his descendants, who bore the same 
name, signalized himself in the civil wars of 
Caesar and Pompey, by his firm attachment 
to the latter. He was banished by Caesar, but 
afterwards recalled at the request of the senate. 
Cicero undertook his defence in an oration 

which is still extant. III. The grandson of 

Pompey's friend, rendered himself popular by 
his universal benevolence and affability. He 
was son of Marcellus by Octavia the sister of 
Augustus. He married Julia, that emperor's 
daughter, and was publicly intended as his suc- 
cessor. Vid. Octavia. Marcellus was buried 
at the public expense. Virg. Mn. 6, v. 883, 
Suet, in Aug. — Plut. in Marcell. — Senec. Con- 
sol, ad Marc.—Paterc. 2, c. 93. IV. The 

son of the great Marcellus who took Syracuse, 
was caught in the ambuscade which proved 
fatal to his father, but he forced his way from 
the enemy and escaped. He received the ashes 
of his father from the conqueror. Plut. in 
Marcell. 

Marcia Lex, by Marcius Censorinus. It for- 
bade any man to be invested with the office of 
censor more than once. 

Marcia, I, the wife of Regulus. When she 
heard that her husband had been put to death at 
Carthage in the most excruciating manner, she 
retorted the punishment, and shut up some Car- 
thaginian prisoners in a barrel, which she had 
previously filled with sharp nails. The senate 
was obliged to stop her wantonness and cruelty. 

Diod. 24. II. A daughter of Cato of Utica. 

Marciana, a sister of the emperor Trajan, 
who, on account of her public and private vir- 
tues, and her amiable disposition, was declared 
Augustus and emperess by her brother. She died 
A. D. 113. 

Margianus, I. a native of Thrace, born of an 
obscure family. After he had for some time 
served in the army as a common soldier, he was 
made private secretary to one of the officers of 
Theodosius. His winning address and uncom- 
mon talents raised him to higher stations ; and 
on the death of Theodosius the 2d, A. D. 450, 
he was invested with the imperial purple in the 
east. The subjects of the Roman empire had 
reason to be satisfied with their choice. Marci- 
anus showed himself active and resolute ; and 
when Attila, the barbarous king of the Huns, 
asked of the emperor the annual tribute which 
the indolence and cowardice of his predecessors 
had regularly paid, the successor oiTheodosius 
firmly said, that he kept his gold for his friends, 
but that iron was the metal which he had pre- 
pared for his enemies. In the midst of univer- 
sal popularity, Marcianusdied, after a reign of 
six years, in the 69th year of his age, as he was 
making warlike preparations against the barba- 
rians that had invaded Africa. His death was 
lamented, and indeed his merit was great, since 
his reign has been distinguished by the appella- 
tion of the golden age. Marcianus married 
Pulcheria, the sister of his predecessor. It is 
said that in the years of his obscurity he found 
a man who had been murdered, and that he had 
the humanity to give him a private burial ; for 
which circumstance he was accused of the homi- 
cide and imprisoned. He was condemned to 
lose his life, and the sentence would have been 
executed, had not the real murderer been discov- 
ered, and convinced the world of the innocence 



MA 



HISTORY, &c. 



MA 



of Marcianus. II. Capella. Vid. Capella. 

MARcros Sabinus, (M.) I. was the progenitor 
of the Marcian family at Rome. He came to 
Rome with Numa, and it wels he who advised 
Numa to accept of the crown which the Romans 
oiTered to him. He attempted to make himself 
king of Rome in opposition to TuUus Hostilius, 
and when his efforts proved unsuccessful, he 
killed himself His son, who married a daughter 
of Numa, was made highpriest by his father- 
in-law. He was father of Ancus Martins. Plut. 

in Numa. II. A man whom Catiline hired 

to assassinate Cicero. 

Marcus, a preen omen common to many of 
the Romans. Vid. JEmilius, Lepidus, &c 



Car/nensis, a general of the Achaean league, 
255 B. C. 

Mardonius, a general of Xerxes, who, after 
the defeat of his master at Thermopylae and Sa- 
lamis, was left in Greece with an army of 
300,000 chosen men, to subdue the country and 
reduce it under the power of Persia. In a bat- 
tle at Plataea, Mardonius was defeated and left 
among the slain, B. C. 479. He had been com- 
mander of the armies of Darius in Europe, and 
it was chiefly by his advice that Xerxes invaded 
Greece. He was son-in-law of Darius. Plut. 
in Arist. — Herodot. 6, 7 and 8. — Diod. 11. — 
Justin.. 2, c. 13, &c. 

Margites, a man against whom, as some 
suppose. Homer wrote a poem, to ridicule his 
superficial knowledge, and to expose his affec- 
tation. When Demosthenes wished to prove 
Alexander an inveterate enemy to Athens, he 
called him another Margites. 

Maria' Lex, by C. Marius, the tribune, A. 
U. C. 634. It ordered the planks called pontes^ 
on which the people stood up to give their votes 
in the comitia, to be narrower, that no other 
might stand there to hinder the proceedings of 

the assembly. Another, called also Porcia, 

by L. Marius and Porcius, tribunes, A. U. C. 
691. It fined a certain sum of money such com- 
manders as gave a false account to the Roman 
senate of the number of slain in a battle. 

Mariamna, a Jewish woman, who married 
Herodes. 

Marius,(C.)I. a celebrated Roman, who, from 
a peasant became one of the most powerful and 
cruel tyrants that Rome ever beheld during her 
consular government. He was born at Arpinum, 
of obscure and illiterate parents. His father 
bore the same name eis himself, and his mother 
was called Fulcinia. He forsook the meaner 
occupations of the country for the camp, and 
signalized himself under Scipio at the siege of 
Numantia. His marriage with Julia, who was 
of the family of the Caesars, contributed in some 
measure to raise him to consequence. He pass- 
ed into Africa as lieutenant to the consul Me- 
tellus against Jugurtha, and, after he had there 
ingratiated himself with the soldiers, and raised 
enemies to his friend and benefactor, he return- 
ed to Rome, and canvassed for the consulship. 
He was elected, and appointed to finish the war 
against Jugurtha. No sooner was Jugurtha 
conquered than new honours and fresh trophies 
awaited Marius. The provinces of Rome were 
suddenly invaded by an army of 300,000 barba- 
rians, and Marius was sent against the Teu- 
tones. The war was prolonged, and Marius 
was a third and fourth time invested with the 

Part II.— 3 R 



consulship. At last two engagements were 
fought, and not less than 200,000 of the barba-- 
rian forces of the Ambrones and Teutones were 
slain in the field of battle, and 90,000 made pris- 
oners. The following year was also marked 
by a total overthrow of the Cimbri,another horde 
of barbarians, in which 140,000 were slaughter- 
ed by the Romans and 60,000 taken prisoners. 
After such honourable victories, Marius, with 
^his colleague Catulus,entered Rome in triumph ; 
'and, for his eminent services, he received the 
appellation of the third founder of Rome. He 
was elected consul a sixth time ; and, as his in- 
trepidity had delivered his country from its for- 
eign enemies, he sought employment at home ; 
and his restless ambition began to raise seditions 
and to oppose the power of Sylla. This was 
the cause and the foundation of a civil war. 
Sylla refused to deliver up the command of the 
forces with which he was empowered to prose- 
cute the Mithridatic war, and he resolved to op- 
pose the authors of a demand which he consid- 
ered as arbitrary and improper. He advanced 
to Rome, and Marius was obliged to save his 
life by flight. The unfavourable winds prevent- 
ed him from vseeking a safer retreat in Africa, 
and he was left on the coast of Campania, where 
the emissaries of his enemy soon discovered him 
in a marsh, where he had plunged himself into 
the mud, and left only his mouth above the sur- 
face for respiration. He was violently dragged 
to the neighbouring town of Minturnae ; and 
the magistrates, all devoted to the interest of 
Sylla, passed sentence of immediate death on 
their magnanimous prisoner. A Gaul was com- 
manded to cut off his head in the dungeon, but 
the stern countenance of Maritis disarmed the 
courage of the executioner, and when he heard 
the exclamation of Tune homo, atides occidere 
Caium Marium, the dagger dropped from his 
hand. Such an uncommon adventure awakened 
the compassion of the inhabitants of Minturnae. 
They released Marius from prison, and favour- 
ed his escape to Africa, where he joined his son 
Marius, who had been arming the princes of the 
country in his cause. Marius landed near the 
walls of Carthage, and he received no small 
consolation at the sight of the venerable ruins 
of a once powerful city, which, like himself, 
had been exposed to calamity, and felt the cruel 
vicissitude of fortune. He soon after learned 
that Cinna had embraced his cause at Rome. 
This intelligence animated Marius ; he set sail 
to assist his friend, only at the head of a thou- 
sand men. His army, however, gradually in- 
creased, and he entered Rome like a conqueror. 
His enemies were inhumanly sacrificed to his 
fury. Rome was filled with iDlood, and he who 
had once been called the father of his country, 
marched through the streets of the city, attend- 
ed b}^ a number of assassins, who immediately 
slaughtered all those whose salutations were not 
answered by their leader. Such were the sig- 
nals for bloodshed. When Marius and Cinna 
had sufliciently gratified their resentment, they 
made themselves consuls ; but Marius, already 
worn out with old age and infirmities, died six- 
teen days after he had been honoured with the 
consular dignity for the seventh time, B. C. 86. 
His end was probably hastened by the uncom- 
mon quantity of wine which he drank when 
labouring under a dangerous disease. Such was 
497 



MA 



HISTORY, &c. 



MA 



the end of Marias, Avho rendered himself con- 
spicuous by his victories and by his cruelty. As 
he was brought up in the midst of poverty and 
among peasants, it will not appear wonderful 
that he always betrayed rusticity in his behav- 
iour, and despised in others those polished man- 
ners and that studied address which education 
had denied him. His countenance was stern, 
his voice firm and imperious, and his disposition 
untractable. He was in the 70th year of his age 
when he died, and Rome seemed to rejoice in 
the fall of a man whose ambition had proved 
fatal to so many of her citizens. His only quali- 
fications were those of a great general, and with 
these he rendered himself the most illustrious 
and powerful of the Romans, because he was the 
only one whose ferocity seemed capable to op- 
pose the barbarians of the north. Plut. in vita. 
^Paterc. 2, c. ^.—Flor. 3, c. ^.—Juv. 8, v. 245, 
&c. — LMcan. 2, v. 69.—- — II. Caius, the son of 
the great Marius, was as cruel as his father, 
and shared his good and his adverse fortune. 
He made himself consul in the 25th year of his 
age, and murdered all the senators who oppo- 
sed his ambitious views. He was defeated by 
Sylla, and fled to Prseneste, where he killed 

himself Plut. in Mario. III. One of the 

Greek fathers of the 5th century, whose works 
were edited by Garner, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1673 ; 
and Balazius, ib. 1684.— — IV. M. Aurelius, a 
native of Gaul, who, from the mean employ- 
ment of a blacksmith, became one of the gene- 
rals of Gallienus, and at last caused himself to 
be saluted emperor. Three days after this ele- 
vation, a man who had shared his poverty with- 
out partaking of his more prosperous fortune, 
publicly assassinated him, and he was killed by 
a sword which he himself had made in the time 
of his obscurity. Marius has been often cele- 
brated for his great strength; and it is confi- 
dently reported that he could stop, with one of 
his fingers only, the wheel of a chariot in its 

most rapid course. V. Maximus, a Latin 

writer, who published an account of the Ro- 
man emperors from Trajan to Alexander, now 
lost. His compositions were entertaining, and 
executed with great exactness and fidelity. 

Marpesia. Vid. Part III. 

Marres, a king of Egypt, who had a crow 
which conveyed his letters wherever he pleased. 
He raised a celebrated monument to his faith- 
ful bird near the city of Crocodiles. JElian An. 
6, c. 7. 

Martha, a celebrated prophetess of Syria, 
whose artifice and fraud proved of the greatest 
service to C. Marius, in the numerous expedi- 
tions he undertook. Plut. in Mario. 

Martialis, (Marcus Valerius,) a native of 
Bilbilis in Spain, who came to Rome about the 
20tn year of his age, where he recommended 
himself lo notice by his poetical genius. Domi- 
tian gave him the tribuneship; but the poet, 
unmindful of the favours he received, after the 
death of his benefactor, exposed to ridicule the 
vices and cruelties of a monster whom, in his 
lifetime, he had extolled as the pattern of virtue, 
goodness, and excellence. Trajan treated the 
poet with coldness ; and Martial, after he had 
passed thirty-five years in the capital of the 
world, in the greatest splendour and affluence, 
retired to his native country, where he had the 
mortification to be the object of malevolence, sa- 



tire, and ridicule. He received some favors 
from his friends, and his poverty was alleviated 
by the liberality of Pliny the younger, whom he 
had panegyrized in his poems. Martial died 
about the 104th year of the Christian era, in the 
75th year of his age He is now well known by 
the fourteen books of epigrams which he wrote, 
and whose merit is now best described by the 
candid confession of the author in this line : — 

Svmt bona, sunt qucedam mediocria, sunt mala 
plura. 

It has been observed of Martial that his talent 
was epigrams. Every thing he did was the sub- 
ject of an epigram. The best editions of Mar- 
tial are those of Rader, fol. Mogunt, 1627, of 
Schriverius, 12mo. L. Bat. 1619, and of Smids, 
8vo. Amst. 1701. 

Marullus, L a tribune of the people, who 
tore the garlands which had been placed upon 
Caesar's statues, and who ordered those that 
had saluted him king to be imprisoned. He 
was deprived of his consulship by J. Caesar. 
Plut.- — II. A Latin poet in the reign of M. 
Aurelius. He satirised the emperor with great 
licentiousness, but his invectives were disre- 
garded and himself despised. 

Masinissa, son of Gala, was king of a small 
part of Africa, and assisted the Carthaginians 
in their wars against Rome. He proved a most 
indefatigable and courageous ally, but an act 
of generosity converted him to the interests of 
Rome. After the defeat of Asdrubal, Scipio, 
the first Africanus who had obtained the victo- 
ry, found, among the prisoners of war, one of 
the nephews of Masinissa. He sent him back 
to his uncle, loaded with presents, and conduct- 
ed him with a detachment for the safety and 
protection of his person. Masinissa was struck 
with the generous action of the Roman general, 
he forgot all former hostilities, and joined his 
troops to those of Scipio. It was to his exer- 
tions they owed many of their victories in Afri- 
ca, and particularly in that battle which proved 
fatal to Asdrubal and Syphax. The Numidian 
conqueror, charmed with the beauty of Sopho- 
nisba, the captive wife of Syphax, carried her 
to his camp, and married her ; but when he per- 
ceived that this new connexion displeased Sci- 
pio, he sent poison to his wife, and recommend- 
ed her to destroy herself, since he could not pre- 
serve her life in a manner which became her 
rank, her dignity, and fortune, without oflfend- 
ing his Roman allies. In the battle of Zama, 
Masinissa greatly contributed to the defeat of 
the great Annibal ; and the Romans, who had 
so often been spectators of his courage and val- 
our, rewarded his fidelity with the kingdom of 
Syphax and some of the Carthaginian territo- 
ries. Masinissa died in the 97th year of his age, 
after a reign of above sixty years, 149 years be- 
fore the Christian era. In the last years of his 
life he was seen at the head of hisarmies, be- 
having with the most indefatigable activity ; and 
he often remained for many successive days on 
horseback, without a saddle under him or a 
covering upon his head, and without showing 
the least marks of fatigue. This strength of 
mind and body he chiefly owed to the temper- 
ance which he observed. He was seen eating 
brown bread at the door of his tent, like a pri- 
vate soldier, the day after he had obtained an 
498 



MA 



HISTORY, &c. 



MA 



immortal victory over the armies of Carthage. 
He left fifty-four sons, three of v^^hom were 
legitimate, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Manastabal. 
The kingdom was fairly divided among them 
by Scipio, and the illegitimate children receiv- 
ed, as their portions, very valuable presents. 
The death of Gulussa and Manastabal soon 
after left Micipsa sole master of the large pos- 
sessions of Masinissa. Strcd). 17. — Polyb. — 
Appian. lAjbic. — Cic. de Senec. — Vol. Max. 8. 
— Sallust. in Jug. — Liv. 25, &c. — Ovid. Fast. 
6, V. 769. — Justin. 33, c. 1, 1. 38, c. 6. 

Massaget.e. Vid. Part I. 

Matralia, a festival at Rome in honour of 
Matuta, or Ino. Only matrons and freeborn 
women were admitted. Varro de L. L. 5, c. 
22.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. il.—Plut. in Cam. 

Matronalia, festivals at Rome in honour of 
Mars, celebrated by married women, in com- 
memoration of the rape of the Sabines, and of 
the peace which their entreaties had obtained 
between their fathers and husbands. Flowers 
were then offered in the temples of Juno. Ovid. 
Fast. 3,'c. 229 — Plut. in Rom. 

Maurus, a man who flourished in the reign 
of Trajan, o-r, according to others, of rhe Anto- 
nini. He was governor of Syene in Upper 
Egypt. He wrote a Latin poem upon the rules 
of poetry and versification. 

Mausolus, a king of Caria. His wife Arte- 
misia was so disconsolate at his death, which 
happened B. C. 353, that she drank up his ash- 
es, and resolved to erect one of the grandest and 
noblest monuments of antiquity, to celebrate the 
memory of a husband whom she tenderly loved. 
This famous monument, which passed for one 
of the seven wonders of the world, was called 
Mausoleum; and from it all other magnificent 
sepulchres and tombs have received the same 
name. It was built by four different architects ; 
Scopas erected the side which faced the east, 
Timotheus had the south, Leochares had the 
west, and Bruxis the north. Pithis was also 
employed in raising a pyramid over this stately 
monument, and the top was adorned by a chari- 
ot drawn by four horses. The expenses of this 
edifice were immense, and tliis gave occasion 
to the philosopher An axagoras to exclaim, when 
he saw it, How much money changed into stones ! 
Vid. Artemisia. Herodot. 7, v. 99. — Strab. 14. 
—Diod. 16.—Paus. 8, c. l6.—Flor. 4, c. 11. 
GelL^lO, c. 18.— Propert. 3, el. 2, v. ^l.—Suet. 
Aug. 100. 

Maxentius, (Marcus Aurelius Valerius,) a 
son of the emperor Maximianus Hercules. 
Some suppose him to have been a supposititious 
child. The voluntary abdication of Diocletian, 
and of his father, raised him in the state, and he 
declared himself independent emperor, or Au- 
gustus, A. D. 306. He afterwards incited his 
father to re-assume his imperial authority, and 
in a perfidious manner destroyed Severus, who 
had delivered himself into his hands, and relied 
upon his honour for the safety of his life. His 
victories and successes were impeded by Gale- 
rius Maximianus, who opposed him with a pow- 
erful force. The defeat and voluntary death of 
Galerius soon restored peace to Italy, and Max- 
entius passed into Africa, where he rendered 
himself odious by his cruelty and oppression. 
He soon after returned to Rome, and was in- 
formed that Constantine was come to dethrone 



him. He gave his adversary battle near Rome, 
and, after he had lost the victory, he fled back 
to the city. The bridge over which he crossed 
the Tiber was in a decayed situation, and he 
fell into the river and was drowned, on the 24th 
of September, A. D. 312. 

Maximianus, I. (Herculius Marcus Aurelius 
Valerius,) a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, 
who served as a common soldier in the Roman 
armies. When Diocletian had been raised to 
the imperial throne, he remembered the valour 
and courage of his fellow-soldier Maximianus, 
and rewarded his fidelity by making him his 
colleague in the empire, and by ceding to him 
the command of the provinces of Italy, Africa, 
and Spain, and the rest of the western territo- 
ries of Rome. Maximianus showed the justness 
of the choice of Diocletian by his victories over 
the barbarians. In Britain success did not at- 
tend his arms ; bui in Africa he defeated and 
put to death Aurelius Julianus, who had pro- 
claimed himself emperor. Soon after, Diocle- 
tian abdicated the imperial purple, and obliged 
Maximianus to follow his example, on the 1st 
of April, A. D. 304. Maximianus reluctantly 
complied with the command of a man to whom 
he owed his greatness. Before the first year of 
his resignation had elapsed, he re-assumed the 
imperial dignity; but the troops mutinied against 
him, and he fled for safety to Gaul, to the court 
of Constantine, to whom he gave his daughter 
Faustina in marriage. Here he again acted a 
conspicuous character, and re-assumed the im- 
perial power, which his misfortunes had obliged 
him to relinquish. This offended Constantine. 
But when open violence seemed to frustrate the 
ambitious views of Maximianus, he had re- 
course to artifice. He prevailed upon his daugh- 
ter Faustina, to leave the doors of her chamber 
open in the dead of night ; and he secretly intro- 
duced himself to her bed, where he stabbed the 
man who slept by the side of his daughter. This 
was not Constantine ; Faustina, faithful to her 
husband, had apprized him of her father's ma- 
chinations, and a eunuch had been placed in 
his bed. Constantine resolved to punish Max- 
imianus, and nothing was left to him but to 
choose his own death. He strangled himself at 
Marseilles, A. D. 310, in the 60th year of his 
age. His body was found fresh and entire in a 
leaden coffin about the middle of the eleventh 

century. II. Galerius Valerius, a native of 

Dacia, who, in the first years of his life, was 
employed in keeping his father's flocks. He 
entered the army, where his valour and bodily 
strength recommended him to the notice of his 
superiors, and particularly to Diocletian, who 
invested him with the imperial purple in the 
east, and gave him his daughter Valeria in mar- 
riage. Galerius deserved the confidence of his 
benefactor. He conquered the Goths and Dal- 
matians, and checked the insolence of the Per- 
sians. In a battle, however, with the king of 
Persia, Galerius was defeated ; and, to complete 
his ignominy, and render him more sensible of 
his disgrace, Diocletian obliged him to walk 
behind his chariot arrayed in his imperial robes. 
This humiliation stung Galerias to the quick ; 
he assembled another army, and gave battle to 
the Persians. He gained a complete victory, 
and took the wives and children of his enemy. 
This success elated Galerius to such a degree, 
499 



MA 



HISTORY, (fee. 



MA 



that he claimed the most dignified appellations, 
and ordered himself to be called the son of Mars. 
Diocletian himself dreaded his power, and even, 
it is said, abdicated the imperial dignity by- 
means of his threats. As soon as Diocletian 
had abdicated, Galerius was proclaimed Augus- 
tus, A. D. 304, but his cruelty soon rendered 
him odious ; and the Roman people, offended at 
his oppression, raised Maxentias to the imperial 
dignity the following year, and Galerius was 
obliged to yield, and to fly before his more for- 
tunate adversary. He died in the greatest ago- 
nies, A. D. 311. In his character, Galerius 
was wanton and tyrannical ; and he often feast- 
ed his eyes with the sight of dying wretches, 
whom his barbarity had delivered to bears and 
wild beasts. Lactant. de M. P. 33. — Eusehius 
8, c. 16. 

Maximinus, (Caius Julius Verus,) the son of 
a peasant in Thrace. He was originally a shep- 
herd, and, by heading his countrymen against 
the frequent attacks of the neighbouring bar- 
barians and robbers, he inured himself to the 
labours and to the fatigues of a camp. He en- 
tered the Roman armies, where he gradually 
rose to the first offices ; and on the death of 
Alexander Severus he caused himself to be 
proclaimed emperor, A. D. 235. The popu- 
larity which he had gained when general of the 
armies, was at an end when he ascended the 
throne. He was delighted with acts of the 
greatest barbarity, and no less than 400 persons 
lost their lives on the false suspicion of having 
conspired against the emperor's life. Such is 
the character of the suspicious and tyrannical 
Maximinus. In his military capacity he acted 
with the same ferocity ; and in an expedition in 
Germany, he not only cut down the corn, but 
he totally ruined and set fire to the whole coun- 
try, to the extent of 450 miles. Such a mon- 
ster of tyranny at last provoked the people of 
Rome. The Gordians were proclaimed em- 
perors, but their innocence and pacific virtues 
were unable to resist the fury of Maximinus. 
After their fall, the Roman senate invested 
twenty men of their number with the imperial 
dignity, and intrusted into their hands the care 
of the republic. These measures so highly ir- 
ritated Maximinus, that, at the first intelligence, 
he howled like a wild beast, and almost destroy- 
ed himself by knocking his head against the 
walls of his palace. When his fury was aba- 
ted, he marched to Rome, resolved on slaughter. 
His bloody machinations were stopped, and his 
soldiers, ashamed of accompanying a tyrant 
whose cruelties had procured him the name of 
Busiris, Cyclops, and Phalaris, assassinated him 
in his tent before the walls of Aquileia, A. D. 
236, in the 65th year of his age. Maximinus 
has been represented by historians as of a gi- 
gantic stature ; he was eight feet high, and the 
bracelets of his wife served as rings to adorn 
the fingers of his hand. His strength was pro- 
portionable to his gigantic shape ; he could 
alone draw a loaded wagon, and, with a blow 
of his fist, he often broke the teeth in a horse's 
mouth. Herodianus. — Jornand. de reb. Get. 
— Capitol. Maximinus made his son, of the 
same name, emperor, as soon as he was invest- 
ed with the purple ; and his choice was unani- 
mously approved by the senate, by the people, 
and by the army.— — II. Galerius Valerius, a 
500 



shepherd of Thrace, who was raised to the im- 
perial dignity by Diocletian, A. D. 305. He 
was nephew to Galerius Maximianus, by his 
mother's side, and to him he was indebted for 
his rise and consequence in the Roman armies. 
As Maximinus was ambitious and fond of pow- 
er, he looked with an eye of jealousy upon those 
who shared the dignity of emperor with him- 
self. He declared war against Licinius, his 
colleague on the throne ; but a defeat, which 
soon after followed, on the 30th of April, A. D. 
313, between Heraclea and Adrianopolis, left 
him without resources and without friends. 
His victorious enemy pursued him, and he fled 
beyond mount Taurus, forsaken and almost un- 
known. He attempted to put an end to his 
existence, but his eiforts were ineffectual ; and 
though his death is attributed by some to despair, 
it is more universally believed that he expired 
in the greatest agonies, of a dreadful distemper, 
which consumed him day and night with inex- 
pressible pains. III. One of the ambassa- 
dors of young Theodosius to Attila, king of the 
Huns. 

Maximus, (Magnus,) I. a native of Spain, 
who proclaimed himself emperor, .A. D. 383. 
The unpopularity of Gratian favoured his usur- 
pation, and he was acknowledged by his troops. 
Gratian marched against him, but he was defeat- 
ed, and soon after assassinated. Maximus re- 
fused the honours of a burial to the remains of 
Gratian; and when he had made himself mas- 
ter of Great Britain, Gaul, and Spain, he sent 
ambassadors into the east, and demanded of the 
emperor Theodosius to acknowledge him as his 
associate on the throne. Theodosius endeavour- 
ed to amuse and delay him, but Maximus re- 
solved to support his claim by arms, and crossed 
the Alps. Italy was laid desolate, and Rome 
opened her gates to the conqueror. Theodosius 
now determined to revenge the audaciousness of 
Maximus, and had recourse to artifice. He be- 
gan to make a naval armament, and Maximus, 
not to appear inferior to his adversary, had al- 
ready embarked his troops, when Theodosius, 
by secret and hastened marches, fell upon him, 
and besieged him at Aquileia. Maximus was 
betrayed by hiii soldiers, and the conqueror, 
moved with compassion at the sight of his fallen 
and dejected enemy, granted him life; but the 
multitude refused him mercy, and instantly 
struck off" his head, A. D. 388. His son, Victor, 
who shared the imperial dignity with him, was 
soon after sacrificed to the fury of the soldiers. 

II. Petronius, a Roman, descended of an 

illustrious family. He caused Valentinian III. 
to be assassinated, and ascended the throne ; and 
to strengthen his usurpation, he married the em- 
peress, to whom he had the weakness and im- 
prudence to betray that he had sacrificed her 
husband to his love for her person. This decla- 
ration irritated the emperess ; she had recourse 
to the barbarians to avenge the death of Valen- 
tinian, and Maximus was stoned to death by his 
soldiers, and his body thrown into the Tiber, 

A. D. 455. He reigned only 77 days. III. 

Pupianus. Vid. Pupianus. IV. A celebra- 
ted cynic philosonher and magician of Ephe- 
sus. He instructed the emperor Julian in magic, 
and, according to the opinion of some historians, 
it was in the conversation and company of Max- 
imus that the apostacy of Julian originated. The 



ME 



HISTORY, &c. 



ME 



emperor not only visited the philosopher, but he 
even submitted his writings to his inspection and 
censure. Maximus refused to live in the court 
of Julian, and the emperor, not dissatisfied with 
the refusal, appointed him high pontiff in the 
province of Lydia, an office which he discharged 
with the greatest moderation and justice. When 
Julian went into the east, the philosopher pro- 
mised him success, and even said that his con- 
quests would be more numerous and extensive 
than those of the son of Philip. He persuaded 
his imperial pupil, that, according to the doctrine 
of metempsychosis, his body was animated by 
the soul which once animated the hero whose 
greatness and victories he was going to eclipse. 
After the death of Julian, Maximus was almost 
sacrificed to the fury of the soldiers : but the in- 
terposition of his friends saved his life, and he 
retired to Constantinople. He was soon after 
accused ofmagical practices before the emperor 
Valens, and beheaded at Ephesus, A. D. 366. 
He wrote some philosophical and rhetorical trea- 
tises, some of which were dedicated to Julian. 

They are now all lost. Ammian. V. Tyrius, 

a Platonic philosopher in the reign of M. Aure- 
lius. This emperor, who was naturally fond of 
study, became one of the pupils of Maximus, 
and paid great deference to his instructions. 
There are extant of Maximus 41 dissertations 
on moral and philosophical subjects, written in 
Greek, The best editions of which are that of 
Davis, 8vo. Cantab. 1703 ; and that of Reiske, 

2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1774. VI. One of the 

Greek fathers of the 7th century, whose works 
were edited by Combesis, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1675. 

VII. A native of Sirmium, in Pannonia. 

He was originally a gardener, but, by enlisting 
in the Roman army, he became one of the mili- 
tary tribunes, and his marriage with a woman 
of rank and opulence soon rendered him inde- 
pendent. He was father to the emperor Probus. 
Mec^nas, or Meccbnas, (C. Cilnius,) a cel- 
ebrated Roman knight, descended from the 
kings of Etruria. He has rendered himself im- 
morial by his liberal patronage of learned men 
and of letters; and to his prudence and advice 
Augustus acknowledged himself indebted for 
the security he enjoyed. It was from the result 
of his advice, against the opinion of Agrippa, 
that Augustus resolved to keep the supreme 
power in his hands, and not by a voluntary re- 
signation to plunge Rome into civil commotions. 
The emperor received the private admonitions 
of Mecoenas in the same friendly manner as 
they were given : and he was not displeased with 
the liberty of his friend, who threw a paper to 
him with these words, Descend from the tribu- 
nal^ thou butcher ! while he sat in the judgment- 
seat, and betrayed revenge and impatience in 
his countenance. Mecoenas was fond of litera- 
ture, and, according to the most received opin- 
ion, he wrote a history of animals, a journal 
of the life of Augustus, a treatise on the differ- 
ent natures and kinds of precious stones, be- 
sides the two tragedies of Octavia and Prome- 
theus, and other things, all now lost. He died 
eight years before Christ; and on his death- 
bed he particularly recommended his poetical 
friend Horace to the care and confidence of Au- 
gustus. From the patronage and encourage- 
ment which the princes of heroic and Ivric po- 
etry, among the Latins, received from the fa- 



vourite of Augustus, all patrons of literature 
have ever since been called Mecanates. Virgil 
dedicated to him his Georgics, and Horace his 
Odes. Suet, in Aug. &Q, &c. — Plut. in Aug. — 
Herodlan. — Senec. ep. 19 and 92. 

Medon, son of Codrus, the 17th and last king 
of Athens, was the first archon that was appoint- 
ed with regal authority, B. C. 1070. In the 
election Medon was preferred to his brother 
'Neleus by the oracle of Delphi, and he render- 
ed himself popular by the justice and modera- 
tion of his administration. His successors were 
called from him Medontida, and the office of 
archon remained for above 200 years in the 
family of Codrus under 12 perpetual archons. 
Pans. 7, c. 2. — Pater c. 2, c. 2, 

Medus, a son of JEgexxs and Medea, who gave 
his name to a country of Asia. Medus, when 
arrived to years of maturity, went to seek his 
mother, whom the arrival of Theseus in Athens 
had driven away. Vid. Medea. He came to 
Colchis, where he was seized by his uncle Per- 
ses, who usurped the throne of jEetes, his 
mother's father, because the oracle had de- 
clared that Perses should be murdered by one ot 
the grandsons of iEetes. Medus assumed an- 
other name, and called himself Hippotes, son 
of Creon. Meanwhile, Medea arrived at Col- 
chis, disguised in the habit of a priestess of Di- 
ana ; and when she heard that one of Creon's 
children was imprisoned, she resolved to hasten 
the destruction of a person whose family she 
detested. To effect this with more certainty, 
she told the usurper that Hippotes was really a 
son of Medea, sent by his mother to murder 
him. She begged Perses to give her Hippotes, 
that she might sacrifice him to her resentment. 
Perses consented. Medea discovered that it 
was her own son, and she instantly armed him 
with the dagger which she had prepared against 
his life, and ordered him to stab the usurper. 
He obeyed, and Medea discovered who he was, 
and made her son Medus sit on his grandfa- 
ther's throne. Hesiod. — Theog. — Paus. 2. — 
Apollod. 1. — Justin. 42. — Scnec. in Med. — Diod. 

Megabyzus, I. one of the noble Persians who 
conspired against the usurper Smerdis. He 
was set over an army in Europe by king Darius, 
where he took Perynthus, and conquered all 
Thrace. He was greatly esteemed by his sove- 
reign. Herodot. 3, &c. — -II. A son of Zopy- 
rus, satrap to Darius. He conquered Egypt, 

&c. Herodot. 3, c. 160. III. A satrap of 

Artaxerxes. He revolted from his king, and 
defeated two large armies that had been sent 
against him. The interference of his friends 
restored him to the king's favour, and he 
showed his attachment to Artaxerxes by killing 
a lion which threatened his life in hunting. 
This act of affection in Megabyzus was looked 
upon with envy by the king. He was discarded, 
and afterwards reconciled to the monarch by 
means of his mother. He died in the 76th year 
of his age, B.C. 447, greatly regretted. Ctesias. 

Megacles, I. an Athenian archon, who in- 
volved the greatest part of the Athenians in the 
sacrilege which was committed in the conspi- 
racy of Cylon. Plut in Sol. II. A son of 

Alcmoeon, who revolted with some Athenians 
after the departure of Solon from Athens. He 

was ejected by Pisistratus. III. A man who 

exchanged dress with Pyrrhus when assisting 
501 



ME 



HISTORY, &c. 



ME 



the Tarentines in Italy. He was killed in that 
disguise. 

Megaleas, a seditious person of Corinth. He 
was seized for his treachery to King Philip of 
Macedonia, upon which he destroyed himself to 
avoid punishment. 

Mec-apenthes, an illegitimate son of Mene- 
laus, who, after his father's return from the 
Trojan war, was married to a daughter of 
Alector, a native of Sparta. His mother's 
name was Teridae, a slave of Menelaus. Ho- 
mer. Od, 4. — Apollod. 3. 

Megasthenbs, a Greek historian in the age 
of Seleucus Nicanor, about 300 years before 
Christ. He wrote about the Oriental nations, 
and particularly the Indians. His history is 
often quoted by the ancients. What now passes 
as his composition is spurious. 

Mela Pomponius, a Spaniard who flourished 
about the 45th year of the Christian era, and 
distinguished himself by his geography, divided 
into three books, and written with elegance, 
with great perspicuity and brevity. The best 
editions of this book, called de situ orbis, are 
those of Gronovius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1722, and 
Reinhold, 4to. Eton. 1761. 

Melanippides, a Greek poet, about 520 years 
before Christ. His grandson, ofthe same name, 
flourished about 60 years after at the court of 
Perdiccas the second, of Macedonia. Some 
fragments of their poetry are extant. 

Melanthus, Melanthes, or Melanthius, 
a son of Andropompus, whose ancestors were 
kings of Pylos. He was driven from his pater- 
nal kingdom by the Heraclidae, and came to 
Athens, where king ThymcEtes resigned the 
crown to him provided he fought a battle against 
Xanthus, a general of the Boeotians, who made 
war against him. He fought and conquered. 
Vid. Apaturia, and his family, surnamed the 
JVeleida, sat on the throne of Athens till the 
age of Codrus. He succeeded to the crown 
1128 years B. C. and reigned 37 years. Pans. 
2, c. 18. 

Meles, I. a beautiful Athenian youth, belov- 
ed by Timagoras, whose afiections he repaid 
with the greatest coldness and indifference. 
He even ordered Timagoras to leap down a 
precipice from the top of the citadel of Athens, 
and Timagoras, not to disoblige him, obeyed, 
and was killed in the fall. This token of true 
friendship and affection had such an effect upon 
Meles, that he threw himself down from the 
place, to atone by his death for the ingratitude 
which he had shown to Timagoras. Paus 1, 

c. 30. II. A king of Lydia, who succeeded 

his father Alyattes, about 747 years before 
Christ. He was father to Candaules. 

Meletus, a poet and orator of Athens, who 
became one of the principal accusers of Socra- 
tes. After his eloquence had prevailed, and 
Socrates had been put ignominiously to death, 
the Athenians repented of iheir severity to the 
philosopher, and condemned his accusers. Me- 
letus perished among them. Diog. 

Melissus, I. a philosopher of Samos, who 
maintained that the world was infinite, immove- 
able, and without a vacuum. According to 
his doctrines, no one could advance any argu- 
ment upon the power or attributes of Provi- 
dence, as all human knowledge was weak and 
imperfect. Themistocles was among his pu- 
502 



pils. He flourished about 440 years before the 
Christian era. Diog. — —II. A freedman of 
Mecsenas, appointed librarian to Augustus. 
He wrote some comedies. Ovid. Pont. 4, ep. 
16, V. 30. — Siieto7i. de Gram. 

Melius, Sp, a Roman knight accused of as- 
piring to tyranny, on account of his uncommon 
liberality to the populace. He was summoned 
to appear by the dictator L. Q,. Cincinnatus, 
and when he refused to obey, he was put to 
death by Ahala, the master of horse, A. U. C. 
314.. Varro de L. L. 4.— Val. Max. 6, c. 3. 

Mella Annjeus, the father of Lucan. He 
was accused of being privy to Pisco's conspira- 
cy against Nero, upon which he opened his 
veins. Tacit. 16, Ann. c. 17. 

Memmia Lex, ordained that no one should be 
entered on the calendar of criminals who was 
absent on the public accounts. 

Memmius, a Roman knight, who rendered 
himself illustrious for his eloquence and poet- 
ical talents. He was made tribune, praetor, and 
afterwards governor of Bithynia. He was 
accused of extortion in his province, and ban- 
ished by J. Caesar, though Cicero undertook his 
defence. Lucretius dedicated his poem to him, 

Cic. in Brut. The family of the Memmii 

were plebeians. They were descended, ac- 
cording to some accounts, from Mnestheus, the 
friend of Mneas. Virg. JSn. 4, v. 117. 

Memnon, a general of the Persian forces 
when Alexander invaded Asia. He distin- 
guished himself for his attachment to the inter- 
est of Darius, his valour in the field, the sound- 
ness of his counsels, and his great sagacity. 
He defended Miletus against Alexander, and 
died in the midst of his successful enterprises, 
B. C. 333. His wife Barsine was taken prisoner 
with the wife of Darius. Diod. 16. Vid. Part. III. 

Menander, the chief of the New Comedy, 
was born B. C. 342. His father, Diopithes, 
was at this time commander of the forces sta- 
tioned by the Athenians at the Hellespont, and 
must therefore have been a man of some con- 
sequence. Alexis the comic poet was his uncle 
and instructer in the drama. Theophrastus 
was his tutor in philosophy and literature. In 
his twenty-first year, B. C. 321, he brought out 
the 'Opyf] his first drama. He lived twenty- 
nine years more, dying B. C. 292, after having 
composed one hundred and five plays. All an- 
tiquity seems to combine in celebrating Menan- 
der. Terence, the first of Latin comedians, 
was but the translator of his dramas, and ac- 
cording to Caesar's well-known expression, only 
a dimidiatus Menander : Plutarch and Dio 
Chrysostom prefer him to Aristophanes : Ovid 
declares that his fame shall never die whilst the 
characters, which he so admirably exhibited, 
exist among mankind ; and Cluinctilian pro- 
nounces a splendid eulogy on his works. 
Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Paterc. 1, c. 16. 

Menas, a freedman of Pompey the Great, 
who distinguished himself by the active and 
perfidious part he took in the civil wars which 
were kindled between the younger Pompey and 
Augustus. When Pompey invited Augustus 
to his galley, Menas advised his master to seize 
the person of his enemy, and at the same time 
the Roman empire, by cutting the cables of his 
ship. No, (replied Pompey,) I would have ap- 
proved ofthe measure if you had done it without 



ME 



HISTORY, &c. 



ME 



consulting me, but I scorn to break my word. 
Svxt. in Oct. Horace, epod. 4, has ridiculed 
ihe pride of Menas, and recalled to his mind 
his former meanness and obscurity. 

Menecrates, a physician of Syracuse, fa- 
mous for his vanity and arrogance. He was 
generally accompanied by some of his patients 
whose disorders he had cured. He crowned 
himself like the master of the gods ; and in a 
letter which he wrote to Philip,king of Macedon, 
he styled himself, in these words, Menecrates 
Jupiter to king Philip, greeting. The Macedo- 
nian monarch answered, Philip to Menecrates, 
greeting, and better sense. Philip also invited 
him to one of his feasts, but when the meats 
were served up, a table was put separate for the 
physician, on which he was served only with 
perfumes and frankincense, like the father of 
the gods. This entertainment displeased Me- 
necrates ; he remembered that he was a mortal, 
and hurried away from the company. He lived 
about 360 years before the Christian era. 
Miian. V. H. 10, c. bl.—Athen. 7, c. 13. 

Menedemus, I. a Socratic philosopher of 
Eretria, who was originally a tentmaker, an 
employment which he left for the profession of 
arms. The persuasive eloquence and philo- 
sophical lectures of Plato had such an influence 
over him, that he gave up his offices in the state 
to cultivate literature. It is said that he died 
through melancholy when Antigonus, one of 
Alexander's generals, had made himself master 
of his country, B. C. 301, in the 74th year of 
his age. Some attribute his death to a different 
cause, and say that he was falsely accused of 
treason, for which he became so desperate that 
he died after he had passed seven days without 
taking any aliment. He was called the Ere- 
tria7i Bull, on account of his gravity. Strah. 

9. — Diog. II. A cynic philosopher of Lamp- 

sacus, who said that he was come from hell to 
observe the sins and wickedness of mankind. 
His habit was that of the furies, and his behav- 
iour was a proof of his insanity. He was disci- 
ple of Colotes of Lampsacus. Diog. 

Menelau, a festival celebrated at Therapnse 
in Laconia, in honour of Menelaus. He had 
there a temple, where he was worshipped with 
his wife Helen as one of the supreme gods. 

Menelaus, a king of Sparta, brother to Aga- 
memnon. His father's name was Atreus, ac- 
cording to Homer, or, according to the more 
probable opinion of Hesiod, Apollodorus, &c. 
he was the son of Plisthenes and iErope. Vid. 
Plisthenes. He was educated with his brother 
Agamemnon in the house of Atreus, and, like 
the rest of the Grecian princes, solicited the 
marria2:e of Helen, the daughter of kingTynda- 
rus. By the artifice and advice of Ulysses, 
Helen was permitted to choose a husband, and 
she fixed her eyes upon Menelaus and married 
him, after her numerous suiters had solemnly 
bound themselves by an oath to defend her, and 
protect her person against the violence or as- 
sault of every intruder. Vid. Helena. As soon 
as the nuptials were celebrated, Tyndariis re- 
signed the crowTi to his son-in-law, and their hap- 
piness was complete. The absence of Menelaus 
in Crete gave opportunities to Paris, the Trojan 
prince, to corrupt the fidelity of Helen, and to 
carry away home what the goddess of beauty 
had promised to him as his due. This action 



was highly resented by Menelaus ; he reminded 
the Greek princes of their oath and solemn en- 
gagements when they courted the daughter of 
Tyndarus, and immediately all Greece took up 
arms to defend his cause. During the Trojan 
war Menelaus behaved with great spirit and 
courage ; andParis must have fallen by his hand, 
had not Venus interposed and redeemed him 
from certain death. He also expressed his wish 
to engage Hector, but Agamemnon hindered 
him from fighting with so powerful an adver- 
sary. In the tenth year of the Trojan war, Helen 
obtained the forgiveness of Menelaus by intro- 
ducing him, v\^ith Ulysses, the night that Troy 
was reduced to ashes, into the chamber of Dei- 
phobus, whom she had married after the death 
of Paris. This perfidious conduct totally re- 
conciled her to her first husband; and she re- 
turned with him to Sparta, during a voyage of 
eight years. He died some time after his re- 
turn. The palace which Menelaus once in- 
habited was still entire in the days of Pausanias, 
as well as the temple which had been raised to 
his memory by the people of Sparta. Homer. 
Od. 4, &c. 11. 1, &.c.—ApoUod. 3, c. 10.— Pans. 
3, c. 14 and 19.—Dictys. Cret. 2, 6ic.— Virg. 
^n. 2, &c. — Qidntil. Smyrn. 14. — Ovid. He- 
roid. 5 and 13. — Hygin. fab. 79. — Eurip. in 
Iphig. — Propert. 2. — Sophocles. 

Menenius Agrippa, a celebrated Roman, 
who appeased the Roman populaca in the in- 
fancy of the consular government by repeating 
the well-known fable of the belly and limbs. 
He flourished 495 B. C. Liv. 2, c. 16, 32, 33. 

Menes, the first king of Egypt. He built 
the town of Memphis, as it is generally suppos- 
ed, and deserved, by his abilities and popularity, 
to be called a god after death. Herodot. 2, c. 1 
and 90.— Z)io^. 1. 

Menesteus, or Menestheus, or Mnestheus, 
a son of Pereus, who, during the long absence 
of Theseus, was elected king. As he had been 
one of Helen's suiters, he went to the Trojan 
war at the head of the people of Athens, and 
died in his return in the island of Melos. He 
reigned 23 years, 1205, and was succeeded by 
Demophoon, the son of Theseus. Plut. in Thes. 

Menippus, a cynic philosopher of Phosnicia. 
He was originally a s]ave,and obtained his liber- 
ty with a sum of money, and became one of the 
greatest usurers at Thebes. He grew so des- 
perate from the continual reproaches and insults 
to which he was daily exposed on account of 
his meanness, that he destroyed himself. He 
wrote 13 books of satires, which have been lost. 
M. Varro composed satires in imitation of his 
style, and called them Menippean. 

Menius, a plebeian consul at Rome. He 
was the first who made the rostrum at Rome 
with the beaks (rostra) of the enemy's ships. 

Menon, I. a Thessalian commander in the 
expedition of Cyrus the younger against his 
brother Artaxerxes. He was dismissed on the 
suspicion that he had betrayed his fellow-sol- 
diers. Diod. 14. II. A Thessalian refused 

the freedom of Athens though he furnished a 
number of auxiliaries to the people. 

Menophilus, a eunuch to whom Mithrida- 
tes, when conquered by Pompey, intrusted the 
care of his daughter. Menophilus murdered 
the princess for fear of her falling into the ene- 
my's hands. Ammian. 16. 
503 



ME 



HISTORY, &c. 



ME 



Meriones, a charioteer of Idomeneus king of 
Crete during the Trojan war, son of Molus, a 
Cretan prince, and Melphidis. He signalized 
himself before Troy, and fought with Deipho- 
bus, the son of Priam, whom he wounded. He 
was greatly admired by the Cretans, who even 
paid him divine honours after death. Horat. 1, 
od. 6, v< 15. — Homer. 11. 2, &c. — Dictys. Cret. 

I, &c.— Ovid. Met. 13, fab. 1. 

Mermnad^, a race of kings in Lydia, of 
which Gyges was the first. They sat on the 
Lydian throne tilll the reign of Crcesus, who 
was conquered by Cyrus king of Persia. They 
were descendants of the Heraclidae, and prob- 
ably received the name of Mermnadae from 
Mermnas, one of their own family. They were 
descended from Lemnos, or, according to others 
from Agelaus, the son of Omphale by Hercules. 
Herodot. 1, c. 7 and 14. 

Merope, a daughter of Cypselus, who mar- 
ried Cresphontes king of Messenia, by whom 
she had three children. Her husband and two 
of her children were murdered by Polyphontes. 
The murderer obliged her to marry him, and 
she would have been forced to comply had not 
Egyptus or Telephontes, her 3d son, revenged 
his father's death by assassinating Polyphontes. 
Apollod. 2, c. e.—Paus. 4, c. 3. Vid. Part III. 

Messalina Valeria, I. a daughter of Messala 
Barbatus. She married the emperor Claudius, 
and disgraced herself by her cruelties and in- 
contmence. Her extravagances at last irri- 
tated her husband ; he commanded her to ap- 
pear before him to answer to all the accusations 
which were brought against her, upon which 
she attempted to destroy herself; and when her 
courage failed, one of the tribunes, who had 
been sent to her, despatched her with his sword, 
A. D. 48. It is in speaking of her debaucheries 
and lewdness that a celebrated satirist says : — 

Et lassata viris, necdum satiata, recessit 

Juv. — Tacit. Ann. 11, c. 37. — Suet, in Claud. 

— Dio. II. Another, called also Statilia. 

She was descended of a consular family, and 
married the consul AtticusVistinus, whom Nero 
murdered. She received with great marks of 
tenderness her husband's murderer, and mar- 
ried him. She had married four husbands be- 
fore she came to the imperial throne ; and after 
the death of Nero she retired to literary pur- 
suits and peaceful occupations. Otho courted 
her, and would have married her had he not 
destroyed himself. In his last moments he 
wrote her a very pathetic and consolatory let- 
ter, &c. Tacit. Ann. 

Messalinus (M. Valer.) I. a Roman officer 
in the reign of Tiberius. He was appointed 
governor of Dalmatia, and rendered himself 
known by his opposition to Piso, and by his at- 
tempts to persuade the Romans of the necessity 
of suffering women to accompany the camps on 
their different expeditions. Tacit. Ann. 3. 

II. One of Domitian's informers. 

Messene, a daughter of Triopas, king of Ar- 
gos, who married Polycaon son of Lelex, king 
of Laconia. She encouraged her husband to 
levy troops, and to seize a part of Peloponne- 
sus, which, after it had been conquered, receiv- 
ed her name. She received divine honours af- 
ter her death, and had a magnificent temple at 
Ithome, where her statue was made half of 
501 



gold and half of Parian marble. Pans. i,c. 1 
and 13. 

Metabus, a tyrant of the Privernates. He 
was father of Camilla, whom he consecrated to 
the service of Diana, when he had been banish- 
ed from his kingdom by his subjects. Virg. 
JEn. 11, V. 540. 

Metelli, the surname of the family of the 
Caicilii at Rome, the most known of whom were 
— I. CL. Caecilius, who rendered himself illus- 
trious by his successes against Jugurtha, the 
Numidian king, from which he was surnamed 
Numidicus. He took, in this expedition, the 
celebrated Mari us, as his lieutenant, and he had 
soon cause to repent of the confidence he had 
placed in him. Marius raised himself to power 
by defaming the character of his benefactor, and 
Metellus was recalled to Rome, and accused of 
extortion and ill-management. He was acquit- 
ted of the crimes laid to his charge before the 
tribunal of the Roman knights, who observed 
that the probity of his whole life, and the great- 
ness of his exploits were greater proofs of his in- 
nocence than the most powerful arguments, Cic. 

de Orat. 1, c. 43.^-SaUust de Bell. Jug. 

II. L. Caecilius, another, who saved from the 
flames the palladium, when Vesta's temple was 
on fire. He was then highpriest. He lost his 
sight and one of his arms in doing it ; and the 
senate, to reward his zeal and piety, permitted 
him always to be drawn to the senate-house in 
a chariot, an honour which no one had ever be- 
fore enjoyed. He also gained a great victory 
over the Carthaginians in the first Punic war, 
and led in his triumph 13 generals and 120 ele- 
phants taken from the enemy. He was hon- 
oured with the dictatorship and the ofiice of 

master of horse, &c. III. Q,. Caecilius Celer, 

another, who distinguished hiiiiself by his spirit- 
ed exertions against Catiline. He married Clo- 
dia, the sister of Clodius, who disgraced him 
by her incontinence and lasciviousness. He 
died 57 years before Christ. He was greatly 
lamented by Cicero, who shed tears at the loss 
of one of his most faithful and valuable friends. 

Cic. de Ccel. IV. L. Caecilius, a tribune in 

the civil wars of J. Caesar and Pompey, He 
favoured the cause of Pompey, and opposed 
Caesar when he entered Rome with a victorious 
army. He refused to open the gates of Saturn's 
temple, in which were deposited great treasures; 
upon which they were broken open by Cnesar, 
and Metellus retired when threatened with 

death. V, d. Caecilius, the grandson of the 

highpriest who saved the palladium from the 
flames, was a warlike general, who, from his 
conquest of Crete and Macedonia, was surnam- 
ed Macedonicus. He had six sons, of which 
four are particularly mentioned by Plutarch. 

VI. Q,. Caecilius, surnamed Belearicus, 

from his conquest of the Beleares. VII. L. 

Caecilius, surnamed Diadematus, but supposed 
the same as that called Lucius with the surname 
of Dalmaticus, from a victory obtained over the 
Dalmatians during his consulship with Mutius 

Scaevola. VIII. Caius CaBcilius, surnamed 

Caprarius, who was consul with Carbo, A, IT. 

C. 641. IX. The fourth was Marcus, and of 

these four brothers it is remarkable, that two of 
them triumphed in one day, but over what na- 
tion is not mentioned hj Eutrop.4. ^^ A 

general of the Roman armies against the Sici- 



ME 



HISTORY, &c. 



MI 



lians and Carthaginians. Before he marched he 
offered sacrifices to all the gods, except Vesta, 
for which neglect the goddess was so incensed 
that she demanded the blood of his daughter 
Metella. When Metella was going to be im- 
molated, the goddess placed a heifer in her place, 
and carried her to a temple at Lanuvium, of 

which she became the priestess. XI. Lucius 

Cascilius, or Cluintus, surnamed Creticus, from 
his conquest in Crete, B. C. 66, is supposed by 
some to be the son of Metellus Macedonicus. 

Xll.Cimber, one of the conspirators against 

J. Csesar. It was he who gave thesignal to attack 
and murder the dictator in the senate-house. 

XIII. Pius, a general in Spain, against 

Sertorius, on whose head he set a price of 100 
talents, and 20,000 acres of land. He distin- 
guished himself also in the Marsian war, and 
was high-priest. He obtained the name of Pius 
from the sorrow he showed during the banish- 
ment of his father Metellus Numidicus, whom 
he caused to be recalled. Paterc. 2, c. 5. — 
Sallust. Jug. 4A. 

Methodius, a bishop of Tyre, who maintain- 
ed a controversy against Porphyry. The best 
edition is that of Paris, fol. 1657. 

Metiua Lex, was enacted A. U. C. 536, to 
settle the power of the dictator, and of his mas- 
ter of horse, within certain bounds. 

Metiochus, a son of Miltiades, who was 
taken by the Phoenicians, and given to Darius, 
king of Persia. He was tenderly treated by the 
monarch, though his father had conquered the 
Persian armies in the plains of Marathon. 
Plut. — Herodot. 6, c. 41. 

Metio'n, a son of Erechtheus, king of Athens, 
and Praxithea. He married Alcippe, daughter 
of Mars and Agraulos. His sons drove Pan- 
dion from the throne of Athens, and were after- 
wards expelled by Pandion's children. 4?*^^- 
lod. 3. c. 15. — Pans. 2, c. 6. 

Metius Curtius, I. one of the Sabines who 
fought against the Romans on account of the 

stolen virgins. II. Suffetius, a dictator of 

Alba in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. He 
fought against the Romans, and at last, finally 
to settle their disputes, he proposed a single 
combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. The 
Albans were conquered, and Metius promised 
to assist the Romans against their enemies.' In 
a battle against the Veientes and Fidenates, 
Metius showed his infidelity by forsaking the 
Romans at the first onset, and retired to a neigh- 
bouring eminence, to wait for the event of the 
battle, and to fall upon whatever side proved vic- 
torious. The Romans obtained the victory, and 
Tullus ordered Metius to be tied between two 
chariots, which were drawn by four horses two 
different ways, and his limbs were torn away 
from his body, about 669 years before the Chris- 
tian era. Liv. 1, c. 23, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 3. — 

Virg. JEn. 8; v. 642. III. A critic. Vid. 

Tarpa. IV. Cams, a celebrated informer 

under Domitian, who enriched himself with 
the plunder of those who were sacrificed to the 
emperor's suspicion. 

Meton, an astrologer and mathematician of 
Athens. His father's name was Pausanias. In 
a book called Enneadecaterides, or the cycle of 
19 years, he endeavoured to adjust the course 
of the sun and of ihe moon ; and supported that 
the solar and lunar vears could regularly be- 

Part II.— 3 S 



gin from the same point in the heavens. This 
is called by the moderns ihe golden numlers. He 
flourished B. C. 432. Vitruv. I.— Plut. in Nicia. 

Metrocles, a pupil of Theophrastus, who 
had the care of the education of Cleombrotus 
and Cleomenes. He suffocated himself when 
old and infirm. Diog. 

Metrodorus, I. a physician of Chios, B. C. 
444. He was a disciple of Democritus, and 
■had Hippocrates among his pupils. His com- 
positions on medicine, &c. are lost. He sup- 
ported that the world was eternal and infinite, 

and denied the existence of motion. Diog. 

II. A painter and philosopher of Stratonice, B. 
C. 171. He was sent to Paulus iEmylius, who, 
after the conquest of Perseus, demanded of the 
Athenians a philosopher and a painter, the for- 
mer to instruct his children, and the latter to 
make a painting of his triumphs. Metrodorus 
was sent, as in him alone were imited the phi- 
losopher and painter. Plin. 35, c. 11. — Cic. 5, 
de Fiuib. 1. de Orat. 4. Acad. — Diog. in Epic. 
III. A friend of Mithridates, sent as am- 
bassador to Tigranes, king of Armenia. He 
was remarkable for his learning, moderation, 
humanity, and justice. He was put to death by 
his master, B. C. 72. Strab. — Plut. 

Mezentius, a king of the Tyrrhenians when 
vEneas came into Italy. He was remarkable 
for his cruelties, and put his subjects to death 
by slow tortures, or sometimes tied a man to a 
dead corpse face to face, and suffered him to 
die in this condition. He was expelled by his 
subjects, and fled to Turn as, who employed him 
in his war against the Trojans. He was killed 
by ^neas, with his son Lausus. Dionys. Hal. 
1, c. 15. — Justin. 43, c. 1. — Liv. 1, c. 2. — Virg. 
jEn. 7, V. 648, 1. 8, v. A82.— Ovid. Fast. 4. v. 881. 

MiciPSA, a king of Numidia, son of Masi- 
nissa, who at his death, B. C. 119, left his king- 
dom between his sons Adherbal and Hiempsal, 
and his nephew Jugurtha. Sallust. de Jug. — 
Elor. 3, c. 1. — Plut in Gr. 

MiLO, I. a celebrated athlete of Crotona in 
Italy. His father's name was Diotimus. He 
early accustomed himself to carry the greatest 
burdens, and by degrees became a monster in 
strength. It is said that he carried on his 
shoulders a young bullock four years old, for 
above forty yards, and afterwards killed it with 
on^ blow of his fist, and eat it up in one day. He 
was seven times crowned at the Pythian games, 
and six at Olympia. He presented himseif a 
seventh time, but no one had the courage or 
boldness to enter the lists against him. He was 
one of the disciples of Pythagoras, and to his 
uncommon strength the learned preceptor and 
his pupils owed their life. The pillar which 
supported the roof of the school suddenly gave 
way, but Milo supported the whole weight of 
the building, and gave the philosopher and his 
auditors time to escape. In his old age Milo at- 
tempted to pull up a tree by the roots and break 
it. He partly effected it, but his strength being 
gradually exhausted, the tree, when half cleft, 
reunited, and his hands remained pinched in the 
body of the tree. He was then alone, and be- 
ing unable to disentangle himself, he was eaten 
up by the wild beasts of the place, about 500 
years before the Christian era. Ovid. Met. 15. 
—Cic. de Senect.— Val. Max. 9, c. 1-2.— Strab. 

16.— Pans. 6, c. 11. II. T. Annius, a native 

505 



MI 



HISTORY, &c. 



MI 



of Lanuvium, who attempted to obtain the con- 
sulship at Rome by intrigue and seditious tu- 
mults. Clodius the tribune opposed his views, 
yet Milo would have succeeded had not an un- 
fortunate event totally frustrated his hopes. As 
he was going into the country, attended by his 
wife and a numerous retinue of gladiators and 
servants, he met on the Appian road his enemy 
Clodius. A quarrel arose between the servants. 
Milo supported his attendants, and the dispute 
became general. Clodius received many severe 
wounds, and was obliged to retire to a neigh- 
bouring cottage. Milo pursued his enemy in his 
retreat, and ordered his servants to despatch 
him. Eleven of the servants of Clodius shared 
his fate, as also the owner of the house who had 
given them reception. The body of the mur- 
dered tribune was carried to Rome, and exposed 
to public view. Cicero undertook the defence of 
Milo, but the continual clamours of the friends 
of Clodius, and the sight of an armed soldiery, 
which surrounded the seat of judgment, so ter- 
rified the orator, that he forgot the greatest part 
of his arguments. Milo was condemned, and 
banished to Massilia. Cicero soon after sent his 
exiled friend a copy of the oration which he had 
delivered in his defence, in the form in which 
we have it now ; and Milo, after he had read it, 
exclaimed, O Cicero, hadst thou spoken before 
my accusers in these terms, Milo would not be 
now eating Jigs at Marseilles! The friendship 
and cordiality of Cicero and Milo were the fruits 
of long intimacy and familiar intercourse. It 
was by the successful labours of Milo that the 
orator was recalled from banishment and restor- 
ed to his friends, Cic. pro Milon. — Paterc. 2, 

c. 47 and 68. — Dio. 40. III. A general of the 

forces of Pyrrhus. He was made governor of 
Tarentum, and that he might be reminded of 
his duty 10 his sovereign, Pyrrhus sent him as a 
present a chain,which was covered with the skin 
of Nicias the physician, who had perfidiously of- 
fered the Romans to poison his royal master for 
a sum of money. Polyan. 8, &c. 

MiLTiADEs, I. an Athenian, son of Cypselus, 
who obtained a victory in a chariot-race at the 
Olympic games, and led a colony of his coun- 
trymen to the Chersonesus. The causes of this 
appointment are striking and singular. The 
Thracian Dolonci, harassed by a long war with 
the Absynthians, were directed by the oracle of 
Delphi to take for their king the first man they 
met in their return home, who invited them to 
come under his roof and partake of his enter- 
tainments. This was Miltiades, whom the ap- 
pearance of the Dolonci, their strange arms and 
garments, had struck. He invited them to his 
house, and was made acquainted with the com- 
mands of the oracle. He obeyed, and when the 
oracle of Delphi had approved a second time 
the choice of the Dolonci, he departed for the 
Chersonesus, and was invested by the inhabi- 
tants with sovereign power. The first measure 
he took was to stop the further incursions of the 
Absynthians, by building a strong wall across 
the isthmus. When he had established himself 
at home, and fortified his dominions against 
foreign invasion, he turned his arms against 
Lampsacus. His expedition was unsuccessful ; 
he was taken in an ambuscade and made pris- 
oner. His friend Croesus, king of Lydia, was 
informed of his captivity, and he procured his 
506 



release by threatening the people of Lampsacus 
with his severest displeasure. He lived a few 
years after he had recovered his liberty. Ashe 
had no issue, he left his kingdom and posses- 
sions to Stesagoras the son of Cimon, who was 
his brother by the same mother. The memory 
of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the Do- 
lonci, and they regularly celebrated festivals and 
exhibited shows in commemoration of a man to 
whom they owed all their greatness and preser- 
vation. Some time after Stesagoras died with- 
out issue, and Miltiades the son of Cimon, and 
the brother of the deceased, was sent by the 
Athenians with one ship to take possession of 
the Chersonesus. At his arrival Miltiades ap- 
peared mournful, as if lamenting the recent 
death of his brother. The prin cipal inhabitants 
of the country visited the new governor to con- 
dole with him ; but their confidence in his sin- 
cerity proved fatal to them. Miltiades seized 
their persons, and made himself absolute in 
Chersonesus; and, to strengthen himself, he 
married Hegesipyla, the daughter of Olorus, the 
king of the Thracians. He was present at the 
celebrated battle of Marathon, in which all the 
chief officers ceded their power to him, and left 
the event of the battle to depend upon his su- 
perior abilities. He obtained an important vic- 
tory, ( Vid. Marathon,^ over the more numerous 
forces of his adversaries ; and when he demand- 
ed of his fellow-citizens an olive crown as the 
reward of his valour in the field of battle, he was 
not only refused, but severely reprimanded for 
presumption. The only reward, therefore, that 
he received, was in itself simple and inconsider- 
able, though truly great in the opinion of that 
age. He was represented in the front of a pic- 
ture among the rest of the commanders who 
fought at the battle of Marathon, and he seem- 
ed to exhort and animate the soldiers to fight 
with courage and intrepidity. Some time after, 
Miltiades was intrusted with a fleet of 70 ships, 
and ordered to punish those islands which had 
revolted to the Persians. He was successful at 
first, but a sudden report that the Persian fleet 
was coming to attack him, changed his opera- 
tions as he was besieging Paros. He raised the 
siege and returned to Athens, where he was ac- 
cused of treason, and particularly of holding cor- 
respondence with the enemy. The falsity of 
these accusations might have appeared if Mil- 
tiades had been able to come into the assembly. 
A wound which he had received before Paros 
detained him at home ; and his enemies, taking 
advantage of his absence, became more eager 
in their accusations and louder in their clam- 
ours. He was condemned to death, but the 
rigour of the sentence was retracted on the re- 
collection of his great services to the Athenians, 
and he was put into prison till he had paid a 
fine of 50 talents to the state. His inability to 
discharge so great a sum detained him in con- 
finement, and soon after his wounds became in- 
curable, and he died about 489 years before the 
Christian era. His body was ransomed by his 
son Cimon, who was obliged to borrow and pay 
the 50 talents to give his father a decent burial. 
Cornelius Nepos has written the life of Milti- 
ades the son of Cimon ; but his history is incon- 
gruous and not authentic ; and the author, by 
confounding the actions of the son of Cimon 
with those of the son of Cypselus, has made the 



Ml 



HISTORY, &c. 



MI 



whole dark and uaintelligible. Greater reliance 
in reading the actions of both the Miltiades is 
to be placed on the narration of Herodotus, 
whose veracity is confirmed, and who was in- 
disputably more informed and more capable of 
giving an account of the lives and exploits of 
men who flourished in his age, and of which he 
could see the living monuments. Herodotus 
was born about six years after the famous battle 
of Marathon, and C. Nepos, as a writer of the 
Augustan age, flourished about 450 years after 
the age of the father of history. C. Nep. in 
vita.—Herodot. 4, c. 137, 1. 6, c. 34, &.c.—P(,ut. 
in Cim. — Val. Max. 5, c. 3. — Justin. 2. — Pans. 

II. An archon of Athens, 

MiMALLONEs, ihc Bacchauals, who, when 
they celebrated the orgies of Bacchus, put horns 
on their heads. They are also called Mimallo- 
7iides, and some derive their name from the 
mountain Mimas. Pers. I, v. 99. — Ovid. A. A. 
V. bil.-^Stat. Tfieb. 4, v. 660. 

MiMNERMDs, a Greek poet and musician of 
Colophron in the age of Solon. He chiefly ex- 
celled in elegiac poetry, whence some have at- 
tributed the invention of it to him, and, indeed, 
he was the poet who made elegy an amorous 
poem, instead of a mournful and melancholy 
tale. In the expression of love, Propertius pre- 
fers him to Homer, as this verse shows : — 

Plus in amore valet Mimnermi versus Homer o. 

In his old age Mimnermus became enamoured 
of a young girl called Nanno. Some few frag- 
ments of his poetry remain, collected by Stobse- 
us. He is supposed by some to be the inventor 
of the pentamater verse, which others however 
attribute to Callinus or Archilochus. The sur- 
name of Ligustiades, \iyvs {^shrill-voiced), has 
been applied to him ; though some imagine the 
word to be the name of his father. Strab. I 
and 14. — Pans. 9, c. 29. — Diog. 1. — Propert, 
1, el. 9, V. n.—Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 65. 

MiNERVALiA, festivals at Rome in honour of 
Minerva, celebrated in the months of March 
and June. During the solemnities scholars ob- 
tained some relaxation from their studious pur- 
suits ; and the present which it was usual for 
them to offer to their masters was called Mi- 
nerval, in honour of the goddess Miverva. 
Varro deR. R. 3, c. 2.— Ovid. Trist. 3, v. 809. 
— Liv. 

Minos. Vid. Part III. 

MiNUTiA, a vestal virgin, accused of de- 
bauchery on account of the beauty and ele- 
gance of her dress. She was condemned to be 
buried alive, because a female supported the 
false accusation, A. U. C. 418. Liv. 8, c. 15. 

MiNUTius, I. a tribune of the people, who put 
Maelius to death when he aspired to the sove- 
reignty of Rome. He was honoured with a 
brazen statue for causing the corn to be sold at 
a reduced price to the people. Liv. 4, c. 16. — 

Plin. 18, c. 3. IT. Rufus, a master of horse 

to the dictator Fabius Maximus. His disobe- 
dience to the commands of the dictator was pro- 
ductive of an extension of his prerogative, and 
the master of the horse was declared equal in 
power to the dictator. Minutius, soon after this, 
fought with ill success against Annibal, and 
was saved by the interference of Fabius : which 
circumstance had such an effect upon him that 
he laid down his power at the feet of his deliv- 



erer, and swore that he would never act again 
but by his directions. He was killed at the bat- 
tle of CannaB. Liv. — C. Nep. in Ann. III. 

A Roman, chosen dictator, and obliged to lay 
down his office, because, during the time of his 

election, the sudden cry of a rat was heard. 

IV. A Roman, one of the first who were chosen 

quaestors. V. Felix, an African lawyer, who 

flourished 207 A. D. He has written an elegant 
•dialogue in defence of the Christian religion, 
called Octavius, from the principal speaker in it. 
This book was long attributed to Arnobius, and 
even printed as an 8th hook {Octavius), till Bal- 
duinus discovered the imposition in his edition 
of Felix, 1560. The two last editions are that 
of Davies, 8vo. Cantab. 1712 ; and of Grono- 
vius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1709. 

MisiTHEUs, a Roman, celebrated for his vir- 
tues and his misfortunes. He was father-in-law 
to the emperor Gordian, whose counsels and 
actions he guided by his prudence and mode- 
ration. He was sacrificed to the ambition of 
Philip, a wicked senator, who succeeded him 
as praefect of the proetorian guards. He died 
A. D. 243, and left all his possessions to be ap- 
propriated for the good of the public. 

MiTHRADATEs, a hcrdsmau of Astyages, or- 
dered to put young Cyrus to death. He refused, 
and educated him at home as his own son, &c. 
Herodot. — Justin. 

MiTHRiDATEs Ist, was the third king of Pon- 
tus. He was tributary to the crown of Persia, 
and his attempts to make himself independent 
proved fruitless. He was conquered in a battle, 
and obtained peace with difficulty. Xenophon 
calls him merely a governor .of Cappadocia. 
He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, B. C. 363. 

Diod. — Xenoph. The second of that name, 

king of Pontus, was grandson to Mithridates I. 
He made himself master of Pontus, which had 
been conquered by Alexander, and had been 
ceded to Antigonus at the general division of 
the Macedonian empire among the conqueror's 
generals. He reigned about 26 years, and died 
at the advanced age of 84 years, B. C. 302, 
He was succeeded by his son, Mithridates III. 
Some say that Antigonus put him to death, be- 
cause he favoured the cause of Cassander. Ap- 

playi. Mith. — Diod. The III. was son of the 

preceding monarch. He enlarged his paternal 
possessions by the conqu-est of Cappadocia and 
Paphlagonia, and died, after a reign of 36 years. 
Diod. The IV. succeeded his father Ario- 
barzanes, who was the son of Mithridates III, 
The V. succeeded his father Mithridates 



IV. and strengthened himself on his throne by 
an alliance with Antiochus the Great, whose 
daughter,Laodice,he married. He was succeed- 
ed by his son Pharnaces. The VI. succeed- 
ed his father Pharnaces. He was the first of 
the kings of Pontus who made alliance with the 
Romans. He furnished them with a fleet in the 
third Punic war,and assisted them against Aris- 
tonicus, who had laid claim to the kingdom of 
Pergamus. Thisfidelity was rewarded; he was 
called Evergetes, and received from the Roman 
people the province of Phrygia Major, and was 
called the friend and ally of Rome. He was 
murdered B. C. 123. Appian. Mithr.— Justin. 

37, &c. The VII. surnaraed Evpator and 

T/ie Great, succeeded his father, Mithridates 

VI. though only at the age of 11 vears. The 

507 



MI 



HISTORY, &c. 



MI 



beginning of his reign was marked by ambition, 
cruelty, and artifice. He murdered his own 
mother, who had been left by his father coheiress 
of the kingdom, and also the two sons whom 
his sister Laodice had had by Ariarathes, king 
of Cappadocia and placed one of his own chil- 
dren, only eight years old, on the vacant throne. 
These violent proceedings alarmed Nicomedes, 
king of Bithynia, who had married Laodice, the 
widow of Ariarathes. He suborned a youth to 
be king of Cappadocia, as the third son of Ari- 
arathes, and Laodice was sent to Rome to im- 
pose upon the senate, and assure them that her 
third son was now alive, and that his preten- 
sions to the kingdom of Cappadocia were just 
and well-grounded. Mithridates used the same 
arms of dissimulation. He also sent to Rome 
Gordius, the governor of his son, who solemnly 
declared before the Roman people,that the youth 
who sat on the throne of Cappadocia was the 
third son and lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that 
he was supported as such by Mithridates. This 
intricate affair displeased the Roman senate, 
and finally, to settle the dispute between the 
two monarchs, the powerful arbiters took away 
the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithridates, 
and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes. These two 
kingdoms being thus separated from their ori- 
ginal possessors, were presented with their free- 
dom and independence ; but the Cappadocians 
refused it, and received Ariobarzanes for king. 
Such were the first seeds of enmity between 
Rome and the king of Pontus, which ended in 
his destruction. Vid. Mithridaiicum, Bellum,. 
He fled to Tigranes, but that monarch refused 
an asylum to his father-in-law, whom he had 
before supported with all the collected forces of 
his kingdom. Mithridates found a safe retreat 
among the Scythians ; and, though destitute of 
power, friends, and resources, yet he meditated 
the destruction of the Roman empire, by pene- 
trating into the heart of Italy by land. These 
wild projects were rejected by his followers, and 
he sued for peace. It was denied to his ambas- 
sadors,and the victorious Pompey declared, that, 
to obtain it, Mithridates must ask it in person. 
He scorned to trust himself in the hands of his 
enemy, and resolved to conquer or to die. His 
subjects refused to follow him any longer, and 
they revolted from him, and made his son Phar- 
nacesking. The son showed himself ungrateful 
to his father, and even, according to some wri- 
ters, ordered him to be put to death. This un- 
natural treatment broke the heart of Mithrida- 
tes ; he obliged his wife to poison herself, and at- 
tempted to do the same himself It was in vain 
the frequent antidotes he had taken in the early 
part of his life, strengthened his constitution 
against the poison ; and when this was unavail- 
ing, he attempted to stab himself The blow 
was not mortal; and a Gaul, who was then 
present, at his own request, gave him the fatal 
stroke, about 63 years before the Christian era, 
in the 72d year of his age. Such were the mis- 
fortunes, abilities, and miserable end of a man, 
who supported himself so long against the pow- 
er of Rome ; and who, according to the declara- 
tion of the Roman authors, proved a more pow- 
erful and indefatigable adversary to the capital 
of Italy, than the great Annibal, and Pyrrhus, 
Perseus, or Antiochus. Mithridates has been 
commended for his eminent virtues and cen- 
508 



I sured for his vices. As a commander, he ae- 
I serves the most unbounded applause ; and it may 
; create admiration to see him waging war wilii 
i such success during so many years, against the 
most powerful people on earth, led to the field 
by a Sylla, a Lucuilus, and a Pompey. He was 
the greatest monarch that ever sat on a throne, 
according to the opinion of Cicero; and, indeed, 
no better proof of his military character can be 
brought,than the mention of the great rejoicings 
which happened in the Roman armies and in 
the capital at the news of his death. No less than 
twelve days were appointed for public thanks- 
givings to the immortal gods; and Pompey, who 
had sent the first intelligence of his death to 
Rome, and who had partly hastened his fall,was 
rewarded with the most uncommon honours. 
Vid. Ampia lex. It is said that Mithridates 
conquered 24 nations, whose different languages 
he knew, and spoke with the same ease and 
fluency as his own. As a man of letters he also 
deserves attention. He was acquainted with 
the Greek language, and even wrote in that dia- 
lect a treatise on botany. His skill in physic is 
well known, and even now there is a celebrated 
antidote which bears his name, and is called 
Mithridate. Superstition, as well' as nature, 
had united to render him great ; and if we rely 
upon the authority of Justin, his birth was ac-^ 
companied by the appearance of two large 
comets, which were seen for seventy days suc- 
cessively, and whose splendour eclipsed the 
midday sun, and covered the fourth part of the 
heavens, Justin. 37, c. 1, &c. — Strab. — Diod. 
U.—Flor. 3, c. 5, &c.—Plut. in SylL—Lntc. 
Mar. tf« Pomp. — Val. Max. 4, c, 6, &c. — Dio. 
30, &iC.—Appian. Mithrid.—Plin. 2, c. 97, 1. 
7, c. 24, 1. 25, c. 2, 1. 33, c. 3, &c.—Cic. pro 
Man., &c. — Paterc. 2, c. 18.— Eutrop. 5.— Jo- 
seph. 14. — Oros. 6, &c. — —II. A man in the 
armies of Artaxerxes. He was rewarded by the 
monarch for having wounded Cyrus the young- 
er ; but when he boasted that he had killed 
him, he was cruelly put to death. Plut. in 
Artax. 

MiTHRiDATicuM Bellum, beguu 89 years B. 
C, was one of the longest and most celebrated 
wars ever carried on by the Romans against a 
foreign power. Three Roman officers, L. Cas- 
sius, the pro-consul, M. Aquilius, and d. Op- 
pius, opposed Mithridates with the troops of 
Bithynia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Gallo- 
grsecia. The army of these provinces, together 
Avith the Roman soldiers in Asia, amounted to 
70,000 men and 6000 horse. The forces of the 
king of Pontus were greatly superior to these ; 
he led 250,000 foot,40,000 horse, and 130 armed 
chariots, into the field of battle, under the com- 
mand of Neoptolemus and Archelaus, His fleet 
consisted of 400 ships of war, well manned and 
provisioned. In an engagement, the king of 
Pontus obtained the victory, and dispersed the 
Roman forces in Asia. He became master of 
the greatest part of Asia, and the Hellespont 
submitted to his power. Two of the Roman 
generals were taken, and M. Aquilius, who was 
the principal cause of the war, was carried about 
in Asia, and exposed to the ridicule and insults 
of the populace, and at last put to death by Mith- 
ridates, who ordered melted gold to be poured 
down his throat as a slur upon the avidity of the 
Romans. The conqueror took every possible 



MI 



HISTORY, «&c. 



MN 



advantage ; he subdued all the islands of the 
^gean sea, and, though Rhodes refused to sub- 
mit to his power, yet all Greece was soon over- 
run by his general Archelaus, and made tributa- 
ry to the kingdom of Pontus. Meanwhile, the 
Romans, incensed against Mithridates on ac- 
count of his perfidy, and of his cruelty in mas- 
sacring 80,000 of their countrymen in one day 
all over Asia, appointed Sylla to march into the 
east. Sylla landed in Greece, where the in- 
habitants readily acknowledged his power; but 
Athens shut her gates against the Roman com- 
mander, and Archelaus, who defended it, de- 
feated, with the greatest courage, all the efforts 
and operations of the enemy. This spirited 
defence was of short duration. Archelaus re- 
treated into Boeotia, where Sylla soon followed 
him. The two hostile armies drew up in a line 
of battle near Chaeronea, and the Romans ob- 
tained the victory; and, of the almost innumer- 
able forces of the Asiatics, no more than 10,000 
escaped. Anoiher battle in Thessaly, near Or- 
chomenos, proved equally fatal to the king of 
Pontus. Dorylaus, one of his generals, was 
defeated, and he soon after sued for peace, Sylla 
listened to the terms of accommodation, as his 
presence at Rome was now become necessary to 
quell the commotions and cabals which his ene- 
mies had raised against him. He pledged him- 
self to the king of Pontus to confirm him in the 
possession of his dominions, and to procure him 
the title of friend and ally of Rome ; and Mithri- 
dates consented to relinquish Asia and Paphla- 
gonia, to deliver Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes, 
and Bithynia to Nicoraedes ; and to pay to the 
Romans'2000 talents to defray the expenses of 
the war, and to deliver into their hands 70 gal- 
leys with all their rigging. Though Mithridates 
seemed to have re-established peace in his do- 
minions, yet Fimbria, whose sentiments were 
contrary to those of Sylla, and who made him- 
self master of an army by intrigue and oppres- 
sion, kept him under continual alarms, and 
rendered the existence of his power precarious. 
Sylla, who had returned from Greece to ratify 
the treaty which had been made with Mithri- 
dates, rid the world of the tyrannical Fimbria ; 
and the king of Pontus, awed by the resolution 
and determined firmness of his ad versary, agreed 
to the conditions, though with reluctance. The 
hostile preparations of Mithridates, which con- 
tinued in the time of peace, became suspected 
by the Romans; and Mursena, who was left 
as governor of Asia in Sylla's absence, and who 
■wished to make himself known by some con- 
spicuous action, began hostilities by taking Co- 
mana, and plundering the temple of Bellona. 
Mithridates did not oppose him, but he com- 
plained of the breach of peace before the Roman 
senate. Muraena was publicly reprimanded; 
but, as he did not cease from hostilities, it was 
easily understood that he acted by the private 
directions of the Roman people. The king up- 
on this marched against him, and a battle was 
fought, in which both the adversaries claimed 
the victory. This was the last blow which the 
king of Pontus received in this war, which is 
called the second Mithridatic war, and which 
continued for about three years. Sylla, at that 
time, was made perp'^tual dictator at Rome, and 
he commanded Muraena to retire from the king- 
dom of Mithridates. The death of Svllachan- 



ged the face of affairs ; the treaty of peace 
between the king of Pontus and the Romans, 
which had never been committed to writing, de- 
manded frequent explanations, and Mithridates 
at last threw off the mask of friendship, and de- 
clared war, Nicomedes, at his death, left his 
kingdom to the Romans ; but Mithridates dispu- 
ted their right to the possessions of the deceas- 
ed monarch, and entered the field with 120,000 
jnen, besides a fleet of 400 ships in his ports, 
16,000 horsemen to follow him, and 100 chariots 
armed with scythes, Lucullus was appointed 
over Asia, and intrusted with the care of the 
Mithridatic war. His valour and prudence 
showed his merit; and Mithridates, in his vain 
attempts to take Cyzicum, lost no less than 
300,000 men. Success continually attended the 
Roman arms. The king of Pontus was defeat- 
ed in several bloody engagements, and with dif- 
ficulty saved his life, and retired to his son-in- 
law, Tigranes, king of Armenia. Lucullus pur- 
sued him, and when his application for the per- 
son of the fugitive monarch had been despised 
by Tigranes, he marched to the capital of Ar- 
menia, and terrified, by his sudden approach, the 
numerous forces of the enemy. A battle ensued. 
The Romans obtained an easy victory, and no 
less than 100,000 foot of the Armenians perish- 
ed, and only five men of the Romans were kill- 
ed, Tigranocerta, the rich capital of the coun- 
try, fell into the conqueror's hands. After such 
signal victories, Lucullus had the mortification 
to see his ov\m troops mutiny, and to be dispos- 
sessed of the command by the arrival of Pompey. 
The new^ general showed himself worthy to suc- 
ceed Lucullus. He defeated Mithridates, and 
rendered his affairs so desperate, that the mon- 
arch fled for safety into the country of the 
Scythians, where, for a while, he meditated the 
ruin of the Roman empire ; and, with more wild- 
ness than prudence, secretly resolved to invade 
Italy by land, and march an army across the 
northern wilds of Asia and Europe to the 
Apennines. Not only the kingdom of Mithri- 
dates had fallen into the enemy's hands, but also 
all the neighbouring kings and princes were 
subdued ; and Pompey saw prostrate at his feet 
Tigranes himself, that king of kings, who had 
lately treated the Romans with such contempt. 
Meantime, the wild projects of Mithridates ter- 
rified his subjects ; and they, fearful to accom- 
pany him in a march of above 2000 miles across 
a barren and uncultivated country, revolted, 
and made his son king. The monarch, forsaken 
in his old age, even by his own children, put an 
end to his life, (Vid. Mithridates VII.) and 
gave the Romans cause to rejoice, as the third 
Mithridatic war was ended in his fall, B. C. 63. 
The duration of the Mithridatic war is not pre- 
cisely known. According to Justin, Orosius, 
Floras, and Eutropius, it lasted for forty 5'ears; 
but the opinion of others, who fix its duration to 
30 years, is far more credible; and, indeed, by 
proper calculation, there elapsed no more than 
26 years from the time that Mithridates first 
entered the field against the Romans till the 
time of his death, AppioM. in Mithrid. — Jus- 
tin, 37, &c.—rior. 2, &c.—Liv.—Plut. in Lnic. 
&r. — Orosius. — Palerc. — Dion. 

Mnason, a tyrant of Elatia, who gave 1200 
pieces of gold for twelve pictures of twelve gods 
of Asclepiodorus, PHn. 35, c. 16. 
509 



MU 



HISTORY, &c. 



MU 



McERis, a king of Egypt. He was the last 
of the 300 kings from Menes to Sesostris, and 
reigned 68 years. Herodot. 3, c. 16. 

MoLo, I. a philosopher of Rhodes, called also 
Apollonius. Some are of opinion that Apollo- 
nius and Molo are two different persons, who 
were both natives of Alabanda, and disciples of 
Menecles of the same place. They both visit- 
ed Rhodes, and there opened a school, but Molo 
flourished some time after Apollonius. Molo 
had Cicero and J. Caesar among his pupils. 

Vid. Apollonius. Cic. de Oral. II. A prince 

of Syria, who revolted against Antiochus, and 
killed himself when his rebellion was attended 
with ill success. 

MoLossi. Vid. Part I. 

MoLOssus, a son of Pyrrhus and Andro- 
mache. He reigned in Epirus after the death 
of Helenus, and part of his dominions receiv- 
ed the name of Molossia from him, Paus. 1, 
c. 11. 

MoNiMA, a beautiful woman of Miletes, whom 
Mithddates the Great married. Vid. Mithri- 
dates. 

MoNOPHiLUS, a eunuch of Mithridates. The 
king intrusted him with the care of one of his 
daughters ; and the eunuch, when he saw the 
affairs of his master in a desperate situation, 
stabbed her, lest she should fall into the enemy's 
hands, 

MoNTANUS, one of the senators whom Domi- 
tian consulted about boiling a turbot. Juv. 4. 

MoNYMUs, a servant of Corinth, who, not be- 
ing permitted by his master to follow Diogenes 
the cynic, pretended madness, and obtained his 
liberty. He became a great admirer of the phi- 
losopher, and also of Crates, and even wrote 
something in the form of facetious stories 
Diog. Laert. 

Mopsus, Vid. Part III. 

MoscmoN, a name common to four different 
writers, whose compositions, character, and na- 
tive place are unknown. Some fragments of 
their writings remain, some few verses and a 
treatise de morbis mulierum, edited by Gesner, 
4to. Basil. 1566. 

MoscHus, I. a Phoenician, who wrote the 
history of his country in his own mother-tongue. 
II. A philosopher of Sidon. He is sup- 
posed to be the founder of anatomical philoso- 
phy. Strab. III. A Greek bucolic poet in 

the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The sweet- 
ness and elegance of his eclogues, which are 
still extant, make ihe world regret the loss of 
poetical pieces no ways inferior to the produc- 
tions of Theocritus. The best edition of Mos- 
chus with Bion is that of Heskin, 8vo. Oxon. 
1748. 

Moses, a celebrated legislator and general 
among the Jews, well known in sacred history. 
He was born in Egypt, 1571, B. C. and after 
he had performed his miracles before Pharaoh, 
conducted the Israelites through the Red Sea, 
and gave them laws and ordinances during 
their peregrination of 40 years in the wilderness 
of Arabia. He died at the age of 120. His 
writings have been quoted and recommended 
by several of the heathen authors, who have di- 
vested themselves of their prejudices against a 
Hebrew, and extolled his learning and the ef- 
fects of his wisdom. Longinus. — Diod. 1. 

Mummius. L. a Roman consul, sent against 
510 



the Achseans, whom he conquered, B. C. 147, 
He destroyed Corinth, Thebes, andChalcis, by 
order of the senate, and obtained the surname 
of Achaicus from his victories. He did not en- 
rich himself with the spoils of the enemy, but 
returned home without any increase of ibrtune. 
He was so unacquainted with the value of the 
paintings and works of the most celebrated ar- 
tists of Greece, which were found in the plunder 
of Corinth, that he said to those who conveyed 
them to Rome, that if they lost them or injured 
them they should make others in their stead. 
Paterc. 1, c. 13.— Strab. 8.—Plin. 34, c. 7, 1. 
37, c. l.—Flor. 2, c. 6.— Paus. 5, c. 24. 

MuNATiDs, Plancus, I. a consul sent to the 
rebellious army of Germanicus. He was almost 
killed by the incensed soldiery, who suspected 
that it was through him that they had not all 
been pardoned and indemnified by a decree of 
the senate. Calpurnius rescued him from their 

fury. II, An orator and disciple of Cicero. 

His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, 
bore the same name. He was with Caesar in 
Gaul, and was made consul with Brutus, He 
promised to favour the republican cause for 
some time, but he deserted again to Caesar. He 
was long Antony's favourite, but heleft him at 
the battle of Actium, to conciliate the favours of 
Octavius, His services were great in the sen- 
ate ; for, through his influence and persuasion, 
that venerable body flattered the conqueror of 
Antony with the appellation of Augustus. He 
was rewarded with the ofiice of censor. Plut, 
in Ant. 

MuRSJNA, a celebrated Roman, left at the 
head of the armies of the republic in Asia by 
Sylla. He invaded the dominions of Mithri- 
dates with success, but soon after met with a 
defeat. He was honoured with a triumph at his 
return to Rome. He commanded one of the 
wings of Sylla's army at the battle against 
Archelaus near Chaeronea. He was ably de- 
fended in an oration by Cicero when his char- 
acter was attacked and censured, Cic. pro 
Mur. — Appian. de Mithrid. 

Mdsa Antonius, I. a freedman and physician 
of Augustus. He cured his imperial master of 
a dangerous disease under which he laboured, 
by recommending to him the use of the cold 
bath. He was not so successful in recommend- 
ing the use of the cold bath to Marcellus as he 
had been to Augustus, and his illustrious pa- 
tient died under his care. Two small treatises, 
de Jierba Botanica, and de tuendd Valetudine, 
are supposed to be the productions of his pen. 

II. A daughter of Nicomedes, king of 

Bithynia. She attempted to recover her father's 
kingdom from the Romans, but to no purpose, 
though Caesar espoused her cause. Paterc. 2. 
— Suet, in Cces. 

MusiEus, an ancient Greek poet, supposed to 
have been son or disciple of Linus or Orpheus, 
and to have lived about 1410 years before the 
Christian era. The elegant poem of the loves 
of Leander and Hero was written by a Musseus 
who flourished in the fourth century, according 
to the more received opinions. Among the 
good editions of Musaeus two may be selected 
as the best, that of Rover, 8vo. L. Bat. 1727; 
and that of Schroder, 8vo. Leovard, 1743, Virgi 
JEn. 6, c, 611.— Diog. 

MuTiA, a daughter of Gt. Mutius Scaevola, 



MY 



HISTORY, &c. 



NA 



and sister of Metellus Celer. She was Pom- 
pey's third wife. Her incontinent behaviour so 
disgusted her husband, that, at his return from 
the Mithridatic war, he divorced her, though she 
had borne him three children. She afterwards 
married M. Scaurus. Augustus greatly esteem- 
ed her. Plut in Pomp. II. A wife of Julius 

Caesar, beloved by Clodius the tribune. Suet. 
in CcEs. 50. III. The mother of Augustus, 

MuTiA Lex, the same as that which was en- 
acted by LiciniUs Crassus and Q,. Mutius, A. 
U. C- 657. Vid Licinia Lex. 

MuTiNEs, one of Annibal's generals, who 
was honoured with the freedom of Rome on 
delivering up Agrigentum, Liv. 25, c, 41, 1. 
27, c. 5, 

Mutius, I, the father-in-law of C, Marius, 
— —II. A Roman, who saved the life of young 
Marius, by conveying him away from the pur- 
suits of his enemies m a load of straw. III. 

A friend of Tiberius Gracchus, by whose means 

he was raised to the office of a tribune. IV. 

C. Sccevola, surnamed Cordus, because famous 
for his courage and intrepidity. When Porsen- 
na, king of Etruria, had beseiged Rom.e, Mu- 
tius disguised himself in the habit of a Tuscan, 
and as he could fluently speak the language, he 
gained an easy introduction into the royal tent. 
Porsenna sat alone with his secretary when Mu- 
tius entered. The Roman rushed upon the sec- 
retary, and stabbed him to the heart, mistaking 
him for his royal master. This occasioned a 
noise, and Mutius, unable to escape, was seized 
and brought before the king. He gave no an- 
swers to the inquiries of the courtiers, and only 
told them that he was a Roman ; and, to give 
them a proof of his fortitude, he laid his right 
hand on an altar of burning coals, and, sternly 
looking at the king, and without uttering a 
groan, he boldly told him that 300 young Ro- 
mans like himself had conspired against his life, 
and entered his camp in disguise, determined 
either to destroy him or perish in the attempt. 
This extraordinary confession astonished Por- 
senna ; he made peace with the Romans, and 
retired from their city. Mutius obtained the 
surname of Sccei^ola, because he had lost the use 
of his right hand by burning it in the presence 
of the Etrurian king. Plut in Par. — Flor. 1, c. 

10. — Liv. 2, c. 12. V. Q.. Scaevola, a Roman 

consul. He obtained a victory over the Dalma- 
tians, and signalized himself greatly in the Mar- 
sian war. He is highly commended by Cicero, 
whom he instructed in the study of civil law. 
dr.. — Plut. VI. Another, appointed procon- 
sul of Asia, which he governed with so much 
popularity, that he was generally proposed to 
others as a pattern of equity and moderation. 
Cicero speaks of him as eloquent, learned, and 
ingenious ; equally eminent as an orator and as 
a lawyer. He was murdered in the temple of 
Vesta, during. the civil war of Marius and 
Sylla, 82 years before Christ. Plut. — Cic. de 
Orat. 1, c. ^S.— Pater c. 2, c. 22. 

Mycerinus, a son of Cheops, king of Egypt. 
After the death of his father he reigned with 
great justice and moderation. Herodot. 2, c. 
129. 

Mycithus, a servant of Anaxilaus, tyrant of 
Rhegium. He was intrusted with the care of 
the kingdom, and of the children of the deceas- 
ed prince, and he exercised his power with such 



fidelity and moderation, that he acquired the 
esteem of all the citizens, and at last restored 
the kingdom to his master's children when 
come to years of maturity, and retired to peace 
and solitude with a small portion. He is call- 
ed by some Micalus. Justin. 4, c. 2. 

Mycon, a celebrated painter, who with others 
assisted in making and perfecting the Pcecile 
of Athens. He was the rival of Polygnotus. 
JPlin. 33 and 35. 

Myrmidones. Vid. Part I. 

Myron, a celebrated statuary of Greece, pe- 
culiarly happy in imitating nature. He made 
a cow so much resembling life, that even bulls 
were deceived, and approached her as if alive, 
as is frequently mentioned by many epigrams 
in the Anthoiogia. He flourished about 442 
years before Christ. Ovid. Art. Am. 3, v. 319. 
— Pa.us. — Juv. 8. — Profert. 2, el. 41. 

Myrsilus, a son of Mersus, the last of the 
Heraclidae who reigned in Lydia. He is also 
called Candaules, Vid. Candaules. 

Myrtis, a Greek woman, who distinguished 
herself by her poetical talents. She flourished 
about 500 years B. C. and instructed the cele- 
brated Corinna in the several rules of versifi- 
cation. Pindar himself, as some report, was 
also one of her pupils. 

Mys, (myos,) an artist famous in working 
and polishing silver. He beautifully represent- 
ed the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithse on a 
shield in the hand of Minerva's statue made 
by Phidias. Paus. 1, c. 28. — Martial. 8, ep. 34 
and 51, 1. 14, ep. 9'S.—Propert. 3, el. 9, c. 14. 

Myscellus, or Miscellus, a native of 
Rhypae in Achaia, who founded Crotona in 
Italy, according to an oracle, which told him 
to build a city where he found rain with fine 
weather. The meaning of the oracle long per- 
plexed him, till he found a beautiful woman all 
in tears in Italy, which circumstance he inter- 
preted in his favour. According to some, Mys- 
cellus, who was the son of Hercules, went out 
of Argos, without the permission of the magis- 
trates, for which he was condemned to death. 
The judges had put each a black ball as a sign 
of condemnation, but Hercules changed them 
all and made them white, and had his son ac- 
quitted ; upon which Myscellus left Greece, and 
came to Italy, where he built Crotona. Ovid. 
Met. 15, V. 19. — Strab. 6 and 8. — Suidas. 

Mystes, a son of the poet Valgius, whose 
early death was so lamented by the father, that 
Horace wrote an ode to allay the grief of his 
friend. Horat. 2, od. 9. 

Mythecus, a sophist of Syracuse. He studied 
cookery, and when he thought himself suffi- 
ciently skilled , in dressing meat, he went to 
Sparta, where he gained much practice, espe- 
cially among the younger citizens. He was 
soon after expelled the city by the magistrates, 
who observed, that the aid of Mythecus was un- 
necessary, as hunger was the best seasoning. 

N. 

Nabazanes, an officer of Darius third, at the 
battle of Issus. He conspired with Bessus to 
murder his royal master, either to obtain the 
favour of Alexander, or to seize the kingdom. 
He was pardoned by Alexander. Cii/rt. 3, &c. 
—Diod. 17. 

511 



■NiE 



HISTORY, &c. 



N^ 



Nabis, a celebrated tyrant of Lacednemon, 
who in all acts of cruelty and oppression sur- 
passed a Phalaris or a Dionysius. When he 
had exercised every art in plundering the citi- 
zens of Sparta, he made a statue, which in re- 
semblance was like his wife, and was clothed in 
the most magnificent apparel; and whenever 
any one refused to deliver up his riches, the 
tyrant led him to the statue, which immediately, 
by means of secret springs, seized him in its 
arms, and tormented him in the most excrucia- 
ting manner with bearded points and prickles 
hid under the clothes. Nabis made an alliance 
with Flaminius, the Roman general, and pur- 
sued, with the most inveterate enmity, the war 
which he had undertaken against the Achseans. 
He besieged Gythium, and defeated Philopoe- 
men in a naval battle. His triumph was short ; 
the general of the Achseans soon repaired his 
losses, and Nabis was defeated in an engage- 
ment, and treacherously murdered as he at- 
tempted to save his life by flight, B. C. 192, 
after a usurpation of 14 years. Polyb. 13. — 
Justin. 30 and 31. — Plut. in Phil. — Paus. 7, c. 
S.—Flor. 2, c. 7. 

Nabonassar, a king of Babylon, after the 
division of the Assyrian monarchy. From him 
the Nabonassarean epoch received its name, 
agreeing with the year of the world 3237, or 
746 B. C. 

N^evius, (Cn.) I. a native of Campania, was 
the first imitator of ihe regular dramatic works 
which had been produced by Livius Androni- 
cus. He served in the first Punic war, and 
his earliest plays were represented at Rome in 
the year 519. The names of his tragedies, 
from which as few fragments remain as from 
those of Livius, are still preserved : — Alcestis, 
(from which there is yet extant a description of 
old age in rugged and barbarous verse) — Danae, 
Dulorestes, Hesiona, Hector, Iphigenia, Lycur- 
gus, PhsenisscB, Protesilaus, and T'elcphus. All 
these were translated, or closely imitated, from 
the works of Euripides, Anaxandrides, and 
other Greek dramatists. Cicero commends a 
passage in the Hector, one of the above-men- 
tioned tragedies, where the hero of the piece 
delighted with the praises which he had re- 
ceived from his father Priam, exclaims : — 

' Lcetus sum 



Laudari rue abs te, pater, laudato viro.' 

Nsevius, however, was accounted abetter comic 
than tragic poet. Cicero has given us some 
specimens of his jests, with which that cele- 
brated wit and orator appears to have been 
greatly amused ; but they consist rather in un- 
expected turns of expression, or a play of words, 
than in genuine humour. Unfortunately for 
Ngevius, he did not always confine himself in 
his comedies to such inoffensive jests. The 
dramas of Magna Grsecia and Sicily, especially 
those of Epicharmus, were the prototypes of 
the older Greek comedy ; and accordingly the 
most ancient Latin plays, particularly those of 
Nsevius, which were formed on the same school, 
though there be no evidence that they ridiculed 
political events, partook of the personal satire 
and invective which pervaded the productions of 
Aristophanes. If, as is related, the comedies of 
Nsevius were directed against the vices and cor- 
poral defects of the consuls and senators of 
513 



Rome, he must have been the most original of 
the Latin comic poets, and infinitely more so 
than Plautus or Terence ; since, although he 
may have parodied or copied the dramatic fables 
of the ancient Greek or Sicilian comedies, the 
spirit and colouring of the particular scenes 
must have been his own. The elder Scipio was 
one of the chief objects of his satiric representa- 
tions, and the poetic severity with which Aris- 
tophanes persecuted Socrates or Euripides, was 
hardly more indecent and misdirected than the 
sarcasms of Naevius against the greatest captain, 
the most accomplished scholar, and the most 
virtuous citizen of his age. Nevius, however, 
did not long escape with impunity. Rome was 
a very diflerent sort of republic from Athens : 
it was rather an aristocracy than a democracy, 
and its partisans were not always disposed to 
tolerate the taunts and insults which the chiefs 
of the Greek democracy were obliged to endure. 
Nsevius had said, in one of his verses, that the 
patrician family of the Matelli had frequently 
obtained the consulship before the age permit- 
ted by law, and he insinuated that they had been 
promoted to this dignity, not in consequence of 
their virtues, but the cruelty of the Roman fate : 

* Falo Metelli Romtzfiunt Consules.'' 

With the assistance of the other patricians, 
the Metelli retorted his sarcasms in a Saturnian 
stanza, not unlike the measure of some of our 
old ballads, in which they threatened to play 
the devil with their witty persecutor : — 

' Et Ncevio Poetce, 
Cwrn scepe Icederentur, 
Dabunt inalwm Matelli, 
Dabunt malum Matelli, 
Dabunt malum Matelli.' 

The Metelli, however, did not confine their 
vengeance to the ingenious and spirited satire, 
in the composition of which, ii may be presumed 
that the whole Roman senate was engaged. 
On account of the unceasing abuse and re- 
proaches which he had uttered against them, 
and other chief men of the city, he was thrown 
into prison, where he wrote his comedies, the 
Ha.riolus and Leontes. These plays being in 
some measure intended as a recantation of his 
former invectives, he was liberated by the tri- 
bunes of the people. He soon, however, relapsed 
into his former courses, and continued to per- 
secute the nobility in his dramas and satires with 
such implacable dislike, that he was at length 
driven from Rome by their influence, and hav- 
ing retired to Utica, he died there, m the year 
550, according to Cicero ; but Varro fixes his 
death somewhat later. Before leaving Rome, 
he had composed the following epitaph on 
himself, which Gellius remarks is full of Cam- 
panian arrogance; though the import of it, he 
adds, might be allowed to be true, had it been 
written by another : — 

' Mortales immortales flere si for et fas, 
Flerent diva CamancB Ncevium poeiam ; 
Itaque postquam est Orcino traditus thesauro, 
Oblitei sunt Romce loquier Latina lingua.' 

Besides his comedies and the above epitaph, 
Nsevius was also author of the C)'prian Iliad, a 
translation from a Greek poem, called the Cy- 
piria-n Epic. Aristotle, in the 23d chapter of his 



NA 



HISTORY, &c. 



NE 



Poetics, mentions the original work, {ra Kvnpia,) 
which, he says, had furnished many subjects for 
the drama. Some writers, particularly Pindar, 
have attributed this Greek poem to Homer ; and 
there was long an idle story current, that he had 
given it as a portion to his daughter Arsephone. 
Herodotus, in his second book, concludes, after 
some critical discussion, that it was not written 
by Homer, but that it was doubtless the work 
of a contemporary poet, or one who lived shortly 
after him. Heyne thinks it most probable, that 
it was by a poet called Stasinus, a native of the 
island of Cyprus, and that it received its name 
from the country of its author. Whoever may 
have written this Cyprian Epic, it contained 
twelve books, and was probably a work of amo- 
rous and romantic fiction. It commenced with 
the nuptials of Thetis and Peleus — it related 
the contention of the three goddesses on mount 
Ida — the fables concerning Palamedes — the 
story of the daughters of Anius — and the love 
adventures of the Phrygian fair during the 
early period of the siege of Troy — and it termi- 
nated with the council of the gods, at which it 
was resolved that Achilles should be withdrawn 
from the war, by sowing dissension between 
him and Atrides. A metrical chronicle, which 
chiefly related the events of the first Punic war, 
was another, and probably the last work of 
Naevius, since Cicero says, that in writing it he 
filled up the leisure of his latter days with won- 
derful complacency and satisfaction. Cic. 
Thisc. 1, c. 1. de Senect. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, c. 53. 

II. An augur in the reign of Tarquin. To 

convince the king and the Romans of his power 
as an ailgur, he cut a flint with a razor, and 
turned the ridicule of the populace into admira- 
tion. The razor and flint were buried under an 
altar, and it was usual among the Romans to 
make witnesses in civil causes swear near it. 
Dionys. Hal. — Liv. 1, c. 36. — Cic. de divin. 1, 
c 17, dc JV. D. 2, c. 3, 1. 3, c. 6. 

Narcissus, a freedman and secretary of Clau- 
dius, who abused his trust and the infirmities of 
his imperial master, and plundered the citizens 
of Rome to enrich himself Messalina, the em- 
peror's wife, endeavoured to remove him, but 
Narcissus sacrificed her to his avarice and re- 
sentment, Agrippina, who succeeded in the 
place of Messalina, was more successful. Nar- 
cissus was banished by her intrigues, and com- 
pelled to kill himself, A. D, 54, Vid. Part 
III. 

Nasica, the surname of one of the Scipios. 
Nasica was the first who invented the measuring 
of time by water, B. C. 159, about 134 years 
after the introduction of sundials at Rome. 
Vid. Scipio. An avaricious fellow, who mar- 
ried his daughter to Coranus, a man as mean 
as himself, that he might not only not repay the 
money he had borrowed, but moreover become 
his creditor's heir. Coranus, understanding his 
meaning, purposely alienated his property from 
him and his daughter, and exposed him to ridi- 
cule. Horat. 2, Sat. 5, v. 64, &c. 

Nasidienus, a Roman knight, whose luxury, 
arrogance, and ostentation, exhibited at an en- 
tertainment he gave to Mecaenas, were ridi- 
culed by Horace, 2, Sat. 8. 

Naucrates, I. a Greek poet, who was em- 
ployed by Artemisia to write a panegyric upon 
Mausolus.r II. An orator who endeavoured 

Part II.— 3 T 



to alienate the cities of Lycia from the interest 
of Brutus. 

Nausicaa, a daughter of Alcinous, king of the 
Phaeaceans, She met Ulysses shipwrecked on 
her father's coasts, and it was to her humanity 
that he owed the kind reception he experienced 
from the king. She married, according to Aris- 
totle and Dictys, Telemachus the son of Ulys- 
ses, by whom she had a son called Perseptolis 
or Ptoliporthus. Homer. Od. 6. — Pau$. 5, c. 
\^.—Hygin. fab, 126. 

Nautes, a Trojan soothsayer, who comforted 
^neas when his fleet had been burnt in Sicily. 
Virg. Mn. 5, v. 704. He was the progenitor of 
the Nautii at Rome, a family to whom the pal- 
ladium of Troy was, in consequence of the 
service of their a.ncestors, intrusted. Virg. 
Mn. 5, v. 794. 

Nealices, a painter, amongst whose capital 
pieces are nsentioned a painting of Venus, a 
seafight between the Persians and the Egyp- 
tians, and an ass drinking on the shore with a 
crocodile preparing to attack it, 

Nearchus, an officer of Alexander in his In- 
dian expedition. He was ordered to sail upon 
the Indian ocean with Onesicritus, and to ex- 
amine it. He wrote an account of this voyage 
and of the king's life ; but his veracity has been 
called in question by Arrian. After the king's 
death he was appointed over Lycia and Pam- 
phylia. Curt. 9, c. 10. — Polyan. 9. — Justin. 13, 
c. A.—Strab. 2, &c. . 

Nechos, a king of Egypt, who attempted to 
make a communication between the Mediterra- 
nean and Red seas, B. C. 610. No less than 
12,000 men perished in the attempt. It was 
discovered in his reign that AfVica was circum- 
navigable. Herodot. 2, c, 158, 1. 4, c. 42. 

Negtanebus, and Nectanabis, a king of 
Egypt, who defended his country against the 
Persians, and was succeeded by Tachos, B. C. 
363. His grandson, of the same name, made 
an alliance with Agesilaus, king of Sparta, and 
with his assistance he quelled a rebellion of his 
subjects. Some time after, he was joined by the 
Sidonians, Phoenicians, and inhabitants of Cy- 
prus, who had revolted from the king of Persia. 
This powerful confederacy was soon attacked 
by Darius, the king of Persia, who marched at 
the head of his troops. Nectanebus, to defend 
his frontiers against so dangerous an enemy, 
levied 20,000 mercenary soldiers in Greece, the 
same number in Libya, and 60,000 were fur- 
nished in Egypt, This numerous body was 
not equal to the Persian forces ; and Nectane- 
bus, defeated in a battle, gave up all hopes of 
resistance, and fled into Ethiopia, B. C. 350, 
where he found a safe asylum. His kingdom 
of Egypt became from that time tributary to the 
king of Persia. Plut. Ages. — Diod. 16, &c. — 
Polycen. 2. — Nep. in Ages. 

Nemesianijs, M. Aurel. Olymp., a Latin 
poet, born at Carthage, of no very brilliant tal- 
ents, in the third century, whose poems on 
hunting and bird-catching were published by 
Bumam, inter scriptores rei venaticae, 4to. L. 
Bat. 1728. 

Nemesius, a Greek writer, whose elegant and 
useful treatise de Natnra Hominis was edited 
in 12mo. Ant. apud Plant. 1565, and in 8vo. 
Oxon. 1671. 

Neocles, I. an Athenian philosopher, father, 
513 



NE 



HISTORY, &c. 



NE 



or, according to Cicero, brother to the philoso- 
pher Epicurus, Cic. 1, de Nat. D. c. 21. — 

Diog. II. The father of Themistocles, ^EZi- 

an. V. H. 2, &c. — Cic. Nep. in Them. 

Neon, one of the commanders of the ten 
thousand Greeks who assisted Cyrus against 
Artaxerxes. 

Neoptolemus, I. a king of Epirus, son of 
Achilles and Deidamia, called Pyrrhus, from 
the yelloio colour of his hair. He was carefully 
educated under the eye of his mother, and gave 
early proofs of his valour. After the death of 
Achilles, Calchas declared in the assembly of 
the Greeks that Troy could not be taken with- 
out the assistance of the son of the deceased 
hero. Immediately upon this Ulysses and Phoe- 
nix were commissioned to bring Pyrrhus to the 
war. He returned with them with pleasure, 
and received the name of Neoptolemus, {new 
soldier^) because he had come late to the field. 
His cruelty, howevei", was as great as that of his 
father. Not satisfied with breaking down the 
gates of Priam's palace, he exercised the great- 
est barbarity upon the remains of his family; 
and, without any regard to the sanctity of the 
place where Priam had taken refuge, he slaugh- 
tered him without mercy ; or, according to 
others, dragged him by ihe hair to the tomb of 
his father, -where he sacrificed him, and where 
he cut ofif his head, and carried it in exultation 
through the streets of Troy fixed on the point 
of a spear. He also sacrificed Astyanax to his 
fury, and immolated Polyxena on the tomb of 
Achilles, according to those who deny that that 
sacrifice was voluntary. When Troy was taken, 
the captives were divided among the conquer- 
ors, and Pyrrhus had for his share Andromache, 
the widow of Hector, and Helenus, the son of 
Priam, The place of his retirement after the 
Trojan war is not known. Some maintain that 
he went to Thessaly, where his grandfather still 
reigned ; but this is confuted by others, who ob- 
serve, perhaps with more reason, that he went 
to Epirus, where he laid the foundations of a 
new kingdom, because his grandfather Peleus 
had been deprived of his sceptre by Acastus the 
son of Pelias. Neoptolemus lived with Adro- 
mache after his arrival in Greece, He had a 
son by this unfortunate princess, called Molos- 
sus, and two others, if we rely on the authority 
of Pausanias, Besides Andromache, he married 
Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, as also 
Lanassa, the daughter of Cleodseus, one of the 
descendants of Hercules, The cause of his 
death is variously related, Menelaus, before the 
Trojan war, had promised his daughter Her- 
mione to Orestes, but the services he experien- 
ced from the valour and the courage of Neopto- 
lemus, duringthesiege of Troy, induced him to 
reward his merit by making him his son-in-law. 
The nuptials were accordingly celebrated, but 
Orestes caused his rival to be assassinated in 
the temple of Delphi, and he was murdered at 
the foot of the altar by Machareus the priest, or 
by the hand of Orestes himself, according to 
Virgil, Paterculus, and Hyginus, Some say 
that he was murdered by the Delphians, who 
had been bribed by the presents of Orestes, He 
suffered the same death and the same barbari- 
ties which he had inflicted in the temple of Mi- 
nerva upon the aged Priam and his wretched 
family. From this circumstance the ancients 
514 



have made use of the proverb of Neoptolemic 
revenge when a person had suffered the same 
savage treatment which others had received 
from his hands. The Delphians celebrated a 
festival with great pomp and solemnity in mem- 
ory of Neoptolemus, who had been slain in his 
attempt to plunder their temple, bec0,ase, as 
they said, Apollo, the patron of the place, had 
been in some manner accessary to the death of 
ilchilles, Paterc. 1, c, 1. — Virg. ^En.2 and 
3.— Pans. 10, c. 24:.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 334, 
455, &c. Heroid. 8, — Slrab. 9. — Pind. Nem. 
l.-^Eurip. Androm. and Orest. &c. — Plut. in 
Pyrr. — Justin. 17, c. 3.—Dictys Cret. 4, 5 and 
6.—Ho7)ier. Od. 11, v, 504. II. 19, v. 326.— 
Sophocl. Philoct. — Apollod. 3, c. 13. — Hygin. 
fab. 97 and lQi2.—Philostr. Her. 19, &c.— Da- 
res Phryg.—Q. Smyrn. 14. II. An uncle of 

the celebrated Pyrrhus, who assisted the Ta- 
rentines. He was made king of Epirus by the 
Epirots, who had revolted from their lawful 
sovereign, and was put to death when he at- 
tempted to poison his nephew, &c. Plut. in 

Pyrr. III. A tragic poet of Athens, greatly 

favoured by Philip, king of Macedonia. When 
Cleopatra, the monarch's daughter, was married 
to Alexander of Epirus, he wrote some verses 
which proved to be prophetic of ihe tragical 
death of Philip, Diod. 16,-— IV. A relation 
of Alexander, He was the first who climbed 
the walls of Gaza when that city was taken by 
Alexander. After the king's death he received 
Armenia as his province, and made war against 
Eumenes. He was supported by Crater us, but 
an engagement with Eumenes proved fatal to 
his cause, Craterus was killed, and himself 
mortally wounded by Eumenes, B, C. 321, C. 
Nep. in Kumen. 

Nepherites, a king of Egypt, who assisted 
the Sparians against Persia when Agesilaus 
was in Asia. He sent them a fleet of 100 ships, 
which were intercepted by Conon as they were 
sailing towards Rhodes, &c, Diod. 14, 

Nepos, (Corn,) I. the author of the Vitcz 
Ezcellentium Imperatorum, and the life of Titus 
Pomponius Atticus, the celebrated friend and 
correspondent of Cicero, There can be no 
doubt that an author of the name of Cornelius 
Nepos lived at Rome during this period, and 
enjoyed considerable celebrity. He is generally 
believed to have been born at Hostilia (now 
Ostiglia), a small to\^Ti situated on the banks 
of the Po, near the confines of the Veronese 
and Mantuan territories. The year of his birth 
is uncertain, but he first came toRome during the 
dictatorship of Julius Caesar, He does not ap- 
pear to have filled any public office in the state ; 
but his merit soon procured him the friendship 
of the most eminent men who at that time 
adorned the capital of the world, Catullus, 
dedicated to him the volume of poems, which 
he had privately read and approved of before 
their publication. Nepos addressed one of his 
own works to Pomponius Atticus, with whom 
also he was on terms of intimacy. He likewise 
obtained the esteem and affection of Cicero, 
who speaks of his writings with high approba- 
tion in one of his letters, and in another alludes 
with much sympathy to the loss which Nepos 
had sustained by the death of a favourite son. 
It farther appears, that Cicero had frequently 
corresponded with him, for Macrobius quotes 



NE 



HISTORY, <S^c. 



NE 



the second book of that orator's epistles to Cor- 
nelius Nepos. It is thus probable that some of 
our author's works had been prepared, or were 
m the course of composition, previous to the 
death of Cicero ; but they were not given to 
the public till early in the reign of Augustus, 
since Eusebius considers him as flourishing in 
the fourth year of that emperor. The precise 
period of his death is unknown, and it can only 
be ascertained that he survived Atticus, whose 
biography he writes, and who died in the 732d 
year of the city. Some chronological accounts 
extend his life till the commencement of the 
Christian era, but it is scarcely possible that one 
who was a distinguished literary character in 
the time of Catullus could have existed till that 
epoch. Whether the Cornelius Nepos, concern- 
ing whose life these circumstances have been 
gleaned, was the author of the well-known book 
entitled Vita Excellentium Imperatorum, has 
been a subject, ever since it was first printed, of 
much debate and controversy among critics and 
commentators. The discussion originated in 
the following circumstances : — A person of the 
name, of jEmilius Probus, who lived in the 
fourth century, during the reign of Theodosius 
the Great, presented to his sovereign a copy of 
the Vitcs Imperatorum, and prefixed to it some 
barbarous verses, which left it doubtful whether 
he meant to announce himself as the author, 
or merely as the transcriber, of the work. To 
myself it appears, that after allowing for the 
superior dignity of the oflice of a transcriber 
in the age of Theodosius, compared with its 
diminished importance at the present day, there 
is something more implied in the verses of 
Probus than that he was merely a copyist, and 
he must either have had a part in the compo- 
sition, or, having discovered the MS., was not 
unwilling that he should have some share of 
the credit due to the author. The Vitcs Im- 
peratorum, properly so called, contains the lives 
of nineteen Greek, one Persian, and two Car- 
thaginian generals. It has been conjectured, 
that there was also a series of lives of Roman 
commanders, but that these had perished be- 
fore iEmilius Probus commenced his transcrip- 
tion. That Nepos at least intended to write 
these biographies, appears from a passage at 
the end of the life of Hannibal, in which he 
says: ' it is now time to conclude this book, and 
proceed to the lives of the Roman generals, that 
their exploits, being compared with those of the 
Greeks, it may be judged which are to be pre- 
ferred.' That he actually accomplished this 
task is rendered at least probable, from the cir- 
cumstance of Plutarch quoting the authority of 
Nepos, for facts concerning the lives of Marcel- 
lus and Lucullus; and it seems not unlikely, 
that the sentence at the close of Hannibal, may 
- have suggested to that biographer the idea of 
his parallel lives. The principles which Nepos 
displays in that part of the work which still re- 
mains, are those of an admirer of virtue, a foe 
to vice, and a supporter of the cause of free- 
dom. It was written in the crisis of his coun- 
try's fate, and during her last struggles for lib- 
erty, when despotism was impending, but the 
hope of freedom was not yet extinguished in the 
breasts of the last of the Romans. The work, 
it has been conjectured, was undertaken to fan 
the expiring flame, by exhibiting the example 



of such men as Dion and Timoleon, and by 
inserting sentiments which were appropriate to 
the times. In choosing the subjects of his biog- 
raphies, the author chiefly selects those heroes 
who had maintained or recovered the liberties 
of their country, and he passes over all that bears 
no reference to this favourite theme. Nepos 
appears to have been a very fertile writer. Be- 
sides the lives of commanders and that of Pom- 
ponius Atticus, he was the author of several 
works, chiefly of a historical description, which 
are now almost entirely lost. He wrote, in 
three books, an abridgment of the history of 
the world ; and he had the merit of being the 
first author among the Romans who completed 
a task of this laborious and useful description. 
Aulus Gellius mentions his life of Cicero, and 
quotes the fifth book of his work, entitled Ez- 
emplorum Libri. He also composed a treatise 
on the difference of the terms literatus and 
eruditus ; and, finally, a book De Historicis 
Greeds. Among the many good editions of 
Cornelius Nepos, two may be selected as the 
best, that of Verheyk, 8vo. L. Bat. 1773, and 

that of Glasgow, 12mo. 1761. II. Julius, an 

emperor of the west, &c. 

Nepotianus, (Flavins Popilius,) a son of 
Eutropia, the sister of the emperor Constan- 
tine. He proclaimed himself emperor after the 
death of his cousin Constans, and rendered 
himself odious by his cruelty and oppression. 
He was murdered byAnicetus, after one month's 
reign, and his family were involved in his ruin. 

Nero, I. (Claud. Domitius Caesar,) a cele- 
brated Roman emperor, son of Caius Domitius 
Ahenobarbus and Agrippina, the daughter of 
Germanicus. He was adopted by the emperor 
Claudius, A. D. 50, and four years after he suc- 
ceeded to him on the throne. The beginning 
of his reign was marked by acts of the greatest 
kindness and condescension, by affability, com- 
plaisance, and popularity ; and when he was 
desired to sign his name to a list of malefactors 
that were to be executed, he exclaimed, 1 wish 
to Hea.ven J could not write. These promising 
virtues were soon discovered to be artificial, and 
Nero displayed the propensities of his nature. 
He delivered himself from the sway of his moth- 
er, and at last ordered her to be assassinated. 
Many of his courtiers shared the unhappy fate 
of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or 
caprice all such as obstructed his pleasure or 
diverted his inclination. He also turned actor, 
and publicly appeared on the Roman stage in 
the meanest characters. In his attempts to 
excel in music, and to conquer the disadvan- 
tages of a hoarse rough voice, he moderated his 
meals, and often passed the day without eating. 
The celebrity of the Olympian games attracted 
his notice. He passed into Greece, and present- 
ed himself as a candidate for the public honour. 
He was defeated in wrestling, but the flattery 
of the spectators adjudged him the victory. He 
disguised himself in the habit of a woman, and 
was publicly married to one of his eunuchs. 
This violence to nature and decency was soon 
exchanged for another: Nero resumed his sex, 
and celebrated his nuptials with one of his mean- 
est catamites ; and it was on this occasion that 
one of the Romans observed, that the world 
would have been happy if Nero's father had had 
such a wife. He sacrificed to his wantonness 
515 



NE 



IITSTORY, &c. 



NE 



his wife Octavia Poppsea, and the celebrated 
writers, Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, «&c. The 
Christians also did not escape his barbarity. 
He had heard of the burning of Troy ; and as 
he wished to renew that dismal scene, he caused 
Rome to be set on fire in different places. The 
conflagration became soon universal, and during 
nine successive days the fire was unextinguish- 
ed. Nero placed himself on the top of a high 
tower, and sang on his lyre the destruction of 
Troy ; a dreadful scene, which his barbarity had 
realized before his eyes. He built himself a cel- 
ebrated palace, which he called his golden 
house. It was profusely adorned with gold, with 
precious stones, and with whatever was rare and 
exquisite. It contained spacious fields, artifi- 
cial lakes, woods, gardens, orchards, and what- 
ever could exhibit beauty and grandeur. The 
entrance of this edifice could admit a large colos- 
sus of the emperor 120 feet high; the galleries 
were each a mile long, and the whole was cov- 
ered with gold. The roofs of the dining-halls 
represented the firmament, in motion as well as 
in figure, and continually turned round night 
and day, showering down all sorts of perfumes 
and sweet waters. When this grand edifice, 
which, according to Pliny,extended all round the 
city, was finished, Nero said that now he could 
lodge like a man. This continuation of de- 
bauchery and extravagance at last roused the 
resentment of the people. Many conspiracies 
were formed against the emperor, but they were 
generally discovered, and such as were acces- 
sary suffered the greatest punishments. The 
most dangerous conspiracy against Nero's life 
was that of Piso, from which he was delivered 
by the confession of a slave. The conspiracy 
of Galba proved more successful; and the con- 
spirator, when he was informed that his plot 
was known to Nero, declared himself emperor. 
The unpopularity of Nero favoured his cause ; 
he was acknowledged by all the Roman empire, 
and the senate condemned the tyrant that sat 
on the throne to be dragged naked through the 
streets of Rome, and whipped to death, and af- 
terwards to be thrown down from the Tarpeian 
rock like the meanest malefactor. This, how- 
ever, was not done ; and Nero, by a voluntary 
death, prevented the execution of the sentence. 
He killed himself, A. D. 68, in the 32d j^ear 
of his age, after a reign of 13 years and eight 
months. The tyrant, as he expired, begged 
that his head might not be cut ofi* from his body, 
and exposed to the insolence of the enraged pop- 
ulace, but that the whole might be burned on 
the funeral pile. His request was granted by one 
of Galba's freedmen, and his obsequies were 
performed with the usual ceremonj es. T hough 
his death seemed to be the source of universal 
gladness, yet many of his favourites lamented 
his fall, and were grieved to see that their pleas- 
ures and amusements were stopped by the death 
of the patron of debauchery and extravagance. 
Even the king of Parthia sent ambassadors 
to Rome to condole with the Romans, and to 
beg that they would honour and revere the 
memory of Nero. His statues were also crown- 
ed with garlands of flowers, and many believed 
that he was not dead, but that he would soon 
make his appearance, and take a due vengeance 
upon his enemies. Pliny calls him the common 
enemy and the fury of mankind ; and in this 
516 



he has been followed by all writers, who exhibit 
Nero as a pattern of the most execrable barba- 
rity and unpardonable wantonness. Plut. in 
Galb. — Sv£t. in vita. — Plin. 7, c. 8, &c. — Dio. 
64. — Aurel. Victor. — Tacit. Ann. II. Clau- 
dius, a Roman general, sent into Spain to suc- 
ceed the two Scipios. He suffered himself to 
be imposed upon by Asdrubal, and was soon 
after succeeded by young Scipio. He was 
afterwards made consul, and intercepted Asdru- 
bal, who was passing from Spain into ItaJ}' 
with a large reinforcement for his brother Anni- 
bal. An engagement was fought near the river 
Metaurus, in which 56,000 of the Carthaginians 
were left on the field of battle, and great num- 
bers taken prisoners, 207 B. C. Asdrubal, the 
Carthaginian general, was also killed, and his 
head cut off and thrown down into his brother's 
camp by the conquerors. Appian. iii Han. — 
Oros. 4. — Liv. 27, &c. — Horab, 4, od. 4, v. 37. 

—Flor. 2, c. Q.— Val. Max. 4, c. 1. III. A 

son of Germanicus, who was ruined by Sejanus, 
and banished from Rome by Tiberius. He died 
in the place of his exile. His death was volun- 
tar)'-, according to some. Sicet. in Tib. — Domi- 
tian was called Nero, because his cruelties sur- 
passed those of his predecessors, and also Cal- 
vus, from the baldness of his head. Juv. 4. — 
The Neros were of the Claudian family, which, 
during the republican times of Rome, was hon- 
oured with 28 consulships, five dictatorships, 
six triumphs, seven censorships, and two ova- 
tions. They assumed the surname of Nero, 
which, in the language of the Sabines, signifies 
strong and warlike. 

Neronia, a name given to Artaxata by Ti- 
ridates, who had been restored to his kingdom 
by Nero, whose favours he .acknowledged by 
calling the capital of his dominions after the 
name of his benefactor, 

Nerva Cocceius, I. a Roman emperor, after 
the death of Domitian, A. D. 96. He rendered 
himself popular by his mildness, his generosity, 
and the active part he took in the manage- 
ment of affairs. He suffered no statues to be 
raised to his honour, and he applied to the use 
of the government all the gold and silver statues 
which flattery had erected to his predecessor. 
In his civil character he was the pattern of good 
manners, of sobriety, and temperance. He for- 
bade the mutilation of male children, and gave 
no countenance to the law which permitted the 
marriage of an uncle with his niece. He made 
a solemn declaration that no senator should 
suffer death during his reign ; and this he ob- 
served with such sanctity, that, when two mem- 
bers of the senate had conspii'ed against his life, 
he was satisfied to tell them that he was inform- 
ed of their wicked machinations. He also con- 
ducted them to the public spectacles, and seat- 
ed himself between them, and when a sword 
was offered to him, according to the usual cus- 
tom, he desired the conspirators to try it upon 
his ijody. Such goodness of heart, such con- 
fidence in the self-conviction of the human mind, 
and such reliance upon the consequence of his 
lenity and indulgence, conciliated the affection 
of all his subjects. Yet the praetorian guards 
at last mutinied, and Nerva nearly yielded to 
their fury. He uncovered bis aged neck in the 
presence of the incensed soldiery, and bade them 
wreak their vengeance upon him, provided they 



NI 



HISTORY, &c. 



NI 



spared the lives of those to whom he was indebl- 
efl for the empire, and whom his honour com- 
manded him to defend. His seeming submis- 
sion was unavailing, and he was at last obliged 
to surrender to the fury of his soldiers some of 
his friends and supporters. The infirmities of 
his age, and his natural timidity, at last obliged 
him to provide himself against any future muti- 
ny or tumuli, by choosing a worthy successor. 
He had many friends and relations, but he did 
not consider the aggrandizement of his family, 
and he chose for his son and successor Trajan, 
a man of whose virtues and greatness of mind 
he was fully convinced. He died on the 27th 
of July, A. D. 98, in his 72d year, and his suc- 
cessor showed his respect for his merit and his 
character by raising him altars and temples in 
Rome, and in the provinces, and by ranking 
him in the number of the gods. Nerva was 
the first Roman emperor who was of foreign 
extraction, his father being a native of Crete. 

Plin. paneg. — Diod. 69. II. M. Cocceius, 

a consul in the reign of Tiberius. He starved 
himself, because he would not be concerned in 

the extravagance of the emperor. III. A 

celebrated lawyer, consul with the emperor 
Vespasian. He was father to the emperor of 
that name. 

Nestocles, a famous statuary of Greece, 
rival of Phidias. Plin. 34, c. 8. 

Nestor, a son of Neleus and Chloris, ne- 
phew to Pelias, and grandson to Neptune. He 
had eleven brothers, who were all killed, with 
his father, by Hercules. As king of Pylos and 
Messenia he led his subjects to the Trojan war, 
where he distinguished himself, among the rest 
of the Grecian chiefs, by eloquence, address, 
wisdom, justice, and an uncommon prudence 
of mind. Homer displays his character as the 
most perfect of all his heroes ; and Agamemnon 
exclaims, that if he had ten generals like Nes- 
tor, he should soon see the walls of Troy re- 
duced to ashes. After the Trojan war, Nestor 
retired to Greece, where he enjoyed, in the bo- 
som of his family, the peace and tranquillity 
which were due to his wisdom and to his old 
age. The manner and the time of his death are 
unknown ; the ancients are all agreed that he 
lived three generations of men, which length of 
time some suppose to be 300 years, though, more 
probably, only 90, allowing 30 years for each 
generation. He had two daughters, Pisidice 
and Polycaste ; and seven sons, Perseus, Stra- 
ticus, Aretus, Echephron, Pisistratus, Antilo- 
chus, and Trasimedes. Nestor was one of the 
Argonauts, according to Valerius Flaccus, 1, v. 
380, &c. — Dictys Cret. 1, c. 13, &c. — Homer, 
n. 1, &c. Od. 3 and n.—Hvgin.—fab. 10 and 
273.— Paws. 3, c. 26, 1. 4, c. 3 and 3l.—ApoIlod. 
1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. l.— Ovid Met. 12, v. 169, &c.— 
Hot at. 1, od. 15. 

Nestorius, a bishop of Constantinople, who 
flourished A. D. 431. He was condemned and 
degraded from his episcopal dignity for his 
heretical opinions, &c. 

NicAGORAs, a sophist of Athens, in the reign 
of the emperor Philip. He wrote the lives of 
illustrious men, and was reckoned one of the 
greatest and most learned men of his age. 

Nicander, I. a king of Sparta, son of Cha- 
rillus, of the family of the Proclidae. He reign- 
ed 39 years, and died B. C. 770, II. A 



Greek grammarian, poet, and physician, of 
Colophon, 137 B. C. His writings were held 
in estimation. Two of his poems, entitled 
Theriaca^ on hunting, and Alexipharmaca, on 
antidotes against poison, are still extant ; the 
best editions of which are those of Gorrseus, 
with a translation in Latin verse by Grevinus, 
a physician at Paris, 4to. Paris, 1557, and Sal- 
vinus, 8vo. Florenl. 1764. Cic. 1, de Oral. c. 16. 

NiCANOR, ( Vid. Demetrius 2d,) I. a governor 
of Media, conquered by Seleucus. He had been 
governor over the Athenians under Cassander, 

by whose orders he was put to death. II. A 

governor of Munychia, who seized the Piraeus, 
and was at last put to death by Cassander, be- 
cause he wished to make himself absolute over 

Attica. Diod. 18. III. A general of Antio- 

chus, king of Syria. He made war against the 
Jews, and showed himself uncommonly cruel. 

NiciAs, I. an Athenian general, celebrated 
for his valour and for his misfortunes. When 
Athens determined to make war against Sicily, 
Niciaswas appointed, with Alcibiades and La- 
machuSjtoconductthe expedition, which he rep- 
robated as impolitic, and as the future cause of 
calamities to the Athenian power. In Sicily he 
behaved w^ith great firmness, but he often blam- 
ed the quick and inconsiderate measures of his 
colleagues. The success of the Athenians re- 
mained long doubtful. Alcibiades was recalled 
by his enemies to take his trial, and Nicias was 
left at the head of affairs. Syracuse was sur- 
roimded by a wall, and though the operations 
were carried on slowly, yet the city would have 
surrendered, had not the sudden appearance of 
Gylippus, the Corinthian ally of the Sicilians, 
cheered up the courage of the besieged at the 
critical moment. Gylippus proposed terms of 
accommodation to the Athenians, which were 
refused ; some battles were fought, in which the 
Sicilians obtained the advantage, and Nicias at 
last, tired of his ill success, and grown despond- 
ingjdemanded of the Athenians a reinforcement 
or a successor. Demosthenes, upon this, was 
sent with a powerful fleet ; but the advice of 
Nicias was despisef^. and the admiral, by his 
eagerness to come to a decisive engagement, 
ruined his fleet and the interest of Athens. Ni- 
cias gave himself up to the conquerors with all 
his army, and was shamefully put to death with 
Demosthenes. His troops were sent to quarries, 
where the plague and hard labour diminished 
their numbers and aggravated their misfortunes. 
Some suppose that the death of Nicias w^as not 
violent. He perished about 413 years before 
Christ, and the Athenians lamented in him a 
great and valiant, but unfortunate general. 
JPlut.invitd.— C. Nep. in Alcib. — Thucyd. 4, 

&c. — Diod. 15. II. A physician of Pyrrhus, 

king of Epirus, who made an offer to the Ro- 
mans of poisoning his master for a sum of mo- 
ney. The Roman general disdained his offers, 
and acquainted Pyrrhus with his treachery. 
He is oftener called Cineas. 

Nico, a celebrated architect and geometri- 
cian. He was father to the celebrated Galen, 

the prince of physicians. The name of an 

ass which Augustus met before the battle of Ac- 
tium, a circumstance which he considered as a 

favourable omen. The name of an elephant, 

remarkable for his fidelity to king Pyrrhus. 

NicocLEs, I. a familiar friend of Phocion, 
517 



NI 



HISTORY, &c. 



NI 



condemned to death. Plut. II. A king of 

Salamis, celebrated for his contest with a king 
of PhcEnicia, to prove which of the two was most 

effeminate. III. A king of Paphos, who 

reigned under the protection of Ptolemy, king of 
Egypt. He revolted from his friend to the king 
of Persia, upon which Piolemy ordered one of 
his servants to put him to death, to strike terror 
into the other dependant princes. The servant, 
unwilling to murder the monarch, advised him 
to kill himself Nicocles obeyed, and all his 
family followed the example, 310 years before 

the Christian era. IV. An ancient Greek 

poet,who called physicians a happy race of men, 
Decause light published their good deeds to the 
world, and the earth hid all their faults and im- 
perfections. V. A king of Cyprus, who suc- 
ceeded his father Evagoras on the throne, 374 
years before Christ. It was with him that the 

philosopher Isocrates corresponded. VI. A 

tyrant of Sicyon, deposed by means of Aratus 
the Achaean. Plut. in Aral. 

NicocRATEs, I. a tyrant of Cyrene. II. 

An author at Athens. III. A king of Sala- 
mis in Cyprus; who made himself known by a 
valuable collection of books. Athen. 1. 

NicocREON, a tyrant of Salamis, in the age 
of Alexander the Great. He ordered the phi- 
losopher Anaxarchus to be pounded to pieces 
in a mortar. 

NicoDEMus, I. an Athenian, appointed by 
Conon over the fleet which was going to the 

assistance of Artaxerxes. Diod. 14. II. A 

tyrant of Italy, &c. III. An ambassador sent 

to Pompey by Aristobulus, 

NicoLAUs, a celebrated Syracusan, who en- 
deavoured to dissuade his countrymen from 
offering violence to the Athenian prisoners 
who had been taken with Nicias their general. 
His eloquence was unavailing. 

NicoMACHA, a daughter of Themistocles. 

NicoMACHUs, the father of Aristotle, whose 
son also bore the same name. The philosopher 
composed his ten books of morals for the use 
and improvement of his son, and thence they 
are called Nicomachea. Suidas. 

NicoMEDEs, I. a king of Bithynia, about 
278 years before the Christian era. It was by 
his exertions thai this part of Asia became a 
monarchy. He behaved with great cruelty to 
his brothers, and built a town which he called 
by his own name, Nicomedia. Justin. — Paus. 

&c. The 2d, was ironically surnamed Phi- 

lopater, because he drove his father Prusias 
from the kingdom of Bithynia, and caused him 
to be assassinated, B. C. 149. He reigned 59 
years. Mithridates laid claim to his kingdom, 
but all their disputes were decided by the Ro- 
mans, who deprived Nicomedes of the province 
of Paphlagonia, and his ambitious rival of Cap- 
padocia. He gained the affections of his sub- 
jects by a courteous behaviour, and by a mild 

and peaceful government. Justin. The 3d, 

son and successor of the preceding, was de- 
thronedby his brother Socrates, and afterwards 
by the ambitious Mithridates. The Romans re- 
established him on his throne, and encouraged 
him to make reprisals upon the king of Pontus. 
He followed their advice, and he was, at last, 
expelled another time from his dominions, till 
Sylla came into Asia, who restored him to his 
former power and affluence. Sirab. — Appian. 
5!8 



The fourth of that name, was son and suc- 
cessor of Nicomedes 3d. He passed his life in 
an easy and tranquil manner, and enjoyed the 
peace which his alliance with the Romans had 
procured him. He died B. C 75, without 
issue, and left his kingdom, with all his posses- 
sions, to the Roman people. Strab. 12. — Ap- 
pian. Mithr.—Just. 33, c. 2, &c.—Flor. 3, c. 5. 

NicosTRATA, a courtesan, who left all her pos- 
sessions to Sylla. — The same as Carmente, 
mother of Evander. 

NicosTRATUs, I. a man of Argos, of great 
strength. He was fond of imitating Hercules 
by clothing himself in a lion's skin. Diod. 16. 
II. One of Alexander's soldiers. He con- 



spired against the king's life with Hermolaus. 

Curt. 8. III. A general of the Achseans, 

who defeated the Macedonians. 

Niger, (C. Pescennius Justus,) a celebrated 
governor in Syria, well known by his valour in 
the Roman armies, while yet a private man. 
At the death of Pertinax he was declared em- 
peror of Rome, and his claims to that elevated 
situation were supported by a sound understand- 
ing, prudence of dnind, moderation, courage, 
and virtue. He proposed to imitate the actions 
of the venerable Antoninus, of Trajan, of Ti- 
tus, and M. Aurelius. He was remarkable for 
his fondness for ancient discipline, and never 
suffered his soldiers to drink wine, but obliged 
them to quench their thirst with water and 
vinegar. He forbade the use of silver or gold 
utensils in his camp, all the bakers and cooks 
were driven away, and the soldiers ordered to 
live, during the expedition they undertook, 
merely upon biscuit. In his punishments Ni- 
ger was inexorable ; he condemned ten of his 
soldiers to be beheaded in the presence of his ar- 
my, because they had stolen and eaten a fowl. 
The sentence was heard with groans ; the army- 
interfered ; and when Niger consented to di- 
minish the punishment for fear of kindling a re- 
bellion, yet he ordered the criminals to make 
each a restoration of ten fowls to the person 
whose property they had stolen ; they were, be- 
sides, ordered not to light a fire the rest of the 
campaign, but to live upon cold aliments and 
to drink nothing but water. Such great quali- 
fications in a general seemed to promise the res- 
toration of ancient discipline in the Roman 
armies, but the death of Niger frustrated every 
hope of reform. Severus, who had been invest- 
ed with the imperial purple, marched against 
him ; some battles were fought, and Niger was 
at last defeated, A. D. 194. His head was cut 
off, and fixed to a long spear, and carried in tri- 
umph through the streets of Rome. He reign- 
ed about one year. Herodian. 3. — Eutrop. Vid, 
Part I. 

NiGiDius FiGiJLUS, P. a celebrated philoso- 
pher and astrologer at Rome, one of the most 
learned men of his age. He was made praetor, 
and honoured with a seat in the senate. In the 
civil wars he followed the interests of Pompey, 
for which he was banished by the conqueror. 
He died in the place of his banishment 47 years 
before Christ. Cic. ad Fam. 4, ep. 13. — Diican, 
1, V. 639. 

NiLEUs, a son of Codrus, who conducted a 
colony of lonians to Asia, where he built Ephe- 
ses, Miletus, Priene, Colophon, Myus, Teos, 
Lebedos, Clazomenae, &c. Paus. 7. c. 2, &c. 



NO 



HISTORY, &c. 



NtJ 



NiNUs, a son of Belus, who built a city to 
which he gave his own name, and founded the 
Assyrian monarchy, of which he was the first 
sovereign, B. C. 2059. He was very warlike, 
and extended his conquests from Egypt to the 
extremities of India and Bactriana. Hebe- 
came enamoured of Semiramis, the wife of one 
of his officers, and he married her after her hus- 
band had destroyed himself through fear of his 
powerful rival, Ninus reigned 52 years, and at . 
his death he left his kingdom^© the care of his 
wife Semiramis, by whom he had a son. Ninus 
after death received divine honours, andbecame 
the Jupiter of the Assyrians and the Hercules 
of the Chaldeans. Ctesias. — Diod. 2. — Justin. 
1, c. l.—Herodot. 2. Vid. Part I. 

NiNYAS, a son of Ninus and Semiramis, king 
of Assyria, who succeeded his mother, who had 
voluntarily abdicated the crown. The reign of 
Ninyas is remarkable for its luxury and extrav- 
agance. Justin. 1, c. 2. — Diod. 1, &c. 

Nisus, a son of Hyrtacus, born on mount Ida, 
near Troy, He came to Italy with iEneas, and 
signalized himself by his valour against the Ru- 
tulians. He was united in the closest friend- 
ship with Euryalus, a young Trojan, and with 
him he entered, in the dead of night, the ene- 
my's camp. As they were returning victorious, 
after much bloodshed, they were perceived by 
the Rutulians, who attacked Euryalus. Nisus, 
in endeavouring to rescue his friend from the 
enemy's darts, perished himself with him, and 
their heads were cut off and fixed on a spear, 
and carried in triumph to the camp. Their death 
was greatly lamented by all the Trojans ; and 
their great friendship, like that of aPylades and 
an Orestes, or of a Theseus and Pirithous, is 
become proverbial. Virg. JEn. 9, v. 176. Vid. 
Part III, 

NiTocRis, I. a celebrated queen of Babylon, 
who built a bridge across the Euphrates, in the 
middle of that city, and dug a number of reser- 
voirs for the superfluous waters of that river. 
She ordered herself to be buried over one of the 
gates of the city, and placed an inscription on 
her tomb, which signified that her successors 
would find great treasures within, if ever they 
were in need of money, but that their labours 
would be ill-repaid if ever they ventured to 
open it without necessity. Cyrus opened it 
through curiosity, and was struck to find within 
these words : — If thy avarice had not been insa- 
tiable thou never would have violated the monu- 
ments of the dead. Herodot. 1, c. 185. II. 

A queen of Egypt, who built a third pyramid, 

NoMADES, a name given to all those uncivil- 
ized people who had no fixed habitation, and 
who continually changed the place of their res- 
idence to go in search of fresh pasture for the 
numerous cattle which they tended. There 
were Nomades in Scythia, India, Arabia, and 
Africa. Those of Africa were afterwards called 
Numidians, by a small change of the letters 
which composed their name, Ital. 1, v, 215, — 
Plin. 5, c. 3.— Herodot. 1, c. 15, 1. 4, c. 187.— 
Strab. 1—Mela. 2, c. 1, 1. 3, c. 4..— Virg. G. 3, 
V. U3.— Paus. 8, c, 43, 

NoMENTANUs, an epithet applied to L, Cas- 
sius as a native of Nomentum. He is mention- 
ed by Horace as a mixture of luxury and dissi- 
pation. Horat. 1, Sat. 1, v. 102, and alibi. 
Nonius, a Roman who exhorted his country- 



men after the fatal battle of Pharsalia and the 
flight of Poropey, by observing that eight stand- 
ards {aquilce) still remained in the camp ; to 
which Cicero answered, Recte, si nobis cumgra- 
cutis bellus esset. 

NoNNius Marcellus, a grammarian, whose 
treatise de varia significatiotie verborum was 
edited by Mercer, 8vo. Paris, 1614. 

NoNNUs, a Greek writer of the fifth century, 
v/ho wrote an account of the embassy he had 
undertaken to ^Ethiopia, among the Saracens 
and other eastern nations. He is also known by 
his Diom/siaca, a wonderful collection of hea- 
then mythology and erudition, edited 4to. Ant- 
werp, 1569. His paraphrase on John was edit- 
ed by Heinsius, 8vo. L. Bat, 1627. 

NoNus, a Greek physician, v/hose book de 
omiiium morboruvi curatione, was edited in 
12mo. Argent, 1568. 

NoRBANUs, C. a young and ambitious Roman, 
who opposed Sylla, and joined his interest to 
that of young Marius. In his consulship he 
marched against Sylla, by whom he was de- 
feated, &c. Plut. 

NuMA MARcros, a man made governor of 
Rome by Tullus Hoslilius. He was son-in-law 
of Numa Pompilius, and father to Ancus Mar- 
tins. Tacit. A. 6, c. 11. — Liv. 1, c. 20. 

Numa Pompilius, I. a celebrated philosopher, 
born at Cures, a village of the Sabines, on the 
day that Romulus laid the foundation of Rome, 
He married Tatia, the daughter of Tatius, the 
king of the Sabines, and at her death he retired 
into the country to devote himself more freely 
to literary pursuits. At the death of Romulus 
the Romans fixed upon him .to be their new 
king, and two senators were sent to acquaint 
him with the decisions of the senate and of the 
people. Numa refused their offers, and it was 
not but at the repeated solicitations and prayers 
of his friends that he was prevailed upon to 
accept the royalty. The beginning of his reign 
was popular, and he dismissed the 300 body- 
guards which his predecessor had kept around 
his person, observing that he did not distrust a 
people who had compelled him to reign over 
them. He applied himself to tame the ferocity 
of his subjects, to inculcate in their minds a 
reverence for the deity, and to quell their dis- 
sensions by dividing all the citizens into differ- 
ent classes. He established different orders of 
priests, and taught the Romans not to worship 
the deity by images ; and from his example no 
graven or painted statues appeared in the tem- 
ples or sanctuaries of Rome for upwards of 160 
years. He encouraged the report which was 
spread of his paying regular visits to the nymph 
Egeria, and made use of her name to give sanc- 
tion to the laws and institutions which he had 
introduced. He established the college of the 
vestals, and dedicated a temple to Janus, which, 
during his whole reign, remained shut, as a 
mark of peace and tranquillity at Rome. Numa 
died after a reign of 43 years, in which he had 
given every possible encouragement to the use- 
ful arts, and in which he had cultivated peace, 
B. C.672. He forbade his body to be burnt, ac- 
cording to the custom of the Romans, but he 
ordered it to be buried near mount Janiculum, 
with many of the books which he had written. 
These books were accidentally found by one of 
the Romans about 400 vears after his death; 
519 



NY 



HISTORY, &c. 



OC 



and as ihey contained nothing new or interest- 
ing, but merely the reasons why he had made 
innovations in the form of worship and in the 
religion of the Romans, they were burnt by or- 
der of the senate. He left behind one daughter, 
called Pompilia, who married Numa Martius, 
and became the mother of Ancus Martius, the 
fourth king of Rome. Some say that he had 
also four sons ; but this opinion is ill founded. 
Plut. in vita. — Varro. — Liv. l,c. 18. — Plin. 13 
and 14, &iC.—Flor. 1, c. 2.— Virg. JEn. 6, v. 
809, ]. 9, V. 562.— Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 2 and 17. 
Val. Max. 1, c. 'H.—Dionys. Hal. 2, c. 59. — 

Ovid. Faat. 3, &c. II. One of the Rutulian 

chiefs, killed in the night by Nisus and Eurya- 
lus. Virg, JEn. 9, v. 454. 

NuMENiA, or Neomenia, a festival observed 
by the Greeks at the beginning of every lunar 
month, in honour of all the gods, but especially 
of Apollo or the Sun. It was observed with 
games and public entertainments, which were 
provided at the expense of rich citizens, and 
which were always frequented by the poor. 

NuMERiANCJS, (M. Aurelius,) a son of the 
emperor Carus. He accompanied his father 
into the east with the title of Caesar, and at his 
death he succeeded him with his brother Cari- 
nus, A. D. 282. His reign was short. Eight 
months after his father's death he was murdered 
in his litter by his father-in-law, Arrius Aper, 
who accompanied him in an expedition. Nu- 
merianus has been admired for his learning as 
well as his moderation. He was naturally an 
eloquent speaker, and in poetry he was inferior 
to no writer of his age, 

NuMERius, a man who favoured the escape 
of Marius to Africa, &c. 

NuMiTOR, a son of Procas, king of Alba, who 
inherited his father's kingdom with his brother 
Amulius, who began to reign conjointly with 
him. He expelled his brother, and put to death 
his son Lausus, and consecrated his daughter 
Ilia to the service of the goddess Vesta, which 
demanded perpetual celibacy. These great pre- 
cautions were rendered abortive. Ilia became 
pregnant; and though the two children whom 
she brought forth were exposed in the river by 
order of the tyrant, their life was preserved, 
and Numitor was restored to his throne by his 
grandsons, and the tyrannical usurper was put to 
death. Dion. Hal. — Liv. 1, c. 3. — Plut. in Rom. 
—Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 55, &c.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 768. 

NuMiToRius, a Roman, who defended Vir- 
ginia, to whom Appius wished to offer violence. 
He was made military tribune. 

NuNCOREUs, a son of Sesostris, king of Egypt, 
who made an obelisk, some ages after brought 
to Rome and placed in the Vatican. Plin. 36, 
c. 11. He is called Pheron by Herodotus. 

Nyctelia, festivals in honour of Bacchus, 
{Vid. Nyctelius,) observed on mount Cithaeron. 
Plut in Simp. 

Nymphidius, a favourite of Nero, who said 
that he was descended from Caligula, He was 
raised to the consular dignity, and soon after 
disputed the empire with Galba. He was slain 
by the soldiers, &c. Tacit. Ann. 15. 

Nympholeptes, or Nymphomanes, possessed 
by the nymphs. This name was given to the 
inhabitants of mount Cithaeron, who believed 
that they were inspired by the nymphs. Plut 
in Arist. 

500 



O. 



Oarses, the original name of Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. 

OcEiA, a woman who presided over the sacred 
rites of Vesta for 57 years with the greatest 
sanctity. She died in the reign of Tiberius, 
and the daughter of Domitius succeeded her. 
Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 86. 

Ocellus, an ancient philosopher of Lucania, 
Vid. L/ucanus. 

OcHUS. Vid. Artaxerxes. 

OcRisiA, a woman of Corniculum, who was 
one of the attendants of Tanaquil, the wife of 
Tarquinius Priscus. As she was throwing 
into the flames, as offerings, some of the meats 
that were served on the table of Tarquin, she 
suddenly saw in the fire what Ovid calls Obsca- 
ni forma virilis. She informed the queen of it, 
and when by her orders she had approached 
near it, she conceived a son, who was called 
Servius Tullius, and who, being educated in 
the king's family, afterwards succeeded to the 
vacant throne. Plut. de fort. Rom. — Plin. 36, 
c, 21.— Ovid. Fast: 6, v. 627. 

OcTAViA, I. a Roman lady, sister to the empe- 
ror Augustus, and celebrated for her beauty and 
virtues. She married Claudius Marcellus, and 
after his death M. Antony. Her marriage with 
Antony was a political step to reconcile her 
brother and her husband. Antony proved for 
some time attentive to her, but he soon after de- 
spised her for Cleopatra. After the battle of 
Actium and the death of Antony, Octavia, for- 
getful of the injuries she had received, took into 
her house all the children of her husband, and 
treated them with maternal tenderness. Mar- 
cellus, her son by her first husband, was married 
to a niece of Augustus, and publicly intended 
as a successors to his uncle. Vid. Virgil. Oc- 
tavia had two daughters by Antony, Antonia 
Major and Antonia Minor. The death of Mar- 
cellus preyed upon the mind of Octavia, who 
died of melancholy about 10 years before the 
Christian era. Her brother paid great regard to 
her memory, by pronouncing himself her fu- 
neral oration. The Roman people also showed 
their respect for her virtues by their wish to pay 
her divine honours. — Suet, in Aug. — Plut. in 

Anton. &c. II. A daughter of the emperor 

Claudius by Messalina. She was betrothed to 
Silanus, but by the intrigues of Agrippina, she 
was married to the emperor Nero in the 16th 
year of her age. She was soon after divorced 
on pretence of barrenness, and the emperor 
married Poppsea, who exercised her enmity 
upon Octavia by causing her to be banished 
into Campania. She was afterwards recalled 
at the instance of the people, and Poppaea, who 
was resolved on her ruin, caused her again to 
be banished to an island, where she was ordered 
to kill herself by opening her veins. Her head 
was cut off and carried to Poppaea. Suet, in 
Claud. 27, in Ner. 7 and ^b.— Tacit. Ann. 12. 

OcTAViANUS, or OcTAVius C^SAR. Vid. Au- 
gustus. 

OcTAVius, I. a Roman officer, who brought 
Perseus, king of Macedonia, a prisoner to the 
consul. He was sent by his countrymen to be 
guardian to Ptolemy Eupa^or, the young king 
of Egypt, where he behaved with the greatest 
arrogance. He was assassinated by Lysias, 



OL 



HISTORY, &c. 



OL 



•who was bfjfore regent of Egypt. The murderer 

■was sent to Rome. II. A man who banished 

Cinna from Rome, and became remarkable for 
his probity and fondness of discipline. He was 
seized and put to death by order of his success- 
ful rivals Marius and Cinna. III. A Roman, 

who boasted of being in the number of Caesar's 
murderers. His assertions were false, yet he 
was punished as if he had been accessaiy to the 

conspiracy. -IV. A lieutenant of Crassus in 

Parthia. He accompanied his general to the 
tent of the Parthian conqueror, and was killed 
by the enemy as he attempted lo hinder them 

from carrying away Crassus. V. A tribune 

of the people at Rome, whom Tib. Gracchus 

his colleague deposed. VI. A poet in the 

Augustan age, intimate with Horace. He also 
distinguished himself as an historian, Horat. 
], Sat.lQ, V.83. 

Odenatus, a celebrated prince of Palmyra. 
When Aurelian had been taken prisoner by Sa- 
por, king of Persia, Odenalus solicited his re- 
lease by writing a letter to the conqueror and 
sending him presents. The king of Persia was 
offended at the liberty of Odenatus ; he tore the 
letter, and ordered the presents which were of- 
fered to be thrown into a river. To punish Ode- 
natus, who had the impudence, as he observed, 
to pay homage to so great a monarch as himself, 
he ordered him to appear before him, on pain of 
being devoted to instant destruction, with all his 
family, if he dared to refuse. Odenatus disdain- 
ed the summons of Sapor, and opposed force to 
force. Gallienus, the then reigning emperor, 
named Odenatus as his colleague on the throne, 
and gave the title of Augustus to his children, 
and to his wife, the celebrated Zenobia. He 
perished by the dagger of one of his relations, 
whom he had slightly offended in a domestic 
entertainment. He died at Emessa, about the 
267th year of the Christian era. Zenobia suc- 
ceeded to all his titles and honours. 

Odoacer, a king of the Heruli, who destroy- 
ed the western empire of Rome, and called him- 
self king of Italy, A. D. 476. 

Odyssea, one of Homer's epic poems, in 
which he describes, in 24 books, the adventures 
of Ulysses on his return from the Trojan war, 
with other material circumstances. The whole 
of the action comprehends no more than 55 
days. Vid,. Homerus. 

QEbares, a groom of Darius, son of Hystas- 
pes. He was the cause that his master obtain- 
ed the kingdom of Persia, by his artifice in 
making his horse neigh first. Herodot. 3, c. 
85. — Justin. 1, c. 10. 

CEcuMENiDs, wrote in the middle of the 10th 
century a paraphrase of some of the books of 
the New Testament in Greek, edited in 2 vols, 
fol. Paris, 1631. 

OiLEUS. Vid. Part. III. 

Olen, a Greek poet of Lycia, who flourished 
some time before the age of Orpheus, and com- 
posed many hymns, some of which were regu- 
larly sung ai Delphi on solemn occasions. Some 
suppose that he was the first who established 
the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, where he first 
delivered oracles. Herodot. 4, c. 35. 

Ollius, T. the father of Poppaea, destroyed 
on account of his intimacy with Sejanus, &c. 
Tacit. Ann. 13, c. 45. 

Ollovico, a prince of Gaul, called the friend 

Part XL— 3 U 



of the republic of the Roman senate. Ccbs. B: 
G. 7, c. 31. 

Olympia, (oru7)i,) celebrated games which re- 
ceived their name either from Olympia, where 
they were observed, or from Jupiter Olympius, 
to whom they were dedicated. They were, ac- 
cording to some, instituted by Jupiter after his 
victory over the Titans, and first observed by 
the Idaei Daetyli, B. C. 1453. Some attribute 
-the institution to Pelops, after he had obtained 
a victory over CEnomaus and married Hippoda- 
mia; but the more probable, and indeed the more 
received opinion is, that they were first estab- 
lished by Hercules in honour of Jupiter Olym- 
pius, after a victory obtained over Augias, B. C. 
1222. They are not, however, mentioned by 
Homer, Iphitus, in the age of the lawgiver of 
Sparta, renewed them, and instituted the cele- 
bration with greater solemnity. This reinstitu- 
tion, which happened B. C. 884, forms a cele- 
brated epoch in Grecian history, and is the 
beginning of the Olympiads. ( Vid. Olympias.) 
They, however, were neglected for some time 
after the age of Iphitus, till Corcebus, who ob- 
tained a victory B. C. 776, reinstituted them to 
be regularly and constantly celebrated. The 
care and superintendence of the games were in- 
trusted to the people of Elis, till they were ex- 
cluded by the Pisaeans, B. C. 364, after the 
destruction of Pisa. These obtained greatprivi- 
leges from this appointment ; the^y were in 
danger neither of violence nor war, but they 
were permitted to enjoy their possessions with- 
out molestation, as the games were celebrated 
within their territories. Only one person super- 
intended till the 50th Olympiad, when two were 
appointed. In the 103d Olympiad, the number 
was increased to twelve, according to the num- 
ber of the tribes of Elis. But in the following 
Olympiad they were reduced to eight, and after- 
wards increased to ten, which number continued 
till the reign of Adrian. No women were per- 
mitted to appear at the celebration of the Olym- 
pian games, and whoever dared to trespass this 
law was immediately thro^Am down from a rock. 
This, however, M'-as sometimes neglected, for we 
find not only women present at the celebration, 
but also some among the combatants, and some 
rewarded with the crown. The preparations 
for these festivals were great. No person was 
permitted to enter the lists if he had not regu- 
larly exercised himself ten months before the 
celebralion at the public gymnasium of Elis. 
The wrestlers were appointed by lot. Some 
little balls, superscribed with a letter, were 
thrown into a silver urn, and such as drew the 
same letter were obliged to contend one with the 
other. He who had an odd letter remained the 
last, and he often had the advantage, as he was 
to encounter the last who had obtained the su- 
periority over his adversary. He was called 
F.<i)c6po?. In these games were exhibited run- 
ning, leaping, wrestling, boxing, and the th row- 
ing" of the quoit, which was called altogether 
Trei>Ta9)<ov, OT quinquertium. Besides these, 
there were horse and chariot-races, and also 
contentions in poetry, eloquence, and the fine 
arts. The only reward that the conqueror ob- 
tained was a crown of olive ; which, as some 
suppose, was in memory of the labours of Her- 
cules,which were accomplished for the universal 
good of mankind, and for which the hero claira- 
521 



OL 



HISTORY, &c. 



ON 



ed no other reward but the consciousness of hav- 
ing been the friend of humanity. The statues 
of the conquerors, called OJympionicEe, were 
creeled in Olympia, in the sacred wood of Jupi- 
ter. Their return home was that of a warlike 
conqueror; and their entrance into their native 
city was not through the gates, but, to make it 
more grand and more solemn, a breach was 
made in the walls. Painters and poets were em- 
ployed in celebrating their names ; and indeed 
the victories severally obtained at Olj'-mpia are 
the subjects of the most beautiful odes of Pin- 
dar. The combatants were naked; a scarf 
was originally tied round their waist, but when 
it had entangled one of the adversaries, and 
been the cause that he lost the victory, it was 
laid aside, and no regard was paid to decency. 
The Olympic games were observed every fifth 
year, or, to speak with greater exactness, after 
a revolution of four years, and in the first 
month of the fifth year, and they continued for 
five successive days. As they were the most 
ancient and the most solemn of all the festivals 
of the Greeks, it will not appear wonderful 
that they drew so many people together, not 
only inhabitants of Greece, but of the neigh- 
bouring islands and countries. Pind Olymp. 
1 and 2. — Strab. 8. — Pans. 5, c.> 67, &c.— 
Diod. 1, &c. — Plut. in Thes. Lye. &c. — ^li- 
an. V. H. 10, v. l.—Cic. Tusc. 1, c. AQ.—Lu- 
cian. de Gym. — T'zetz. in Uycophr. — Aristotel. 
—Stat. Theb. fi.— C. Nep. in Prcef.— Virg. G. 
3, V. 49. 

Olympus, a certain space of time which 
elapsed between the celebration of the Olympic 
games. The Olympic games were celebrated 
after the expiratien of four complete years, 
whence some have said that they were observed 
every fifth year. The period of lime was called 
Olympiad, and became a celebrated era among 
the Greeks, who computed their time by it. The 
custom of reckoning time by the celebration of 
the Olympic games was not introduced at the 
first institution of these festivals, but, to speak 
accurately, only the year in which Coroebus ob- 
tained the prize. This Olympiad, Which has al- 
ways been reckoned the first, fell, according to 
the accurate and learned computations of some 
of the moderns, exactly 776 years before the 
Christian era, in the year of the Julian period 
3938, and 23 years before the building of Rome. 
The games were exhibited at the time of the full 
moon next after the summer solstice ; therefore 
the Olympiads were ofunequal lengths, because 
the time of the full moon differs 11 days every 
year, and for that reason they sometimes began 
the next day after the solstice, and at other times 
four weeks after. The computations by Olym- 
piads ceased, as some suppose, after the 364th, 
in the year 440 of the Christian era. It was 
universally adopted, not only by the Greeks, 
but by many of the neighbouring countries, 
though still the Pythian games served as an 
epoch to the people of Delphi and to the Boeo- 
tians, the Nemaean games to the Argives and 
Arcadians, and the Isthmian to the Corinthi- 
ans and the inhabitants of the Peloponnesian 

isthmus, A celebrated woman, who was 

daughter of a king of Epirus, and who married 
Philip, king of Macedonia, by whom she had 
Alexander the Great. Her haughtiness, and 
more probably her infidelity, obliged Philip to 
522 



repudiate her, and to marry Cleopatra, the niece 
of king Attains. Olympias w^as sensible of this 
injury, and Alexander showed his disapproba- 
tion of his father's measures by retiring from 
the court to his mother. The murder of Philip, 
which soon followed this disgrace, and which 
some have attributed to the intrigues of Olym- 
pias, was productive of the greatest extrava- 
gancies. The queen paid the highest honour to 
her husband's murderer. She gathered his 
mangled limbs, placed a crown of gold on his 
head J and laid his ashes near those of Philip. 
When Alexander was dead, Olympias seized 
the government of Macedonia, and, to establish 
her usurpation, she cruelly put to death Ari- 
daeus, with his wife Eurydice, as also Nicanor, 
the brother of Cassander, with one hundred 
leading men of Macedon, who were inimical to 
her interest. Such barbarities did not long re- 
main unpunished, Cassander besieged her in 
Pydna, where she had retired with the remains 
of her family, and she was obliged to surrender 
after an obstinate siege. The conqueror ordered 
her to be accused, and to be put todeath. A body 
of 200 soldiers were directed to put the bloody 
commands into execution, but the splendour 
and majesty of the queen disarmed their cour- 
age, and she was at last massacred by those 
whom she had cruelly deprived of their children, 
about 316 years before the Christian era. Justin. 
7, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 7. — Plut. in Alex. — Curt. — Pans. 
Olympiodorus, I. a musician, who taught 
Epaminondas music. C. Nep. — —II. A native 
of Thebes, in Egypt, who flourished under 
Theodosius 2d, and wrote 22 books of history, 
in Greek, beginning with the seventh consul- 
ship of Honorius, and the second of Theodosius, 
^o the period when Valentinian was made em- 
peror. He wrote also an accoimt of an embassy 
to some of the barbarian nations of the north, 
&c. His style is censured by some as low, and 
unworthy of an historian. The commentaries 
of Olympiodorus on the Meteora of Aristotle 
were edited apud Aid. 1550, in fol. 

Olympus, a poet and musician of Mysia, son 
of Maeon, and disciple to Marsyas. He lived 
before the Trojan war, and distinguished him- 
self by his amatory elegies, his hymns, and par- 
ticularly the beautiful airs which he composed, 
and which were still preserved in the age of 
Aristophanes. Ploio in Min. — Aristot. Pol. 8. 
Onesicritus, a cynic philosopher of ^gina, 
who went with Alexander into Asia, and was 
sent to the Indian Gymnosophists. He wrote 
a history of the king's life, which has been 
censured for the romantic, exaggerated, and im- 
probable narrative it gives. It is asserted that 
Alexander, upon reading it, said that he should 
be glad to come to life again for some time, to 
see what reception the historian's work met 
with. Plut. in Alex. — Curt. 9, c. 10. 

Onesimus, a Macedonian nobleman, treated 
with great kindness by the Roman emperors. 
He wrote an account of the life of the emperor 
Probus and of Carus, with great precision and 
elegance. 

Onomacritus, a soothsayer of Athens. It is 
generally believed, that the Greek poem on the 
Argonautic expedition, attributed to Orpheus, 
was written by Onomacritus. The elegant 
poems of Musasus are also, by some, supposed 
to be the production of his pen. He flourished 



OP 



HISTORY, &c. 



OR 



about 516 years before the Christian era, and 
was expelled from Athens by Hipparchus, one 
of the sons of Pisistralus. Herodot. 7, c. 6. 

Onomachus, a Phocian, son of Euthycrates, 
and brother of Philomelus, whom he succeeded 
as general of his countrymen in the Sacred war. 
After exploits of valour and perseverance, he 
was defeated and slain in Thessaly by Philip 
of Macedon, who ordered his body to be igno- 
miniously hung up, for the sacrilege offered to 
the temple of Delphi. He died 353 B. C. 
Arisiot. Pel. 5, c. 4. — Diod. 17. 

Onophas, one of the seven Persians who con- 
spired against the usurper Smerdis. Ctesias. 

Onosander, a Greek writer, whose book De 
Imperatoris Institutione has been edited by 
Schwebel, with a French translation, fol. No- 
rimb. 1752. 

Opimius, L. a Roman, who made himself 
consul in opposition to the interest and efforts 
of the Gracchi. He showed himself a most in- 
veterate enemy to C. Gracchus and his adhe- 
rents, and behaved, during his consulship, like 
a dictator. He was accused of bribery and 
banished. He died of want at Dyrrachium. 
Cic.pro Sext. Plane. ^ in Pis. — Pint. 

Oppia Lex, by C. Oppius, the tribune, A. U. 
C. 540. It required that no woman should wear 
above half an ounce of gold, have party-colour- 
ed garments, or be carried in any city or town, 
or to any place within a mile's distance, unless 
it was to celebrate some sacred festivals or so- 
lemnities. This famous law, which was made 
while Annibal was in Italy, and while Rome 
was in distressed circumstances, created dis- 
content, and 18 years after, the Roman ladies 
petitioned the assembly of the people that it 
might be repealed. Cato opposed it strongly, 
and made many satirical reflections upon the 
women for their appearing in public to solicit 
votes. The tribune Valerius, who had pre- 
sented the petition to the assembly, answered 
the objections of Cato, and his eloquence had 
such an influence on the minds of the people, 
that the law was instantly abrogated with the 
unanimous consent of all the comitia, Cato alone 
excepted. Liv. 33 and 34. — Cic. de Or at. 3. 

Oppianus, a Greek poet of Cilicia in the sec- 
ond century. His father's name was Agesi- 
laus, and his mother's Zenodota. He wrote 
some poems, celebrated for their elegance and 
sublimity. Two of his poems are now extant, 
five books on fishing, called alieuticon, and four 
on hunting, called cynegeticon. The emperor 
Caracalla was so pleased with his poetry, that 
he gave him a piece of gold for every verse of 
his cynegeticon ; from which circumstance the 
poem received the name of the golden verses of 
Oppian. The poet died of the plague, in the 
30th year of his age. His countrymen raised 
statues to his honour, and engraved on his tomb 
that the gods had hastened to call back Oppian in 
the flower of his youth only because he had al- 
ready excelled all mankind. The best edition of 
his works is that of Schneider, 8vo. Argent.1776. 

Oppius, C. a friend of Julius Caesar, celebra- 
ted for his life of Scipio Africanus, and of Pom- 
pey the Great. In the age of Suetonius, he 
was deemed the true author of the Alexandrian, 
African, and Spanish wars, which some attri- 
bute to Ccesar and others to A. Hirtius. Tacit. 
Ann. 12. — Suet, in Cess. 53. 



Optatus, one of the fathers whose works 
were edited by Du Pin, fol. Paris, 1700. 

Oraculum, an answer of the gods to the 
questions of men, or the place where those an- 
swers were given. Nothing is more famous 
than the ancient oracles of Egypt, Greece, 
Rome, &c. They were supposed to be the will 
of the gods themselves, and they were consulted, 
not only upon every important matter, but even 
in the affairs of private life. The small prov- 
ince of Bcsotia could once boast of her 25 ora- 
cles, and the Peloponnesus of the same number. 
Not only the chief of the gods gave oracles, but, 
in process of time, heroes were admitted to enjoy 
the same privileges ; and the oracles of a Tro- 
phonius and an Antinous were soon able to rival 
the fame of Apollo and of Jupiter. The most 
celebrated oracles of antiquity were those of 
Dodona, Delphi, Jupiter Ammon, &c. Vid. 
Dodona^ Delphi, Ammon. The temple of 
Delphi seemed to claim a superiority over the 
other temples ; its fame was once more extended, 
and its riches were so great, that not only pri- 
vate persons, but even kings and numerous ar- 
mies made it an object of plunder and of rapine. 
The manner of delivering oracles was different. 
The answers were sometimes given in verse 
or written on tablets, but their meaning was 
always obscure, and often the cause of disaster 
to such as consulted them. Croesus, when he 
consulted the oracle of Delphi, was told that if 
he crossed the Halys, he should destroy a great 
empire ; he supposed that that empire was the 
empire of his enemy, but unfortunately it was 
his own. The words of Credo te jEacida, Ro- 
manos vincere posse, which Pyrrhus received 
when he wished to assist the Tarentines against 
the Romans, by a favourable interpretation for 
himself, proved his ruin. Nero was ordered by 
the oracle of Delphi to beware of 73 years ; 
but the pleasing idea that he should live to that 
age rendered him careless, and he was soon 
convinced of his mistake, when Galba, in his 
73d, year, had the presumption to dethrone him. 
Some have believed that all the oracles of the 
earth ceased at the birth of Christ, but the sup- 
position rs false. It was, indeed, the beginning 
of their decline, but they remained in repute, 
and were consulted, though, perhaps, not so fre- 
quently, till the fourth century, when Christi- 
anity began to triumph over paganism. The 
oracles often suffered themselves to be bribed. 
Alexander did it ; but it is well known that Ly- 
sander failed in the attempt. Herodotus, who 
first mentioned the corruption which often pre- 
vailed in the oracular temples of Greece and 
Egypt, has been severely treated for his remarks 
by the historian Plutarch. Demosthenes is also 
a witness of the corruption ; and he observed, 
that the oracles of Greece were servilely subser- 
vient to the will and pleasure of Philip, king of 
Macedonia, as he beautifully expresses it by the 
word (f>i\nnri^civ. Hovier 11. Od. 10. — Herodot. 
1 and 2. — Xenoph. memor. — Strai. 5, 7, &c. — 
Pans. 1, &c. — Pint, de defect, orac. de Ages. 
<f« dc Hor. malign. — Cic. de Div. 1, c. 19. — 
Justin. 24, c. G.—Liv. Ti.—^lian. V. H. 6.— 
C. Nep. in Lys. — Aristoph. in Equit. (^' Plut. 
—Demosth. Phil.— Ovid. Met. 1. 

Orjea, certain solemn sacrifices of fruits, of- 
fered in the four seasons of the year, to obtain 
mild and temperate weather. They were of- 
523 



OR 



HISTORY, &c. 



OR 



fered to the goddesses who presided over the 
seasons, who attended upon the sun, and who 
received divine worship at Athens. 

Orbilius Pupillus, a grammarian of Bene- 
ventura, who was the first instructer of the poet 
Horace. He came to Rome in the consulship 
of Cicero, and there, as a public teacher, ac- 
quired more fame than money. He was nat- 
urally of a severe disposition, of which his pu- 
pils often felt the effects. He lived almost to 
his 100th year, and lost his memory some time 
before his death. Suet, de lllust. Gr. 9. — Ho- 
rat. 2, ep. 1, v. 71. 

ORCfflA Lex, by Orchius, the tribune, A. TJ. 
C. 566. It was enacted to limit the number of 
guests that were to be admitted at an enter- 
tainment; and it also enforced, that during sup- 
per, which was the chief meal among the Ro- 
mans, the doors of every house should be left 
open. 

Ordovices, the people of North Wales in 
Britain, mentioned by Toxit. Ann. 12, c. 53. 

Orestes, I. a son of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra. When his father was cruelly mur- 
dered by Clytemnestra and iEgisthus, young 
Orestes was saved from his mother's dagger by 
means of his sister Electra, called Laodicea by 
Homer, and he was privately conveyed to the 
house of Strophius, who was king of Pocis, 
and who had married a sister of Agamemnon. 
He was tenderly treated by Strophius, who edu- 
cated him with his son Pilades. The two 
young princes soon became acquainted, and 
from their familiarity arose the most inviolable 
attachment and friendship. When Orestes was 
arrived to years of manhood, he visited Myce- 
nse, and avenged his father's death by assassin- 
ating his mother Clytemnestra, and her adul- 
terer ^gisthus. This murder received the pun- 
ishment which, among the ancients, was al- 
ways supposed to attend parricide. Orestes was 
tormented by the Furies, and exiled himself to 
Argos, where he was still pursued by the avenge- 
ful goddesses. Apollo himself purified him, 
and he was acquitted by the unanimous opinion 
of the Areopagites, whom Minerva herself in- 
stituted on this occasion, according to the nar- 
ration of the poet ^Eschylus. According to 
Pausanias, Orestes was purified of the murder, 
not at Delphi, but at Troezene, where still was 
seen a large stone at the entrance of Diana's 
temple, upon which the ceremonies of purifica- 
tion had been performed by nine of the princi- 
pal citizens of the place. There was also, at 
Megalopolis in Arcadia, a temple dedicated to 
the Furies, near which Orestes cut off one of 
his fingers with his teeth in a fit of insanity. 
These different traditions are confuted by Eu- 
ripides, who says that Orestes, after the murder 
of his mother, consulted the oracle of Apollo at 
Delphi, where he was informed that nothing 
could deliver him from the persecutions of the 
Furies if he did not bring into Greece Diana's 
statue, which was in the Taurica Chersonesus, 
and which, as it is reported by some, had fallen 
down from heaven. The king of the Cherso- 
nesus always sacrificed on the altars of the god- 
dess all such as entered the borders of his coun- 
try. Orestes and his friend were both carried 
before Thoas, the king of the place, and they 
were doomed to be sacrificed. Iphigenia was 
then priestess of Diana's temple, and it was her 
534 



office to immolate these strangers. The intelli- 
gence that they were Grecians delayed the prep- 
arations, and Iphigenia was anxious to learn 
something about a country which had given her 
birth. Vid. Iphigenia. She even interested 
herself in their misfortunes, and offered to spare 
the life of one of them, provided he would con- 
vey letters to Greece from her hand. This was 
a difficult trial ; never was friendship more truly 
displayed, according to the words of Ovid, ex 
Pont. 3, el. 2 :— 

Ire jubet Pylades carum moriturus Orestem. 
Hie negat ; inque vicem pngnat uterque mori. 

At last Pylade, gave way to the pressing entrea- 
ties of his friend, and consented to carry the let- 
ters of Iphigenia to Greece. These were ad- 
dressed to Orestes himself, and therefore these 
circumstances soon led to a total discovery of the 
connexions of the priestess with the man whom 
she was going to immolate. Iphigenia was 
convinced that he was her brother Orestes, and 
when the causes of their journey had been ex- 
plained, she resolved, with the two friends, to fly 
from Chersonesus; and to carry away the statue 
of Diana. Their flight was discovered, and 
Thoas prepared to pursue them ; but Minerva 
interfered, and told him that all had been done 
by the will and approbation of the gods. After 
these celebrated adventures, Orestes ascended 
the throne of Argos, where he reigned in perfect 
security, and married Hermione, the daughter 
of Menelaus, and gave his sister to his friend 
Pylades. The marriage of Orestes with Her- 
mione is a matter of dispute among the an- 
cients. All are agreed that she had been prom- 
ised to the son of Agamemnon, but Menelaus 
had married her to Neoptolemus, the son of 
Achilles, who had shown himself so truly in- 
terested in his cause during the Trojan war. 
The marriage of Hermione with Neoptolemus 
displeased Orestes ; he remembered that she had 
been earlypromised to him, andtherefore he re- 
solved to recover her by force or artifice. This 
he effected by causing JNTeoptolemus to be assas- 
sinated, or assassinating him himself. Accord- 
ing to Ovid's epistle of Hermione to Orestes, 
Hermione had always been faithful to her first 
lover, and even it was by her persuasions that 
Orestes removed her from the house of Neop- 
tolemus. His old age was crowned with peace 
and security, and he died in the 90th year of 
his age, leaving his throne to his son Tisamenes, 
by Hermione. Three years after, the Hera- 
ciidae recovered the Peloponnesus, and banished 
the descendants of Menelaus from the throne 
of Argos. Orestes died in Arcadia, as some 
suppose, by the bite of a serpent ; and the Lace- 
demonians, who had become his subjects at the 
death of Menelaus, were directed by an oracle 
to brine: his bones to Sparta. They were, some 
time after, discovered atTegea, and his stature 
appeared to be seven cubits, according to the 
traditions mentioned by Herodotus and others. 
The friendship of Orestes and of Pylades be- 
came proverbial, and the two friends received 
divine honours among the Scythians, and were 
worshipped in temples. Pans. 1, 2, 4, &c. — 
Paterc. 1, c. 1 and 3.—ApoUod. 1, &.c.—Strah. 
9 and 13.— Ovid. Heroid. 8, Ex. Pont. 3, el. 2, 
Met. 15. in Ih.—Euripid. in Orest.—And.r. &c. 
Iphig.—Sophod. in electr. &z.—jEschyl. in 



OR 



HISTORY, &c. 



OS 



Eum. Agam. &c. — Herodoi. 1, c, 69. — Hygin. 
fab. 120 and 261. — Plut. in Dye. — Dictys. 6, &c. 
—Pindar. Pyth. 2.—Plin. 33.— Virg. JEn. 3, 
&.C.— Homer. Od. 3, v. 304, 1. 4, v. b'^O.— Tzetz, 
ad Ijycophr. 1374. II. A man sent as am- 
bassador by Attila, king of the Hans, to the 
emperor Theodosius. He was highly honour- 
ed at the Roman court, and his son Augustulus 

was the last emperor of the western empire. 

III. A governor of Egypt, under the Roman em- 
perors. IV. A robber of Athens, who pre- 
tended madness, &c. Aristoph. ach. 4, 7. 

V. A general of Alexander. Curt. 4, c. 108. 

Orestid^, the descendants or subjects of 
Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. They were 
driven from the Peloponnesus by the Hera- 
clidae, and came to settle in a country which, 
from them, was called Orestidae, at the south- 
west of Macedonia. Some suppose that that 
part of Greece originally received its name from 
Orestes, who fled and built there a city, which 
gave its founder's name to the whole province. 
Thucyd. 2.—Liv. 31. 

Oretilia, a woman who married Caligula, 
by whom she was soon after banished. 

Orgetorix, one of the chief men of the 
Helvetii when Caesar was in Gaul. He formed 
a conspiracy against the Romans, and when 
accused,- he destroyed himself Cas. 

Orgia, festivals in honour of Bacchus. They 
are the same as the Bacchanalia, Dionyjsia, &c. 
Vid. Dionysia. 

Orisasus, a celebrated physician, greatly es- 
teemed by the emperor Julian, in whose reign 
he flourished. He abridged the works of Ga- 
lenus, and of all the most respectable writers on 
physic, at the request of the emperor. After 
Julian's death, he fell into the hands of the bar- 
barians. The best edition of his works is that 

of Dundas, 4to. L. Bat. 1745. One of Ac- 

taeon's dogs, ab opog mons, and 0aivcj, scando. 
Ovid. Met. 

Origen, a Greek writer, as much celebrated 
for the easiness of his manner, his humility, and 
modesty, as for his learning and the sublimity 
of his genius. He was sumamed Adamanius, 
from his assiduity, and became so rigid a Chris- 
tian, that he made himself a eunuch, by fol- 
lowing the literal sense of a passage in the 
Greek testament, which speaks of the voluntary 
eunuchs of Christ. He suifered martyrdom in 
his 60th year, A. C. 254. His works were ex- 
cellent and numerous, and contained a number 
of homilies,commentarieson the holy scriptures, 
and different treatises, besides the Hexapla, so 
called from its being divided into six columns, 
the first of which contained the HebreM'- text 
the second, the same text in Greek characters 
the third, the Greek version of the Septuagint 
the fourth, that of Aquila ; the fifth, that of Sym- 
machus ; and the sixth, Theodosian's Greek 
version. This famous work first gave the hint 
for the compilation of our Polyglot bibles. The 
works of Origen have been learnedly edited by 
the Benedictine monks, though ihe whole is not 
yet completed, in four vols. fol. Paris, 1733, 
1740, and 1759. The Hexapla was published 
in 8vo. at Lips. 1769, by Car. Frid. Bahrdt. 

Orodes, a prince of Parthia, who murdered 
hisbrother Mithridates,and ascended his throne. 
He defeated Crassus, the Roman triumvir, and 
poured melted gold do^vn the throat of his fallen 



enemy, to reproach him for his avarice and 
ambition. He followed the interest of Cassius 
and Brutus at Philippi. It is said, that, when 
Orodes became old and infirm, his thirty chil- 
dren applied to him, and disputed, in his pres- 
ence, their right to the succession. Phraates, 
the eldest of them, obtained the crown from his 
father, and, to hasten him out of the world, he 
attempted to poison him. The poison had no 
effect, and Phraates, still determined on his fa- 
ther's death, strangled him with his own hands, 
about 37 years before the Christian era. Orodes 
had then reigned about 50 years. Justin. 42, 
c. 4.—Paterc. 2, c. 30. 

Orcetes, a Persian governor of Sardis, fa- 
mous for his cruel murder of Polycrates. He 
died B. C. 521. Herodot. 

Orosius, a Spanish writer, A. D. 416, who 
pablished a universal history, in seven books, 
from the creation to his own time, in which, 
though learned, diligent, and pious, he betrayed 
a great ignorance of the knowledge of historical 
facts and of chronology. The best edition is 
that of Havercamp, 4to. L. Bat. 1767. 

Orphica, a name by which the orgies of Bac- 
chus were called, because they had been intro- 
duced to Europe from Egypt by Orpheus. 

Orsippus, a man of Megara, who was pre- 
vented from obtaining a prize at the Olympic 
games, because his clothes were entangled as he 
ran. Vid. Olympia. " 

Ortalus, M. a grandson of Hortensius, who 
was induced to marry by a present from Augus- 
tus, who wished that ancient family not to be 
extinguished. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 37. — Val. Max. 
3, c. 5. — Suet, in TiJber. 

OscHOPHORiA, a festival observed by the 
Athenians. It received its name a™ tov <f)£p€iv 
rai oa^as, from carrying boughs hung with 
grapes, called oaxa^- Its original institution is 
thus mentioned by Plut. in Thes. Theseus, 
at his return from Crete, forgot to hand out the 
white sail by which his father was to be appri- 
zed of his success. This neglect was fatal to 
-^geus, who threw himself into the sea and per- 
ished. Thesius no sooner reached the land 
than he sent a herald to inform his father of his 
safe return, and in the meantime he began to 
make the sacrifices which he vowed when he 
first set sail from Crete. The herald, on his en- 
trance into the city, found the people in great 
agitation. Some lamented the king's death, 
while others, elated at the sudden news of the 
victory of Theseus, crowned the herald with 
garlands in demonstration of their joy. The 
herald carried back the garlands on his staff" to 
th€ seashore, and after he had waited till The- 
seus had finished his sacrifice, he related the 
melancholy story of the king's death. Upon this 
the people ran in crowds to the city, showmg 
their grief by cries and lamentations. From that 
circumstance, therefore, at the feast of Oscho- 
phoria, not the herald, but his stafl^, is crowned 
with garlands, and all the people that are pre- 
sent always exclaim tXc\€v, nt if*, the first of 
which expresses haste, and the other a conster- 
nation or depression of spirits. The historian 
further mentions that Theseus, when he went 
to Crete, did not take with him the usual num- 
ber of virgins, but that, instead of two of them, 
he filled up the number with two youths of his 
acquaintance, whom he made pass for women, 
525 



OT 



HISTORY, &e. 



OV 



by disguising their dress, and by using them to 
the ointments and perfumes of women, as well 
as by a long and successful imitation of their 
voice. The imposition succeeded, their sex 
was not discovered in Crete, and when Theseus 
had triumphed 07er the Minotaur, he, with these 
two youths, led a procession with branches in 
their hands, in the same habit which is still 
used at the celebration of the Oschophoria. The 
branches which were carried were in honour of 
Bacchus or of Ariadne, or because they return- 
ed in autumn, when the grapes were ripe. 
Besides this procession, there was also a race 
exhibited, in which only young men, whose pa- 
rents were both alive, were permitted to engage. 
It was usual for them to run from the temple 
of Bacchus to that of Minerva, which was on the 
seashore. The place where they stopped was 
called oaxo(l>opiov, because the boughs which 
they carried in their hands were deposited there. 
The reward of the conqueror was a cup called 
TTsi/ra i:\oa, Jive-fold, bccause it contained a mix- 
ture of five different things, wine, honey, cheese, 
meal, and oil. Plut. in Thes. 

Osci. Vid. Part I. 

OsYMANDYAS, a magnificent king of Egypt, 
in a remote period. 

Otanes, a noble Persian, one of the seven 
who conspired against the usurper Smerdis. It 
was through him that the usurpation was first 
discovered. He was afterwards appointed by 
Darius over the seacoast of Asia Minor, and 
took Byzantium. Herodot. 3, c. 70, &c, 

Otho, M. Salvius, a Roman emperor, de- 
scended from the ancient kings of Etruria. He 
was one of Nero's favourites, and, as such, he 
was raised to the highest offices of the state, and 
made governor of Pannonia by the interest of 
Seneca, who wished to remove him from Rome 
lest Nero's love for Poppaea should prove his 
ruin. After Nero's death, Otho conciliated the 
favour of Galba the new emperor ; but when 
Galba had refused to adopt him as his successor, 
he resolved to make himself absolute without 
any regard to the age or dignity of his friend. He 
was acknowledged by the senate and the Ro- 
man people ; but the sudden revolt of Vitellius 
in Germany rendered his situation precarious, 
and it was mutually resolved that their respec- 
tive right to the empire should be decided by 
arms. Otho obtained three victories over his 
enemies, but in a general engagement near 
Brixellum, his forces were defeated, and he 
stabbed himself when all hopes of success were 
vanished, after a reign of three months, on the 
20th of April, A. D. 69. It has been justly ob- 
served, that the last moments of Otho's life were 
those of a philosopher. He comforted his sol- 
diers, who lamented his fortune, and he express- 
ed his concern for their safety, when they ear- 
nestly solicited to pay him the last friendly of- 
fices before he stabbed himself, and he observed 
that it was better that one man should die than 
that all should be involved in ruin for his ob- 
stinacy. He also burnt the letters which, by 
falling into the hands of Vitellius, might pro- 
voke his resentment against those who had fa- 
voured the cause of an unfortunate general. 
These noble and humane sentiments in a man 
who was the associate of Nero's shameful pleas- 
ures, and who stained his hand in the blood of 
his master, have appeared to some wonderful, 
526 



and passed for the features of policy, and not of 
anaturally-virtuous and benevolent heart, Plut. 
in vita. — S2iet. — Tacit. 2, Hist. c. 50, &c.— 
Juv. 2, V, 90, 

Othryades, one of the 300 Spartans who 
fought against 300 Argives, when those two na- 
tions disputed their respective right to Thyrea. 
Two Argives, Alcinor and Cronius, and Othry- 
ades, survived the battle. The Argives went 
home to carry the news of their victory, but 
Othryades, who had been reckoned among the 
number of the slain, on account of his wounds, 
recovered himself, and carried some of the 
spoils of which he had stripped the Argives, into 
the camp of his countrymen ; and after he had 
raised a trophy, and had written with his own 
blood the word vici on his shield, he killed 
himself, unwilling to survive the death of his 
countrymen, Val. Max. 3, c. 2. — Plut. in 
Parall. 

Ovinius Naso, (P.) I. This celebrated writer 
was born at Sulmo, (now Sulmona,) a town 
lying on the river Pescara, at the distance of 
ninety miles from Rome. He came into the 
world in 711, the memorable year in which the 
two consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, fell at the bat- 
tle of Modena. Little is precisely known con- 
cerning his parents, or any of his ancestors ; but 
it appears, from several passages in his works, 
that he belonged to a family of ancient Roman 
knights. The spot where he was born lay in a 
cold, though well-watered and fertile region, in 
which the male inhabitants were remarkable 
for their rudeness, and the females were noted 
for their deficiency in personal attractions. As 
Sulmo probably did not afford the means of po- 
lite education, Ovid was carried to Rome at an 
early period of life, along with an elder brother, 
that he might be fully instructed in the arts and 
learning of the capital. He soon disclosed an 
inclination towards poetry ; but he was for some 
time dissuaded from a prosecution of the art by 
his father, whose chief object was to render him 
an accomplished orator and patron, and there- 
by open to him the path to civic honours. Having 
assumed the Toga Virilis, and completed the 
usual course of rhetorical tuition at Rome, he 
proceeded to finish his education at Athens, 
After his return to the capital, he ventured on a 
trial of his legal skill in the actual business of 
life. He successively held several of the lower 
judicial offices of the state, and also frequently 
acted as arbiter, highly to the satisfaction of the 
litigants whose causes he decided. These avo- 
cations, however, were speedily relinquished. 
The father of Ovid had for some time restrained 
his son's inclination towards poetry ; but the ar- 
guments he deduced against its cultivation, from 
the stale example of the poverty of Homer, 
were now receiving an almost practical refuta- 
tion in the court favour and affluence of Virgil 
and Horace. The death, too, of his elder bro- 
ther, by leaving Ovid sole heir to a fortune am- 
ple enough to satisfy his wants, finally induced 
him to abandon the profession to which he had 
been destined, and bid adieu at once to pub- 
lic affairs and the clamour of the forum. 
While frequenting the court of Augustus, Ovid 
was well received by the politest of the courtiers. 
The titles of many of the epistles written dur- 
ing his banishment, show that they were ad- 
dressed to persons well known to us, even at this 



ov 



HISTORY, &c. 



PA 



distance of time, as distinguished statesmen and 
imperial favourites. Nor was Ovid's acquaint- 
ance less with the celebrated poets of his age 
than with its courtiers and senators. Virgil, 
indeed, he had merely seen, and premature 
death cut off the society of Tibullus; but Ho- 
race, Macer, and Propertius, were long his fa- 
miliar friends, and often communicated to him 
their writings previous to publication. Ovid 
passed nearly thirty years in the voluptuous 
enjoyment of the pleasures of the capital — blest 
with the smiles of fortune, honoured with the 
favour of his prince, and fondly anticipating a 
tranquil old age. He now remained at Rome, 
the last of the constellation of poets, which had 
brightened the earlier age of Augustus. That 
prince had now lost his favourite ministers Mae- 
cenas and Agrippa; he was less prosperous 
than during former years in the external affairs 
of the empire, and less prudently advised in his 
domestic concerns ; he was insidiously aliena- 
ted from his own family, and was sinking in his 
old age under the sway of the imperious Livia, 
and the dark-souled Tiberius. Ovid's friend- 
ships lay chiefly among those who supported 
the lineal descendants of Augustus — the unfor- 
tunate offspring of Julia and Agrippa. He thus 
became an object of suspicion to the party in 
power, and had lost many of those benefactors 
who might have shielded him from the storm, 
which now unexpectedly burst on his head, and 
swept from him every hope and comfort for the 
remainder of his existence. It was in the year 
762, and when Ovid had reached the age of 51, 
that Augustus suddenly banished him from 
Rome to a' wild and distant corner of the em- 
pire. Ovid has derived nearly as much celeb- 
rity from his misfortunes as his writings ; and, 
as they were solely occasioned by the vengeance 
of Augustus, they have reflected some dishon- 
our on a name which would otherwise have 
■ descended to posterity as that of a generous and 
almost universal protector of learning and po- 
etry. The real cause of his exile is the great 
problem in the literary history of Rome, and 
has occasioned as much doubt and controversy 
as the imprisonment of Tasso by Alphonso has 
created in modern Italy. His death happened 
in the year 771, in the ninth year of his exile, 
and the fourth of the reign of Tiberius. Be- 
fore his decease, he expressed a wish that his 
ashes might be carried to Rome, lest his shade 
should continue to wander in the barbarous re- 
gion, for which, during life, he had felt such 
horror. Even this desire, however, was not 
complied with. His bones were buried in the 
Scythian soil, and the Getae erected to him a 
monument near the spot of his earthly sojourn. 
This, however, is an imposition lo render cele- 
brated an obscure corner of the world which 
never contained the bones of Ovid. The great- 
est part of Ovid's poems are remaining. His 
Metamorphoses, in 15 books, are extremely cu- 
rious, on account of the many different mytho- 
logical facts and traditions which they relate, 
but they can have no claim to an epic poem. 
In composing this,'the poet was more indebted 
to the then existing traditions, and to the theog- 
ony of the ancients, than to the powers of his 
own imagination. His Fasti were divided into 
12 books, the same number as the constellations 
in the zodiac ; but of these, six have perished, 



and the learned world have reason to lament 
the loss of a poem which must have thrown so 
much light upon the religious rites and ceremo- 
nies, festivals and sacrifices, of the ancient Ro- 
mans, as we may judge from the six that have 
survived the ravages of time and barbarity. His 
Tristia, which are divided into five books, con- 
tain much elegance and softness of expression, 
as also his Elegies on different subjects. The 
Her aides are nervous, spirited, and diffuse ; the 
poetry is excellent, the language varied, but 
the expressions are often too wanton and indel- 
icate, a fault which is common in his composi- 
tions. His three books of Amorum^ and the 
same number de Arte Amandi, with the other 
de Remedio Amoris, are written with great ele- 
gance, and contain many flowery descriptions ; 
but the doctrine which they hold forth is dan- 
gerous, and they are to be read with caution, as 
they seem to be calculated to corrupt the heart, 
and sap the foundations of virtue and morality. 
His Ibis, which is written in imitation of a poem 
of Callimachus of the same name, is a satirical 
performance. Besides these, there are extant 
some fragments of other poems, and among 
these some of a tragedy called Medea. It has 
been judiciously observed that his poetry, after 
his banishment from Rome, was destitute of that 
spirit and vivacity which we admire in his other 
compositions. His Fasti are perhaps the best 
written of all his poems, and after them we may 
fairly rank his love-verses, his Heroides, and 
after all, his Metamorphoses, which were not 
totally finished when Augustus sent him into 
banishment. His Epistles from Pontus are the 
language of an abject and pusillanimous flat- 
terer. Ovid married three wives, but of the last 
alone he speaks with fondness and affection. 
He had only one daughter, but by which of his 
wives is unknown ; and she herself became 
mother of two children by two husbands. The 
best editions of Ovid's works are those of Bur- 
man, 4 vols. 4to. Amst. 1727 ; of L. Bat. 1670, 
in 8vo. and of Utrecht, in 12mo. 4 vols. 1713. 
Ovid. Trist. 3 and 4, &c. — Paterc. 2. — Martial. 

3 and 8. II. A man who accompanied his 

friend Caesonius when banished from Rome by 
Nero. Martial. 7, ep. 43. 

Oxidates, a Persian whom Darius condemn- 
ed to death. Alexander took him prisoner, and 
some time after made him governor of Media. 
He became oppressive and was removed. Curt. 
8, c. 3, 1. 9, c. 8. 

OxYLUs, a leader of the Heraclidse when 
they recovered the Peloponnesus. He was re- 
warded with the kingdom of Elis. Pans. 5, c. 4. 

OzoLiB. Vid. Part I. 



Pacatianus, (Titus Julius,) a general of the 
Roman armies, who proclaimed himself empe- 
ror of Gaul about the latter part of Philip's 
reign. He was soon after defeated, A. D. 249, 
and put to death, &c. 

Paconius, M. a stoic philosopher. He was 
banished from Italy by Nero, and he retired 
from Rome with the greatest composure and 
indifference. Arrian. 1, c. 1. 

Pacorus, the eldest of the thirty sons of 
Orodes, king of Parthia, sent against Crassus, 
whose army he defeated, and whom he took 
527 



PA 



HISTORY, &c. 



PA 



prisoner. He took Syria from the Romans, and 
supported the republican party of Pompey, and 
of the murderers of Julius Caesar. He was 
killed in a battle by Ventidius Bassus, B. C. 
39, on the same day (9th of June) thai Crassus 
had been defeated. FLor. 4, c. 9. — Horat. 3, 
od. 6, V. 9. 

Pactyas, a Lydian, entrusted with the care of 
the treasures of Croesus at Sardes. The im- 
mense riches which he could command cor- 
rupted him, and, to make himself independent, 
he gathered a large army. He laid siege to 
the citadel of Sardes, but the arrival of one of 
the Persian generals soon put him to flight. 
He retired to Cumse and afterwards to Lesbos, 
where he was delivered into the hands of Cyrus. 
Herodot. 1, c. 154, &c. — Pans. 2, c. 35. 

Pacuvius, M. a native of Brundusium, son of 
the sister of the poet Ennius, who distinguished 
himself by his skill in painting, and by his po- 
etical talents. He wrote satires and tragedies, 
which were represented at Rome, and of some 
of which the names are preserved, as Peribosa, 
Hermione, Atalanta, Ilione, Teucer, Antiope, 
&c. Orestes was consid ered as the best-finished 
performance ; the style, however, though rough, 
and without either purity or elegance, deserved 
the commendation of Cicero and Quintilian, 
w^ho perceived strong rays of genius and perfec- 
tion frequently beaming through the clouds of 
the barbarity and ignorance of the times. The 
poet, in his old age, retired to Tarentum, where 
he died in his 90th year, about 131 years before 
Christ. Of all his compositions, about 437 scat- 
tered lines are preserved in the collections of 
Latin poets. Cic. de Or at. 2, ad Heren. 2, c. 
'HI.— Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. m.—Quintil. 10, c. 1. 

Pjbdaretus, a Spartan, who, on not being 
elected in the number of the 300, sent out an ex- 
pedition, &c., declared, that instead of being 
mortified, he rejoiced that 300 men better than 
himself could be found in Sparta. Plut. in 
Lye. 

P^TUs, C^ciNNA, the husband of Arria. 
Vid. Arria. 

Pal^phatus, L an ancient Greek philoso- 
pher, whose age is unknown . He wrote 5 books 
de incredibilibus, of which only the first re- 
mains, and in it he endeavours to explain fabu- 
lous and mythological traditions by historical 
facts. The best edition of Palaephatus is that 

of J. Frid. Fischer, in 8vo. Lips. 1773. II. 

An heroic poet of Athens, who wrote a poem on 
the creation of the world. 

Palamepes, a Grecian chief, son of Nauplius, 
king of Euboea, by Clymene. He was sent by 
the Greek princes who were going to the Tro- 
jan war, to bring Ulysses to the camp, who, to 
withdraw himself from the expedition, pretend- 
ed insanity ; and the better to impose upon his 
friends, used to harness different animals to a 
plough, and sow salt instead of barley into the 
farrows. The deceit was soon perceived by 
Palamedes ; he took Telemachus, whom Pene- 
lope had lately brought into the world, and put 
him before the plough of his father. Ulysses 
showed that he was not insane by turning the 
plough a different way, not to hurt his child. 
This having been discovered, Ulysses was obli- 
ged to attend the Greek princes to the war: but 
an immortal enmity arose between Ulysses and 
Palamedes. The king of Ithaca resolved to take 
528 



every opportunity to distress him ; and when all 
his expectations were frustrated, he had the 
meanness to bribe one of his servants, and to 
make him dig a hole in his master's tent, and 
there conceal a large sum of money. After this, 
Ulysses forged a letter in Phrygian characters, 
which king Priam was supposed to have sent to 
Palamedes. In the letter, the Trojan king seem- 
ed to entreat Palamedes to deliver into his hands 
the Grecian army, according to the conditions 
which had been previously agreed upon when 
he received the money. I'his forged letter was 
carried by means of Ulysses before the princes 
of the Grecian army. Palamedes was summon- 
ed, and he made the most solemn protestations 
of innocence, but all was in vain ; the money 
that was discovered in his tent served only to 
corroborate the accusation . He was found guilty 
by all the army, and stoned to death. Homer is 
silent upon the miserable death of Palamedes ; 
and Pausanias mentions that it had been report- 
ed by some, that Ulysses and Diomedes had 
drowned him in the sea, as he was fishing on 
the coast. Philostratus, who mentions the tra- 
gical story above related, adds that Achilles and 
Ajax burned his body with great pomp on the 
seashore, and that they raised upon it a small 
chapel, where sacrifices were regularly offered 
by the inhabitants of Troas. Palamedes was a 
learned man as well as a soldier; and, accord- 
ing to some, he completed the alphabet of Cad- 
mus by the addition of the four letters, 6, ^, x, 
(p, during the Trojan war. To him also is at- 
tributed the invention of dice and backgammon; 
and it is said he was the first who regularly 
ranged an army in a line of battle, and who 
placed sentinels round a camp, and excited 
their vigilance and attention by giving them a 
watchword. Hygin. fab. 96, 105, &c, — Apol- 
lod. 2, &.c.—Dictys Cret. 2, c. 15.— Ovid. Met. 
13, V. 56 and 308.— Pans. 1, c. 31.— Manil. 
4, V. 205. — Philostrat. v. 10, c. 6. — Euripid. in 
Phceniss. — Martial. 13, ep. 75. — Plin. 7, c. 56. 

Palilta, a festival celebrated by the Romans 
in honour of the goddess Pales. The ceremony 
consisted in burning heaps of straw, and in leap- 
ing over them. No sacrifices w^ere offered, but 
the purifications were made with the smoke of 
horse's blood, and with the ashes of a calf that 
had been taken from the belly of his mother 
after it had been sacrificed, and with the ashes 
of beans. The purification of the flocks was 
also made with the smoke of sulphur, of the 
olive, the pine, the laurel, and the rosemary. 
Offerings of mild cheese, boiled wine, and cakes 
of millet, were afterwards made to the goddess. 
This festival was observed on the 21st of April, 
and it was during the celebration that Romulus 
first began to build his city. Some call this 
festival Parilia quasi a pariendo, because the 
sacrifices were offered to thedivinily for the fe- 
cundity of the flocks. Ovid. Met.H. v. 774. 
—Fast. 4, V. 721, &c. 1. 6, v. 251.—Propert. 4, 
el. 1, V. l^.-Tibull. 2, el. 5, v. 87. 

Palinurus, a skilful pilot of the ship of 
^neas. He fell into the sea in his sleep, and 
was three days exposed to the tempests and the 
waves of the sea, and at last came safe to the 
seashore near Velia, where the cruel inhabit- 
ants of the place murdered him to obtain his 
clothes. His body was left unbuned on the sea- , 
shore ; and as, according to the religion of the 



PA 



HISTORY, &c. 



PA 



ancient Romans, no person was suffered to cross 
the Stygian lake before one hundred years were 
elapsed if his remains had not been decently 
buried, we find jEneas, when he visited the in- 
fernal regions, speaking to Palinurus, and as- 
suring him that, though his bones were deprived 
of a funeral, yet the place where his body was 
exposed should soon be adorned with a monu- 
ment, and bear his name ; and accordingly a 
promontory was called Palinurus, now Po2i- 
nuro. Virg. .Sn. 3, v. 513, 1. 5, v. 840, &c. 1. 
6, V. 3il.— Ovid. de Rem. bll.—Mela. 2, c. 4, 
^Strab.—Horat. 3, od. 4, v. 28. 

Pallad£s, certain virgins of illustrious pa- 
rents, who were consecrated to Jupiter by the 
Thebans of Egypt. It was required that they 
should prostitute themselves, and afterwards 
they were permitted to marry. StroM. 17. 

Palladium. Vid. Part III, 

Palladids, a Greek physician, whose treatise 
on fevers was edited 8vo. L. Bat. 1745. 

Pallas, (ajitis,) I. a son of king Evander, 
sent with some troops to assist ^neas. He 
Avas killed by Turn us, the king of the Rutuli, 
after he had made great slaughter of the ene- 
my. Virg. ^^n. 8, v. 104, &c. II. One of 

the giants, son of Tartarus and Terra. He 
was killed by Minerva, who covered herself 
with his skin ; whence, as some suppose, she is 

called Pallas. Apollod. 3, c. 12. III. A 

freedman of Claudius, famous for the power 
and the riches he obtained. He advised the 
emperor, his master, lo marry Agrippina, and 
to adopt her son Nero for his successor. It was 
by this naeans that Nero was raised to the throne. 
Nero forgot to whom he was indebted for the 
crown. He discarded Pallas, and some time 
after caused him to be put to death, that he 
might make himself master of his great riches, 
A. D. 61.^ Tacit. 12, Ann. c. 53. 

Pamphilus, a celebrated painter of Mace- 
donia, in the age of Philip, distinguished above 
his rivals by a superior knowledge of literature. 
He was founder of the school for painting at Si- 
cyon, and he made a law which was observed 
not only in Sicyon, but all over Greece, that 
none but the children of noble and dignified 
persons should be permitted to learn painting. 
Apelles was one of his pupils. Diog. 

Pamphos, a Greek poet, supposed to have lived 
before Hesiod's age. 

Pamphyla, a Greek woman, -who wrote a 
general history in 33 books, in Nero's reign. 
This history, much commended by the ancients, 
is lost. 

Panjetius, I. a stoic philosopher of Rhodes, 
138 B. C. He studied at Athens for some time, 
of which he refused to become a citizen, observ- 
ing, that a good and honest man ought to be 
satisfied with one country. He came to Rome, 
where he reckoned among his pupils La?lius 
and Scipio the second Africanus. The latter 
he attended in his expeditions. To the inter- 
est of their countrymen at Rome the Rhodians 
were greatly indebted for their prosperity and 
the immunities which they for some time enjoy- 
ed. Panaetius wrote a treatise on the duties of 
man, the merit of which can be ascertained from 
the encomiums which Cicero bestows upon it. 
Cic. in qfiic. de Dii\ 1. hi Acad. 2, c. 2, de N. 
D. 2, c. 46. II. A tyrant of Leontini in Si- 
cily, B. C. 613. Polvicn. 5. 

iPART II.— 3 X 



Panathen.s;a, festivals in honour of Minerva, 
the patroness of Athens. T hey were first insti- 
tuted by Erichtheus or Orpheus, and called 
Athencea ; but Theseus afterwards renewed 
them, and caused them to be celebrated and ob- 
served by all the tribes of Athens, which he had 
united into one, and from which reason the fes- 
tivals received their name. Some suppose that 
they are the same as the Roman Quinquatria, 
^s they are often called by that name among the 
Latins. In the first year of the institution 
they were observed only during one day, but af- 
terwards the time was prolonged. The festivals 
were two ; the great Panathenaa, (//eyaXa.) 
which were observed every 5th year, beginning 
ont he 22d of the month called iZeca^owz^tson, or 
7th of July ; and the lesser Pa/iatheiKca, (juuYJa,) 
which were kept every 3d year, or rather an- 
nually, beginning on the 21st or 20th of the 
month called Thargelion, corresponding to the 
5th or 6th day of the month of May. In the 
lesser festivals there were three games, conduct- 
ed by ten presidents chosen from the ten tribes 
of Athens, who continued four years in office. 
On the evening of the first day there was a race 
with torches, in which men on foot, and after- 
wards on horseback, contended. The second 
combat exhibited a trial of strength and bodily 
dexteriiy. The last was a musical contention, 
first instituted by Pericles. Phrynis of Mity- 
lene was the first who obtained th^ victory by 
playing upon the harp. There were, besides, 
other musical instruments, on which they play- 
ed in concert, such as flutes, &c. The poets 
contended in four plays, called from their num- 
ber rerpaloYia. The last of these was a satire. 
There was also at Sunium ah imitation of a 
naval-fight. Whoever obtained the victory in 
any of these games was rewarded with a vessel 
of oil, which he was permitted to dispose of in 
whatever manner he pleased, and it was unlaw- 
ful for any other person to transport that com- 
modity. The conqueror also received a crown 
of the olives which grew in the groves of Aca- 
demus, and were sacred to Minerva, and called 
[lopeiai, from nopos, death, in remembrance of the 
tragical end of Hallirhotius, the son of Neptune, 
who cut his own legs when he attempted to cut 
down the olive which had given the victory to 
Minerva in preference to his father, when these 
two deities contended about giving a name to 
Athens. Some suppose that the word is de- 
rived from [JLcpoi, a part, because these olives 
were given by contribution by all such as attend- 
ed at the festivals. There was also a dance, 
called Pyrrhichia, performed by young boys in 
armour, in imitation of Minerva, who thus ex- 
pressed her triumph over the vanquishedTitans. 
Gladiators were also introduced when Athens 
became tributary to the Romans. During the 
celebration, no person was permitted to appear 
in died garments, and if any one transgressed, 
he was punished according to the discretion of 
the president of the games. After these things, 
a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, in which 
everyone of the Athenian boroughs contributed 
an ox, and the whole was concluded by an en- 
tertainment for all the company with the flesh 
that remained from the sacrifice. In the great- 
er festivals, the same rites and ceremonies were 
usually observed, but with more solemnity and 
magnificence. Others were also added, particu- 
529 



PA 



HISTORY, &c. 



PA 



larly the procession, in which Minerva's sacred 
TTSffAoj, or garment^ was carried. This gar- 
ment was woven by a select number of virgins, 
called spyaaKai, from ipyov, work. They were 
superintended by two of the apprjipopoi^ or young 
virgins, not above seventeen years of age nor 
under eleven, whose garments were white, and 
set oflf with ornaments of gold. Minerva's pep- 
lus, was of a white colour, without sleeves, and 
embroidered with gold. Upon it were described 
the achievements of the goddess, particularly 
her victories over the giants. The exploits of 
Jupiter and the other gods were also represent- 
ed there, and from that circumstance men of 
courage and bravery are said to hea^ioi tt£tt\ov, 
worthy to be pourtrayed in Minerva's sacred 
garment. In the procession of the peplus the 
following ceremonies were observed. In the 
ceramicus, without the city, there was an engine 
built in the form of a ship, upon which Miner- 
va's garment was hung as a sail, and the whole 
was conducted, not by beasts, as some have sup- 
posed, but by subterraneous machines, to the 
temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and from thence to 
the citadel, where the peplus was placed upon 
Minerva's statue, which was laid upon a bed 
woven or strewed with tlowers, which was call- 
ed n\aKig. Persons of all ages, of every sex 
and quality, attended the procession, which was 
led by old men and women, carrying olive 
branches in their hands ; from which reason 
they were called 6a'\\o(popoi, bearers of green 
boughs. Next followed men of full age, with 
shields and spears. They were attended by the 
lisToiKoi, or foreigners, who carried small boats 
as a token of their foreign origin, and from that 
account were called aKa^rjcpopoi, boat-bearers. 
After them came ihe women, attended by the 
wives of the foreigners, called i^Jjsta^opot, because 
they carried water-pots. Next to these came 
young men crowned with millet, and singing 
hymns to the goddess, and after them followed 
select virgins of the noblest families, called 
Kavn(popni, basket-bearers, because they carried 
baskets, in which were certain things necessary 
for the celebration, with whatever utensils were 
also requisite. These several necessaries were 
generally in the possession of the chief mana- 
ger of the festival, called apxiOso^pog, who dis- 
tributed them when occasion offered. The vir- 
gins were attended by the daughters of the for- 
eigners, who carried umbrellas and little seats, 
from which they were named 6i(ppri(popoi, seat- 
carriers. The boys, called natSaf-nKoi, as it may 
be supposed, led the rear, clothed in coats gen- 
erally worn at processions. The necessaries 
for this and every other festival were prepared 
in a public hall erected for that purpose, be- 
tween the Piraean gate and the temple of Ce- 
res. The management and the care of the whole 
was intrusted to the vono<pv'XaKEq, or people em- 
ployed in seeing the rites and ceremonies prop- 
erly observed. It was also usual to set all prison- 
ers at liberty, and to present golden crowns to 
such as had deserved well of their country. 
Some persons were also chosen to sing some of 
Homer's poems, a custom which was first in- 
troduced by Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus. 
It was also customary in this festival, and every 
other quinquennial festival, to pray for the pros- 
perity of the Plataeans, whose services had been 
so conspicuous at the battle of Marathon. 



Plut in Thes.—Paus Arc. 2.—^lian. V. H. 8, 
c. 2. — Apollod. 3, c. 14. 

Pandarus, a son of Lycaon, who assisted the 
Trojans in their war against the Greeks. He 
went to the war without a chariot, and there- 
fore he generally fought on foot. He broke the 
truce which had been agreed upon between the 
Greeks and Trojans, and wounded Menelaus 
and Diomedes, and showed himself brave and 
unusually courageous. He was ar last killed 
by Diomedes ; and ^Eneas, who then carried 
him. in his chariot, by attempting to revenge 
his death, nearly perished by the hand of the 
furious enemy. Dictys Cret. 2, v. 35. — Homer 
11. 2 and b.—Hygin.'fah. 112.— Virg. JEn. 5, 
V. 495. — Strab. 14. — Servius. in loco. Vid. 
Part III. 

Pandia, a festival at Athens, established by 
Pandion, from whom it received its name, or 
because ii was observed in honour of Jupiter, 
who can ra Ttavra Siyeveiv, move and turn all 
things as he pleases. Some suppose that it 
concerned the moon, because it does tavrore 
levai, move incessantly, by showing itself day 
and night, rather than the sun, which never ap- 
pears but in the day-time. It was celebrated 
after the Dionysia. 

Panopion, a Roman, saved from death by the 
uncommon fidelity of his servant. When the 
assassins came to murder him, as being pro- 
scribed, the servant exchanged clothes with his 
master, and let him escape by a back door. 
He afterwards went into his master's bed, and 
suffered himself to be killed, as if Panopion 
himself. Val. Max. 

Pansa, (C. Vibius,) a Roman consul, who, 
with A. Hirtius, pursued the murderers of J. 
Caesar, and was killed in a battle near Mutina. 
On his deathbed, he advised young Octavius to 
unite his interest with that of Antony, if he 
wished to revenge the death of Julius Caesar; 
and from his friendly advice soon after rose the 
celebrated second triumvirate. Some suppose 
that Pansa was put to death by Octavius him- 
self, or through him, by the physician Glicon, 
who poured poison into the wounds of his pa- 
tient. Pansa and Hirtius were the two last 
consuls who enjoyed the dignity of chief ma- 
gistrates of Rome with full power. The au- 
thority of the consuls afterwards dwindled into 
a shadow. Paterc. 2, c. 6. — Dio. 46. — Ovid. 
Trist. 3, el. 5. — Plut (^ Appian. 

Pantaleon, a king of Pisa, who presided at 
the Olympic games, B. C. 664, after excluding 
the Eleans, who on that account expunged the 
Olympiad from the Fasti, and called it the 2d 
Anolympiad. They had called, for the same 
reason, the 8th the 1st Anolympiad, because the 
Pisaeans presided. 

Panthea, the wife of Abradates, celebrated 
for her beauty and conjugal affection. She was 
taken prisoner by Cyrus, who refused to visit 
her, not to be ensnared by the power of her 
personal charms. She killed herself on the 
body of her husband, who had been slain in a 
battle, &c. Vid. Abradates. Xenoph. Cyrop.— 
Suidas. 

Panthoides, a patronymic of Euphorbus, the 
son of Panthous. Pythagoras is sometime? 
called by that name, as he asserted that he was 
Euphorbus during the Trojan war. Horat. 1, 

od. 28, V. 10.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 161. A 

530 



PA 



HISTORY, &c. 



PA 



Spartan general, killed by Pericles at the bat- 
tle of Tanagra. 

Panyasis, an ancient Greek, uncle to the 
historian Herodotus. The celebrated Hercules 
in one of his poems, and the lonians in another, 
and was universally esteemed. Athen. 2. 

Papia Lex, de peregrinis, by Papius the tri- 
bune, A. U. C. 688, which required that all 
strangers should be driven away from Rome. 
It was afterwards confirmed and extended by 

the Julian law. Another, called Papia Pop- 

pcea, because it was enacted by the tribunes 
M. Papius Mutilus and GL. Poppseus Secun- 
dus, who had received consular power from the 
consul for six months. It was called afterwards 
the Julian law. Vid. Julia lex de Maritandis 
ordinibus. It gave the patron a certain right 
to the property of his client, if he had left a 
specified sum of money, or if he had not three 
children. 

Papianus, a man who proclaimed himself 
emperor some time after the Gordians. He was 
put to death. 

Papias, an early Christian writer, who first 
propagated the doctrine of the Milennium. 
There are remaining some historical fragments 
of his. 

Papirtus, I. a Roman, from whose ill-treat- 
ment of the slaves a decree was made which 
forbade any person to be detained in fetters, but 
only for a crime that deserved such a treatment, 
and only till the criminal had suffered the pun- 
ishment which the laws directed. Creditors 
also had a right to arrest the goods and not the 

person of their debtors. Liv. 8, c. 28. II. 

Carbo, a Roman consul, who undertook the 
defence of Opimius, who was accused of con- 
demning and putting to death a number of citi- 
zens on mount Aventius, without the formali- 
ties of a trial. His client was acquitted 



III. Cursor, a man who first erected a sundial 
in the temple of Cluirinus at Rome, B.C. 293 ; 
from which time the days began to be divided 

into hours. IV. A dictator, who ordered his 

master of horse to be put to death because he 
had fought and conquered the enemies of the 
republic without his consent. The people in- 
terfered and the dictator pardoned him. Cursor 
made war against the Sabines, and conquered 
them, and also triumphed over the Samnites. 
His great severity displeased the people. He 
flourished about 320 years before the Christian 

era. Liv. 9, c. 14. V. one of his family, 

surnamed Prcetextahos, from an action of his 
whilst he wore the pratexta, a certain gown for 
young men. His father of the same name, car- 
ried him to the senate-house, where affairs of the 
greatest importance were then in debate before 
the senators. The mother of young Papirius 
wished to know what had passed in the senate; 
but Papirius, unwilling to betray the secrets of 
that august assembly, amused the mother by 
telling her that it had been considered whether 
it would be more advantageous to the republic 
to give two wives to one husband, than two 
husbands to one Avife. The mother of Papirius 
was alarmed, and she communicated the secret 
to the other Roman matrons, and, on the mor- 
row, they assembled in the senate, petitioning 
that one woman might have two husbands, ra- 
ther than one husband two wives. The sena- 
tors were astonished at this petition, but young 



Papirius unravelled the whole mystery, and 
from that time it was made a law among the 
senators that no young man should for the fu- 
ture be introduced into the senate-house, except 
Papirius. This law was carefully observed till 
the age of Augustus, who permitted children of 
all ages to hear the debates of the senators, 

Macrob. Sat. 1, c. 6. VI. Carbo, a friend of 

Cinna and Marius. He raised cabals against 
Sylla and Pompey, and was at last put to death 
by order of Pompey, after he had rendered him- 
self odious by a tyrannical consulship, and after 

he had been proscribed by Sylla. VII. Ma- 

so, a consul, who conquered Sardinia and Cor- 
sica, and reduced them into the form of a prov- 
ince. At his return to Rome he refused a 
triumph, upon which he introduced a triumphal 
procession, and walked with his victorious army 
to the capitol, wearing a crown of myrtle on his 
head. His example was afterwards followed 
by such generals as were refused a triumph by 

the Roman senate. Val. Max. 3, c. 6. The 

family of the Papirii were patrician, and long 
distinguished for its service to the state. It 
bore the different surnames of Crassus, Cursor, 
Mugillanus, Maso, Pratextatus, and PcBtus, 
of which the three first branches became the 
most illustrious. 

Papiria Lex, by Papirius Carbo, A. U. C. 
621. It required that, in passing or rejecting 
laws in the comitia, the votes should be given 
on tablets. Another, by the tribune Papi- 
rius, which enacted that no person should con- 
secrate any edifice, place, or thing, without the 
consent or permission of the people. Cic. pro 
domo, 50. Another, A. U. C. 563, to dimin- 
ish the weight and increase the value of the 

Roman as. Another, A. U. C. 421, to give 

the freedom of the city to the citizens of Acerrae. 

Pappia Lex was enacted to settle the rights 
of husbands and wives if they had no children, 

Another, by which a person less than 50 

years old could not marry another of 60. 

Parabyston, a tribunal at Athens, where 
causes of inferior consequence were tried by 11 
judges. Paus. 1, c. 40. 

Paralus, I. a friend of Dion, by whose as- 
sistance he expelled Dionysius. II. A son oi 

Pericles. His premature death was greatly la- 
mented by his father. Plut. 

Parentalia, a festival annually observed at 
Rome in honour of the dead. The friends and 
relations of the deceased assembled on the oc- 
casion, when sacrifices were offered and ban- 
quets provided, ^neas first established it. 
Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 544. 

Paris, I. the son of Priam, king of Troy, by 
Hecuba, also "called Alexander. He was des- 
tined, even before his birth, to become the ruin 
of his country ; and when his mother, in the 
first month of her pregnancy, had dreamed that 
she should bring forth a torch which would set 
fire to her palace, the soothsayers foretold the 
calamities which might be expected from the 
imprudence of her future son, and which would 
end in the destruction of Troy. Priam, to pre- 
vent so great and so alarming an evil, ordered 
his slave Arehelaus to destroy the chiM as soon 
as born. The slave did not destrov him, but 
was satisfied to expose him on mount Ida, where 
the shepherds of the place found him, and edu- 
cated him as their own son. Some attribute 
531 



PA 



HISTORY. &c. 



PA 



the preservation of his life, before he was found 
by the shepherds, to the motherly tenderness of 
a she-bear which suckled him. Young Paris, 
though educated among shepherds and peasants, 
gave early proofs of courage and intrepidity ; 
and from his care in protecting the flocks of 
mount Ida against the rapacity of the wild 
beasts, he obtained the name of Alexander 
{helper or defender). He gained the esteem of 
all the shepherds, and his graceful countenance 
and manly deportment recommended him to the 
favour of CEnone, a nymph of Ida, whom he 
married. He was chosen umpire between Ju- 
no, Minerva, and Venus ; and appointed to ad- 
judge the prize of beauty to the fairest of the 
goddesses. The goddesses appeared before their 
judge, and each tried, by promises and entrea- 
ties, to gain the attention of Paris, and to in- 
fluence his judgment. Juno promised him a 
kingdom ; Minerva, military glory ; and Venus, 
the fairest woman in the world for his wife, as 
Ovid expresses it. Heroid. 17, v. 118 : — 

TJnaque cum regnum ; belli daret alter laudem ; 
Tyndaridis conjux, Tertia dixit ^ eris. 

After he had heard their several claims and pro- 
mises, Paris adjudged the prize to Venus. This 
decision of Paris in favour of Venus, drew upon 
the judge and his family the resentment of the 
two other goddesses. Soon after, Priam propos- 
ed a contest among his sons and other princes, 
and promised to reward the conqueror with one 
of the finest bulls of mount Ida. His emissa- 
ries were sent to procure the animal, and it was 
found in the possession of Paris, who reluctant- 
ly yielded it up. The shepherd was desirous 
of obtaining again this favourite animal, and he 
went to Troy, and entered the lists of the com- 
batants. He was received with the greatest 
applause, and obtained the victory over his ri- 
vals, Nestor, the son of Neleus ; Cycnus, son 
of Neptune ; Polites, Helenus, and Deiphobus, 
sons of Priam. He also obtained a superiority 
over Hector himself. Cassandra, the daughter 
of Priam, soon discovered that he was her broth- 
er, and as such she introduced him to her fa- 
ther and to his children. Priam acknowledged 
Paris as his son, forgetful of the alarming dream 
"which had influenced him to meditate his death, 
and all jealousy ceased among the brothers. 
Paris did not long suffer himself to remain in- 
active; he equipped a fleet, as if willing to 
redeem Hesione, his father's sister, whom Her- 
cules had carried away. He visited Sparta, the 
residence of Helen, who had married Menelaus, 
and was received with every mark of respect ; 
but he abused the hospitality of Menelaus, and, 
while the husband was absent in Crete, Paris 
persuaded Helen to elope with him, and to fly 
to Asia. Upon this, all Greece took up arms in 
the cause of Menelaus. Vid. T^-oja. Paris, 
meanwhile, who had refused Helen to the peti- 
tions and embassies of the Greeks, armed him- 
self, with his brothers and subjects, to oppose 
the enemy ; but the success of the war was 
neither hindered nor accelerated by his means. 
He fought with little courage, and at the very 
sight of Menelaus, whom he had so recently 
injured, all his resolution vanished, and he re- 
tired from the front of the army, where he walk- 
ed before like a conqueror. In a combat with 
Menelaus, which he undertook at the persua- 
532 



sioa of his brother Hector, Paris must have per- 
ished, had not Venus interfered, and stolen him 
froni the resentment of his adversary. He nev- 
ertheless wounded, in another battle, Macha- 
on, Euryphilus, and Diomedes ; and, according 
to some opinions, lie killed with one of his ar- 
rows the great Achilles. Vid. Achilles. The 
death of Paris is differently related ; some sup- 
pose that he was mortally wounded by one of 
the arrows of Philoctetes, which had been once 
in the possession of Hercules, and that when 
he found himself languid on account of his 
wounds, he ordered himself to be carried to the 
feet of CEnone, whom he had basely abandon- 
ed, and who, in the years of his obscurity, had 
foretold him that he would solicit her assistance 
in his dying moments. He expired before he 
came into the presence of OEnone, and the 
nymph, still mindful of their former loves,threw 
herself upon his body, and stabbed herself to 
the heart. According to some authors, Paris 
did not immediately go to Troy when he left 
the Peloponnesus, but he was driven on the coast 
of Egypt, where Proteus, who was king of the 
country, detained him, and when he heard of 
the violence which had been offered to the king 
of Sparta, he kept Helen at his court and per- 
mitted Paris to retire. Vid. Helena. Dictys 
Cret. 1, 3, and 4. — Apollod. 3, c. 12. — Homer. 
11. — Ovid. Heroid. 5, 16, and 17. — Quint Ca- 
lab. 10, V. 290. — Horat. od. 3. — Eurip. in 
Iphig. — Hygin. fab. 92 and 273. — Virg.JSn. 1, 
Scc—JElian. V. H. 12, c. ^"i.—Paus. 10, c. 27. 
— Cic. de Div, — Lycophr. «|« Tzetz. in L/yc. 

II. A celebrated player at Rome, in the 

good graces of the emperor Nero, &c. Tacit. 
Ann. 13, c. 19, &c. 

Parmenides, a Greek philosopher of Elis, 
who flourished about 505 years before Christ. 
He was son of Pyres of Elis, and the pupil of 
Xenophanes, or of Anaximander, according to 
some. He maintained that there were only two 
elements, fire and the earth ; and he taught that 
the first generation of men was produced from 
the sun. He first discovered that the earth was 
round, and habitable only in the two temperate 
zones, and that it was suspended in the centre 
of the universe, in a fluid lighter than air, so 
that all bodies left to themselves fell on its sur- 
face. There were, as he supposed, only two 
sorts of philosophy ; one founded on reason, and 
the other on opinion. He digested this unpop- 
ular system in verse, of which a few frag- 
ments remain. Diog. 

Parmento, a celebrated general in the armies 
of Alexander, who enjoyed the king's confi- 
dence, and was more attached to his person as 
a man than as a monarch. When Darius, king 
of Persia, offered Alexander all the country 
which lies at the west of the Euphrates, with 
his daughter Statira in marriage, and 10,000 tal- 
ents of gold, Parmeniotook occasion to observe, 
that he would without hesitation accept of these 
conditions if he were Alexander. So would I 
v)ere I Parmenio, replied the conquerer. This 
friendship, so true and inviolable, was sacrifi- 
ced to a moment of resentment and suspicion; 
and Alexander, who had too eagerly listened 
to a light, and perhaps a false, accusation, or- 
dered Parmenio and his son to be put to death, 
as if guilty of treason against his person. Par- 
menio was in the 70th year of his age, B. C. 



PA 



HISTORY, &c. 



PA 



330. He died in the greatest popularity ; and 
it has been judiciously observed, that Parmenio 
obtained many victories without Alexander, 
bat Alexander not one without Parmenio. 
Curt. 7, &c. — Plut in Alex. 

Parphorus, a native of Colophon, who, at 
the head of a colony, built a town at the foot of 
Ida, which was abandoned for a situation nearer 
his native city. Strab. 14. — Paus. 7, c. 3. 

Parrhasius, I. a famous painter, son of Eve- 
nor of Ephesus, in the age of Zeuxis, about 415 
years before Christ. He acquired himself great 
reputation by his pieces, but by none more than 
that in which he allegorically represented the 
people of Athens, with all the injustice, the 
clemency, the fickleness, timidity, the arro- 
gance, and inconsistency, which so eminently 
characterized that celebrated nation. He once 
entered the lists against Zeuxis, and when they 
had produced their respective pieces, the birds 
came to pick with the greatest avidity the 
grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Immedi- 
ately Parrhasius exhibited his piece, and Zeu- 
xis said remove your curtain, that we may see the 
fainting. The curtain was the painting, and 
Zeuxis acknowledged himself conquered by 
exclaiming, Zeuxis has deceived birds ; but Par- 
rhasius has deceived Zeuxis himself. Parrha- 
sius grew so vain of his art, that he clothed 
himself in purple, and wore a crowoi of gold, 
calling himself the king of painters. Plut. in, 
Thes. d,e Poet. and. — Paus. 1, c. 28. — Plin. 35, 

V. 10. — Horat. 4, od. 8. II. A son of Jupiter, 

or, according to some, of Mars, by a nymph 
called Philonomia. 

Partheni^ and Parthenh, a certain num- 
ber of desperate citizens of Sparta. During the 
Messenian war, the Spartans were absent from 
their city for the space of ten years, and it was 
unlawful for them to return, as they had bound 
themselves by a solemn oath not to revisit Spar- 
ta before they had totally subdued Messenia. 
This long absence alarmed the Lacedaemonian 
women, as well as the magistrates. The Spar- 
tans were reminded by their wives, that if they 
continued in their resolution, the state must at 
last decay for want of citizens; and when they 
had duly considered this embassy, they empow- 
ered all the young men in the army, who had 
come to the war while yet under age, and who 
therefore were not bound by the oath, to return 
to Sparta, and, by a familiar and promiscuous 
intercourse with all the unmarried women of 
the state, to raise a future generation. It was 
carried into execution, and the children that 
sprang from this union were called Partheniae, 
or sons of virgins, (tuoSsi/o?.) The war with 
Messenia was some time after ended, and the 
Spartans returned victorious ; but the cold in- 
difference with which they looked upon the 
Parthenias was attended with serious conse- 
■ quences. They joined with the Helots, and it 
was mutually agreed to murder all the citizens 
of Sparta, and to seize their possessions. This 
massacre was to be done at a general assembly, 
and the signal was the throwing of a cap in the 
air. The whole, however, was discovered 
through the diffidence and apprehensions of the 
Helots; and when the people had assembled, 
the Parthenise discovered that all was known, 
by the voice of a crier, who proclaimed that no 
man should throw up his cap. The Partheniae, 



though apprehensive of punishment, were not 
visibly treated with greater severity; their ca- 
lamitous condition was attentively examined, 
and the Spartans, afraid of another conspiracy, 
and awed by their numbers, permitted them to 
sail for Italy, with Phalantus, their ringleader, 
at their head. They settled in Magna Graecia, 
and built Tarentum, about 707 years before 
Christ. Justin. 3, c. 5. — Strab. 6. — Paus. in 
Jjacon. &c. — Plut. in Apoph. 

Parthenius, a Greek writer, whose romance 
de Amotoriis Affectionibus has been edited in 
12mo. Basil. 1531. 

Parysatis, a Persian princess, wife of Darius 
Ochus, by whom she had Artaxerxes Mnenon 
and Cyrus the younger. The death of Cyrus, 
at the battle of Cunaxa, was revenged with the 
grossest barbarity, and Parysatis sacrificed to 
her resentment all such as she found concerned 
in his fall. She also poisoned Statira, the wife 
of his son Artaxerxes, and ordered one of the 
eunuchs of the court to be flayed alive, and his 
skin to be stretched on two poles before her eyes, 
because he had, by order of the king, cut off the 
hand and the head of Cyrus. These cruelties 
offended Artaxerxes, and he ordered his mother 
to be confined in Babylon ; but they were soon 
after reconciled, and Parysatis regained all her 
power and influence till the time of her death, 
Plut. in Art. — Ctes. 

Passienus, (Paulus,) I. a Romaji knight, 
nephew to the poet Propertius, whose elegiac 
compositions he imitated. He likewise at- 
tempted lyric poetry, and with success, and 
chose for his model the writings of Horace. 
Plin. ep. 6 and 9. II. Crispus, a man dis- 
tinguished as an orator, but more as the hus- 
band of Domitia and afterwards of Agrippina, 
Nero's mother, &c. Tacit Ann. 6, c. 20. 

Patercijlus, I. a Roman, whose daughter, 
Sulpicia, was pronounced the chastest matron 
at Rome. Plm. 7, c. 35. — —II. Velleius, an 
historian. Vid. Velleius. 

Patizithes, one of the Persian Magi, who 
raised his brother to the throne because he re- 
sembled Smerdis, the brother of Cambyses, 
&c. Herodot. 3, c. 61. 

Patroclus, one of the Grecian chiefs during 
the Trojan war, son of Menoetius by Sthenele, 
whom some called Philomela,or Polymela. The 
accidental murder of Clysonymus, the son of 
Amphidamus, in the time of his youth, obliged 
him to fly from Opus, where his father reigned. 
He retired to the court of Peleus, king of Phthia, 
where he was kindly received, and where he 
contracted the most intimate friendship with 
Achilles, the monarch's son. When his friend 
refused to appear in the field of battle, because 
he had been offended by Agamemnon, Patro- 
clus imitated his example, and by his absence 
was the cause of the overthrow of the Greeks. 
But at last Nestor prevailed on him to return to 
the war, and Achilles permitted him to appear 
in his armour. The valour of Patroclus, to- 
gether with the terror which the sight of the 
arms of Achilles inspired, soon routed the vic- 
torious arms of the Trojans, and obligred them 
to fly within their walls for safety. He would 
have broken down the walls of the city; but 
Apollo, who hadinterestedhimself for the Tru- 
jans, placed himself to oppose them, and Hector, 
at the instigation of the ?od, dismounted from 
533 



PA 



HISTORY, &G. 



PA 



his chariot to attack him, as he attempted to 
strip one of the Trojans whom he had slain. 
The engagement was obstinate, but at last Pa- 
troclus was overpowered by the valour of Hec- 
tor and the interposition of Apollo. His arms 
became the property of the conqueror, and Hec- 
tor would have severed his head from his body 
had not Ajax and Menelaus intervened. His 
body was at last recovered, and carried to the 
Grecian camp, where Achilles received it with 
the bitterest lamentations. His funeral was ob- 
served with the greatest solemnity. Achilles 
sacrificed near the burning pile twelve young 
Trojans, besides four of their horses and two of, 
his dogs ; and the whole was concluded by the 
exhibition of funeral games, in which the con- 
querors were liberally rewarded by Achilles. 
The death of Patroclus, as it is described by 
Homer, gave rise to new events ; Achilles for- 
got his resentment against Agamemnon, and 
entered the field to avenge the fall of his friend, 
and his anger was gratified only by the slaugh- 
ter of Hector, who had more powerfully kindled 
his wrath by appearing at the head of the Tro- 
jan armies in the armour which had been taken 
from the body of Patroclus. The patronymic 
of Aciorides is often applied to Patroclus, be- 
cause Actor was father to Mencetius. Dictys 
Cret. 4, &c. — Homer. 11. 9, &c. — Apollod. 3, c. 
13.— Hy gin. fab. 97 and 216.— Ovid. Met. 13, 
V. 273. 

Paula, the first wife of the emperor Helio- 
gabalus. She was daughter of the prefect of 
the pretorian guards. The emperor divorced 
her, and Paula retired to solitude and obscurity 
with composure. 

Paulina, I. a Roman lady who married Sa- 
lurninus, a governor of Syria, in the reign of 
the emperor Tiberius. Her conjugal peace was 
disturbed, and violence was offered to her vir- 
tue by a young man named Mundus, who was 
enamoured of her, and who had caused her to 
come to the temple of Isis by means of the priests 
of the goddess, who declared that Anubis wish- 
ed to communicate to her something of moment. 
Saturninus complained to the emperor of the 
violence which had been offered to his wife, 
and the temple of Isis was overturned and 
Mundus banished, &c, Joseph. A. 18, c. 4 



II. The wife of the philosopher Seneca, who 
attempted to kill herself when Nero had or- 
dered her husband to die. The emperor, how- 
ever, prevented her, and she lived some few 
days after, in the greatest melancholy. Tacit. 
Ann. 15, c. 63, &c. 

Paulinus Pompeius, I. an officer in Nero's 
reign, who had the command of the German 
armies, and finished the works on the banks of 
the Rhine, which Drusus had begun 63 years 
before. Tacit. Ann. 13, c. 53. — Sttetonius. 

II. A Roman general, the first who crossed 

mount Atlas with an army. He wrote a history 
of this expedition in Africa, which is lost. Pau- 
linus also distinguished himself in Britain, &c. 
He followed the arms of Otho against Vitellius. 
Plin. 5, c. 1. 

Paulus jEmylius, I. a Roman, son of the 
iEmylius who fell at Cannae, was celebrated for 
his victories, and received the surname of Mace- 
donicus from his conquest of Macedonia. In 
his first consulship his arms were directed 
against the Ligurians, whom he totally sub- 
534 



jected. His applications for a second consul- 
ship proved abortive ; but when Perseus, the 
king of Macedonia, had declared war a ainst 
Rome, the abilities of Paulus were remembered, 
and he was honoured with the consulship about 
the 60th year of his age. Afier this appoint- 
ment he behaved with uncommon vigour, and 
soon a general engagement was fought near 
Pydna. The Romans obtained the victory, 
and Perseus saw himself deserted by all his sub- 
jects. In two days the conqueror made him- 
self master of all Macedonia, and soon after the 
fugitive monarch was brought into his presence. 
Paulus did not exult over his fallen enemy; but 
when he had gently rebuked him for his temer- 
ity in attacking the Romans, he had addressed 
himself in a pathetic speech to the officers of his 
army who surrounded him, and feelingly en- 
larged on the instability of fortune and vi- 
cissitude of all human affairs. When he had 
finally settled the government of Macedonia 
with ten commissioners from Rome, and after 
he had sacked 70 cities of Epirus, and divided 
the booty among his soldiers, Paulus returned 
to Italy. He was .received with the usual ac- 
clamations, and though some of the seditious 
soldiers attempted to prevent his triumphal entry 
into the capitol, yet three days were appointed 
to exhibit the fruits of his victories. Perseus, 
with his wretched family, adorned the triumph 
of the conqueror ; and as they were dragged 
through the streets, before the chariot of Paulus, 
they drew tears of compassion from the people. 
The riches which the Romans derived from this 
conquest were immense, and the people were 
freed from all taxes till the consulship of Hir- 
tius and Pansa; but while every one of the cit- 
izens received somebenefit from the victories of 
Paulus, the conqueror himself was poor, and ap- 
propriated for his own use nothing of the Mace- 
donian treasures except the library of Perseus. 
In the office of censor, to which he was after- 
wards elected, Paulus behaved with the greatest 
moderation, and at his death, which happened 
about 168 years before the Christian era, not 
only the Romans, but their very enemies con- 
fessed, by their lamentations, the loss which 
they had sustained. He had married Papiria, 
by whom he had two sons, one of which was 
adopted by the family of Maximus, and the 
other in that of Scipio Africanus. He had also 
two daughters, one of whom married a son of 
Cato, and the other jiElius Tubero. He after- 
wards divorced Papiria; and when his friends 
wished to reprobate his conduct in doing so, by 
observing that she was young and handsome, 
and that she had made him father of a fine 
family, Paulus replied, that the shoe which he 
then wore was new and well-made, but that he 
was obliged to leave it off, though no one but 
himself, as he said, knew where it pinched him. 
He married a second wife, by whom he had two 
sons, whose sudden death exhibited to the Ro- 
mans, in the most engaging view, their father's 
philosophy and stoicism. The elder of these 
sons died five days before Paulus triumphed 
over Perseus, and the other, three days after the 
public procession. This domestic calamity did 
not shake the firmness of the conqueror ; yet 
before he retired to a private station, he ha- 
rangued the people, and in mentioning the se- 
verity of fortune upon his family, he expressed 



PA 



HISTORY, &c. 



PE 



his wish that every evil might be averted from 
the republic by the sacrifice of the domestic 
prosperity of an individual. Plut. in vita. — 

Liv. 43, 44, &c. — Justin. 33, c. 1, &c. II. 

Maximus. Vid. Maximus Fabius. III. iEgi- 

neia, a Greek physician, whose work was ed- 
ited apud Aid. fol. 1528. IV. L. iEmylius, a 

consul, who, when opposed to Annibal in Italy, 
checked the rashness of his colleague Varro, 
and recommended an imitation of the conduct 
of the great Fabius, by harassing and not facing 
the enemy in the field. His advice was reject- 
ed, and the battle of Cannae, so glorious to An- 
nibal, and so fatal to Rome, soon followed. 
PauJus was wounded ; but when he might have 
escaped from the slaughter, by accepting a horse 
generously offered by one of his officers, he 
disdained to fly, and perished by the darts of 
the enemy. Horat. od. 12, v. 2S.—Liv. 22, c. 39. 
Pausanias, T. a Spartan general, who greatly 
signalized himself at the battle of Platasa against 
the Persians ; but the haughtiness of his behav- 
iour created him many enemies, and the Athe- 
nians soon obtained a superiority in the affairs 
of Greece. Pausanias was dissatisfied with his 
countrymen, and he offered to beiray Greece to 
the Persians, if he received in marriage, as the 
reward of his perfidy, the daughter of their 
monarch. His intrigues were discovered by 
means of a youth, who was intrusted with his 
letters to Persia, and who refused to go, on the 
recollection that such as had been einployed in 
that office before had never returned. The 
letters were given to the Ephori of Sparta, and 
the perfidy of Pausanias laid open. He fled for 
safety to a temple of Minerva, and as the sanc- 
tity of the place screened him from the violence 
of his pursuers, the sacred building was sur- 
rounded with heaps of stones, the first of which 
was carried there by the indignant mother of the 
unhappy man. He was starved to death in the 
temple, and died about 471 years before the 
Christian era. There was a festival and solemn 
games instituted in his honour, in which only 
freeborn Spartans contended. There was also 
an oration spoken in his praise, in which his 
actions were celebrated, particularly the battle 
of Plataea and the defeat of Mardonius. C. Nep. 
in vita. — Plut. in Arist. (^ Them. — Herodot. 

9. II. Another, at the court of King Philip, 

He was grossly and unnaturally abused by At- 
talus, one of the friends of Philip, and when he 
complained of the injuries he had received, the 
king in some measure disresrarded his remon- 
strances. This incensed Pausanias; he resolved 
to revenge himself, and stabbed Philip as he en- 
tered a public theatre. After this bloody action 
he attempted to make his escape to his chariot, 
which waited for him at the door of the city, 
but he was stopped accidentally by the twig of 
a vine, and fell down. Atialus, Perdiccas, and 
other friends of Philip, who pursued him, im- 
mediately fell upon him and despatched him. 
Some support that Pausanias committed this 
murder at the instigation of Olympias, the wife 
of Philip, and of her son Alexander. Diod. 16. 
— Justin. 9. — Plut. in Apoph. III. A cele- 
brated orator and historian,who settled at Rome, 
A. D. 170, where he died in a very advanced 
age. He wrote a history of Greece in ten 
books, in the Ionic dialect, in which he gives, 
with great precision and geographical know- 



ledge, an account of the situation of its different 
cities, their antiquities, and the several curios- 
ities which they contained. He has also inter- 
woven mythology in his historical account, and 
introduced many fabulous traditions and super- 
stitious stories. In each book the author treats 
of a separate country, such as Attica, Arcadia, 
Messenia, Elis, &c. Some suppose that he gave 
a similar description of Phoenicia and Syria. 
, There was another Pausanias, a native of Caesa- 
rea in Cappadocia, who wrote some declama- 
tions, and who is often confounded with the his- 
torian of that name. The best edition of Pau- 
sanias is that- of Khunius, fol. Lips. 1696. 

IV. A king of Sparta, of the family of the Eu- 
rysthenidae, who died 397 B. C, after a reign of 
14 years. 

Pausias, a painter of Sicyon, the first who 
understood how to apply colours to wood or 
ivory by means of fire. He made a beautiful 
painting of his mistress, Glycere, whom he rep- 
resented as sitting on the ground and making 
garlands with flowers, and from this circum- 
stance the picture, which was bought afterwards 
by Lucullus for two talents, received the name 
of Stephanoplocon. Some lime after the death 
of Pausias, the Sicyonians were obliged to part 
with the pictures they possessed to deliver them- 
selves from an enormous debt, and M. Scaurus, 
the Roman, bought them all, in which were 
those of Pausias, to adorn the theatre, which 
had been built during his edileship. Pausias 
lived about 350 years before Christ. Plin. 35, 
c. 11. 

Pedius Bljesus, I. a Roman, accused by the 
people of Cyrene of plundering the temple of 
jEsculapius. He was condemned under Nero, 

&c. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 18. II. A nephew 

of Julius Caesar, who commanded one of his 
legions in Gaul, &c. III, Poplicola, a law- 
yer in the age of Horace. His father was one 
of J. Caesar's heirs, and became consul with 
Augustus, after Pansa's death. 

Pelasgi. Vid. Part I. 

Peleus. Vid. Part III. 

Pelopeia, a festival observed by the people 
of Elis in honour of Pelops. It was kept in 
imitation of Hercules, who sacrificed to Pe- 
lops in a trench, as it was usual, when the 
manes and the infernal gods were the objects 
of worship. 

Pelopidas, a celebrated general of Thebes, 
son of Hippoclus. He was descended of an 
illustrious family, and was remarkable for his 
immense possessions, which he bestowed with 
great liberality to the poor and necessitous. 
Many were the objects of his generosity ; but 
when Epaminondas had refused to accept his 
presents, Pelopidas disregarded all his wealth 
and preferred before it the enjoyment of his 
friend's conversation and of his poverty. From 
their friendship and intercourse the Thebans 
derived the most considerable advantages. No 
sooner had the interest of Sparta prevailed at 
Thebes, and the friends of liberty and national 
independence been banished from the city, than 
Pelopidas, who was in the number of the ex- 
iles, resolved to free his country from foreign 
slavery. His plan was bold and animated, and 
his deliberations were slow. Meanwhile Epa- 
minondas, who had been left by the tyrants at 
Thebes, as being in appearance a worthless and 
535 



PE 



HISTORY, &c. 



PE 



insignificant philosopher, animated the youths 
of the city, and at last Pelopidas, with eleven 
of his associates, entered Thebes, and easily 
massacred the friends of the tyranny, and freed 
the country from foreign masters. After this 
successful enterprise,Pelopidas was unanimous- 
ly placed at the head of the government ; and so 
confident were the Thebans of his abilities as a 
general and a magistrate, that they successively 
re-elected him 13 times to fill the honourable 
oflice of governor of Boeotia. Epaminondas 
shared with him the sovereign power, and it 
was to their valour and prudence that the The- 
bans were indebted for a celebrated victory at 
the battle of Leuctra. In a war which Thebes 
carried on against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae, 
Pelopidas was appointed commander ; but his 
imprudence in trusting himself unarmed into 
the enemy's camp nearly proved fatal to him. 
He was taken prisoner, but Epaminondas re- 
stored him to liberty. The perfidy of Alexander 
irritated him, and he was killed, bravely fighting 
in a celebrated battle in which his troops ob- 
tained the victory, B. C. 364 years, Pelopidas 
is admired for his valour, as he never engaged 
an enemy without obtaining the advantage. It 
has been justly observed, that with Pelopidas 
and Epaminondas the glory and the independ- 
ence of the Thebans rose and set. Plut. <f« 
C. Kep. in vita. — Xenoph. Hist. G. — Diod. 15. — 
Polijb. 

Peloponnesiacum Bellum, a celebrated 
war, which continued for 27 years between the 
Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus 
with their respective allies. The circumstances 
which gave birth to this memorable war are 
these : the power of Athens, under the prudent 
and vigorous administration of Pericles, was al- 
ready extended over Greece, and it had procu- 
red itself many admirers and more enemies, 
when the Corcyreans,w^ho had been planted by 
a Corinthian colony, refused to pay to their 
founders those marks of respect and reverence 
which, among the Greeks, every colony was 
obliged to pay to its mother-country. The Co- 
rinthians wished to punish that infidelity ; and 
when the people ofEpidamus, a considerable 
town on the Adriatic, had been invaded by some 
of the barbarians of Illyricum, the people of Co- 
rinth gladly granted to the Epidaranians that 
assistance which had in vain been solicited from 
the Corcyreans, their founders and their patrons. 
The Corcyreans were ofiended at the interfer- 
ence of Corinth in the affairs of their colony ; 
they manned a fleet, and obtained a victory over 
the Corinthian vessels which had assisted the 
Epidamnians. The subsequent conduct of the 
Corcyreans, and their insolence to some of the 
Elians who had furnished a few ships to the 
Corinthians, provoked thePeloponnesians, and 
the discontent became general. The Lacedae- 
monians, who had long beheld with concern and 
with jealousy the ambitious power of the Athe- 
nians, determined to support the cause of the 
Corinthians. However, before they proceeded 
to hostilities, an embassy was sent to Athens to 
represent the danger of entering into a war with 
the most powerful and flourishing of all the 
Grecian states, and the answer which was re- 
turned to the Spartans, was taken as a declara- 
tion of war. The Spartans were supported by 
all the republics of the Peloponnesus, except 
536 



Argos and part of Achaia, besides the people of 
Megara, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, Leucas, Am- 
bracia, and Anactorium. The Plataeans, the 
Lesbians, Carians, Chians, Messenians, Acar- 
nanians, Zacynthians, Corcyreans,Dorians, and 
Thracians, were the friends of the Athenians, 
with all the Cyclades, except Euboea, Samos, 
Melos, and Thera. The first blow had already 
been struck. May 7, B. C. 431, by an attempt 
of the Boeotians to surprise Platoea ; and there- 
fore Archidamus king of Sparta, who had in 
vain recommended moderation to the allies, en- 
tered Attica, at the head of an army of 60,000 
men, and laid waste the country by fire and 
sword. Pericles, who was at the head of the 
government, did not attempt to oppose them in 
the field ; but a fleet of one himdred and fifty ships 
set sail without delay, to ravage the coast of 
the Peloponnesus. Megara was also depopu- 
lated by an army of 20,000 men ; and the cam- 
paign of the first year of the war was concluded 
in celebrating, with the most solemn pomp, the 
funerals of such as had nobly fallen in battle. 
The following year was remarkable for a pes- 
tilence which raged in Athens, and which de- 
stroyed the greatest part of the inhabitants. The 
public calamity was still heightened by the ap- 
proach of the Peloponnesian army on the bor- 
ders of Attica, and by the unsuccessful expedi- 
tion of the Athenians against Epidaurus and 
in Thrace, The pestilence which had carried 
away so many of the Athenians proved also 
fatal to Pericles, and he died about two years 
and six months after the commencement of the 
Peloponnesian war. The following years did 
not give rise to decisive events ; but, some time 
after, Demosthenes, the Athenian general, inva- 
ded ^tolia, where his arms were attended with 
the greatest success. He also fortified Pylos in 
the Peloponnesus, and gained so many advan- 
tages over the confederates, that they sued for 
peace, which the insolence of Athens refused. 
The fortune of war soon after changed, and 
the Lacedaemonians, under the prudent conduct 
of Brasidas, made themselves masters of many 
valuable places in Thrace. But this victorious 
progress was soon stopped by the death of their 
general, and that of Cleon, the Athenian com- 
mander; and the pacific disposition ofNicias, 
who was now at the head of Athens, made over- 
tures of peace and universal tranquillity. Plis- 
toanax, the king of the Spartans, wished them 
to be accepted; but the intrigues of the Corin- 
thians prevented the discontinuation of the war, 
and therefore hostilities began anew. But while 
war was carried on with various success in dif- 
ferent parts of Greece, the Athenians engaged 
in a new expedition ; they yielded to the per- 
suasive eloquence of Gorgias of Leontium, and 
the ambitious views of Alcibiades, and sent a 
fleet of 20 ships to assist the Sicilian states 
against the tyrannical power of Syracuse, B. 
C. 416, Syracuse implored the assistance oi 
Corinth, and Gylippns was sent to direct her 
operations, and to defend her against the power 
of her enemies. After a campaign of two years 
of bloodshed, the fleets of Athens were totally 
ruined, and the few soldiers that survived the 
destructive siege made prisoners of war, Al- 
cibiades, who had been treated with cruelty by 
his countrymen, and who had for some time 
resided in Sparta, and directed her military 



PE 



HISTORY, &c. 



PE 



operations, now exerted himself to defeat the 
designs of the confederates, by inducing the 
Persians to espouse the cause of his country. 
The Athenians soon after obtained a naval vic- 
tory, and the Peloponnesian fleet was defeated 
by Alcibiades. The Athenians beheld with 
rapture the success of their arms : but when 
their fleet, in the absence of Alcibiades, had been 
defeated and destroyed, near Andros, by Lysan- 
der, the Lacedsemonian admiral, they showed 
their discontent and mortification by eagerly 
listening to the accusations which were brought 
against their naval leader, to whom they grate- 
fully had acknowledged themselves indebted 
for their former victories. Alcibiades was dis- 
graced in the public assembly, and ten com- 
mginders were appointed to succeed him in the 
management of the republic. This change of 
admirals, and the appointment of Callicratidas 
to succeed Lysander, whose office had expired 
with the year, produced new operations. The 
Athenians fitted out a fleet, and the two nations 
decided their superiority near Arginusas, in a 
naval battle. Callicratidas was killed, and the 
Lacedaemonians conquered ; but the rejoicings 
which the intelligence of this victory occasioned 
were soon stopped, when it was known that the 
wrecks of some of the disabled ships of the 
Athenians, and the bodies of the slain had not 
been saved from the sea. The admirals were 
accused in the tumultuous assembly, and im- 
mediately condemned. Lysander was again 
placed at the head of the Peloponnesian forces, 
instead of Eteonicus, who had succeeded to 
the command at the death of Callicratidas. 
The superiority of the Athenians over that of 
the Peloponnesians, rendered the former inso- 
lent, proud, and negligent ; and when they had 
imprudently forsaken their ships to indulge 
their indolence, or pursue their amusements on 
the seashore at ^gospotamos, Lysander at- 
tacked their fleet, and his victory was complete. 
Of one hundred and eighty sail, only nine es- 
caped ; eight of which fled, under the command 
of Conon, to the island of Cyprus, and the other 
carried to Athens the melancholy news of the 
defeat. The Athenian prisoners were all mas- 
sacred ; and when the Peloponnesian conquer- 
ors had extended their dominion over the states 
and communities of Europe and Asia, which 
formerly acknowledged the power of Athens, 
they returned home to finish the war by the re- 
duction of the capital of Attica. The siege was 
carried on with vigour, and supported with firm- 
ness ; and the first Athenian who mentioned 
capitulation to his countrymen, was instantly 
sacrificed to the fury and the indignation of the 
populace, and all the citizens unanimously de- 
clared, that the same moment would terminate 
their independence and their lives. This ani- 
mated language, however, was not long con- 
tinued. During four months, negociations were 
carried on with the Spartans by the aristocrati- 
cal part of the Athenians, and at last it was 
agreed that, to establish the peace, the fortifica- 
tions of the Athenian harbours must be demol- 
ished, together with the long walls which join- 
ed them to the city ; all their ships, except 12, 
■were to be surrendered to the enemy ; they were 
to resign every pretension to their ancient do- 
minions abroad ; to recall from banishment all 
the members of the late aristocracy ; to follow 
Part II.— 3 Y 



the Spartans in war ; and, in time of peace, to 
frame the constitution according to the will and 
the prescriptions of their Peloponnesian con- 
querors. The terms were accepted, and the 
enemy entered the harbour, and took possession 
of the city that very day on which the Atheni- 
ans had been accustomed to celebrate the anni- 
versary of the immortal victory which their an- 
cestors had obtained over the Persians, about 7G 
. years before, near the island of Salamls. The 
walls and fortifications were instantly levelled 
with the ground ; and the conquerors observed, 
that, in the demolition of Athens, succeeding 
ages would fix the era of Grecian freedom. 
The day was concluded with a festival, and the 
recitation of one of the tragedies of Euripides, in 
which the misfortunes of the daughter of Aga- 
memnon, who was reduced to misery, and ban- 
ished from her father's kingdom, excited a kin- 
dred sympathy in the bosom of the audience, 
who melted into tears at the recollection that 
one moment had likewise reduced to misery and 
servitude the capital of Attica, which was once 
called the common patroness of Greece and the 
scourge of Persia. This memorable event hap- 
pened about 404 years before the Christian era, 
and 30 tyrants were appointed by Lysander over 
the government of the city. Xen. Grac. Hist. 
— Phit. in. Lys. Per. Alcib. Nic. <^ Ages. — Di- 
od. — 11, &c. — Aristophan. — TTiur.yd. — Plato. — 
Arist. I/ycias. — Isocrates. — C. Nep. in Lys. 
Alcib. &c. — Cic. in off. 1, 24. 

Penelope, a celebrated princess of Greece, 
daughter of Icarius, and wife of Utysses, king 
of Ithaca. Her marriage with Ulysses was cele- 
brated about the same time that Menelaus mar- 
ried Helen, and she retired with her husband to 
Ithaca, against the inclination of her father, who 
wished to detain her at Sparta, her native coim- 
try. She soon after became mother of Telema- 
chus, and was obliged to part with great reluc- 
tance from her husband, whom the Greeks obli- 
ged to go to the Trojan war. Vid. Palamedes. 
She was soon beset by a number of importuning 
suiters, who wished her to believe that her hus- 
band was shipwrecked, and that therefore she 
ought not longer to expect his return, but forget 
his loss, and fix her choice and aflections on one 
of her numerous admirers. She received their 
addresses with coldness and disdain ; but as she 
was destitute of power, and a prisoner, as it were, 
in their hands, she yet flattered them with hopes 
and promises, and declared that she would make 
choice of one of them as soon as she had finish- 
ed a piece of tapestry on which she was employ- 
ed. The work was done in a dilatory manner, 
and she baffled their eager expectations, by un- 
doing in the ' night what she had done in the 
daytime. This artifice of Penelope has given 
rise to the proverb of Penelope's locb. which is 
applied to whatever labour can never be ended. 
The return of Ulysses, after an absence of 
twenty years, however, delivered her from fears 
and from her dangerous suiters. Penelope is 
described by Homer as a model of female virtue 
and chastity ; but some more modern writers dis- 
pute her claims to modest}'- and continence, and 
they represent her as the most voluptuous of her 
sex. After the return of Ulysses, Penelope had 
a daughter, who was called" Ptoliporthe; but if 
we believe the traditions that were longpreserv- 
ed at Mantinea, Ulvsses repudiated his wife 
'537 



PE 



HISTORY, &c. 



PE 



for her incontinence during his absence, and 
Penelope fled to Sparta, and afterwards to Man- 
tinea, where she died and was buried. After 
the death of Ulysses, according to Hyginus, she 
married Telegonus, her husband's son by Circe, 
by order of the goddess Minerva. Some say that 
her original name was Arnea, or Amirace, and 
that she was called Penelope, when some river 
birds, called penelopes, had saved her from the 
waves of the sea when her father had exposed 
her. Icarius had attempted to destroy her, be- 
cause the oracles had told him that his daughter 
by Periboea would be the most dissolute of her 
sex and a disgrace to her family. Apollod. 3, c. 
10.— Pans. 3, c. 12.— Homer. 11. (^ Od.— Ovid. 
Her Old. 1. Met. — Aristot. Hist. anim. 8. — Hy- 
gin. fab. 127. — Aristoph. in Avib. — Plin. 37. 

Penthilus, a son of Orestes by Erigone, the 
daughter of ^gysthus, who reigned conjointly 
with his brother Tisamenus at Argos. He was 
driven some time after from his throne by the 
HeraclidaB,and he retired to Achaia, and thence 
to Lesbos, where he planted a colony. Paus. 5. 
c. 4.—Strab. 13.— Paterc. 1, c. 1. 

Penthylus, a prince of Paphos, who assisted 
Xerxes with 12 ships. He was seized by the 
Greeks, to whom he communicated many im- 
portant things concerning the situation of the 
Persians, &c. Herodot. 7, c. 195. 

Perdiccas, I. the fourth king of Macedonia, 
B. C, 729, was descended from Temenus. He 
increased his dominions by conquest, and in the 
latter part of his life he showed his son Argeus 
where he wished to be buried, and told him that 
as long as the bones of his descendants and suc- 
cessors to the throne of Macedonia were laid in 
the same grave, so long would the crown remain 
in the family. These injunctions were observed 
till the time of Alexander, who was buried out 
of Macedonia. Herodot. 7 and 8. — Justin. 7, c. 2. 
II. Another king of Macedonia, son of Alex- 
ander. He reigned during the Peloponnesian 
war, and assisted the Lacedaemonians against 
Athens. He behaved with great courage on the 
throne, and died B.C. 413, after a long reign of 
glory and independence, daring which he had 
subdued some of his barbarian neighbours 



III. Another king of Macedonia, who was sup- 
ported on his throne by Iphicrates the Athenian, 
against the intrusions of Pausanias. He was 
killed in a war against the Illyrians, B. C. 360. 
Justin. 7, &c. IV. One of the friends and fa- 
vourites of Alexander the Great. At the king's 
death he wished to make himself absolute ; and 
the ring which he had received from the hand of 
the dying Alexander, seemed in some measure 
to favour his pretensions. The better to support 
his claims to the throne, he married Cleopatra, 
the sister of Alexander, and strengthened him- 
self by making a league with Eumenes. His 
ambitious views were easily discovered by Anti- 
gonus and the rest of the generals of Alexan- 
der, who all wished, like Perdiccas, to succeed 
to the kingdom and honours of the deceased 
monarch. Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, 
leagued with Antigonus against him, and after 
much bloodshed on both sides, Perdiccas was 
totally ruined, and at last assassinated in his 
tent in Egypt, by his own officers, about 321 
years before the Christian era. Plut. in Alex. 
—Diod. 17 and 18.— Curt. 10.— C. Nep. Bum. 
'-^lian. V. H. 12. 

538 



Perennis, a favourite of the emperor Com- 
modus. He is described by some as a virtuous 
and impartial magistrate, while others paint him 
as a cruel, violent, and oppreseive tyrant, who 
committed the greatest barbarities to enrich 
himself He was put to death for aspiring to 
the empire. Herodian. 

Periander, I a tyrant of Corinth, son of 
Cypselus. The first years of his government 
were mild and popular, but he soon learnt to be- 
come oppressive, when he had consulted the ty- 
rant of Sicily about the surest way of reigning. 
He was not only cruel to his subjects, but his 
family also were objects of his vengeance. He 
committed incest with his mother, and put to 
death his wife Melissa, upon false accusation. 
He also banished his son Lycophron to the 
island of Corcyra, because the youth pitied and 
wept at the miserable end of his mother, and de- 
tested the barbarities of his father. Periander 
died about 585 years before the Christian era, in 
his 80th year ; and by the meanness of his flatter- 
ers he was reckoned one of the seven wise men 
of Greece. Though he was tyrannical, yet he 
patronised the fine arts ; he was fond of peace, 
and he showed himself the friend and protector 
of genius and of learning. He used to say, that 
a man ought solemnly to keep his word, but not 
to hesitate to break it if ever it clashed with his 
interest. He said, also, that not only crimes 
ought to be punished, bui also every wicked and 
corrupt thought. Diog. in vita. — Arist. 5, Po- 

lit. — Patis. 2. II. A tyrant of Ambracia, 

whom some rank with the seven wise men of 
Greece, and not the tyrant of Corinth. 

Pericles, an Athenian of a noble family, son 
of Xanthippus and Agariste. He was natu- 
rally endowed with great powers, which he im- 
proved by attending the lectures of Damon, of 
Zeno, and of Anaxagoras. When he took a 
share in the administration of public affairs, he 
rendered himself popular by opposing Cimon, 
who was the favourite of the nobility ; and, to 
remove every obstacle which stood in the way 
of his ambition, he lessened the dignity and the 
power of the court of the Areopagus, which the 
people had been taught for ages to respect and 
to venerate. He also attacked Cimon, and 
caused him to be banished by the ostracism, 
Thucydides also, who bad succeeded Cimon on 
his banishment, shared the same fate, and Per- 
icles remained for 15 years the sole minisier, 
and, as it may be said, the absolute sovereign of 
a republic which always showed itself so jeal- 
ous of its liberties, and which distrusted so 
much the honesty of her magistrates. In his 
ministerial capacity, Pericles did not enrich 
himself, but the prosperity of Athens was the 
object of his administration. He made war 
against the Lacedaemonians, and restored the 
temple of Delphi to the care of the Phocians, 
who had been illegally deprived of that honour- 
able trust. He obtained a victory over the Si- 
cyonians near Nemaea, and waged a successful 
war against the inhabitants of Samos at the re- 
quest of his favourite mistress, Aspasia. The 
Peloponnesian war was fomented by his ambi- 
tious views. Vid. Peloponnesiacum Bellum. 
But an unfortunate expedition raised clamours 
against Pericles, and the enraged popuiace at- 
tributed all their losses to hira, and condemned 
him to pay 50 talents. This loss of popular fa- 



PE 



HISTORY, &c. 



PE 



vour, by republican caprice, did not so much 
affect Pericles as the recent death of all his 
children ; and when the tide of unpopularity 
was passed by, he was again restored to all his 
honours, and, if possible, invested with more 
power and more authority than before ; but the 
dreadful pestilence which had diminished the 
number of his family, proved fatal to him, and 
about 429 years before Christ, in his 70lh year, 
he fell a sacrifice to that terrible malady which 
robbed Athens of so many of her citizens. 
Pericles was for 40 years at the head of the ad- 
ministration, 25 years with others and 15 alone ; 
and the flourishing stale of the empire, during 
his government, gave occasion to the Atheni- 
ans publicly to lament his loss, and to venerate 
his memory. As he was expiring, and seem- 
ingly senseless, his friends that stood around 
his bed expatiated with warmth on the most 
glorious actions of his life, and the victories 
which he had won, when he suddenly interrupt- 
ed their tears and conversation, by saying, that 
in mentioning the exploits that he had achiev- 
ed, and which were common to him with all 
generals, they had forgot to mention a circum- 
stance which reflected far greater glory upon 
him as a minister, a general, and above all, as a 
man. It is, says he, that not a citizen in Athens 
has been obliged to put on mourning on my ac- 
count. The Athenians were so pleased with 
his eloquence that they compared it to thunder 
and lightning, and, as to another father of the 
gods, they gave him the surname of Olympian. 
Yet great and venerable as this character may 
appear, we must not forget the follies of Peri- 
cles. Pericles lost all his legitimate children 
by the pestilence, and to call a natural son by 
his own name he was obliged to repeal a law 
which he had made against spurious children, 
and which he had enforced with great severity. 
This son, called Pericles, became one of the ten 
generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the ad- 
ministration of affairs, and, like his colleagues, 
he was condemned to death by the Athenians, 
after the unfortunate battle of Arginusae, Paus. 
1, c. 25. — Plut. in vita. — Quintil. 12, c. 9, — 
Cic. de Orat. 3.—JBlian. V. H. 4, c. 10.— 
Xenoph. Hist. G. — Thfiicyd. 

Periegetes Dionysius, a poet. Vid. Dio- 
nysins. 

Perilla, a daughter of Ovid the poet. She 
was extremely fond of poetry and literature. 
Ovid. Fast. 3, el. 7, v. 1. 

Perillus, an ingenious artist at Athens, who 
made a brazen bull for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
gentum. This machine was fabricated to put 
criminals to death by burning them alive, and 
it was such that their cries were like the roar- 
ing of a bull. When Perillus gave it to Pha- 
laris, the tyrant made the first experiment upon 
the donor, and cruelly put him to death by light- 
ing a slow fire "under the belly of the bull. Plin. 
34, c. 8. — Ovid, in art. Am. 1, v. 653, in ib. 439. 

Peripatetici, a sect of philosophers at 
Athens, disciples to Aristotle. They received 
this name from the place where they were 
taught, called Peripaton, in the Lyceum, or 
because they received the philosopher's lectures 
as they walked, (nEonrarovvre;'). The peripatetics 
acknowledged the dignity of human nature, and 
placed their suvimum bonum not in the pleas- 
ure of passive sensation, but in the due exer- 



cise of the moral and intellectual faculties. 
Cic. Acad. 2, &c. 

Periphemus, an ancient hero of Greece, to 
whom Solon sacrificed ai Salamis, by order of 
the oracle. 

Pero, or Perone, a daughter of Cimon, re- 
markable for her filial affection. When her fa- 
ther had been sent to prison, where his judges 
had condemned him to starve, she supported 
Jiis life by giving him the milk of her breasts as 
to her own child. Val. Max. 5, c. 4. 

Perola, a Roman,' who meditated the death 
of Hannibal in Italy. His father, Pacuvius, 
dissuaded him from assassinating the Cartha- 
ginian general. 

Perpenna, (M.) I. a Roman, who conquered 
Aristonicus in Asia, and took him prisoner. He 

died B. C. 130. II. Another, who joined the 

rebellion of Sertorius, and opposed Pompey. 
He was defeated by Metellus, and some time 
after he had the meanness to assassinate Serto- 
rius, whom he had invited lo his house. He 
fell into the hands of Pompey, who ordered him 
to be put to death. Plut. in Sert. — Paterc. 2, 
c. 30. III. A Greek who obtained the con- 
sulship at Rome. Val. Mai. 3, c. 4. 

Perseus, or Perses, a son of Philip, king of 
Macedonia. He distinguished himself like his 
father, by his enmity to the Romans, and when, 
he had made sufficient preparations, he declared 
war against them. When Paulus ^tjas appoint- 
ed to the command of the Roman armies in 
Macedonia, Perseus showed his inferiority by 
his imprudent encampments, and when he had 
at last yielded to the advice of his officers, who 
recommended a general engagement,and drawn 
up his forces near the walls of t^ydna, B. C. 168, 
he was the first who ruined his own cause, and 
by flying as soon as the battle was begun, he left 
the enemy masters of the field. From Pydna, 
Perseus flew to Samothrace, but he was soon 
discovered in his obscure retreat, and brought 
into the presence of the Roman conqueror, 
where the meanness of his behaviour exposed 
him to ridicule, and not to mercy. He was car- 
ried to Rome, aud dragged along the streets of 
the city to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. 
His family were also exposed to the sight of the 
Roman populace, who shed tears on viewing in 
their streets, dragged like a slave, a monarch 
who had once defeated their armies, and spread 
alarm all over Italy by the greatness of his mili- 
tary preparations and by his bold undertakings. 
Perseus died in prison, or, according to some, he 
was put to a shameful death the first year of his 
captivity. He had two sons, Philip and Alex- 
ander, and one daughter, whose name is not 
known. Alexander, the younger of these, was 
hired to a Roman carpenter, and led the great- 
est parf of his life in obscurity, till his ingenuity 
raised him to notice. He was afterwards made 
secretary to the senate. Liv. 40, &c. — Justin. 
33, c. 1, &c. — Plut. in Paulo. — Flor. 2, c. 12. — 
Propert. ^, e\. 12, v. 39. 

Persius FlaccUvS, Aulus, a Latin poet of 
Volaterrae. He was of an equestrian family, 
and he made himself known by his intimacy 
with the most illustrious Romans of the age. 
The early part of his life was spent in his na- 
tive town, and at the age of sixteen he was le- 
moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy 
under Cornutus the celebrated stoic. He also 
539 



PE 



HISTORY. &c. 



PE 



received the instructions of Paleraon, the gram- 
marian, and Virginius, the rhetorician. Natu- 
rally of a mild disposition, his character was un- 
impeached, his modesty remarkable, and his 
benevolence universally admired. He distin- 
guished himself by his satirical humour, and 
made the faults of the orators and poets of his 
age the subject of his poems. He did not even 
spare Nero, and the more effectually to expose 
the emperor to ridicule, he introduced into his 
satires some of his verses. The torva mimal- 
loneis implerunt cornua bombis, with the three 
following verses, are Nero's according to some. 
But though he was so severe upon the vicious 
and ignorant, he did not forget his friendship 
for Cornutus, and. he showed his regard for his 
character and abilities by making mention of 
his name with great propriety in his satires. It 
was by the advice of his learned preceptor that 
he corrected one of his poems in which he had 
compared Nero to Midas, and at his represen- 
tation he altered the words Auriculas asini 
Mida rex habet, into Auriculas asini quis non 
habet ? Persius died in the 30th year of his age, 
A. D, 62, and left all his books, which consisted 
of seven hundred volumes, and a large sum of 
money, to his preceptor; but Cornutus only 
accepted the books, and returned the money to 
the sisters and friends of the deceased. The 
satires of Persius are six in number, blamed by 
some for the obscurity of style and of language. 
But though they may appear almost unintelligi- 
ble to some, it ought to be remembered that they 
were read with pleasure and with avidity by his 
contemporaries; and that the only difficulties 
which now appear to the moderns, arise from 
their not knowing the various characters which 
they described, the vices which they lashed, and 
the errors which they censured. The satires 
of Persius are generally printed with those of 
Juvenal, the best editions of which will be found 
to be Hennin. 4to. L. B. 1695, and Hawkey, 
12mo. Dublin 1746. The best edition of Per- 
sius, separate, is that of Meric Casaubon, 12mo. 
Lond. 1647, Martial. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Au- 
gxist. de Magist. 9. — Lactant. 

Pertinax, Publius Helvius, a Roman empe- 
ror after the deaib of Commodus. He was de- 
scended from an obscure family, and, like his 
father, who was either a slave or the son of a 
manumitted slave, he for some time followed the 
mean employment of drying wood and making 
charcoal . His indigence, however, did not pre- 
vent him from receiving a liberal education, and 
indeed he was for some time employed in teach- 
ing a number of pupils the Greek and Roman 
languages in Etruria. He left his laborious 
profession for a military life, and by his valour 
and intrepidity he gradually rose to offices of 
the highest trust in the army, and was made 
consul by M. Aurelius for his emment services. 
He wa? afterwards intrusted with the govern- 
ment of Moesia, and at last he presided over the 
city of Rome as governor. When Commodus 
was murdered, Pertinax was universally select- 
ed to succeed to the imperial throne, and his 
refusal, and the plea of old age and increased 
infirmities, did not prevent his being saluted 
emperor and Augustus. He melted all the sil- 
ver statues which had been raised to his vicious 
predecessor, and he exposed to public sale all 
his concubines, his horses, his arms, and all the 
540 



instruments of his pleasure and extravagance* 
With the money raised from these he enriched 
the empire, and was enabled to abolish ail the 
taxes which Commodus had laid on the rivers, 
ports, and highways through the empire. This 
patriotic administration gained him the affection 
of the worthiest and most discerning of his sub- 
jects ; but the extravagant and luxurious raised 
their clamours against him, and when Pertinax 
attempted to introduce among the pretorian 
guards that discipline which was so necessary 
to preserve the peace and tranquillity of Rome, 
the 'flames of rebellion were kindled, and the 
minds of the saldiers totally alienated. Pertinax 
was apprized of this mutiny, but he refused to 
fly at the hour of danger. He scorned the ad- 
vice of his friends, who wished him to withdraw 
from the impending storm, and he unexpect- 
edly appeared before the seditious pretorians, 
and, without fear or concern, boldly asked them 
whether they, who were bound to defend the 
person of their prince and emperor, were come 
to betray him and to shed his blood. His un- 
daunted assurance and his intrepidity would 
have had the desired effect, and the soldiers had 
already begun to retire, when one of the most 
seditious advanced and darted his javelin at the 
emperor's- breast, exclaiming, 7%e soldiers send 
you this! The rest immediately followed the 
example, and Pertinax, mufiimg up his head, 
and calling upon Jupiter to avenge his death, 
remained unmoved, and was instantly de- 
spatched. His head was cut off, and carried 
upon the point of a spear, as in triumph, to the 
camp. This happened on the 28th of March, 
A. D. 193. Pertinax reigned only 87 days, and 
his death was the more universally lamented as 
it proceeded from a seditious tumult, and robbed 
the Roman empire of a wise, virtuous, and be- 
nevolent emperor. Dio. — HerodioM. — Capitol. 

Peteus, a son of Orneus and grandson of 
Erechtheus. He reigned in Attica, and became 
father of Menestheus, who went with the Greeks 
to the Trojan war. He is represented by some 
of the ancients as a monster, half a man and 
half a beast. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Paus. 10, c. 35. 

Petilii, two tribunes, who accused Scipio 
Africanus of extortion. 

Petilius, I. a prsEtor, who persuaded the peo- 
ple of Rome to burn the books which had been 
found in Numa's tomb, about 400 years after 
his death. His advice was followed. Plut. in 

JSum. II. A plebeian decemvir, &c. 

III. A governor of the capitol, who stole away 
the treasures intrusted to his care. He was 
accused, but, though guilty, he was acquitted as 
being the friend of Augustus. Horat. 1, Sat. 
4, v. 94. 

Petreius, I. a Roman soldier, who killed his 
tribune during the Cimbrian wars, because he 
hesitated to attack the enemy. He was reward- 
ed for his valour with a crown of grass. Plin. 

22, c. 6. II. A lieutenant of C. Antonius, 

who defeated the troops of Catiline. He took 
the part of Pompey against Julius Caesar. 
When Caesar had been victorious in evervpart 
of the world, Petreius, who had retired into 
Africa, attempted to destroy himself by fighting 
I with his friend, king Juba, in single combat. 
Juba was killed first, and Petreius obliged one 
of his slaves to run him through. Sallust. Ca- 
, til. — Appian. — Cess. 1, Civ. 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



Petronius, I. a governor of Egypt, appointed 
to succeed Gallus. He behaved with great 
humanity to the Jews, and made war against 

Candace, queen of Ethiopia. Strab. 17. II. 

Maximus, a Roman emperor. Vid. Maximus. 

III. Arbiter, a favourite of the emperor 

Nero, and one of the ministers and associates 
of all his pleasures and debaucheries. What- 
ever he did, seemed to be performed with an 
air of unconcern and negligence ; he was affa- 
ble in his behaviour, and his wiuicisms and 
satirical remarks appeared artless and natural. 
He was appointed proconsul of Bithynia, and 
afterwards he was rewarded with the consul- 
ship, in both of which honourable employments 
he behaved with all the dignity which became 
one of the successors of a Brutus or a Scipio. 
Tigellinus, one of Nero's favourites, jealous of 
his fame, accused him of conspiring against the 
emperor's life. The accusation was credited, 
and Petronius immediately resolved to with- 
draw himself from Nero's punishment, by a vol- 
untary death. This was performed in a man- 
ner altogether unprecedented, A. D. &Q. Pe- 
tronius ordered his veins to be opened, but with- 
out the eagerness of terminating his agonies he 
had them closed at intervals. Some time after 
they were opened, and, as if he wished to die 
in the same careless and unconcerned manner 
as he had lived, he passed his time in discours- 
ing with his friends upon trifles, and listened 
with the greatest avidity to love verses, amusing 
stories, or laughable epigrams. Sometimes he 
manumitted his slaves or punished them with 
stripes. In this ludici'ous manner he spent his 
last moments, till nature was exhausted ; and 
before he expired, he wrote an epistle to the 
emperor, in which he has described, with a mas- 
terly hand, his nocturnal extravagances and the 
daily impurities of his actions. This letter was 
carefully sealed, and after he had conveyed it 
privately to the emperor, Petronius broke his 
signet, that it might not, after his death, become 
a snare to the innocent. He is the author of 
many elegant but obscene compositions, still 
extant, among which is a poem on the civil 
wars of Pompey and Csesar, superior, in some 
respects, to the Pharsalia of Lucan. There is 
also the feast of Trimalcion, in which he paints 
with too much licentiousness the pleasures and 
the debaucheries of a corrupted court of an ex- 
travagant monarch — reflections on the instabil- 
ity of human life — a poem on the vanity of 
dreams — another on the education of the Ro- 
man youth — two treatises, &c. The best edi- 
tions of Petronius are those of Burman, 4to. 
Utr. 1709, and Reinesius, 8vo. 1731. 

Peucestes, a Macedonian, set over Egypt by 
Alexander. He received Persia, at the general 
division of the Macedonian empire at the king's 
•death. He behaved with great cowardice after 
he had joined himself to Eumenes, C. Nep. in 
Bum.— Pint.— Curt. 4, c. 8. 

Ph^don, I. an Athenian, put to death by the 
30 tyrants. His daughters, to escape the op- 
pressors and preserve their chastitv, threw 
themselves together into a well. II. A dis- 
ciple of Socrates. He had been seized by 
pirates in his younger days, and the philoso- 
pher, who seemed to discover something un- 
common and promising in his countenance, 
bought his libert}' for a sum of money, and ever 



I after esteemed him. Phsedon, after the death of 
1 Socrates, returned to Elis, his native country, 
I where he founded a sect of philosophers, called 
! Elean. The name of Phaedon is afiixed to one of 
the dialogues of Plato. Macrob. Sat. 1, c. 11. — 

I Ph^drus, a Thracian, who became one of 
the freedmen of the emperor Augustus. He 
translated into Iambic verses the fables of iEsop, 
in the reign of the emperor Tiberius. They 
are divided into five books, valuable for their pre- 
cision, purity, elegance, and simplicity. They 
were discovered in the library of St. Remi at 
Ilheims, and published by Peter Pithou, a 
Frenchman, at the end of the 16th century, 
Phaedrus was for some time persecuted by Se- 
janus, because this corrupt minister believed that 
he was satirised and abused in the encomiums 
which the poet every where pays to virtue. 
The best editions of Phaedrus are those of Bur- 
man 4to. Leyd. 1727; Hoogstraten, 4to. Amst. 
1701, and Barbou, 12mo. Paris, 1754. 

Ph5:dyma, a daughter of Otanes, who first 
discovered that Smerdis, who had ascended the 
throne of Persia at the death of Cambyses, was 
an imposter. Herodot. 3, c. QQ, 

Ph2Enarete, tho mother of the philosopher 
Socrates. She was a midwife by profession. 

Phagesia, a festival among the Greeks, ob- 
served during the celebration of the Dionysia. 
It received its name from the good eating and 
living that then universally prevailed, cpayeiv. 

PHAL.ECOS, a general of Phocis against the 
Boeotians, killed at the battle of Cheronaea. 
Diod. 16. 

Phalanthus, a Lacedaemonian, who founded 
Tarentum in Italy, at the head of the Parthe- 
niae. His fathers name was Aracas. As he 
went to Italy he was shipwrecked on the coast, 
and carried to shore by a dolphin, and from that 
reason there was a dolphin placed near his statue 
in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Vcd. Par- 
thenicB. He received divine honours after death. 
Justin. 3, c. 4. — Paus. 10, c. 10. — Horat. 2, od. 
6, V. n.—Sil. Ital. 11, V. 16. 

Phalaris, a tyrant of Agrigentum, who 
made use of the most excruciating torments 
to punish his subjects on the smallest suspi- 
cion. The people of Agrigentum revolted in 
the tenth year of his reign, and put him to 
death in the same manner as he had tortured 
Perillus and many of his subjects after him, B. 
C. 552. The brazen bull of Phalaris was car- 
ried by Amilcar to Carthage : when that city 
was taken by Scipio, it was delivered again to 
the inhabitants of Agrigentum by the Romans. 
There are now some letters extant, written by 
a certain Abaris to Phalaris, with their respect- 
ive answers ; but they are supposed by some to 
be spurious. The best edition is that of the 
learned Boyle, Oxon. 1718. Cic. in Verr. 4, 
ad Attic. 7, ep. 12, de offic. 2. — Ovid, de Art. 
Am. 1, V. 663.— Juy. 8, v. 81.— PZm. 34, c. 8. - 
Diod. 

Phalereus DEMETRros. Vid. Demetrius. 

PHALLiCAjfestivals observed by the Egyptians, 
in honour of Osiris. They receive their name 
from (i,aXXof simulachrum ligneum membri viri- 
lis. The festivals of the phallus were imitated 
by the Greeks, and introduced into Europe by 
the Athenians, who made the procession of the 
phallus part of the celebration of the Dionysia 
541 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



of the god of wine. Those that carried the 
phallus, at the end of a long pole, were called 
phallophori. They generally appeared, among 
the Greeks, besmeared with the dregs of wine, 
covered with skins of lambs, and wearing on 
their heads a crown of ivy, Lucian. de Dea 
Syr. — Plut. de Isid. tf* Osir. — Paus. 1, c. 2. 

Phanes, a man of Halicarnassus, who fled 
from Amasis, king of Egypt, to the court of 
Cambyses, king of Persia, whom he advised, 
when he invaded Egypt, to pass through Ara- 
bia. HerodoL. 3, c. 4. 

Phanocles, an elegiac poet of Greece, who 
wrote a poem on that unnatural sin of which So- 
crates is accused by some. He supported that 
Orpheus had been the first who disgraced him- 
self by that indulgence. Some of his fragments 
are remaining. Clem. Alex. Str. 6. 

Phantasia, a daughter of Nicarchas of Mem- 
phis, in Egypt. Some have supposed that she 
wrote a poem on the Trojan war, and another 
on the return of Ulysses to Ithaca, from which 
compositions Homer copied the greatest part of 
his Iliad and Odyssey, when he visited Mem- 
phis, where they were deposited. 

Phaon. Vid. Part III. 

Pharacides, a general of the Lacedaemonian 
fleet, who assisted Dionysius, the tyrant of Si- 
cily, against the Carthaginians. PolycBn. 2. 

Pharnabazus, a satrap of Persia, son of a 
person of the same name, B. C. 409. He as- 
sisted the Lacedaemonians against the Athe- 
iiians,and gained their esteem by his friendly be- 
haviour and support. His conduct, however, 
towards Alcibiades, was of the most perfidious 
nature, and he did not scruple to betray to his 
mortal enemies the man he had long honoured 
with his friendship, C. Nep. in Ale. — Plut. 

Pharnaces, a son of Mithridates, king of 
Pontus, who favoured the Romans against his 
father. He revolted against Mithridates, and 
even caused him to be put to death, according 
to some accounts. In the civil wars of Julius 
Caesar and Pompey, he interested himself for 
neither of the contending parties ; upon which 
Caesar turned his army against him, and con- 
quered him. It was to express the celerity of 
his operations in conquering Pharnaces, that 
the victorious Roman made use of these words: 
Veni, vidi, vici. Flor. 3. — Suet, in Cess. 37. — 
Paterc. 2, c. 55, 

Phavorinus, a writer, the best edition of 
whose Greek Lexicon is that in fol. Venet. 1712. 

Phemius, I. a man introduced by Homer as a 
musician am«ng Penelope's suiters. Some say 
that he taught Homer, for which the grateful 
poet immortalized his name. Homer. Od. 



II. A man, who, according to some, wrote an 
account of the return of the Greeks from the 
Trojan war. The word is applied by Ovid, 
Am. 3, V. 7, indiscriminately to any person who 
excels in music. 

Pherecrates. a comic poet of Athens, in the 
age of Plato and Aristophanes. He is suppos- 
ed to have written 21 comedies, of which only a 
few verses remain. He introduced living cha- 
racters on the stage, but never abused the liber- 
ty which he had taken, either by satire or de- 
famation. He invented a sort of verse, which 
from him has been called Pherecration. It con- 
sisted of the three last feet of an hexameter 
verse, of which the first was always a spondee, 
542 



as, for instance, the third verse of Horace's 1, 

od. 5, Grato Pyrrha sub antro. 

Pheregydes, a philosopher of Scyros, disci- 
ple to Pittacus, one of the first who delivered 
his thoughts in prose. He was acquainted with 
the periods of the moon, and foretold eclipses 
with the greatest accuracy. The doctrine of 
the immortality of the soul was first supported 
by him, as also that of the metempsychosis. 
Pythagoras was one of his disciples, remarkable 
for his esteem and his attachment to his learned 
master. When Pherecydes lay dangerously ill 
in the island of Delos, Pythagoras hastened to 
give him every assistance in his power, and 
when all his efforts had proved ineffectual, he 
buried him, and after he had paid him the last 
offices, he retired to Italy, Some, however, sup- 
pose that Pherecydes threw himself down from 
a precipice as he was going to Delphi ; or, ac- 
cording to others, he fell a sacrifice to the lousy 
disease, B, C, 515, in the 85th year of his age. 
Diog. — Lactant. 

Pheretima, the wife of Battus, king of Cy- 
rene and mother of Arcesilaus. After her son's 
death she recovered the kingdom by means of 
Amasis, king of Egypt, and to avenge the mur- 
der of Arcesilaus, she caused all his assassins 
to be crucified round the walls of Cyrene, and 
she cut off the breasts of their wives, and hung 
them up near the bodies of their husbands. It 
is said she was devoured alive by worms. 
Polyan. 8, — Herodot. 4, c, 204, &c. 

Pheron, a king of Egypt, who succeeded 
Sesostris. He was blind, and he recovered his 
sight by washing his eyes, according to the di- 
rections of the oracle, in the urine of a woman 
who had never had any unlawful connexions. 
He tried his wife first, but she appeared to have 
been faithless to his bed, and she was biirnt, 
with all those whose urine could not restore 
sight to the king. He married the woman whose 
urine proved beneficial. Herodot. 2, c. 111. 

PmDiAS, a celebrated statuary of Athens, 
who died B. C. 432. He made a statue of 
Minerva, at the request of Pericles, which was 
placed in the Pantheon. It was made with ivory 
and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. He 
was accused of having carved his own image 
and that of Pericles on the shield of the statue 
of the goddess, for which he was banished from 
Athens by the clamorous populace. He retired 
to Elis, where he determined to revenge the ill 
treatment he had received from his countrymen, 
by making a statue which should eclipse the 
fame of that of Minerva. He was successful 
in the attempt ; and the statue he made of Ju- 
piter Olympius was always reckoned the best 
of all his pieces, and has passed for one of the 
wonders of the world. The people of Elis were 
so sensible of his merit, and of the honour he 
had done to their city, that they appointed his 
descendants to the honourable office of keeping 
clean that magnificent statue, and of preserv- 
ing it from injury. Paus. 9, c. 4. — Cic. de 
Orat.—Strah. S.—Q,uintil. 12, c. \0.—Plut. in 
Per. 

PmLippiDEs, a celebrated courier, who ran 
from Athens to Lacedaemon, about 152 English 
miles, in two days, to ask of the Lacedaemo- 
nians assistance against the Persians. The 
Athenians raised a temple to his memory. 
Herodot. 6, c. 105,— C. Nep. in Milt. 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



Phiditia, a public entertainmerit at Sparta, 
where much frugality was observed, as the word 
{(p£iSiTia, from (peiSofiai, parco) denotes. Cic. 
Tiisc. 5, c. 34. Pans. 3, c. 10. 

Phidon, I. a man who enjoyed the sovereign 
power of Argos, and is supposed to have invent- 
ed scales and measures, and coined silver at 
Mginsi. He died B.C. 854. Arist. — Herodot. 6, 
c. 127. II. An ancient legislator at Corinth. 

PfflLA, the eldest daughter of Antipater, who 
married Craierus. She afterwards married De- 
metrius,and when her husband had lost the king- 
dom of Macedonia, she poisoned herself. Plut. 

Philadelphus. Vid. Ptolemceus 2d. 

Phil^ni, two brothers of Carthage. When 
a contest arose between the Cyreneans and Car- 
thaginians, about the extent of their territories, 
it was mutually agreed, that, at a stated hour, 
two men should depart from each city, and that 
wherever they met there they should fix the 
boundaries of their country. The Philaeni ac- 
cordingly departed from Carthage, and met the 
Cyreneans when they had advanced far into 
their territories. This produced a quarrel, 
and the Cyreneans supported that the Philaeni 
had left Carthage before the appointment, and 
that therefore they must retire or be buried in 
the sand. The Philaeni refused, upon which 
they were ovej'powered by the Cyreneans, and 
accordingly buried in the sand. Vid. PMIcb- 
norum ArcB^ Part I. 

PfflLEMON, I, a Greek comic poet, contempora- 
ry with Menander. He obtained some poetical 
prizes over Menander, not so much by the merit 
of his compositions as by the intrigues of his 
friends. Plautus imitated some of his comedies. 
He lived to his 97th year, and died, as it is re- 
ported, of laughing, on seeing an ass eat figs, 

B. C. 274.- II. His son, who bore the same 

name, wrote 54 comedies, of which some few 
. fragments remain, which do not seem to entitle 
him to great rank among the Greek comic 
writers. Vol. Max. 9, c. 12. — Quintil. 10. — 
Plut. de ira. coh. — Sired). 14. Vid. Baucis. 

PniLETiERUs, a eunuch, made governor of 
Pergamus by Lysimachus. He quarrelled with 
Lysimachus, and made himself master of Per- 
gamus, where he laid the fo.undations of a king- 
dom called the kingdom of Pergamus, B. C. 
283. He reigned there for 20 years, and at his 
death he appointed his nephew Eumenes as his 
successor. Sirab. 13. — Paus. 1, c. 8. 

PfflLETAS, a grammarian and poet of Cos, in 
the reign of king Philip and of his son Alex- 
ander the Great. He was made preceptor to 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. The elegies and epi- 
grams which he wrote have been greatly com- 
mended by the ancients, and some fragments of 
them are still preserved by Athenaeus. He was 
so small and slender, according to the improba- 
ble accounts of ^lian, that he always carried 
pieces of lead in his pockets to prevent being 
blown away by the wind. Mlio^n. V. H. 9, c. 
14. — Ovid. Fast. 1, el. 5. — Propert. 3, el. 1. 

PmLiDAS, a friend of Pelopidas, who favour- 
ed the conspiracy formed to expel the Spartans 
from Thebes. He received the conspirators in 
his own house, 

PmuNUs, a native of Agrigentum, who fought 
with Annibal against the Romans, He wrote 
a partial history of the Punic wars. C. Nep. 
in Annib. — Polyb. 



PfflLippiDEs, the son of Philocles, an Athe- 
nian, is the earliest writer of the new comedy. 
He flourished B. C. 335. He was in great fa- 
vour with Lysimachus, the general, and after- 
wards one of the successors of Alexander. 
This intimacy was the cause of many benefits 
to the Athenians, bestowed by Lysimachus at 
the intercession of the patriotic poet. In B. C. 
301, we find the poet, in a fragment preserved 
by Plutarch, ridiculing the flatteries shown to 
Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens, through the 
exertions of Stratocles the demagogue. Philip- 
pides died at an advanced age, from excess of 
joy on obtaining the comic prize contrary t.o his 
expectations. The number of his plays was 
forty-five ; the titles of nine have been collected. 

PmLippus, I. son of Argeus, succeeded his 
father on the throne of Macedonia, and reigned 

38 years, B. C.40. The second of that name 

was the fourth son of Amyntas, king of Mace- 
donia. He was sent to Thebes as a hostage, 
by his father, where he learnt the art of war, 
under Epaminondas, and studied with the 
greatest care the manners and the pursuits of 
the Greeks. He was recalled to Macedonia, and 
at the death of his brother Perdiccas, he ascend- 
ed the throne as guardian and protector of the 
youthful years of his nephew. His ambition, 
however, soon discovered itself, and he made 
himself independent. Philip meditated no less 
than the destruction of a republic which had ren- 
dered itself so formidable to the rest of Greece, 
and had even claimed submission from the prin- 
ces of Macedonia. But before he could make 
Athens an object of conquest, the Thracians 
and the Illyrians demanded his attention. He 
made himself master of a Thracian colony, to 
which he gave the name of Philippi, and from 
which he received the greatest advantages, on 
account of the golden mines in the neighbour- 
hood. In the midst of his political prosperity 
Philip did not neglect the honour of his family. 
He married Olympias, the daughter of Neopto- 
lemus, king of the Molossi; and when, some 
time after, he became father of Alexand er,e very 
thing seemed to conspire to his aggrandize- 
ment ; and historians have observed, that Philip 
received in one day the intelligence of three 
things which could gratify the most unbounded 
ambition, and flatter the hopes of the most aspir- 
ing monarch : the birth of a son, an honourable 
crown at the Olympic games, and a victory over 
the barbarians of Illyricum. But all these in- 
creased rather than satiated his ambition ; he de- 
clared his inimical sentiments against the power 
of Athens and the independence of all Greece, 
by laying siege to Olynthus, a place which, on 
account of its situation and consequence, would 
prove most injurious to the interests of the Athe- 
nians, and most advantageous to the intrigues 
and military operations of every Macedonian 
prince. The Athenians, roused by the eloquence 
of Demosthenes, sent 17 vessels and 200 men 
to the assistance of Olynthus, but the money of 
Philip prevailed over all their efforts. Thegreat- 
est part of the citizens suffered themselves to be 
bribed by the Macedonian gold, and Olynthus 
surrendered to the enemy, and was instantly re- 
duced to ruins. His successes were as great in 
every part of Greece ; he was declared head of 
the Amphictyonic council, and was intrusted 
with the care of the sacred temple of Apollo at 
543 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



Delphi. By assuming the mask of a moderator 
and peace-maker, he gained confidence ; and in 
attempting to protect the Peloponnesians against 
the encroaching power of Sparta,he rendered his 
cause popular, and by ridiculing the insults that 
were offered to his person, as he passed through 
Corinth,he displayed to the world his moderation 
and philosophic virtues. In his attempts to make 
himself master of Euboea, Philip was unsuccess- 
ful; and Phocion,who despised his gold, obliged 
him to evacuate an island whose inhabitants 
were as insensible to the charms of money as 
they were unmoved at the horrors of war and the 
bold efforts of a vigilant enemy. FromEubceahe 
turned his arms against the Scythians, but the 
advantages he obtained over this indigent nation 
were inconsiderable, and he again made Greece 
an object of plunder and rapine. He advanced 
far into Boeotia, and a general engagement was 
fought at Cheeronea, The fight was long and 
bloody, bat Philip obtained the victory. His be- 
haviour after the battle reflects great disgrace 
upon him as a man and as a monarch. In the 
hour of festivity, and during the entertainment 
which he had given to celebrate the trophies he 
had won, Philip sallied from his camp, and with 
the inhumanity of a brute, he insulted the bodies 
of the slain, and exulted over the calamities of 
the prisoners of war. His insolence, however, 
was checked, when Demedes, one of the Athe- 
nian captives, reminded him of his meanness by 
exclaiming. Why do you, O king, act the part 
of a Thersites, when you can represent with so 
much dignity the elevated character of an Aga- 
memnon. The reproof was felt, Demades re- 
ceived his liberty,and Philip learned howto gain 
popularity, even among his fallen enemies, by 
relieving their wants and easing their distresses. 
At the battle of Chseronea, the independence of 
Greece was extinguished ; and Philip, unable 
to find new enemies in Europe formed new en- 
terprises, and meditated new conquests. He 
was nominated general of the Greeks against 
the Persians, and was called upon, as well from 
inclination as duty, to revenge those injuries 
which Greece had suffered from the invasions of 
Darius and of Xerxes. But he was stopped in 
the midst of his warlike preparations ; he was 
stabbed by Pausanias, as he entered the theatre, 
at the celebration of the nuptials of his daugh- 
ter Cleopatra. The character of Philip is that 
of a sagacious, artful, prudent, and intriguing 
monarch ; he was brave in the field of battle, elo- 
quent and dissimulating at home; and he pos- 
sessed the wonderful art of changing his con- 
duct according to the disposition and caprice of 
mankind, without ever altering his purpose or 
losing sight of h is ambitious aims. He possess- 
ed much perseverance ; and in the execution of 
his plans he was always vigorous. The private 
character of Philip lies open to censure and 
raises indignation. The admirer of his virtuesis 
disgusted to find him disgracing himself by the 
most unnatural crimes and lascivious indulgen- 
ces, which can make even the most debauched 
and the most profligate to blush. He was mur- 
dered in the 47ih year of his age, and the 24th 
of his reign, about 336 years before the Chris- 
tian era. His reign is become uncommonly in- 
teresting, and his administration a matter of in- 
struction. He is the first monarch whose life 
and actions are described with peculiar accuracy 
544 



and historical faithfulness. Philip was the father 
of Alexander the Great and of Cleopatra, by 
Olympias ; he had also by Audaca, an Illyriem, 
Cyna, who married Amyntas, the sonofPer- 
diccas, Philip's elder brother ; byNicasipolis, a 
Thessalian, Nicaea, who married Cassander ; 
by Philinna, a Larissean dancer, Aridaeus, who 
leigned some time after Alexander's death ; by 
Cleopatra, the niece of Attains, Caranus and 
Europa, who were both murdered by Olympias ; 
and Ptolemy ihe first, king of Egypt, by Arsi- 
noe', who in the first month of her pregnancy 
was married to Lagus. Demosth. in Phil. ^ 
Olynth. — Justin. 7, &c.—Dion. 16. — Plut. in 
Alex. — Dem. tf- Apoph. — Isocrat. ad Phil.— 
Curt. 1. &c. — JEschines. — Paus. — BcBoiic, &c. 

The last king of Macedonia, of that name, 

was son of Demetrius. His infancy, at ihe 
death of his father, was protracted by Antigo- 
nus, one of his friends, who ascended the throne, 
and reigned for 12 years with the title of inde- 
pendent monarch. When Antigonus died, 
Philip recovered his father's throne, though on- 
ly fifteen years of age, and he early distinguished 
himself by his boldness and his ambitious views. 
His cruelty, however, to Aratus soon displayed 
his character in its true light; and to the grat- 
ification of every vice, and every extravagant 
propensity, he had the meanness to sacrifice this 
faithful and virtuous Athenian. Not satisfied 
with the kingdom of Macedonia, Philip aspired 
to become the friend of Annibal, and wished to 
share with him the spoils which the distresses 
and continual loss of the Romans seemed soon 
to promise. The consul Leevinus entered with- 
out delay his territories of Macedonia, and after 
he had obtained a victory over him near Apol- 
lonia, and reduced his fleet to ashes, he com- 
pelled him to sue for peace. This peaceful dis- 
position was not permanent, and when tne Ro- 
mans discovered that he had assisted their im- 
mortal enemy Annibal with men and money, 
they appointed T. Q,. Flaminius to punish his 
perfidy and the violation of the treaty. The 
Roman consul, with his usual expedition, in- 
vaded Macedonia, and in a general engagement, 
which was fought near Cynoscephale, the hos- 
tile army was totally defeated, and the monarch 
saved his life with difficulty by flying from the 
field of battle. In the midst of these public ca- 
lamities, the peace of his family was disturbed ; 
and Perses, the eldest of his sons by a concubine, 
raised seditions against his brother Demetrius, 
whose condescension and humanity had gained 
popularity among the Macedonians, and who, 
from his residence at Rome, as a hostage, had 
gained the good graces of the senate, and by 
the modesty and innocence of his manners had 
obtained forgiveness from that venerable bod}"- 
for the hostilities of his father. Philip listened 
with too much avidity to the false accusations of 
Perses ; and when he heard it asserted that 
Demetrius wished to rob him of his crown, he 
no longer hesitated to punish with death so un- 
worthy and so ungrateful a son. He died in 
the 42d year of his reign, 179 years before the 
Christian era. Philip has been compared with 
his great ancestor of the same name ; but though 
they possessed the same virtues, the same am- 
bition, and were tainted with the same vices, yet 
the father of Alexander was more sagacious and 
more intriguing, and the son of Demetrius was 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



more suspicious, more cruel, and more implaca- 
ble; and, according to the pretended prophecy 
of one of the sibyls, Macedonia was indebted 
to one Philip for her rise and consequence among 
nations, and under another Philip she lamented 
the loss of her power, her empire, and her dig- 
nity. Polijb. 16, &.Q,.— Justin. 29, &c — Plut. 
in Flam. — Paus. 7, c. S. — Liv. 31, &c. — Val. 

Max. 4, c. 8.— Orosius. 4, c. 20. M. Julius, 

a Roman emperor, of an obscure family in Ara- 
bia, from whence he was surnamed Arabian. 
From the lowest rank in the army he gradually 
rose to the highest offices,and when he was made 
general of the pretorian guards, he assassinated 
Gordian to make himself emperor, and was uni- 
versally approved by the senate and the Roman 
people. Philip rendered his cause popular by 
his liberality and profusion ; and it added much 
to his splendour and dignity, that the Romans 
durmg his reign commemorated the foundation 
of their city, a solemnity which was observed 
but once every hundred years, and which was 
celebrated with more pomp and more magnifi- 
cence than under the preceding reigns. The 
people were entertained with games and spec- 
tacles, the theatre of Pompey was successively 
crowded during three days and three nights, 
and 20Q0 gladiators bled in the circus at once, 
for the amusement and pleasure of a gazing 
populace. His usurpation, however, was short ; 
Philip was defeated by Dacius, who had pro- 
claimed himself emperor in Pannonia, and he 
was assassinated by his own soldiers, near Ve- 
rona, in the 45th year of his age and fhe 5th of 
his reign, A. D. 249. His son, who bore the 
same name, and who had shared with him the 
imperial dignity, was also massacred in the arms 
of his mother. Young Philip was then in the 
12t;h year of his age, and the Romans lamented 
in him the loss of rising talents, of natural hu- 
manity, and endearing virtues. Aurel. Victor. 
— Zozim. A native of Acarnania, physi- 
cian to Alexander the Great, When the mon- 
arch had been suddenly taken ill, after bathing 
in the Cydnus, Philip undertook to remove the 
complaint, when the rest of the physicians be- 
lieved that all medical assistance would be inef- 
fectual. But as he was preparing his medicine, 
Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, in 
which he was advised to beware of his physi- 
cian Philip, as he had conspired against his life. 
The monarch was alarmed, and when Philip 
presented him the medicine, he gave him Par- 
menio's letter to peruse, aad began to drink the 
potion. The serenity and composure of Philip's 
countenance, as he read the letter, removed 
every suspicion from Alexander's breast, and 
he pursued the directions of his physician, and 
in a few days recovered. Plut. in Alex. — 
Curt. 3. — Arrian. 2. A freed man of Pom- 
pey the Great. He found his master's body 
deserted on the seashore, in Egypt, and he 
gave it a decent burial, with the assistance 
of an old Roman soldier who had fought 

under Pompey. The father-in-law of the 

emperor Augustus. A native of Pam- 

phylia, who wrote a diffuse history from the 
creation down to his own time. It was not 
much valued. He lived in the age of Theo- 
dosius 2d. 

Philiscus, a famous sculptor, whose statues 
of Latona, Venus, Diana, the Muses, and a 

Part II.— 3 Z 



naked Apollo, were preserved in the portico 
belonging to Octavia. 

Philistus, a Syracusan, who, during his ban- 
ishment from his native country wrote a his- 
tory of Sicily in 12 books, which was commend- 
ed by some, though condemned for inaccuracy 
by Pausanias. He was afterwards sent against 
the Syracusans by Dionysius the younger, and 
he killed himself when overcome by the enemy, 
856, B. C. Plut. in Dion.—Diod. 13. 

PmLO, I. a Jewish writer of Alexandria, A: 
D. 40, sent as ambassador from his nation to 
Caligula. He was unsuccessful in his embassy, 
of which he wrote an entertaining account ; and 
the emperor, who wished to be worshipped as a 
god, expressed his dissatisfaction with the Jews, 
because they refused to place his statues in their 
temple. He was so happy in his expressions 
and elegant in his variety, that he has been 
called the Jewish Plato ; and the book which he 
wrote on the sufferings of the Jews in the reign 
of Caius, met with such unbounded applause 
in the Roman senate, where he read it publicly, 
that he was permitted to consecrate it in the 
public libraries. His works were divided into 
three parts, of which the first related to the crea- 
tion of the world, the second spoke of sacred 
history, and in the third the author made men- 
tion of the laws and customs of the Jewish na- 
tion. The best edition of Philo is that of Man- 
gey, 2 vols. fol. London, 1742. 'II. An ar- 
chitect of Byzantium, who flourished about three 
centuries before the Christian era. He built a 
dock at Athens, where ships were drawn in 
safety and protected from storms. Cic. in Orat. 

1, c. 14. III. A Greek Christian writer, 

whose work was edited at Rome, 4to. 1772. 

Philoghorus, a man who wrote a history 
of Athens in 17 books, a catalogue of the ar- 
chons, two books of Olympiads, &c. He died 
B. C. 222. 

PmLocLES, I. one of the admirals of the Athe- 
nian fleet during the Peloponnesian war. He 
recommended to his countrymen to cut off the 
right hand of such of the enemies as were taken, 
that they might be rendered unfit for service. 
His plan was adopted by all the 10 admirals ex- 
cept one ; but their expectations were frustrated, 
and, instead of being conquerors, they were to- 
tally defeated at jEgospotamos by Lysander; 
and Philocles, with 3000 of his countrymen, 
was put to death, and denied the honours of a 

burial. Plut. in Lys. II. Is said by Suidas 

to have been the nephew of ^schylus, and the 
father of Morsimus. A trilogy of his, entitled 
the Pandionid, was recorded by Aristotle in 
the Didascaliae. The Tercus, one of the plays 
in this trilogy, written in imitation of the Te- 
reus of Sophocles, is wittily ridiculed by Aris- 
tophanes in the Aves. This tragedian was 
termed XoXr; or Bile, from his harsh and bitter 
language. In figure he was deformed : hence 
Aristophanes takes occasion to cut sundry jokes 
upon him. In the ThesmophoriazusajMnesHo- 
chus, following up the principle laid down by 
Agathon, that as the man is, so is the poetry, 
begins : — 

Tavr' ap' h^i\oK\rjs ai(rj(^pds mv aia^pMiroiii.' — 168. 

In the Aves he finds in his shape a similarity to 
the lark, kopvSos ^i\oK><e£i....v. 1295. 
PmLOCTETEs, a son of Poean, and Demonas- 
545 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



sa, was one of the Argonauts according to Flac- 
cus and Hyginus, and the arm-bearer and parti- 
cular friend of Hercules. He was present at 
the death of Hercules, and because he had 
erected the burning pile on which the hero was 
consumed, he received from him the arrows, 
which had been dipped in the gall of the hydra, 
after he had bound himself by a solemn oath 
not to betray the place where his ashes were de- 
posited. Like the rest of those princes who had 
courted the daughter of Tyndarus, and who 
had bound themselves to protect her from inju- 
ry, he was called upon by Menelaus to accom- 
pany the Greeks to the Trojan war, and he im- 
mediately set sail from Meliboea with seven 
ships, and repaired to Aulis, the general ren- 
dezvous of the combined fleet. He was here 
prevented from joining his countrymen, and the 
offensive smell which arose from a wound in his 
foot, obliged the Greeks, at the instigation of 
Ulysses, to remove him from the camp ; and he 
was accordingly carried to the island of Lem- 
nos, or, as others say, to Chryse, where Phima- 
cus, the son of Dolophion, was ordered to wait 
upon him. In this solitary retreat he was suf- 
fered to remain for some time, till the Greeks, 
on the tenth year of the Trojan war, were in- 
formed by the oracle thatTroy could not be taken 
without the arrows of Hercules, which were 
then in the possession of Philoctetes. Upon this 
Ulysses, accompanied by Diomedes, or, accord- 
ing to others, by Pyrrhus, was commissioned by 
the rest of the Grecian array to go to Lemnos, 
and to prevail upon Philoctetes to come and 
finish the tedious siege. Philoctetes recollected 
the ill treatment he had received from theGreeks, 
and particularly from Ulysses; and therefore 
he not only refused to go to Troy, but he even 
persuaded Pyrrhus to conduct him to Melibcea. 
As he embarked, the manes of Hercules forbad 
him to proceed, but immediately to repair to the 
Grecian camp, where he should be cured of his 
wounds, and put an end to the war. Philoc- 
tetes obeyed, and after he had been restored to 
his former health by iEsculapius, or, according 
to some, by Machaon or Podaliris, he destroyed 
an immense number of the Trojan enemy, 
among whom was Paris, the son of Priam, with 
the arrows of Hercules. When by his valour 
Troy had been ruined, he set sail from Asia, 
but as he was unwilling to visit his native coun- 
try, he came to Italy, where, by the assistance of 
his Thessalian followers, he was enabled to 
build a town in Calabria, which he called Peti- 
lia. Authors disagree about the causes of the 
wound which Philoctetes received on the foot. 
The most ancient mythologists support, that it 
was the bite of the serpent which Juno had 
sent to torment him, because he had attended 
Hercules in his last moments, and had buried 
his ashes. According to another opinion, the 
princes of the Grecian array obliged him to dis- 
cover where the ashes of Hercules were depos- 
ited, and as he had made an oath not to men- 
tion the place, he only with his foot struck the 
ground where they lay, and by this means con- 
cluded he had not violated his solemn engage- 
ment. For this, however, he was soon after 
punished, and the fall of one of the poisoned 
arrows, from his quiver, upon the foot which 
had struck the ground, occasioned so offensive 
a wound, that the Greeks were obliged to re- 
546 



move him from their camp. The suffermgs 
and adventures of Philoctetes are the subject of 
one of the best tragedies of Sophocles. Virg. 
Mn. 3, V. 46. — Pindar. Pyth. 1. — Dictys Cret. 
1, c. 14. — Senec. in Here. — Sophocl. Phil. — 
Quintil. CalaJb. 9 and \0.—Hygin. fab. 26, 97, 
and 102.— Diod. 2 and 4.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 
3-29, 1. 9, V. 234. Trist. 5, el. 2.—Cic. Tusc. c. 
2.—Ptolem. Hajph. 6. 

PmLOLAUs, a Pythagorean philosopher of 
Crotona, B. C. 374, who first supported the di- 
urnal motion of the earth round its axis, and 
its annual motion round the sun. Cicero, in 
Acad. 4, c. 39, has ascribed this opinion to the 
Syracusan philosopher Nicetas, and likewise to 
Plato ; and from this passage some suppose 
that Copernicus started the idea of the system 
which he afterwards established. Diog. — Cic. 
de Oral. 3.— Pint. 

Philologus, a freedman of Cicero. He be^ 
trayed his master to Antony, for which he was 
tortured by Pomponia, the wife of Cicero's bro- 
ther,and obliged to cutoff'his own flesh by piece- 
meal and to boil and eat it up. Plut. in Cic. &c. 

PmLONiDES, a courier of Alexandria, who 
ran from Sicyone to Elis, 160 miles, in nine 
hours, and returned the same journey in fifteen 
hours. Plin. 2, c. 71. 

Philopator. Vid. PtolemcBus. 

Philophron, a general, who, with 5000 sol- 
diers, defended Pelusium against the Greeks 
who invaded Egypt. Diod. 16. 

PmLOPCEMEN, I. a celebrated general of the 
Achaean league, born at Megalopolis. His fa- 
ther's name was Grangis. His education was 
begun and finished under Cassander, Ecderaus, 
and Demophanes ; and he early distinguished 
himself in the field of battle, and appeared fond 
of agriculture and a country life. He proposed 
himself Epaminondas for a model, and he was 
not unsuccessful in imitating the prudence and 
the simplicity, the disinterestedness and activity, 
of this famous Theban. When Megalopolis 
was attacked by the Spartans, Philopoeraen, 
then in the 30th year of his age, gave the most 
decisive proofs of his valour and intrepidity. 
He afterwards assisted Antigonus, and was 
present in the famous battle in which the ^Eto- 
lians were defeated. Raised to the rank of chiei 
commander, he showed his ability to discharge 
that important trust, by killing, with his own 
hand, Mechanidas, the tyrant of Sparta ; and 
if he was defeated in a naval battle by Nabis, 
he soon after repaired his losses by taking the 
capital of Laconia, B. C. 188, and by abolish- 
ing the laws of Lycurgus, which had flourish- 
ed there for such a length of time. Sparta, 
after its conquest, become tributary to the Achse- 
ans, and Philopoeraen enjoyed the triumph of 
having reduced to ruins one of the greatest and 
the most powerful of the cities of Greece. Some 
time after, the Messenians revolted from the 
Achaean league, and Philopoeraen, who headed 
the Achaeans, unfortunately fell from his horse, 
and was dragged to the enemy's camp. Dino- 
crates, the general of the Messenians, treated 
him with great severity ; he was thrown into a 
dungeon, and obliged to drink a dose of poison. 
When he received the cup from the hand of the 
executioner, Philopoeraen asked hira how his 
countrymen had behaved in the field of battle ; 
and when he heard that they had obtained the 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



victory, he drank the whole with pleasure, ex- 
claiming that this was comfortable news. The 
death of Philopoemen, which happened about 
183 years before the Christian era, in his 70th 
year, was universally lamented ; and the Achae- 
ans, to revenge his death, immediately marched 
to Messenia, where Dinocrates, to avoid their 
resentment, killed himself. The rest of his 
murderersweredraggedto his tomb, where they 
were sacrificed ; and the people of Megalopolis, 
to show farther their great sense of his merit, 
ordered a bull to be yearly offered on his tomb, 
and hymns to be sung in his praise, and his ac- 
tions to be celebrated in a panegyrical oration. 
He had also statues raised to his memory, which 
some of the Romans attempted to violate and 
to destroy, to no purpose, when Mummius took 
Corinth.' Philopoemen has been justly called by 
his countrymen the last of the Greeks. Plut. 

in vita. — Justin. 32, c. 4. — Polyb. II. A 

native of Pergamus, who died B. C. 138. 

Philostratus, I. a famous sophist, born at 
Lemnos, or, according to some, at Athens. He 
came to Rome, where he lived under the patron- 
age of Julia, the wife of the emperor Severus, 
and he was intrusted by the empress with all 
the papers which contained some account or 
anecdotes of Apollonius Thyanseus, and he was 
ordered to review them, and with them to com- 
pile a history. The life of Apollonius is writ- 
ten with elegance ; but the improbable accounts, 
the fabulous stories, and exaggerated details 
which it gives, render it disgusting. There is, 
besides, another treatise remaining of his wri- 
tings, &c. He died A. D. 244. The best edi- 
tion of his writings is that of Olearius, fol. Lips. 

1709. II. His nephew, who lived in the 

reign of Heliogabalus, wrote an account of so- 
phists. 

Philotas, a son of Parmenio, distinguished 
in the battles of Alexander, and at last accused 
of conspiring against his life. He was tortured 
and stoned to death, or, according to some, 
stuck through with darts by the soldiers, B. C. 
330. Curt. 6, c. 11. — Plut. — Arrian. 

PmLoTis, a servant-maid at Rome, who 
saved her countrymen from destruction. After 
the siege of Rome by the Gauls, the Fidenates 
assembled an army under the command of Lu- 
cius Posthumius, and marched against the capi- 
tal, demanding all the wives and daughters in 
the city as the conditions of peace. This extra- 
ordinary demand astonished the senators, and 
when they refused to comply, Philotis advised 
them to send all their female slaves disguised 
in matron's clothes, and she oifered to march 
herself at the head. Her advice was followed, 
and when the Fidenates had feasted late in the 
evening, and were quite intoxicated and fallen 
asleep, Philotis lighted a torch as a signal for her 
countrymen to attack the enemy. The whole 
was successful"; the Fidenates were conquered, 
and the senate, to reward the fidelity of the fe- 
male slaves, permitted them to appear in the 
dress of the Roman matrons. Plut. in Rom. — 
Varro. de L. L. 5. — Ovid, de Art. Am. 2. 

PmLOXENUs, I. an officer of Alexander, who 
received Cilicia at the general division of the 

provinces. II. A son of Ptolemy, who was 

eiven to Pelopidas as an hostage. III. A 

dithyrambic poet of Cythera, who enjoyed the 
favour of Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, for some 



time, till he offended him by seducing one of his 
female singers. During his confinement, Phi- 
loxenus composed an allegorical poem, called 
Cyclops, in which he had delineated the charac- 
ter of the tyrant under the name of Polyphemus, 
and represented his mistress under the name of 
Galataja, and himself under that of Ulysses. 
The tyrant, who was fond of writing poetry 
and of being applauded, removed Philoxenus 
from his dungeon, but the poet refused to pur- 
chase his liberty by saying things unworthy of 
himself, and applauding the wretched verses of 
Dionysius, and therefore he was sent to the 
quarries. When he was asked his opinion at a 
feast about some verses which Dionysius had 
just repeated, and which the courtiers had re- 
ceived with the greatest applause, Philoxenus 
gave no answer, but he ordered the guards that 
surrounded the tyrant's table to take him back 
to the quarries. Dionysius was pleased with 
his pleasantry and with his firmness, and im- 
mediately forgave him. Philoxenus died ai 
Ephesus, about 380 years before Christ. Plut, 
IV. A philosopher, who wished to have the 



neck of a crane, that he might enjoy the taste of 
his aliments longer, and with more pleasure. 
Arist. eth. 3. 

Phlegon, a native of Tralles in Lydia, one 
of the emperor Adrian's freed-men. He wrote 
different treatises on the long-lived, on wonder- 
ful things, besides an historical accQunt of Si- 
cily, sixteen books on the Olympiads, an ac- 
count of the principal places in Rome, three 
books of fasti, &c. Of these some fragments 
remain. His style was not elegant, and he wrote 
without judgment or precision. His works have 
been edited by Meursius, 4to. L. Bat. 1620. 

Phocilides, a Greek poet and philosopher of 
Miletus, about 540 years before the Christian 
era. The poetical piece now extant, called vov- 
SeriKov, and attributed to him, is not of his com- 
position, but of another poet who lived in ihe 
reign of Adrian. 

Phocion, an Athenian, celebrated for his 
virtues, private as well as public. He was edu- 
cated in the school of Plato and of Xenocrates, 
and as soon as he appeared among the states- 
men of Athens, he distinguished himself by his 
prudence and moderation, his zeal for the pub- 
lic good, and his military abilities. He often 
checked the violent and inconsiderate measures 
of Demosthenes ; and when the Athenians seem- 
ed eager to make war against Philip, king of 
Macedonia, Phocion observed that war should 
never be undertaken without the strongest and 
most certain expectations of victory and success. 
When Philip endeavoured to make himself 
master of Euboea, Phocion stopped his progress, 
and soon obliged him to relinquish his enter- 
prise. He was 45 times appointed governor of 
Athens, and no greater encomium can be pass- 
ed upon his talents as a minister and statesman, 
than that he never solicited, that high, though 
dangerous office. In his rural retreat, or at the 
head of the Athenian armies, he always appear- 
ed barefooted and without a cloak; whence one 
of his soldiers had occasion to observe, when he 
saw him dressed more warmly than usual during 
a severe winter, that since Phocion wore his 
cloak it was a sign of the most inclement wea- 
ther. Philip, as well as his son Alexander, at- 
tempted to bribe him, but to no purpose; and 
547 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



Phocion boasted in being one of the poorest of 
the Athenians, and in deserving the appellation 
of the Good. It was through him that Greece 
was saved from an impending war, and he ad- 
vised Alexander rather to turn his arms against 
Persia than to shed the blood of the Greeks, 
who were either his allies or his subjects. An- 
tipater, who succeeded in the government of 
Macedonia after the death of Alexander, also 
attempted to corrupt the virtuous Athenian, but 
with the same success as his royal predecessor ; 
and when a friend had observed to Phocion, 
that if he could so refuse the generous offers of 
his patrons, yet he should consider the good of 
his children, and accept them for their sake, 
Phocion calmly replied, that if his children were 
like him, they could maintain themselves as 
well as their father had done ; but if they be- 
haved otherwise, he declared that he was un- 
willing to leave them any thing which might 
either supply their extravagances or encourage 
their debaucheries. When the Pirseus was tak- 
en, Phocion was accused of treason, and there- 
fore to avoid ihe public indignation, he fled for 
safety to Polyperchon. Polyperchon sent him 
back to Athens, where he was immediately con- 
demned to drink the fatal poison. He received 
the indignities of the people with uncommon 
composure ; and when one of his friends lament- 
ed his fate, Phocion exclaimed, This is no more 
than what I expected; this treatvient the most 
ilhcstrious citizens of Athens have received be- 
fore me. He died about 318 years before the 
Christian era. His body was deprived of a 
funeral by order of the ungrateful Athenians, 
and if it was at last interred, it was by stealth, 
under a hearth, by the hand of a woman who 
placed this inscription over his bones : Keep in- 
violate, O sacred hearth, the precious remains 
of a good man, till a better day restores them 
to the monuments of their forefathers, when 
Athens shall be delivered from her phrensy, and 
shall be more wise. His countenance was stern 
and unpleasant, but he never behaved with se- 
verity, his expressions were mild and his re- 
bukes gentle. At the age of 80 he appeared at 
the Athenian armies like the most active officer, 
and to his prudence and cool valour in every 
period of life his citizens acknowledged them- 
selves much indebted. His merits were not 
buried in oblivion, the Athenians repented of 
their ingratitude, and honoured his memory by 
raising him statues, and putting to a cruel 
death his guilty accusers. Plut. d^ C. Nep. in 
vita. — Diod. 16. 

Phocus, I. son of Phocion, was dissolute in 
his manners, and unworthy of the virtues of his 
great father. He was sent to Lacedaemon to 
imbibe there the principles of sobriety, of tem- 
perance, and frugality. He cruelly revenged 
the death of his father, whom the Athenians 

had put to death. Plut. in Phoc. cf« Apoph. 

II. A son of Oryntion, who led a colony of 
Corinthians into Phocis. He cured Antiope, 
a daughter of Nycteus, of insanity, and married 
her, and by her became father of Panopeus and 
Crisus. Pans. 2, c. 4. 

Phocylides. Vid. Phocilides. 

Phcebidas, a Lacedaemonian general, sent by 

the Ephori to the assistance of the Macedonians 

against the Thracians. He seized the citadel 

of Thebes : but though he was disgraced and 

548 



banished from the Lacedaemonian army for 
this perfidious measure, yet his countrymen 
kept possession of the town. He died B. C. 
377. C. Nep. in Pelop.—Diod. 14, &c. 

Phcbnix, son of Amyntor, king of Argos, by 
Cleobule, or Hippodamia, was preceptor to 
young Achilles. When his father proved faith- 
less to his wife, on account of his fondness for 
a concubine, called Clytia, Cleobule, jealous of 
her husband, persuaded her son Phoenix to in- 
gratiate himself into the favours of his father's 
mistress. Phcenix easily succeeded, but when 
Amyntor discovered his intrigues, he drew a 
curse upon him, and the son was soon after de- 
prived of his sight by divine vengeance. Ac- 
cording to some, Amyntor himself put out the 
eyes of his son, which so cruelly provoked him, 
that he meditated the death of his father. 
Reason and piety, however, prevailed over pas- 
sion, and PhcEnix, not to became a parricide, 
fled from Argos to the court of Peleus, king of 
Phthia. Peleus carried him to Chiron, who 
restored him to his eye-sight, and soon after he 
was made preceptor to Achilles. He was also 
presented with the' government of many cities, 
and made king of the Dolopes. After the death 
of Achilles, Phoenix, with others, was commis- 
sioned by the Greeks to return into Greece, to 
bring to the war young Pyrrhus. This com- 
mission he performed with success, and after 
the fall of Troy he returned with Pyrrhus, and 
died in Thrace. He was hurried at ^on, or, 
according to Strabo, near Trachinia, where a 
small river in the neighbourhood received the 
name of PhcEnix. Strai. 9. — Homer. 11. 9, &c. 
Ovid, in lb. V. 762. Vid. Part III. 

Phormfo, I. an Athenian general, whose fa- 
ther's name was Asopicus. He impoverished 
himself to maintain and support the dignity of 
his, army. His debts were some time after paid 
by the Athenians, who wished to make him 
their general, an office which he refused while 
he had so many debts, observing that it was un- 
becoming an officer to be at the head of an 
army when he knew that he was poorer than 
the meanest of his soldiers. II. A peripate- 
tic philosopher of Ephesus, who once gave a 
lecture upon the duties of an officer and a mili- 
tary profession. The philosopher was himself 
ignorant of the subject which he treated ; upon 
which Hannibal the Great, who was one of his 
auditors, exclaimed that he had seen many dot- 
ing old men, but never one worse than Phormio. 

Cic. de Nat. D. 2. III. A disciple of Plato, 

chosen by the people of Elis to make a reforma- 
tion in their governmentand their jurisprudence. 

Phormis, was the countryman and contem- 
porary of Epicharmus, and tutor to the sons of 
Gelon, the elder brother and predecessor of 
Hiero. His comedies also appear to have been 
mythological parodies. 

Phoroneus. Vid. Part III. 

Photinus, an eunuch, who was prime minis- 
ter to Ptolemy, kinsr of Egypt. When Pompey 
fled to the court of Ptolemy, after the battle of 
Pharsalia, Photinus advised his master not to 
receive him, bnt to put him to death. Juliua 
Csesar some time after visited Egj^t, and Pho- 
tinus raised seditions against him, for which he 
was put to death. 

Photius, son of Anton ina, who betrayed to 
Belisarius his wife's debaucheries. 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



Phraates I. a king of Parthia, who suc- 
ceeded Arsaces the 3d, called also Phriapatius, 
He made war against Antiochus, king of Syria, 
and was defeated in three successive battles. 
He left many children behind him ; but as they 
were all too young, and unable to succeed to 
the throne, he appointed his brother Mithri- 
dates king, of whose abilities and military pru- 
dence he had often been a spectator, Justin. 

41, c. 5. The 2d, succeeded his father 

Mithridates, as king of Parthia, and made war 
against the Scythians, whom he called to his 
assistance against Antiochus, king of Syria, 
and whom he refused to pay, on the pretence 
that they came too late. He was murdered by 
some Greek mercenaries, who had been once 
his captives, and who had enlisted in his army, 
B. C. 129. Justi7i. 42, c. l.—Plut. in Pomp. 

The 3d, succeeded his father Pacorus on 

the throne of Parthia, and gave one of his 
daughters in marriage to Tigranes, the son of 
Tigranes, king of Armenia. Soon after he in- 
vaded the kingdom of Armenia, to make his 
son-in-law sit on the throne of his father. His 
expedition was attended with ill success. He 
renewed a treaty of alliance which his father 
had made with the Romans. At his return in 
Parthia, he w-as assassinated by his sons Orodes 

and Mithridates. Justin. The 4th, was 

nominated king of Parthia by his father Orodes, 
whom he soon after murdered, as also his own 
brothers. He made war against M. Antony 
with great success, and obliged him to retire 
with much loss. Some time after he was de- 
throned by the Parthian nobility, but he soon 
regained his power,and drove away the usurper, 
called Tiridates. The usurper claimed the pro- 
tection of Augustus, the Roman emperor, and 
Phraates sent ambassadors to Rome to plead 
his cause and gain the favours of his powerful 
judge. He was successful in his embassy : he 
made a treaty of peace and alliance v^ith the 
Roman emperor, restored the ensigns and stand- 
ards which the Parthians had taken from Cras- 
sus and Antony, and gave up his four sons with 
their wives as hostages, till his engagements 
were performed. Some suppose that Phraates 
delivered his children into the hands of Augus- 
tus to be confined at Rome, that he might reign 
with greater security, as he knew his subjects 
would revolt as soon as they found any one of 
his family inclined to countenance their rebel- 
lion, though, at the same time, they scorned to 
support the interest of any usurper who was not 
of the royal house of the Arsacidse. He was, 
however, at last murdered by one of his concu- 
bines, who placed her son, called Phraatices, 
on the throne. Vol. Max. 7, c. 6. — Justin. 42, 
c. 5. — Diod. Cas. 51, &c. — Plut. in Artton, &c. 
— Tacit. Ann. 6, c. 32. 

Phraatices, a. son of Phraates 4th. He, with 
his mother, murdered his father, and took pos- 
session of. the vacant throne. His reign was 
short, he was deposed by his subjects, whom he 
had offended by cruelty, avarice, and oppression, 

Phraortes succeeded his father Deioces on 
the throne of Media. He made war against the 
neighbouring nations, and conquered the great- 
est part of Asia. He was defeated and killed 
in a battle by the Assyrians, after a reign of 22 
years, B. C. 625. His son Cyaxares succeeded 
him. It is supposed that the Arphaxad men- 



tioned in Judith in Phraortes. Paus.—Herodot. 
1, c. 102. 

Phrasicles, a nephew of Themistocles, 
whose daughter Nicomacha he married. Plut. 
in Them. 

PuRONiAU, a daughter of Etearchus, king of 
Crete. She was delivered to a servant to be 
thrown into the sea, by order of her father, at 
the instigation of his second wife. The servant 
was unwilling to murder the child, but as he 
was bound by an oath to throw her into the sea, 
he accordingly let her down into the water by a 
rope, and took her out again unhurt. Phronima 
was afterwards in the number of the concubines 
of Polymnetius, by whom she became mother 
of Battus, the founder of Gyrene. Herodot. 4. 
c. 154. 

Phryne, I. a celebrated prostitute, who flou- 
rished at Athens about 328 years before the 
Christian era. She was mistress to Praxiteles, 
who drew her picture. Vid. Praxiteles. This 
was one of his best pieces, and it was placed in 
the temple of Apollo at Delphi. It is said that 
Apelles painted his Venus Anadyomene after 
he had seen Phryne on the sea-shore naked, and 
with dishevelled hair. Phryne became so rich 
by the liberality of her lovers, that she offered 
to rebuild, at her ow^n expense, Thebes, which 
Alexander had destroyed, provided this inscrip- 
tion was placed on the walls : Alexander diruit 
sed meretrix Phryne refecit. This was refus- 
ed. Plin. 34, c. 8. II. There was also ano- 
ther of the same name, who was accused of im- 
piety. When she saw that she was going to be 
condemned, she unveiled her bosom, which so 
influenced her judges that she was immediately 
acquitted. Quintil. 2, c. 15. 

Phrtnichus, a tragic poet of Athens, disciple 
ofThespis. At the close of the sixth century 
before Christ, the elements of tragedy, though 
still in a separate state, were individually so 
fitted and prepared, as to require nothing but a 
master hand to unite them into one whole of 
life and beauty. The Dithyramb presented in 
its solemn tone and lofty strains a rich mine of 
choral poetry ; the regular narrative and mi- 
metic character of the Thespian chorus furnish- 
ed the form and materials of dramatic exhibi- 
tion. To him belongs the chief merit of this 
combination. Dropping the light and farcical 
cast of the Thespian drama, and dismissing al- 
together Bacchus with his satyrs, he sought for 
the subjects of his pieces in the grave and strik- 
ing events registered in the mythology or history 
of his country. This, however, was not a prac- 
tice altogether original or unexampled. The 
fact, casually mentioned by Herodotus, that the 
tragic choruses at Sicyon sung, not the adven- 
tures of Bacchus, but the woes of Adrastus, 
shows tliat, in the Cyclic chorus at least, melan- 
choly incident and mortal personages had long 
before been introduced. There is also some 
reason for supposing, that the young tragedian 
was deeply indebted to Homer in the formation 
of his drama. Aristotle distinctly attributes to 
the author of the Iliad and Odyssey the prima- 
ry suggestions of tragedy; as in his Margites 
was given the first idea of comedy. Now it is 
an historical fact that a few years before Phry- 
nichus began to exhibit, the Homeric poems 
had been collected, revised, arrang:ed and pub- 
lished by the care of Pisistratus. Such an event 
549 



PH 



HISTORY, &c. 



PH 



"would naturally attract attention, and add a 
deeper interest to the study of this mighty mas- 
ter ; and it is easy to conceive how his fiinficeis 
i^pajiaTiKai, as Aristotle terms them, would strike 
and operate upon a mind, acute, ready, and in- 
genious, as that of Phrynichus must have been. 
At any rate these two facts stand in close chro- 
nological connexion — the first edition of Homer, 
and the birth of tragedy, properly so called. 
Taking then the ode and the tone of the Di- 
thyramb, the mimetic personifications of Homer 
and the themes, which natural tradition or even 
recent events supplied. Phrynichus combined 
these several materials together, and so brought 
them forward under the dramatic form of the 
Thespian exhibition. Thus, at length, does 
tragedy dawn upon us. These changes in the 
character of the drama, necessarily produced 
corresponding alterations in its form and man- 
ner. The recitative was no longer a set of dis- 
jointed, rambling episodes of humorous legend, 
separated by the wild dance and noisy song of 
a Satyr choir, but a connected succession of se- 
rious narrative or grave conversation, with a 
chorus composed of personages involved in the 
story ; all relating to one subject and all tending 
to one result. This recitative again alternated 
with a series of choral odes, composed in a spirit 
of deep thought and lofty poetry, themselves 
turning more or less directly upon the theme of 
the interwoven dialogue. In correspondency 
with these alterations in tone and composition, 
the actor and the choristers must have assumed 
a different aspect. The performers were now 
the representatives not of Silenus and the Sa- 
tyrs, but of heroes, princes, and their attendants. 
The goat-skin guise and obstreperous sportive- 
ness were laid aside for the staid deportment of 
persons engaged in matters of serious business 
or deep affliction, and a garb befitting the rank 
and state of several individuals employed in 
the piece. Nor are we to suppose, that, as the 
actor was still but one, so never more than one 
personage was introduced. For it is very prob- 
able that this one actor, changing his dress, ap- 
peared in different characters during the course 
of the play : a device frequently employed in 
later times, when the increased number of act- 
ors rendered such a contrivance less necessary. 
This actor sometimes represented female per- 
sonages, for Phrynichus is stated to have first 
brought a female character on the stage. Thus 
from the midst of the coarse buffooneries and 
rude imitations of the Satyric chorus, did trage- 
dy start up at once in her proper, though not 
her perfect, form. For mighty as had been the 
stride towards the establishment of the serious 
drama, yet in the exhibitions of Phrynichus we 
find the infancy not the maturity of tragedy. 
There was still many an excrescence to be re- 
moved ; many a chasm to be filled up ; many a 
rugged point to be smoothed into regularity ; 
and many an embryo part to be expanded into 
its full and legitimate dimensions. The man- 
agement of the piece was simple and inartificial 
even to rudeness. The argument was some 
naked incident, mythologic or historical, on 
which the chorus sung and the actor recited in 
a connected but desultory succession. There 
was no interweaving or development of plot ; 
no studied arrangement of fact and catastrophe; 
no skilful contrivance to heighten the natural 
550 



interest of the tale, and work up the feelings of 
the audience into a climax of terror or of pity. 
The odes of the chorus were sweet and beauti- 
ful ; the dances scientific and dexterously given ; 
but then these odes and dances still composed 
the principal part of the performance. They 
narrowed in the episodes of the actor, and threw 
them into comparative insignificance. Nay, not 
unfrequently, whilst the actor appeared in a 
posture of thought, wo, or consternation, the 
chorus would prolong its dance and chantings, 
and leave to the performer little more than the 
part of a speechless image. In short, the d rama 
of Phrynichus was a serious opera of lyric song 
and skilful dance, and not a tragedy of artful 
plot and interesting dialogue. Such was Phry- 
nichus as an inventor ; but since the poet con- 
tinued to exhibit during a space of nearly forty 
years, and since for more than twenty of those 
years he had in iEschylus a contemporary and 
a rival, his own experience and the improve- 
ments of such an opponent would give to the 
later plays of Phrynichus a character, an ex- 
pansion, and a refinement, in which his earlier 
and unaided attempts were so deficient. The 
Capture oj Miletus, which he composed at least 
seventeen years after his own first "appearance 
as a dramatist, and five years after the first vic- 
tory of iEschylus, was, to judge from its effects,, 
a piece of no inconsiderable merit. Eighteen 
years after this, he won the tragic prize for his 
Choragus Themistocles, with the Phcenissa, a 
play perhaps little inferior in dramatic excel- 
lence and arrangement to the Persce, which, 
four years afterwards, ^Eschylus produced on 
the same subject. Indeed, the poet, whose 
odes were characterized, even in the days of 
Aristophanes, as reaped from the sacred mea- 
dow of the muses, sweet as the ambrosia of the 
bee ; the poet, whose dramas were by the same 
admirable judge styled pieces of singular beau- 
ty ; the poet, who so long and sometimes so suc- 
cessfully competed with an iEschylus — must, 
beyond all doubt, have been no ordinary com- 
poser ; and the charge of plagiarism, which that 
great tragedian is represented as so studiously 
rebutting, is another high compliment to the 

Eowers of Phrynichus. Still we must remem- 
er, in tracing the inventive improvers of trag- 
edy, that the real claims of Phrynichus are not 
to be measured by what he finally achieved 
through imitation of others, but by the produc- 
tions of his own unassisted ingenuity and talent. 
In this view, those claims must almost entirely 
be restricted to the combination of the poetry of 
the Cyclic with the acting of the Thespian cho- 
rus ; the conversion of Satyric gayety into the 
solemnity and pathos of what was thenceforth 
peculiarly styled tragedy. In all succeeding 
alterations and additions, Phrynichus seems to 
have been simply the follower of iEschylus. 

Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, the first 
who obtained a musical prize at the ^Panathe- 
naea at Athens, He added two strings to the 
lyre, which had always been used with seven 
by all his predecessors, B. C. 438. It is said 
that he was originally a cook at the house of 
Hiero, king of Sicily. 
Phya. Vid Pisistratus. 
Phyllus, a general of Phocis, during the 
Phocian or Sacred war against the Thebans. 
He had assumed thfe command after the death 



PI 



HISTORY, &c. 



PI 



of his brothers, Philomelus and Onomarchus. 
He is called by some Phayllus. Vid Phocis. 

Physcon, a surname of one of the Ptole- 
mies, from {<pv(TKr) venter). Aiken. 2, c. 23. 

Phyton, a general of the people of Rhegium 
against Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily. He 
was laken by the enemy and tortured, B, C. 
387, and his son was thrown into the sea. 
Diod. 14. 

PiA, or PiALu, festivals instituted in honour 
of Adrian by the emperor Antoninus. They 
were celebrated at Puteoli on the second year 
of the Olympiads. 

PicTiE. Vid. Part I. 

PicTOR, Fabius, a consul, under whom silver 
was first coined at Rome, A. U. C. 485. 

PiNDARUs, a celebrated lyric poet of Thebes. 
He was carefully trained from his earliest years 
to the study of music and poetry, and he was 
taught how to compose verses with elegance 
and simplicity by Myrtis and Corinna. When 
he was young, it is said that a swarm of bees 
settled on his lips, and there left some honey- 
combs as he reposed on the grass. This was 
universally explained as a prognostic of his fu- 
ture greatness and celebrity, and indeed he 
seemed entitled to notice when he had conquer- 
ed Myrtis in a musical contest. He w£ls not, 
however; so successful against Corinna, who 
obtained five times, while he was competitor, a 
poetical prize, which was adjudged rather to the 
charms of her person, than to the brilliancy of 
her genius or the superiority of her composi- 
tion. In the public assemblies of Greece, where 
females were not permitted to contend, Pindar 
was rewarded with the prize in preference to 
every other competitor ; and as the conquerors 
at Olympia were the subject of his composi- 
tions, the poet was courted by statesmen and 
princes. His hymns and paeans were repeated 
before the most crowded assemblies in the tem- 
' pies of Greece , and the priestess of Delphi de- 
clared that it was the will of Apollo that Pindar 
should receive the half of all the first fruit-offer- 
ings that were annually heaped on his altars. 
This was not the only public honour which he 
received ; after his death he was honoured with 
every mark of respect, even to adoration. His 
statue was erected at Thebes, in the public 
place where the games were exhibited, and six 
centuries after was viewed with pleasure and 
admiration by the geographer Pausanias. The 
honours which had been paid to him while alive 
were also shared by his posterity ; and at the 
celebration of one of the festivals of the Greeks, 
a portion of the victim which had been offered in 
sacrifice was reserved for the descendants of the 
poet. Even the most inveterate enemies of the 
Thebans showed regard for his memory, and 
the Spartans spared the house which the prince 
of lyrics had inhabited when they destroyed the 
houses and the walls of Thebes, The same 
respect was also paid him by Alexander the 
Great, when Thebes was reduced to ashes. It 
is said that Pindar died at the advanced age of 
86, B. C. 435. The greatest part of his works 
have perished. He had written some hymns to 
the gods, poems in honour of Apollo, dithyram- 
bics to Bacchus, and odes on several victories 
obtained at the four greatest festivals of the 
Greeks, the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, and 
Nemean games. Of all these, the odes are the 



only compositions extant, admired for sublimity 
of sentiments, grandeur of expression, energy 
and magnificence of style, boldness of meta- 
phors, harmony of numbers, and elegance of 
diction. He has been censured for his affecta- 
tion in composing an ode from which the letter 
S was excluded. The best editions of Pindar 
are those of Heyne, 4to. GoUingen, 1773 ; of 
Glasgow, 12mo. 1774 ; and of Schmidius, 4to. 
"Witteberg, 1616. Athen. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — 
Horat. 4, od. 2.—JElian. V. H. 3.— Pans. 1, c. 
8, 1. 9, c. 23.— Val. Max. 9, c. 12.— Pint, in 
Alex. — Curt. 1, c. 13. 

PisANDER, I. an admiral of the Spartan fleet 
during the Peloponnesian war. He abolished 
the democracy at Athens, and established the 
aristocratical government of the four hundred 
tyrants. He was killed in a naval battle by 
Conon, ihe Athenian general, near Cnidus, in 
which the Spartans lost 50 galleys, B. C. 394. 

Diod. II, A poet of Rhodes, who composed 

a poem called Heraclea, in which he gave an 
account of all the labours and all the exploits 
of Hercules. He was the first who ever repre- 
sented his hero armed with a club. Paus. 8, 
c. 22. 

PisEUs, a king of Etruria, about 260 years 
before the foundation of Rome. Plin. 7, c. 26. 

Pisis, a native of Thespis, who gained un- 
common influence among the Thebans, and 
behaved with great courage in defencfe of their 
liberties. He was taken prisoner by Demetrius, 
who made him governor of Thespiee. 

PisisTRATiD.a3, the descendants of Pisistra- 
tus, tyrant of Athens. Vid. Pisistratus. 

PisisTRATUs, I, an Athenian, son of Hippo- 
crates, who early distinguished himself by his 
valour in the field, and by his address and elo- 
quence at home. After he had rendered him- 
self the favourite of the populace by his libe- 
rality, and by the intrepidity with which he had 
fought their battles, particularly near Salamis, 
he resolved to make himself master of his 
country. Everything seemed favourable to his 
views; but Solon alone, who was then at the 
head of affairs, and who had lately instituted his 
celebrated laws, opposed him, and discovered 
his duplicity and artful behaviour before the 
public assembly. Pisistratus was not disheart- 
ened by the measures of his relation, Solon, but 
he had recourse to artifice. In returning from his 
country-house, he cut himself in various places, 
and after he had exposed his mangled body to 
the eyes of the populace, deplored his misfor- 
tunes, and accused his enemies of attempts upon 
his life, because he was the friend of the people, 
the guardian of the poor, and the reliever of the 
oppressed, he claimed a chosen body of 50 men 
from the populace to defend his person in fu- 
ture from the malevolence and the cruelty of his 
enemies. The unsuspecting people unanimous- 
ly granted his request, though Solon opposed it 
with all his influence ; and Pisistratus had no 
sooner received an armed band, on whose fidel- 
ity and attachment he could rely, than he seized 
the citadel of Athens, and made himself abso- 
lute. The people too late perceived their credu- 
lity ; yet, though the tyrant was popular, two of 
the citizens, Megacles and Lycurgus, conspired 
together against him, and by their means he was 
forcibly ejected from the city. His house and 
all his effects were exposed to sale, but there was 
551 



PI 



HISTORY, &c. 



PI 



found in Athens only one man who would buy 
them. The private dissentions of the friends of 
liberty proved fa vo arable to the expelled tyrant; 
and iViegacles, who was jealous of Lycurgus, 
secretly proposed to restore Pisistratus to all his 
rights and privileges in Athens, if he would 
marry his daughter. Pisistratus consented, and 
by the assistance of his father-in-law, he was 
soon enabled to expel Lycurgus, and to re-es- 
tablish himself By means of a woman called 
Phya, whose shape was tall, and whose features 
were noble and commanding, he imposed upon 
the people, and created himself adherents even 
among his enemies. Phya was conducted 
through the streets of the city, and showing 
herself subservient to the artifice of Pisistratus, 
she was announced as Minerva, the goddess of 
wisdom, and the patroness of Athens, who was 
come down from heaven to re-establish her fa- 
vourite Pisistratus in a power which was sanc- 
tioned by the will of heaven, and favoured by 
the affection of the people. Some time after, 
when he repudiated the daughter of Megacles, 
he found that not only the citizens, but even his 
very troops, were alienated from him by the in- 
fluence, the intrigues, and the bribery of his 
father-in-law. He fled from Athens, where he 
could no longer maintain his power, and retired 
to Euboea. Eleven years after he was drawn 
from his obscure retreat, by means of his son 
Hippias, and he was a third time received by 
the people of Athens as their master and sove- 
reign. He died about 527 years before the 
Christian era, after he had enjoyed the sovereign 
power at Athens for 33 years, including the 
years of his banishment, and he was succeeded 
by his son Hipparchus. Pisistratus claims our 
admiration for his justice, his liberality, and 
his moderation. He often refused to punish 
the insolence of his enemies, and when he 
had one day been virulently accused of murder, 
rather than inflict immediate punishment upon 
the man who had criminated him, he went to 
the areopagus, and there convinced the Athe- 
nians that the accusation of his enemies were 
groundless, and that his life was irreproachable. 
It is to his labours that we are indebted for the 
preservation of the poems of Homer ; and he 
was the first, according to Cicero, who intro- 
duced them at Athens in the order in which 
they now stand. He also established a public 
library at Athens, and the valuable books which 
he had diligently collected were carried into 
Persia when Xerxes made himself master of 
the capital of Attica. Hipparchus and Hippias, 
the sons of Pisistratus, who had received the 
name of Pisistratida, rendered themselves as 
illustrious as their father, but the flames of lib- 
erty were too powerful to be extinguished. The 
Pisistratidae governed wiih great moderation, 
yet the name of tyrant or sovereign was insup- 
portable to the Athenians. Two of the most 
respectable of the citizens, called Harmodius 
and Aristogiton, conspired against them, and 
Hipparchus was despatched in a public as- 
sembly. This murder was not, however, at- 
tended with any advantages ; and though the 
two leaders of the conspiracy, who have been 
celebrated through every age for their patriot- 
ism, were supported by the people, yet Hippias 
quelled the tumult by his uncommon firmness 
and prudence, and for a while preserved that 
552 



peace in Athens which his father had often 
been unable to command. This was not long 
to continue. Hippias was at last expelled by 
the united efforts of the Athenians and of their 
allies of Peloponnesus, and he left Attica when 
he found himself unable to maintain his power 
and independence. After the banishment of 
the Pisistratidae, the Athenians became more 
than commonly jealous of their liberty, and 
often sacrificed the most powerful of their citi- 
zens, apprehensive of the influence pop- 
ularity, and a well-directed liberality, might 
gain among a fickle and unsettled populace. 
The Pisistratida3 were banished from Athens 
about 18 years after the death of Pisistratus, B. 
C. 510. ^lian. V. H. 13, c. U.—Paus. 7, c. 
26. — Herodot. 1, c. 59, 1. 6, c. 103. — Cic. de oral. 

3.— Val. Max. 1, c. 2. II. A son of Nestor. 

Apollod. III. A king of Orchoraenos, who 

rendered himself odious by his cruelty towards 
the nobles. He was put to death by them, and 
they carried away the body from the public as- 
sembly, by hiding each a piece of flesh under 
their garments to prevent a discovery from the 
people, of which his was a great favourite. Pint, 
in Par. IV. A Theban attached to the Ro- 
man interest, while the consul Flaminius was 
in Greece. He assassinated the prastor of 
Bceotia, for which he was put to death, &c. 

Piso, a celebrated family at Rome, which 
was a branch of the Calpurnians, descended 
from Calpus, the son of Numa. Before the 
death of Augustus, eleven of this family had 
obtained the consulship, and many had been 
honoured with triumphs, on account of their vic- 
tories in the difi'erent provinces of the Roman 
empire. Of this family, the most famous were, 

1, Lucius Calpumius, who was tribune of 

the people about 149 years before Christ, and 
afterwards consul. His frugality procured him 
the surname of Frugi, and he gained the great- 
est honours as an orator, a lawyer, a statesman, 
and an historian. He made a successful cam- 
paign in Sicily, and rewarded his son, who had 
behaved with great valour during the war, with 
a crown of gold which weighed twenty pounds. 
He composed some annals and harangues,which 
were lost in the age of Cicero. His style was 

obscure and inelegant. II. Caius, a Roman 

consul, A. U. C. 687, who supported the con- 
sular dignity against the tumults of the tribunes 
and the clamours of the people. He made a 
law to restrain the cabals M'hich generally pre- 
vailed at the election of the chief magistrates. 
III. Cneius, another consul under Augus- 
tus. He was one of the favourites of Tiberius, 
by whom he was appointed governor of Syria, 
where he rendered himself odious by his cruelty. 
He was accused of having poisoned Germani- 
cus, and when he saw that he was shunned and 
despised by his friends, he destroyed himself, 
A. D. 20. IV. Lucius, a private man, ac- 
cused of having uttered seditious words against 
the emperor Tiberius. He was condemned, but 
a natural death saved him from the hands of the 

executioner. V. Lucius, a governor of Rome 

for twenty years, an office which he discharged 
with the greatest justice and credit. Some, 
however, say that Tiberius made him governor 
of Rome, because he had continued drinking 
with him a night and two days, or two days and 
two nights according to Pliny. Horace dedi- 



PI 



HISTORY, &c. 



PL 



cated his poem dc Arte Poeticd to his two sons, 
whose partiality for literature had distinguished 
them among the rest of the RomaDs, and who 
•were fond of cultivating poetry in their leisure 

hours. Plut. in Cas. — Plin. 18, c. 3. VI. 

Cneius, a factious and turbulent youth, who con- 
spired against his country with Catiline. He 
was among the friends of Julius Caesar. 



VII. Caius, a Roman who was at the head of a 
celebrated conspiracy against the emperor Nero. 
He had rendered himself a favourite of the peo- 
ple by his private as well as public virtues, by 
the generosity of his behaviour, his fondness of 
pleasure with the voluptuous, and his austerity 
with the grave and the reserved. He had been 
marked by some as a proper person to succeed 
the emperor ; but the discover}'' of the plot by a 
freedman, who was among the conspirators, 
soon cut him off, with all his partisans. He 
refused to court the affections of the people and 
of the army, when the whole had been made 
public; and, instead of taking proper measures 
for his preservation, either by proclaiming him- 
self emperor, as his friends advised, or by seek- 
ing a retreat in the distant provinces of the 
empire, he retired to his own house, where he 
opened the veins of both his arms, and bled to 
death. VIII. Lucius, a senator, who follow- 
ed the emperor Valerian into Persia. He pro- 
claimed himself emperor after the death of Va- 
lerian, but he was defeated and put to death a 
few weeks after, A. D. 261, by Valens, &c. 
Horat. — Tacit. Ann. <^ Hist. — Val. Max. — 
Liv. — Sueton. — Cic. de offic. &c. — Plut. in Ca:s. 

&c. IX. One of the 30 tyrants appointed 

over Athens by Lysander. 

PiTHOLEON, an insignificant poet of Rhodes, 
who mingled Greek and Latin in his compo- 
sitions. He wrote some epigrams asrainst J. 
Cassar, and drew upon himself the ridicule of 
Horace on account of the inelegance of his 
style. Sueton. de cl. Rh. — Horat. 1, sat. 10, v. 
'iX.—Marcob. 2, sat. 2. 

PiTTACUs, a native, of Mitylene in Lesbos, 
was one of the seven wise men of Greece. His 
father's name was Cyrradius. With the assist- 
ance of the sons of Alcaeus, he delivered his 
country from the oppression of the tyrant Me- 
lanchrus ; and in the war which the Athenians 
waged against Lesbos he appeared at the head 
of his countrymen, and challenged to single 
combat Phr^Tion, the enemy's general. Pittacns 
had recourse to artifice, and entangled his ad- 
versary in a net, which he had concealed under 
his shield, and easily despatched him. He was 
amply rewarded for his victory, and his coun- 
trymen, sensible of his merit, unanimouslv ap- 
pointed him governor of their citv with unlimit- 
ed authority. In this capacity Pittacus behaved 
with great moderation and prudence, and after 
he had governed his fellow-citizens with the 
strictest justice, and after he had established 
and enforced the most salutary laws, he volun- 
tarily resigned the sovereign power after he had 
enjoyed it for 10 years, observing that the vir- 
tues and innocence of private life were incom- 
patible with the power and influence of a sove- 
reign. His disinterestedness gained him many 
admirers ; and when the Mitvleneans wished to 
reward his public services by presenting him 
with an immense tract of territorv'-, he refused 
to accept more land than what should be con- 

Part II.— 4 A 



tained within the distance to which he could 
throw a javelin. He died in the 82d year of 
his age, about 570 years before Christ, after he 
had spent the last len years of his life in litera- 
ry ease and peaceful retirement. Many of his 
maxims were inscribed on the walls of Apollo's 
temple at Delphi, to show the world how great 
an opinion the Mityleneans entertained of his 
abilities as a philosopher, a moralist, and a man. 
Sy one of his laws, every fault committed by a 
man when intoxicated deserved double punish- 
ment. The titles of some of his writings are 
preserved by Laertius, among which are men- 
tioned elegiac verses, some laws in prose ad- 
dressed to his countrymen, epistles, and moral 
precepts called adomena. Diog. — Aristot. Po- 
lit. — Plut. in symp. — Paus. 10, c. 24. — ^lian. 
H. V. 2, &c.— Vai. Max. 6, c. 5. 

Placidia, a daughter of Theodosius the 
Great, sister to Honorius and Arcadius. She 
married Adolphus, king of the Goths, and af- 
terwards Constantius, by whom she had Valen- 
tinian the third. She died A. D. 449. 

Plancina, a woman celebrated for her in- 
trigues and her crimes, who married Piso, and 
was accused with him of having murdered Ger- 
manicus, in the reign of Tiberius. She was 
acquitted either by means of the emperess Livia, 
or on account of the partiality of the emperor 
for her person. Subservient in every thing to 
the will of Livia, she, at her instigation, be- 
came guilty of the greatest crimes to injure the 
character of Agrippina. After the death of 
Agrippina, Plancina put herself to death, A. D. 
33. Tacit. Ann. 6, c. 26, &c. 

Plancus, L. Munattos, I. a Roman, who 
rendered himself ridiculous by his follies and 
his extravagance. He had been consul, Eind 
had presided over a province in the capacity of 
governor, but he forgot all his dignity, and be- 
came one of the most servile flatterers of Cleo- 
patra and Antony. At the court of the Egyp- 
tian queen in Alexandria, he appeared in the 
character of the meanest stage-dancer, and, in 
comedy, he personated Glaucus, and painted 
his body of a green colour, dancing on a public 
stage quite naked, only with a cro-wTi of green 
reeds on his head, while he had tied behind 
his back the tail of a large sea fish. This ex- 
posed him to the public derision, and when An- 
tony had joined the rest of his friends in cen- 
suring him for his unbecoming behaviour, he 
deserted to Octavius, who received him with 
great marks of friendship and attention . It was 
he who proposed, in the Roman senate, that the 
title of Augustus should be conferred on his 
friend Octavius, as expressive of the dignitv 
and the reverence which the greatness of his 
exploits seemed to claim. Horace has dedi- 
cated 1 od. 7 to him ; and he certainly deserved 
the honour, from the elegance of his letters, 
which are still extant, written to Cicero. He 
founded a town in Gaul, which he called Lug- 

dunum. Plut. in Anton.- II. A patrician, 

proscribed by the second triumvirate. His 
servants wished to save him from death, but 
he refused it rather than expose their persons 
to danger. 

Plato, I. a celebrated philosopher at Athens, 

son of Ariston and Parectonia. His original 

name was Aristocles, and he received that of 

Plato from the largeness of his shoulders. As 

553 



PI 



HISTORY, &c. 



PI 



one of the descendants of Codrus, and as the 
offspring of a noble, illustrious, and opulent 
family, Plato was educated with care, his body 
was formed and invigorated with gymnastic ex- 
ercises, and his mind was cultivated and enlight- 
ened by the study of poetry and of geometry, 
from which he derived that acuteness of judg- 
ment and warmth of imagination, which have 
stamped his character as the most subtile and 
flowery writer of antiquity. He first began his 
literary career by writing poems and tragedies ; 
but he was soon disgusted with his own produc- 
tions, when, at the age of 20, he was introduced 
into the presence of Socrates, and when he was 
enabled to compare and examine, with critical 
accuracy, the merit of his compositions with 
those of his poetical predecessors. During eight 
years he continued to be one of the pupils of 
Socrates ; and after his death Plato retired from 
Athens, and began to travel over Greece. He 
visited Magara, Thebes, and Elis, where he 
met with ihe kindest reception from his fellow- 
disciples, whom the violent death of their mas- 
ter had likewise removed from Attica. He af- 
terwards visited Magna Grsecia, attracted by the 
fame of the Pythagorean philosophy, and by the 
learning, abilities, and reputation, of its profes- 
sors, Philolaus, Archytas, and Eurytus. He 
afterwards passed into Sicily, and examined the 
eruptions and fires of the volcano of that island. 
He also visited Egypt, where then the mathe- 
matician Theodorus flourished, and where he 
knew that the tenets of the Pythagorean philo- 
sophy and metempsychosis had been fostered 
and cherished. When he had finished his tra- 
vels, Plato retired to the groves of Academus, 
in the neighbourhood of Athens, where his lec- 
tures were soon attended by a crowd of learn- 
ed, noble, and illustrious pupils ; and the philo- 
sopher, by refusing to have a share in the ad- 
ministration of affairs, rendered his name more 
famous and his school more frequented. Dur- 
ing forty years he presided at the head of the 
academy, and there he devoted his time to the 
instruction of his pupils, and composed those 
dialogues which have been the admiration of 
every age and country. His studies, however, 
were interrupted for a while, whilst he obeyed 
the pressing calls and invitations of Dionysius, 
and whilst he persuaded the tyrant to become a 
man, the father of his people, and the friend of 
liberty. Vid. Dionysius 2d. In his dress the 
philosopher was not ostentatious, his manners 
were elegant, but modest, simple, without affec- 
tation ; and the great honours which his learn- 
ing deserved were not paid to his appearance. 
When he came to the Olympian games, Plato 
resided in a family who were totally strangers 
to him. He told them his name was Plato, yet 
he never spoke of the employment he pursued 
at Athens ; and when he returned home, attend- 
ed by the family which had so kindly entertain- 
ed him, he was desired to show them the great 
philosopher whose name he bore : their surprise 
was great when he told them that he himself 
was the Plato whom they wished to behold. 
In his diet he was moderate, and indeed, to so- 
briety and temperance in the use of food, and 
to the want of those pleasures which enfeeble 
the body and enervate the mind, some have at- 
tributed his preservation during the tremendous 
pestilence which raged at Athens with so much 
5.54 



fury at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 
Plato died on his birthday, in the 81st year of 
his age, about 384 years before the Christian 
era. He expired, according to Cicero, as he 
was writing. The works of Plato are nume- 
rous ; they are all written in the form of a dia- 
logue, except 12 letters. He speaks always by 
the mouth of others ; and for the elegance, me- 
lody, and sweetness of his expressions, he was 
distinguished by the appellation of the Athe- 
nian bee. Cicero had such an esteem for him, 
that in the warmth of panegyric he exclaimed 
errare mehercule malo cum Platone, quam cum 
istis vera sentire ; and Gtuintilian said, that 
when he read Plato, he seemed to hear not a 
man, but a divinity speaking. His style, how- 
ever, though admired and commended by the 
best and most refined critics among the an- 
cients, has not escaped the censure of some of 
the moderns ; and the philosopher has been 
blamed who supports that fire is a pyramid tied 
to the earth by numbers, that the world is a 
^gure consisting of 12 pentagons, and who, to 
prove the metempsychosis and the immortality 
of the soul, asserts, that the dead are born from 
the living, and the living from the dead. In his 
system of philosophy, he followed the physics of 
Heraclitus, the metaphysical opinions of Pytha- 
goras, and the morals of Socrates. He main- 
tained the existence of two beings, one self-ex- 
istent, and the other formed by the hand of a 
pre-existent creature, god and man. The world 
was created by that self-existent, cause, from the 
rude undigested mass of matter which had ex- 
isted from all eternity, and which had even been 
animated by an irregular principle of motion. 
The origin of evil could not be traced under the 
government of a deity, without admitting a stub- 
born intractability and wildness congenial to 
matter ; and from these, consequently, could be 
demonstrated the deviations from the laws of 
nature, and from thence the extravagant pas- 
sions and appetites of men. From materials 
like these were formed the four elements, and 
the beautiful structure of the heavens and the 
earth ; and into the active, but irrational princi- 
ple of matter, the divinity infused a rational 
soul. The souls of men were formed from the 
remainder of the rational soul of the world, 
which had previously given existence to the 
invisible gods and demons. The philosopher, 
therefore, supported the doctrine of ideal forms, 
and the pre-existence of the human mind, which 
he considered as emanations of the Deity, which 
can never remain satisfied with objects or things 
unworthy of their divine original. Men could 
perceive with their corporeal senses, the types 
of immutable things, and the fluctuating objects 
of the material world ; but the sudden changes 
to which these are continually obnoxious, create 
innumerable disorders, and hence arises decep- 
tion, and, in short, all the errors and miseries of 
human life. Yet, in whatever situation man 
mav be, he is still an object of divine concern, 
and to recommend himself to the favour of the 
pre-existent cause, he must comply with the 
purposes of his creation, and by proper care 
and diligence he can recover those immaculate 
powers with which he was naturally endowed. 
All science the philosopher made to consist in 
reminiscence, and in recalling the nature, forms, 
and proportions of those perfect and immutable 



PL 



HISTORY, &c. 



PL 



essences with which the human mind bad been 
conversant. The passions were divided into 
two classes, the first consisted of the irascible 
passions, which originated in pride or resent- 
ment, and were seated in the breast : the other, 
founded on the love of pleasure, was the concu- 
piscible part of the soul, seated in the belly and 
inferior parts of the body. These different 
orders induced the philosopher to compare the 
soul to a small republic, of which the reasoning 
and judging powers were stationed in the head, 
as in a firm citadel, and of which the senses 
were its guards and servants. By the irascible 
part of ibe soul men asserted their dignity, re- 
pelled injuries, and scorned danger; and the 
concupiscible part provided the support and the 
necessities of the body, and, when governed 
with propriety, it gave rise to temperance. Jus- 
tice was produced by the regular dominion of 
reason, and by the submission of the passions; 
and prudence arose from the strength, acute- 
ness, and perfection of the soul, without which 
all other virtues could not exist. Plato was the 
first who supported the immortality of the soul 
upon arguments solid and permanent, deduced 
from truth and experience. From doctrines 
like these, the great founder of Platonism con- 
cluded, that there might exist in the world a 
community of men whose passions could be gov- 
ern ed with moderation, and who, from know- 
ing the evils and miseries which arise from ill 
conduct, might aspire to excellence, and attain 
that perfection which can be derived from the 
proper exercise of the rational and moral pow- 
ers. To illustrate this more fully, the philoso- 
pher wrote a book, well known by the name of 
the republic of Plato, in which he explains, 
with acuteness, judgment, and elegance, the 
rise and revolution of civil society ; and so re- 
spected was his opinions as a legislator, that his 
scholars were employed in regulating the repub- 
lics of Arcadia, Elis, and Cnidus, at the desire 
of those states, and Xenocrates gave political 
rules for good and impartial government to the 
conqueror of the east. The best editions of 
Plato are those of Francof fol. 1602, and Bi- 
pont. 12 vols. 8vo. 1788. Plato. Dial. &c.— 
Cic. de offic. 1. de div. 1, c. 36, de N. D. 2, c. 
12. Tus. 1, c. 17. — Plui. in Sol. &c. — Seneca. 
ep. — Quintil. 10, c. 1, &c. — Mlian. V. H. 2 

and 4. — Pans. 1, c. 30. — Diog. II A Greek 

poet, called the prince of the middle comedy, 
who flourished B. C. 445. Some fragments 
remain of his pieces. 

Plautia Lex, was enacted by M. Plautius, 
the tribune A. U. C. 664. It required every 
tribe annually to choose fifteen persons of their 
body to serve as judges, making the honour 
common to all the three orders, according to the 

majorit}' of votes in every tribe. Another, 

called also Plotia, A. U. C. 675. It punished 
with the interdictio ignis et aq%a^ all persons 
who were found guilty of attempts upon the 
state, or the senators or magistrates, or such as 
appeared in public armed with any evil design, 
or such as forcibly expelled any person from 
his legal possessions. 

Plautia Nus Fulvius, an African of mean 
birth, who was banished for his seditious be- 
haviour in the years of his obscurity. In his 
banishment, Plautianus formed an acquaint- 
ance with Severus, who some years after as- 



cended the imperial throne. This was the be- 
ginning of his prosperity, Plautianus shared 
the favours of Severus in obscurity as well as 
on the throne. He was invested with as much 
power as his patron at Rome, and in the prov- 
inces, and indeed, he wanted but the name of 
emperor to be his equal. He was concerned in 
all the rapine and destruction which was com- 
mitted through the empire, and he enriched 
himself with the possessions of those who had 
been sacrificed to the emperor's cruelty or ava- 
rice. To complete his triumph, and to make 
himself still greater, Plautianus married his 
favourite daughter Plautilla to Caracalla, the 
son of the emperor. The son of Severus had 
complied with great reluctance, and, though 
Plautilla was amiable in her manners, com- 
manding in aspect, and of a beautiful counte- 
nance, yet the young prince often threatened to 
punish her haughty and imperious behaviour as 
soon as he succeeded to the throne. Plautilla 
reported the whole to her father, and, to save 
his daughter from the vengeance of Caracalla, 
Plautianus conspired against the emperor and 
his son. The conspiracy was discovered, the 
wicked minister was immediately put to death, 
and Plautilla banished to the island of Lipari, 
with her brother Plautius, where, seven years 
after, she was put to death by order of Cara- 
calla, A. D. 211. Plautilla had two children, 
a son, who died in his childhood, and a daugh- 
ter, whom Caracalla murdered in the^arms of 
her mother. Dion. Cass. 

Plautus, M. Accids, I. a comic poet, bom 
at Sarsina in Umbria. Fortune proved unkind 
to him, and, from competence, he was reduced 
to the meanest poverty, by engaging in a com- 
mercial line. To maintain himself, he entered 
into the family of a baker as a common ser- 
vant, and, while he was employed in grinding 
corn, he sometimes dedicated a few moments 
to the comic muse. Some, however, deny this 
account. He wrote 25 comedies, of which only 
20 are extant. He died about 184 years before 
the Christian era; and Varro, his learned 
countryman, wrote this stanza, which deserved 
to be engraved on his tomb : — 

Postquam morte captus est Plautus, 
Comozdia luget, sceTia est diserta ; 
Deinde risus, ludus,jocusque, et numeri 
Innumeri simul omnes collacrymarunt. 

The plays of Plautus were universally esteemed 
at Rome ; and Varro. whose judgment is great 
and generally decisive, declares, that if the 
Muses were willing to speak Latin, they would 
speak in the language of Plautus. In the Au- 
gustan age, however,when the Roman language 
became more pure and refined, the comedies of 
Plautus did not appear free from inaccuracy. 
The poet, when compared to the more elegant 
expressions of a Terence, was censured for his 
negligence in versification, his low wit, execra- 
ble puns, and disgusting obscenities. Yet, how- 
ever censured as to language or sentiments, 
Plautus continued to be a favourite on the stage. 
If his expressions were not choice or delicate, it 
was universally admitted that he was more hap- 
py than other comic writers in his pictures, the 
incidents of his plays were more varied, the acts 
more interesting, the characters more truly dis- 
played, and the catastrophe more natural. In 
555 



PL 



HISTORY, &c. 



PL 



he reign of ihe emperor Diocletian,his comedies 
were still acted on the public theatres ; and no 
greater compliment can be paid to his abilities as 
a comic writer, and no greater censure can be 
passed upon his successors in dramatic compo- 
sition, than to observe, that for 500 years, with 
all the disadvantage of obsolete language and 
diction, in spite of the change of manners and 
the revolutions of government, he commanded 
and received that applause which no other 
writer dared to dispute with him. The best 
editions of Plautus are, that of Gronovius, 8vo. 
L, Bat, 1664 ; that of Barbou, 12mo, in 3 vols. 
Paris, 1759 ; that of Ernesti, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
1760; and that of Glasgow, 3 vols. 12mo. 1763. 

Varro afud Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Cic. de Offic 1, 
&c. — Do Oral. 3, &c. — Horat. 3, ep. I, v. 58, 

170, de art. poet. 54 and 270. II. ^lianus, a 

highpriest, who consecrated the capitol in the 
reign of Vespasian. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 53. 

Plinius Segundus, (C.) I. surnamed the Elder, 
was born at Verona, of a noble family. He 
distinguished himself in the field, and after he 
had been made one of the augurs at Rome, he 
was appointed governor of Spain, In his pub- 
lic character he did not neglect the pleasures of 
literature, the day was employed in the adminis- 
tration of the affairs of his province, and the 
night was dedicated to study. Every moment 
of time was precious to him ; at his meals one of 
his servants read to him books valuable for their 
information, and from them he immediately 
made copious extracts, in a memorandum book. 
He deemed every moment lost which was not 
dedicated to study, and from these reasons he 
never appeared at Rome but in a chariot, and 
wherever he went he was always accompanied 
by his amanuensis. He even censured his 
nephew, Pliny the younger, because he had in- 
dulged himself with a walk ; and sternly observ- 
ed, that he might have employed those moments 
to better advantage. He was courted and ad- 
mired by the emperors Titus and Vespasian, 
and he received from them all the favours which 
a virtuous prince could offer and an honest sub- 
ject receive. As he was at Misenum, where 
he commanded the fleet which was then sta- 
tioned there, Pliny was surprised at the sudden 
appearance of a cloud of dust and ashes. He 
was then ignorant of the cause which produced 
it, and he immediately set sail in a small vessel 
for mount Vesuvius, which he at last discovered 
to have made a dreadful eruption. The sight 
of a number of boats, that fled from the coast to 
avoid the danger, might have deterred another ; 
but the curiosity of Pliny excited him to ad- 
vance with more boldness, and, though his ves- 
sel was often covered with stones and ashes that 
were continually thrown up by the mountam, 
yet he landed on the coast. The place was de- 
serted by the inhabitants, but Pliny remained 
there during the night, the better to observe the 
.inountain,which, during the obscurity, appeared 
to be one continual blaze. He was soon dis- 
turbed by a dreadful earthquake, and the con- 
trary wind on the morrow prevented him from 
returning to Misenum. The eruption of the 
volcano increased, and, at last, the fire approach- 
ed the place where the philosopher made his 
observations. Pliny endeavoured to fly before 
it, but though he was supported by two of his 
servants he was unable to escape. His body 
556 



was found three days after, and decently buried 
by his nephew, who was then at Misenum with 
the fleet. This memorable event happened in 
ihe 79th year of the Christian era ; and the 
philosopher who perished by the eruptions of 
the volcano, has been called by some the martyr 
of nature. He was then in the 56th year of 
his age. Of the works which he composed none 
are extant, but his natural history in 37 books. 
It is a work, as Pliny the younger says, full of 
erudition, and as varied as nature itself It 
treats of the stars, the heavens, wind, rain, hail, 
minerals, trees, flowers, and plants, besides an 
account of all living animals, birds, fishes, and 
beasts; a geographical description of every place 
on the globe, and a history of every art and 
science, of commerce and navigation, with their 
rise, progress, and several improvements. He 
is happy in his descriptions as a naturalist, he 
writes with force and energy; andthoughmany 
of his ideas and conjectures are sometimes ill- 
founded, yet he possesses that fecundity of ima- 
gination, and vivacity of expression, which are 
requisite to treat a subject with propriety, and 
to render a history of nature pleasing, interest- 
ing, and, above all, instructive. His style pos- 
sesses not the graces of the Augustan age ; he 
has neither its purity and elegance, nor its sim- 
plicity ; but is rather cramped, obscure, and 
sometimes unintelligible. He had written 160 
volumes of remarks and annotations on the 
various authors which he had read; and so 
great was the opinion, in his contemporaries, 
of his erudition and abilities, that a man called 
Lartius Latinus offered to buy his notes and ob- 
servations for the enormous sum of about 3242Z. 
English money. The philosopher, who was 
himself rich and independent, rejected the offer, 
and his compilations, after his death, came into 
the hands of his nephew Pliny. The best edi- 
tions of Pliny are that of Harduin, 3 vols. fol. 
Paris, 1723, that of Frantzius, 10 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
1778, that of Brotier, 6 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1779. 
and the Variorum, 8vo. in 8 vols. Lips. 1778 to 
1789. Tacit. Ann. 1. c. 69, 1. 13, c. 20, 1. 15, c. 

53. — Plin. ep. &c. II. C. Csecilius Secun- 

dus, surnamed the younger, was son of L. Cae- 
cilius by the sister of Pliny the elder. He was 
adopted by his uncle, whose name he assumed, 
and whose estates and effects he inherited. He 
received the greatest part of his education under 
duintilian, and at the age of 19 he appeared at 
the bar, where he distinguished himself so much 
by his eloquence, that he and Tacitus were 
reckoned the two greatest orators of their age. 
He did not make his profession an object of gain 
like the rest of the Roman orators, but he refus- 
ed fees from the rich as well as from the poorest 
of his clients, and declared that he cheerfully 
employed himself forthe protection of innocence, 
the relief of the indigent, and the detection of 
vice. He published many of his harangues and 
orations, which have been lost. When Trajan 
was invested with the imperial purple, Pliny 
was created consul by the emperor. This hon- 
our the consul acknowledged in a celebrated 
panegyric, which, at the request of the Roman 
senate, and in the name of the whole empire, 
he pronounced on Trajan. Some time after he 
presided over Pontus and Bithynia, in the office, 
and with the power, of proconsul ; and by his 
humanity and philanthropy the subject was 



PL 



HISTORY, &c. 



PL 



freed from the burden of partial taxes, and the 
persecution which had been begun against the 
Christians of his province was stopped, when 
Pliny solemnly declared to the emperor, that the 
followers of Christ were a meek and inoffensive 
sect of men, that their morals were pure and in- 
nocent, that they were free from all crimes, and 
that they voluntarily bound themselves, by the 
most solemn oaths, to abstain from vice and to 
relinquish every sinful pursuit. If he rendered 
himself popular in his province, he was not less 
respected at Rome. His native country shared 
among the rest his unbounded benevolence ; and 
Comum, a small town of Insubria, which gave 
him birth, boasted of his liberality in the valu- 
able and choice library of books which he col- 
lected there. He made bis preceptor Gluintil- 
ian, and the poet Martial, objects of his benev- 
olence ; and when the daughter of the former 
was married, Pliny wrote to the father with the 
greatest civility ; and while he observed that he 
was rich in the possession of learning, though 
poor in the goods of fortune, he begged of him 
to accept, as a dowry for his beloved daughter, 
50,000 sesterces, about 300^. I would not, con- 
tinued he, be so moderate were 1 not assured from 
your modesty and disinterestedness, that the small- 
ness of the present will render it acceptable. He 
died in the 52d year of his age, A. D. 113. He 
had written a history of his own times, which 
is lost. Ii is said that Tacitus did not begin 
his history till he had found it impossible to per- 
suade Pliny to undertake that laborious task; 
and, indeed, what could not have been expected 
from the panegyrist of Trajan, if Tacitus ac- 
knowledged himself inferior to him in delinea- 
ting the character of the times. Some suppose, 
but falsely, that Pliny wrote the lives of illus- 
trious men universally ascribed to Cornelius 
Nepos. He also wrote poetry, but his verses 
have all perished, and nothing of his learned 
works remain but his panegyric on the emperor 
Trajan, and ten booksof letters, which he him- 
self collected and prepared for the public, from 
a numerous and respectable correspondence. 
They are written with elegance and great puri- 
ty ; and the reader every where discovers that 
affability, that condescension and philanthropy, 
which so eminently marked the advocate of the 
Christians. These letters are esteemed by some 
equal to the voluminous epistles of Cicero. In 
his panegyric, Pliny's style is florid and bril- 
liant : he has used, to the greatest advantage, 
the liberties of the panegyrist and the elegance 
of the courtier. His ideas are new and refined, 
but his diction is distinguished by that affecta- 
tion and pomposity which marked the reign of 
Trajan. The best editions of Pliny are those of 
Gesner, 8vo. Lips. 1770, and of Lallemand, 
12mo. Paris, apud Barbou ; and of the Pane- 
gyric separate, that of Schwartz, 4to. 1746, and 
of the Epistles, the Variorum, L. Bat. 1669, 8vo. 
Plin. ep. — Vossius. — Sidonius. 

Plistoanax, and Plistonax, son of Pausa- 
nias, was general of the Lacedaemonian armies 
in the Peloponnesian war. He was banished 
from his kingdom of Sparta for 19 years, and 
was afterwards recalled by order of the oracle 
of Delphi. He reigned 58 years. He had 
succeeded Plistarchus. Thucyd. 
^ Plotina Pompeia, a Roman lady, who mar- 
ried Trajan while he was yet a private man. 



She entered Rome m the procession with her 
husband when he was saluted emperor, and dis- 
tinguished herself by the affability of her be- 
haviour, her humanit)', and liberal offices to the 
poor and friendless. She accompanied Trajan 
in the east, and at his death she brought back 
his ashes to Rome, and still enjoyed all the 
honours and titles of a Roman emperess under 
Adrian, who, by her means, had succeeded to 
the vacant throne. Dion. 

Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher of Lycopo- 
lis in Egypt. He was for eleven years a pupil 
of Ammonius the philosopher, and after he had 
profited by all the instructions of his learned 
preceptor, he determined^te improve his know- 
ledge, and to visit the territories of India and 
Persia to receive information. He accompanied 
Gordian in his expedition into the east, but the 
day which proved fatal to the emperor, nearly 
terminated the life of the philosopher. He 
saved himself by flight, and the following year 
he retired to Rome, where he publicly taught 
philosophy. His school was frequented by peo- 
ple of every sex, age, and quality; and many, 
on their deathbed, left all their possessions to 
his care, and intrusted their children to him as 
a superior being. It is even said, that the em- 
peror and the emperess Salonina intended to 
rebuild a decayed city of Campania, and to ap- 
point the philosopher over it, that there he might 
experimentally know, while he presided over a 
colony of philosophers, the validity and the use 
of the ideal laws of the republic of Plato. This 
plan was not executed through the envy and 
malice of the enemies of Plotinus. The philo- 
sopher, at last became helpless, and infirm, re- 
turned to Campania, where the liberality of his 
friends for a while maintained him. He died 
A. D. 270, in the 66th year of his age, and as he 
expired, he declared that he made his last and 
most violent efforts to give up what there was 
most divine in him and in the rest of the uni- 
verse. Amidst the great qualities of the phi- 
losopher, we discover some ridiculous singu- 
larities. Plotinus never permitted his picture 
to be taken, and he observed, that to see a 
painting of himself in the following age was 
beneath the notice of an enlightened mind. His 
writings have been collected by his pupil Por- 
phyry, They consist of 54 different treatises, 
divided into six equal parts, written with great 
spirit and vivacity ; and the reasonings are ab- 
struse, and the subject metaphysical. The best 
edition is that of Picinus, foL JBasil, 1580. 

Plotius Crispinus, I. a stoic philosopher and 
poet, whose verses were very inelegant, and 
whose disposition was morose, for which he has 
been ridiculed by Horace, and cdWedi Artalogus. 

Horat. 1, sat. 1, v. 4. II. Tucca, a friend of 

Horace and of Virgil, who made him his heir. 
He was selected by Augustus, with Varius, to 
review the JEneid of Virgil. Horat.l, sat. 5.v. 40. 
Plutarchus, a native of Chseronea, descended 
of a respectable family. His father, whose name 
is unknown, was distinguished for his learning 
and virtues ; and his grandfather, called Lam- 
prias, was also as" conspicuous for his elo- 
quence and the fecundity of his genius. Under 
Ammonius, a reputable teacher at Delphi, Plu- 
tarch was made acquainted with philosophy 
and mathematics ; and after he had visited, like 
a philosopher and historian, the territories of 
557 



PL 



HISTORY,&c. 



PO 



Egypt and Greece, he retired to Rome, where he 
opened a school. The emperor Trajan admir- 
ed his abilities, and honoured him with the 
office of consul, and appointed him governor of 
Illyricum. After the death of his imperial 
benefactor, Plutarch removed from Rome to 
Chseronea, where he lived in the greatest tran- 
quillity, respected by his fellow-citizens, and 
raised to all the honours which his naiive town 
could bestow. In this peaceful and solitary re- 
treat Plutarch closely applied himself to study, 
and wrote the greatest part of his works, and 
particularly his lives. He died in an advanced 
age at Chseronea, about the 140th year of the 
Christian era. Plutarch had five children by 
his wife, called Timoxena, four sons and one 
daughter. Two of the sons and the daughter 
died when young, and those that survived were 
called Plutarch and Lamprias, and the latter 
did honour to his father's memory, by giving to 
the world an accurate catalogue of his writings. 
In his private and public character, the histo- 
rian of Chasronea was the friend of discipline. 
He boldly asserted the i\atural right of man- 
kind, liberty ; but he recommended obedience 
and submissive deference to magistrates, as ne- 
cessary to preserve the peace of society. He 
always carried a commonplace-book with him, 
and preserved with the greatest care whatever 
judicious observations fell in the course of con- 
versation. The most esteemed of his works are 
his lives of illustrious men. He writes with 
precision; and though his diction is neither 
pure nor elegant, yet there is energy and ani- 
mation, and in many descriptions he is inferior 
to no historian. In some of his -narrations, 
however, he is often too circumstantial, his re- 
marks are often injudicious ; and when he com- 
pares the heroes of Greece with those of Rome, 
the candid reader can easily remember which 
side of the Adriatic gave the historian birth. 
He is the most entertaining, the most instructive 
and interesting, of all the writers of ancient 
history; and were a man of true taste and 
judgment asked what book he wished to save 
from destruction of all the profane compositions 
of antiquity, he would perhaps without hesita- 
tion reply, the Lives of Plutarch, The best edi- 
tions of Plutarch are that of Francfort, 2 vols, 
fol. 1599; that of Stephens, 6 vols. 8vo. 1572; 
the Lives by Reiske, 12 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1775 : 
and the Moralia, &c. by Wyttenbach. Plut. 

Plynterta, a festival among the Greeks, in 
honour of Aglauros, or rather of Minerva, who 
received from the daughter of Cecrops the name 
af Aglauros. The word seems to be derived 
from n\vv£iv, lavare, because, during the solem- 
nity, they undressed the statue of the goddess, 
and vMsked it. The day on which it was ob- 
served was universally looked upon as unfor- 
tunate and inauspicious, and on that account no 
person was permitted to appear in the temples, 
as they were purposely surrounded with ropes. 
The arrival of Alcibiades in Athens that day 
was deemed very unfortunate ; but, however, 
the success that ever after attended him, proved 
it to be otherwise. It was customary at this 
festival to bear in procession a cluster of figs, 
which intimated the progress of civilization 
among the first inhabitants of the earth, as figs 
served them for food after they had found a dis- 
like for acorns. Pollux. 
658 



PoLEMOCRATiA, a quccu of Thracc, who fled 
to Brutus after the murder of Caesar. She re- 
tired from her kingdom because her subjects 
had lately murdered her husband. 

PoLEMON, I. a youth of Athens, son of Phi- 
lostratus. He once, when intoxicated, entered 
the school of Xenocrates, while the philosopher 
was giving his pupils a lecture upon the effects 
of intemperance, and he was so struck with the 
eloquence of the academician, and the force of 
his arguments, that from that moment he re- 
nounced the dissipated life he had led, and ap- 
plied himself totally to the study of philosophy. 
He was then in the 30th year of his age, and 
from that time never drank any other liquor but 
water ; and after the death of Xenocrates he 
succeeded in the school where his reformation 
had been efiected. He died about 270 years be- 
fore Christ, in an extreme old age. Diog. in 
vita. — Horat. 2, sat. 3, v. 254. — Val. Max. 6, c. 

9. II. A son of Zeno the rhetorician, made 

king of Pontus by Antony. He attended his pa- 
tron in his expedition against Parthia. After 
the battle of Actium he was received into favour 
by Augustus, though he had fought in the cause 
of Antony. He was killed some time after by 
the barbarians near the Palus Maeotis, against 

whom he had made war. Strab. — Dion. 

III. His son, of the same name, was confirmed 
on his father's throne by the Roman emperors, 
and the province of Cilicia was also added to his 

kingdom by Claudius. IV. A rhetorician at 

Rome, who wrote a poem on weights and mea- 
sures, still extant. He was master to Persius, 
the celebrated satirist, and died in the age of 
Nero. — — V. A sophist of Laodicea in Asia 
Minor, in the reign of Adrian. He was often sent 
to the emperor with an embassy by his country- 
men, which he executed with great success. He 
was greatly favoured by Adrian, from whom 
he exacted much money. In the 5f>th year of 
his age he buried himself alive, as he laboured 
with the gout. He wrote declamations in Greek. 

PoLiEiA, a festival at Thebes in honour of 
Apollo, who was represented there with gray 
hair, {iro'Xioc,), contrary to the practice of all other 
places. The victim was a bull, but when it hap- 
pened once that no bull could be found, an ox 
was taken from the cart and sacrificed. From 
that time the sacrifice of labouring oxen was 
deemed lawful, though before it was looked 
upon as a capital crime, 

PoLisTRATUs, an Epicurean philosopher, born 
the same day as Hippoclides, with whom he 
always lived in the greatest intimacy. They 
both died at the same hour. Diod. — Val. 
Max. 1. 

PoLLES, a Greek poet, whose writings were 
so obscure and unintelligible that his name be- 
came proverbial. Suidas. 

PoLLio, (C. Asinius,) I. a Roman consul, un- 
der the reign of Augustus, who distinguished 
himself as much by his eloquence and writings 
as by his exploits in the field. He defeated the 
Dalmatians, and favoured the cause of Antony 
against Augustus. He patronised, with great 
liberality, the poets Virgil and Horace, who 
have immortalized him in their writings. He 
was the first who raised a public library at 
Rome. In his library were placed the statues 
of all the learned men of every age, and Varro 
was the only person who was honoured there 



PO 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



during his lifetime. He was with J. Csesar 
when he crossed the Rubicon. He was greatly 
esteemed by Augustus when he had become 
one of his adherents after the ruin of Antony. 
Pollio wrote some tragedies, orations, and a 
history, which was divided into 17 books. All 
these compositions are lost, and nothing remains 
of his writings except a few letters to Cicero. 
He died in the 80th year of his age, A. D. 4, 
He is the person in whose honour Virgil has 
inscribed his fourth eclogue, Pollio, els a recon- 
ciliation was effected between Augustus and 
Antony during his consulship. The poet, it is 
supposed by some, makes mention of a son of 
the consul born about this time, and is lavish in 
his excursions into futurity, and his predictions 
of approaching prosperity. Paterc. 2, c. 86. — 
Horat. 2, od. 1, Sat. 10, 1. l.— Virg. Ed. 3 and 

i.— Val. Max. 8, c. 13.— Quint. 10. II. Ve- 

dius, one of the friends of Augustus, who used 
to feed his fishes with human flesh. This cru- 
elty was discovered when one of his servants 
broke a glass in ihe presence of Augustus, who 
had been invited to a feast. The master order- 
ed the servant to be seized ; but he threw him- 
self at the feet of the emperor, and begged him 
to interfere, and not to suffer him to be devour- 
ed by fishes. Upon this the causes of his ap- 
prehension were examined, and Augustus, 
astonished at the barbarity of his favourite, 
caused the servant to be dismissed, all the fish- 
ponds to be filled up, and the crystal glasses of 

Pollio to be broken to pieces. III. A man 

who poisoned Britannicus, at the instigation of 
Nero. 

PoLLnJs Felix, a friend of the poet Statins, 
to whom he dedicated his second Sylva. 

Pollux. Vid. Castor. A Greek writer, who 
flourished A. D. 186, in the reign of Commo- 
dus, and died in the 58th year of his age. He 
was bom at Naucratis, and taught rhetoric at 
Athens, and wrote a useful work called Ono- 
'nmsticon, of which the best edition is that of 
Hemsterhusius, 2 vols. fol. Amst. 1706. 

PoLus, a celebrated Grecian actor. 

PoLY^NUs, a native of Macedonia, who wrote 
eight books, in Greek, of stratagems, which he 
dedicated to the emperors Antoninus and Verus, 
while they were making war against the Par- 
thians. He wrote also other books, which have 
been lost, among which was a history, with a 
description of the city of Thebes. The best 
editions of his stratagems are those of Mas- 
vicius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1690, and of Mursinna, 
12mo. Berlin, 1756. 

PoLYBiTjs, a native of Megalopolis in Pelo- 
ponnesus, son of Lycortas. He was early ini- 
tiated in the duties, and made acquainted with 
the qualifications of a statesman by his father, 
who was a strong supporter of the Achsean 
league, and under him Philopoeraen was taught 
the art of war. ' In Macedonia he distinguished 
himself by his valour against the Romans, and 
when Perseus had been conquered, he was 
carried to the capital of Italy as a prisoner of 
war. Scipio and Fabius were acquainted with 
his uncommon abilities as a warrior and as a 
man of learning, and they made him their friend 
by kindness and attention. He accompanied 
Scipio in his expeditions, and was present at 
the taking of Carthage and Numantia. After 
the death of Scipio, he retired from Rome, and 



passed the rest of his days at Megalopolis. He 
died in the 82d year of his age, about 124 years 
before Christ, of a wound which he had receiv- 
ed by a fall from his horse. He wrote a imi- 
versal history in Greek, divided into 40 books, 
which began with the wars of Rome with the 
Carthaginians, and finished with the conquest 
of Macedonia by Paulus. The greatest part of 
this valuable history is lost ; the five first books 
■are extant, and of the twelve following, the 
fragments are numerous. The history of Po- 
iybius is admired for its authenticity, and he is, 
perhaps, the only historian among the Greeks 
who was expeiimentally and professedly ac- 
quainted with the military operations and the 
political mcELSures of which he makes mention. 
Polybius, however great and entertaining, is 
sometimes censured for his unnecessary digres- 
sions, for his uncouth and ill-digested narra- 
tions, for his negligence, and the inaccurate 
arrangement of his words. But every where 
there is instruction to be found, information to 
be collected, and curious facts to be obtained ; 
and it reflects not much honotir upon Livy for 
calling the historian, from whom he has copied 
whole books, almost word for word, without 
gratitude or acknowledgment, hand quaqv/iiji 
spernendus auctor. Dionysius, also of Halicar- 
nassus, is one of his most violent accusers ; but 
the historian has rather exposed his ignorance 
of true criticism than discovered ina"ccuracyor 
inelegance. The best editions of Polybius are 
those of Gronovius, 3 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1670, or 
Ernesti, 3 vols. 8vo. 1764, and of Schweighaeu- 
ser, 7 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1785. Plut. in Phil, in 
prcec. — Liv. 30, c. 45. — Pans. 8, c, 30. 

PoLYCARPUs, a famous Greek writer, born 
at Smyrna, and educated at the expense of a 
rich but pious lady. Some suppose that he 
was St. John's disciple. He became bishop of 
Smyrna, and went to Rome to settle the festi- 
val of Easter, but to no purpose. He was con- 
demned to be burnt at Smyrna, A. D. 167. His 
epistle to the Philippians is simple and modest, 
yet replete with useful precepts and rules for 
the conduct of life. The best editions of Poly- 
carp's epistle is that of Oxon. 8vo. 1708, being 
annexed to the works of Ignatius. 

PoLYCHAREs, a rich Messenian, said to have 
been the cause of the war which was kindled 
between the Spartans and his countrymen, 
which was called the first Messenian war. 

PoLYCLES, I. an Athenian, in the time of 

Demetrius, &c. Polycen. 5. II. A famous 

athlete, often crowned at the four solemn games 
of the Greeks. He had a statue in Jupiter's 
grove at Olympia. Pans. 6, c. 1. 

PoLYCLETUs,'a Celebrated statuary of Sicyon, 
about 232 years before Christ. He was univer- 
sally reckoned the most skilful artist of his 
profession among the ancients, and the second 
rank was given to Phidias. One of his pieces, 
in which he had represented a body-guard of 
the king of Persia, was so happily executed, 
and so nice and exact in all its proportions, that 
it was looked upon as a most perfect model, and 
accordingly called the Rule. He was acquaint- 
ed with architecture. Paus. 2 and 6. — Quin- 
til. 12, c. 10. 

PoLYCHATEs, I. a tyrant of Samos, well known 
for the continual flow of s^ood fortune which at- 
tended him. He had a fleet of a hundred ships 
559 



PO 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



of war, and was so universally respected, that 
Amasis, the king of Egypt, made a treaty of 
alliance with him. The Egyptian monarch, 
however, terrified by his continual prosperity, 
advised him to checker his enjoyments by re- 
linquishing some of his most favourite objects. 
Polycrates complied, and threw into the sea a 
beautiful seal, the most valuable of his jewels ; 
but a few days after, he received as a present a 
large fish, in whose belly the jewel was found. 
Amasis no sooner heard this, than he rejected 
all alliance with the tyrant of Samos ; and ob- 
served, that sooner or later his good fortune 
would vanish. Some time after, Polycrates vis- 
ited Magnesia, on the Meeander, where he had 
been invited by Oroetes, the governor. He was 
shamefully put to death, 522 years before Christ, 
merely because the governor wished to termi- 
nate the prosperity of Polycrates. Pans. 8, c. 

U—Strab. U.—Herodot. 3, c. 39, &c. II. 

A sophist of Athens, who, to engage the public 
attention, wrote a panegyric on Busiris and 
Clytemnestra. Quintil. 2, c. 17. 

PoLYCTOR, an athlete of Elis. It is said that 
he obtained a victory at Olympia by bribing his 
adversary, Sosander, who was superior to him 
in strength and courage, l-'aus. 5, c. 21. 

PoLYDAMAS, I, a Trojau, son of Antenor by 
Theano, the sister of Hecuba. He married 
Lycaste, a natural daughter of Priam, He is 
accused by some of having betrayed his country 

to the Greeks. Dares Phryg. II. a son of 

Panthous, born the same night as Hector. He 
was inferior in valour to none of the Trojans 
except Hector ; and his prudence, the wisdom 
of his counsels, and the firmness of his mind, 
claimed equal admiration. He was at last kill- 
ed by Ajax, after he had slaughtered a great 
number of the enemy. Dictys Cret. 1, &c. — 

Homer. 11. 12, &c. 'III. A celebrated athlete, 

son of Nicias, who imitated Hercules in what- 
ever he did. He killed a lion with his fist, and 
it is said that he could stop a chariot with his 
hand in its most rapid course. He was one 
day with some of his friends in a cave, when on 
a sudden a large piece of rock came tumbling 
down, and while all fled away, he attempted to 
receive the fallen fragment in his arms. His 
prodigious strength, however, was insuflicient, 
and he was instantly crushed to pieces under 
the rock. Pans. 6, c. 5. 

PoLYDECTEs, a king of Sparta, of the family 
of the Proclidae. He was son of Eunomus. 
Paus. 3, c. 7. Vid. Part III. 

PoLYDORUs, I. a son of Alcamenes, king of 
Sparta. He put an end to the war, which had 
been carried on during 20 years, between Mes- 
senia and his subjects ; and during his reign the 
Lacedaemonians planted two colonies, one at 
Crotona, and the other at Locri. He was uni- 
versally respected. He was assassinated by a 
nobleman called Polymarchus. His son Eury- 
crates succeeded him 724 years before Christ. 
Paus. 3.—Herodot. 7, c. 204. II. A cele- 
brated carver of Rhodes, who, out of a single 
block, made the famous statue of Laocoon and 

his children. Plin. 34, c. 8. III. A son of 

Priam by Hecuba, or, according to others, by 
Laothoe, the daughter of Altes, king of Pedasus, 
As he was young and inexperienced when Troy 
was besieged by the Greeks, his father removed 
him to the court of Polymnestor, king of Thrace, 
560 



and also intrusted to the care of the monarch a 
large sum of money and the greatest part of his 
treasures. Polymnestor assassinated young Po- 
lydorus, and threw his body into the sea, where 
it was found by Hecuba. Vid. Polymnestor. 
According to Virgil, the body of Polydorus was 
buried near the shore by his assassin, and there 
grew on his grave a myrtle, whose boughs 
dropped blood, when ^neas, going to Italy, 
attempted to tear them from the tree. Virg. 
jEn. 3, V. 21, &c.—Apollod. 3, c. 12.— Ovid. 
Met. 13, V. 432.— Homer. II. 20.— Dictys Cret. 
2, c. 18. 

PoLYGNoTis, I. a celebrated painter of Tha- 
sos, about 422 years before the Christian era. 
His father's name was Aglaophon. He adorned 
one of the public porticoes of Athens with his 
paintings, in which he had represented the most 
striking events of the Trojan war. He par- 
ticularly excelled in giving grace, liveliness, 
and expression to his pieces. The Athenians 
were so pleased with him that they offered to 
reward his labours with whatever he pleased to 
accept. He declined this generous offer, and 
the Amphictyonic council, which was composed 
of the representatives of the principal cities of 
Greece, ordered that Polygnotus should be 
maintained at the public expense wherever he 
went. Quintil. 12, c. 10.— Plin. 33 and 34.— 

Plut. in Cim.—Paus. 10, c. 25, &c. II. A 

statuary. Plin. 34, 

Polymnestor, I. A king of the Thracian 
Chersonesus, who married Ilione, the eldest of 
Priam's daughters. When the Greeks besieged 
Troy, Priam sent the greatest part of his trea- 
sures, together with Polydorus, the youngest of 
his sons, to Thrace, where they were intrusted 
to the care of Polymnestor. The Thracian 
monarch paid every attention to his brother-in- 
law, but when he was informed that Priam was 
dead, he murdered him to become master of the 
riches which were in his possession. At that 
time the Greeks were returning victorious from 
Troy, followed by all the captives, among whom 
was Hecuba, the mother of Polydorus. The 
fleet stopped on the coast of Thrace, where one 
of the female captives discovered on the shore 
the body of Polydorus, whom Polymnestor had 
thrown into the sea. The dreadful intelligence 
was immediately communicated to the mother, 
who did not doubt but Polymnestor was the 
cruel assassin. She resolved to revenge her 
son's death, and immediately she called out 
Polymnestor, as if wishing to impart to him 
a mattei' of the most important nature. The 
tyrant was drawn into the snare, and was no 
sooner introduced into the apartments of the 
Trojan princess, than the female captives rush- 
ed upon him and put out his eyes with their 
pins, while Hecuba murdered his two children 
who had accompanied him. According to Eu- 
ripides, the Greeks condemned Polymnestor to 
be banished into a distant island for his perfidy. 
Hyginus, however, relates the whole differently, 
and observes that when Polydorus was sent to 
Thrace, Ilione, his sister, took him instead of 
her son Deiphilus, who was of the same age, 
apprehensive of her husband's cruelty. The 
monarch was unacquainted with the imposition-, 
he looked upon Polydorus as his own son, and 
treated Deiphilus as the brother of Ilione. 
After the destruction of Troy, the conquerors, 



PO 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



"who wished the house and family of Priam 
to be totally extirpated, offered Eleclra, the 
daughter of Agamemnon to Polymnestor, if he 
would destroy Ilione and Polydorus. The mon- 
arch accepted the offer, and immediately de- 
spatched his own son Deiphilus, whom he had 
been taught to regard as Polydorus. Polydorus, 
who passed as the son of Polymnestor, consulted 
the oracle after the murder of Deiphilus, and 
when he was informed that his father was dead, 
his mother a captive in the hands of the Greeks, 
and his country in ruins, he communicated the 
answer of the god to Ilione, whom he had al- 
ways regarded as his mother. Ilione told him 
the measures she had pursued to save his life, 
and upon this he avenged the perfidy of Po- 
lymnestor b}'- putting out his eyes. Eurip. in 
Hecvb. — Hijgin. fab. 109, — Virg. jEn. 3, v. 45, 

&.c.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 430, &c. II. A young 

Milesian, who look a hare in running, and af- 
terwards obtained a prize at the Olympic games. 

POLYPERCHON, Or PoLYSPERCHON, OUC of the 

officers of Alexander. Antipater, at his death, 
appointed him governor of the kingdom of 
Macedonia in preference to his son Cassander. 
Polyperchon, though old, and a man of expe- 
rience, showed great ignorance in the adminis- 
tration of the government. He became cruel 
not only to the Greeks, or such as opposed his 
ambitious views, but even to the helpless and 
innocent children and friends of Alexander, to 
whom he was indebted for his rise and military 
reputation. He was killed in a battle 309 B.C. 
Curt. — Diod. 17, &c. — Justin. 13. 

PoLYSTRATUS, I. a Macedonian soldier, who 
found Darius after he had been stabbed by Bes- 
sus, and who gave him water to drink, and car- 
ried the last injunctions of the dying monarch 
to Alexander. Curt. 5, c. 13. II. An Epicu- 
rean philosopher, who flourished B. C. 238. 

PoLYXENA, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments. 
Achilles became enamoured of her, and soli- 
cited her hand ; and their marriage would have 
been consummated had not Hector, her brother, 
opposed it. Polyxena, according to some au- 
thors, accompanied her father when he went to 
the tent of Achilles to redeem the body of his 
son Hector. Some time after the Grecian hero 
came into the temple of Apollo to obtain a sight 
of the Trojan princess, but he was murdered 
there by Paris; and Polyxena, who had re- 
turned his affection, was so afflicted at his death, 
that she went and sacrificed herself on his tomb. 
Some, however, suppose that that sacrifice was 
not voluntary, but that the manes of Achilles 
appeared to the Greeks as they were going to 
embark, and demanded of them the sacrifice of 
Polyxena. The princess, who was in the num- 
ber of the captives, was upon this dragged to 
her lover's tomb, and there immolated by Ne- 
optolemus, the son of Achilles. Ovid. Met. 13, 
fab. 5, &c. — Dictys Cret. 3 and 5. — Virg. ^n. 
3, V. 321.— CaiwZZ. ep. 65.- Hygin. fab. 90. 

PoLYZELUS, a Greek poet of Rhodes. He 
had written a poem on the origin and birth of 
Bacchus, Venus, the Muses, &c. Some of his 
verses are quoted by Athenaeus. Hygin. P. A. 
2, c. 14. 

PoMPEiA, I. a daughter of Sextus Pompey, 
by Scribonia. She was promised to Marcellus, 
as a means of procuring a reconciliation be- 

Part II.— 4 B 



tween her father and the 
married Scribonius Libo. — 



triumvirs, but she 
—II. A daughter of 
Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar's third wife. 
She was accused of incontinence, because 
Clodius had introduced himself in women's 
clothes into the room where she was celebrating 
the mysteries of Cybele. Cassar repudiated her 
upon this accusation. Plut. 

PoMPEiA Lex, by Pompey the Great, de am- 
bitu, A. U. C. 701. It ordained that whatever 
person had been convicted of the crime of am- 
bitus, should be pardoned, provided he could 
impeach two others of ihe same crime, and oc- 
casion the condemnation of one of them. 

Another by the same, A. U. C. 701, which for- 
bade the use of laudatores in trials, or persons 
who gave a good character of the prisoner then 

impeached. Another by the same, A. U. C. 

683. It restored to the tribunes their original 
power and authority, of which they had been 

deprived by the Cornelian law. Another by 

the same, A. U. C. 701. It shortened the forms 
of trials, and enacted that the three first days 
of a trial should be employed in examining 
witnesses, and it allowed only one day to the par- 
ties to make their accusation and defence. The 
plaintiff was confined to two hours, and the de- 
fendant to three. This law had for its object 
the riots which happened from the quarrels of 

Clodius and Milo. Another by the same, A. 

U. C. 698, It required that the judges should 
be the richest of every century, contrary to the 
usual form. It was, however, requisite that they 
should be such as the Aurelian law prescribed. 

PoMPEiANUs, I. a Roman knight of Antioch, 
raised to ofi[ices of the greatest trust under the 
emperor Aurelius, whose daughter Lu cilia he 
married. He lived in great popularity at Rome, 
and retired from the court when Commodus 
succeeded to the imperial crown. He ought, 
according to Julian's opinion, to have been 
chosen and adopted as successor by M. Aure- 
lius. II. A general of Maxentius, killed by 

Constantine. 

PoMPEius, (CI.) I. a consul,who carried on war 
against the Numantines, and made a shameful 
treaty. He is the first of that noble family of 

whom mention is made. Flor. 2, c. 18. II. 

Cneus, a Roman general,who made war against 
the Marsi, and triumphed over the Piceni. He 
declared himself against Cinna and Marius, 
and supported the interest of the republic. He 
was surnamed Strabo, because he squinted. 
While he was marching against Marius, a 
plague broke out in his army, and raged with 
such violence that it carried away 11,000 men 
in a few days. He was killed by a flash of 
lightning; and as he had behaved with cruelty 
while in power, the people dragged his body 
through the streets of Rome with an iron hook, 
and threw it into the Tiber. Paterc. 2. — Plut. 

in Pomp. IIL Rufus, a Roman consul with 

Sylla. He was sent to finish the Marsian war, 
but the army mutinied at the instigation of 
Pompeius Strabo, whom he was to succeed in 
command, and he was assassinated by some of 

the soldiers. Appian. Civ. 1. IV. Cneus. 

surnamed Magnus, from the greatness of his 
exploits, was son of Pompeius Strabo and Lu- 
cilia. He early distinguished himself in the 
field of battle, and fought with success and 
bravery under his father, whose courage and 
561 



PO 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



military prudence he imitated. He began his 
career with great popularity, the beauty and 
elegance of his person gained him admirers, 
and by pleading at the bar, he displayed his 
eloquence, and received the most unbounded 
applause. In the disturbances which agitated 
Rome, by the ambition and avarice of Marius 
and Sylla, Pompey followed the interest of the 
latter, and by levying three legions for his ser- 
vice, he gained his friendship and his protec- 
tion. In the 26th year of his age he conquered 
Sicily, which was in the power of Marius and 
his adherents, and in 40 days he regained all 
the territories of Africa which had forsaken the 
interest of Sylla. This rapid success astonish- 
ed the Romans, and Sylla, who admired and 
dreaded the rising power of Pompey, recalled 
him to Rome. Pompey immediately obeyed, 
and the dictator, by saluting him with the ap- 
pellation of the Great, showed to the world what 
expectations he formed from the maturer age 
of his victorious lieutenant. This sounding title 
was not sufficient to gratify the ambition of 
Pompey ; he demanded a triumph, and when 
Sylla refused to grant it, he emphatically ex- 
claimed, that the sun shone with more ardour at 
his rising than at his setting. His assurance 
gained what petitions and entreaties could not 
obtain ; and he was the first Roman knight who, 
without an office under the appointment of the 
senate, marched in triumphal procession through 
the streets of Rome. He now appeared, not as 
a dependant, but as a rival of the dictator, and 
his opposition to his measures totally excluded 
him from his will. After the death of Sylla, 
Pompey supported himself against the remains 
of the Marian faction, which were headed by 
Lepidus. He defeated them, put an end to the 
war which the revolt of Sertorius in Spain had 
occasioned, and obtained a second triumph, 
though still a private citizen, about 73 years be- 
fore the Christian era. He was soon after made 
consul, and in that office he restored the tribu- 
nitial power to its original dignity, and in forty 
days removed the pirates from the Mediterra- 
nean, where they had reigned for many years, 
and by their continual plunder and audacity al- 
most destroyed the whole naval power of Rome. 
While he prosecuted the piratical war, Pompey 
was empowered to finish the war against two of 
the most powerful monarchs of Asia, Mithri- 
dates, king of Pontus, and Tigranes, king of 
Armenia. His operations against the king of 
Pontus were bold and vigorous, and in a gene- 
ral engagement the Romans so totally defeated 
the enemy, that the Asiatic monarch escaped 
with difficulty from the field of battle. Vid. 
MUhridaticum Bellum. Pompey did not lose 
sight of the advantages despatch would en- 
sure ; and he entered Armenia, received the 
submission of King Tigranes, and after he had 
conquered the Albanians and Iberians, visited 
countries which were scarce known to the Ro- 
mans, and, like a master of the world, disposed 
of kingdoms and provinces, and received 
homage from 12 crowned heads at once; he 
entered Syria, and pushed his conquests as far 
as the Red Sea. Part of Arabia was subdued, 
Judaea became a Roman province ; and when he 
had now nothing to fear from Mithridates, who 
had voluntarily destroyed himself, Pompey re- 
turned to Italy with all the pomp and majesty of 
562 



an eastern conqueror. The Romans dreaded 
his approach ; they knew his power and his in- 
fluence among his troops ; and they feared the 
return of another tyrannical Sylla. Pompey, 
however, banished their fears ; he disbanded his 
army, and the conqueror of Asia entered Rome 
like a private citizen. He was honoured with a 
triumph, and the Romans, for three successive 
days, gazed with astonishment on the riches and 
the spoils which their conquests had acquired 
in the east, and by which the revenues of the 
republic were raised from 50 to 85 millions of 
drachmae. Pompey soon after united his inter- 
est with that of Caesar and Crassus, and formed 
the first triumvirate, by solemnly swearing that 
their attachment should be mutual, their cause 
common, and their union permanent. The 
agreement was completed by the marriage of 
Pompey with Julia, the daughter of Caesar, and 
the provinces of the republic were arbitrarily di- 
vided among the triumvirs. Pompey was allot- 
ted Africa and the two Spains, while Crassus 
repaired to Syria, to add Parthia to the empire 
of Rome, and Cassar remained satisfied with the 
rest, and the continuation of his power as gov- 
ernor of Gaul for five additional years. But 
this powerful confederacy was soon broken ; the 
sudden death of Julia, and the total defeat of 
Crassus in Syria, shattered the political bands 
which held the jarring interest of Caesar and 
Pompey united. Pompey dreaded his father-in- 
law, and yet he affected to despise him ; and by 
suffering anarchy to prevail in Rome, he con- 
vinced his fellow-citizens of the necessity of in- 
vesting him with a dictatorial power. But while 
the conqueror of Mithridates was as a sovereign 
at Rome, the adherents of Caesar were not si- 
lent. They demanded that either the consul- 
ship should be given to him, or that he should 
be continued in the government of Gaul. This 
just demand would perhaps have been granted, 
but Cato opposed it ; and when Pompey sent 
for the two legions which he had lent to Caesar, 
the breach became more wide, and a civil war 
inevitable. Caesar was privately preparing to 
meet his enemies, while Pompey remained in- 
dolent, and gratified his pride in seeing all Italy 
celebrate his recovery from an indisposition by 
universal rejoicings. Caesar was now near 
Rome ; and Pompey, who had once boasted 
that he could raise legions to his assistance by 
stamping on the ground with his foot, fled from 
the city with precipitation, and retired to Brun- 
dusium with the consuls and part of the sena- 
tors. His cause, indeed, was popular ; he had 
been invested with discretionary power, the 
senate had entreated him to protect the republic 
against the usurpation and tyranny of Caesar; 
and Cato, by embracing his cause, and appear- 
ing in his camp, seemed to indicate that he was 
the friend of the republic and the assertor or 
Roman liberty and independence. But when 
Caesar had gained to his cause the western parts 
of the Roman empire, he crossed Italy and ar- 
rived in Greece, where Pompey had retired, 
supported by all the powers of the east, the 
wishes of the republican Romans, and by a 
numerous and well-disciplined army. In the 
plains of Pharsalia the two armies engaged. 
The cavalry of Pompey soon" gave way, and 
the general retired to his camp, overwhelmed 
with grief and shame. But here there was no 



PO^ 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



safety ; the conqueror pushed on every side, and 
Pompey disguised himself, and fled to the sea- 
coast, whence he passed to Egypt, where he 
hoped to find a safe asylum, till better and more 
favourable moments returned, in the court of 
Ptolemy, a prince whom he had once protected 
and ensured on his throne. A boat was sent to 
fetch him on shore, and the Roman general left 
his galley, after an affectionate and tender part- 
ing with his wife Cornelia. I'he Egyptian 
sailors sat in sullen silence in the boat, and 
when Pompey disembarked, Achillas and Sep- 
timius assassinated him. His wife, who had 
followed him with her eyes to the shore, was a 
spectator of the bloody scene, and she hastened 
away from the bay of Alexandria, not to share 
his miserable fate. He died B. C. 48, in the 
58th or 59th year of his age, the day after his 
birthday. His head was cut off and sent to 
Caesar, who turned away from it with horror, 
and shed a flood of tears. The body was left 
for some time naked on the seashore, till the 
humanity of Philip, one of his freedmen, an 
old soldier who had once followed his standard 
to victory, raised a burning pile, and deposited 
his ashes under a mound of earth. Caesar 
erected a monument on his remains ; and the 
emperor Adrian, two centuries after, when he 
visited Egypt, ordered it to be repaired at his 
own expense, and paid particular honour to the 
memory of a great and good man. The char- 
acter of Pompey is that of an intriguing and 
artful general ; yet amidst all his dissimulation, 
we perceive many other striking features. 
Pompey was kind and clement to the conquer- 
ed, and generous to his captives ; and he buried, 
at his own expense, Mithridates, with all the 
pomp and the solemnity which the greatness of 
his power an d the extent of his dominions seemed 
to claim. He lived with great temperance and 
moderation ; and his house was small, and not 
ostentatiously furnished. He destroyed, with 
great prudence, the papers which were found in 
the camp of Sertorius, lest mischievous curios- 
ity should find cause to accuse the innocent, 
and to meditate their destruction. With great 
disinterestedness he refused the presents which 
princes and raonarchs offered to him, and he 
ordered them to be added to the public revenue. 
He might have seen a better fate, and termina- 
ted his days with more glory, if he ' had not 
acted with such imprudence when the flames 
of civil war were first kindled ; and he reflected 
with remorse, after the battle of Pharsalia, upon 
his want of usual sagacity, and military pru- 
dence, in fighting at such a distance from the 
sea, and in leaving the fortified places of Dyr- 
rachium to meet in the open plain an enemy, 
without provisions, without friends, and with- 
out resources. Pompey married four different 
times. His first matrimonial connexion was 
with Antistia, the daughter of the praetor An- 
listius, whom he divorced with great reluct- 
ance to marry iEmylia, the daughter-in-law 
of Sylla. vErnylia died in childbed ; and 
Pompey's marriage with Julia, the daughter of 
Caesar, was a step more of policy than affec- 
tion. Yet Julia loved Pompey with great ten- 
derness, and her death in childbed was the 
signal of war between her husband and father. 
He afterwards married Cornelia, the daughter 
of Martellus Scipio, a woman commended for 



her virtues, beauty, and accomplishments. 
Plut. in vita. — Flor. 4. — Pater c. 2, c. 29. — 
Dio. Cass. — LALcan. — Appian. — Cas. Bell. Civ. 
— Cic. Oral. 68, ad Attic. 7, ep. 25, ad Jam. 13, 

ep. 19. — Eutrop. The two sons of Pompey 

the Great, called Cneuis and Sextus, were 
masters of a powerful army when the death of 
their father was known. They prepared to op- 
pose the conqueror, but Cassar pursued them 
with his usual vigour and success, and at the 
battle of Munda they were defeated, and Cneius 
was left among the slain. Sextus fled to Sicily, 
where he for some time supported himself; but 
the murder of Caesar gave rise to new events, 
and if Pompey had been as prudent and as 
sagacious as his father, he might have become, 
perhaps, as great £md as formidable. He treat- 
ed with the triumvirs as an equal, and when 
Augustus and Antony had the imprudence to 
trust themselves without arms and without at- 
tendants in his ship, Pompey, by following the 
advice of his friend Menas, who wished him to 
cut off the illustrious persons who were masters 
of the world, and now in his power, might have 
made himself as absolute as Caesar; but he re- 
fused, and observed it was unbecoming the son 
of Pompey to act with such duplicity. This 
friendly meeting of Pompey with two of the 
triumvirs was not productive of advantages to 
him, he wished to have no superior, and hos- 
tilities began. Pompey was at the head of 350 
ships, and appeared so formidable to his ene- 
mies, and so confident of success in himself, 
that he called himself the son of Neptune and 
the lord of the sea. He was, however, soon de- 
feated in a naval engagement by Octavius and 
Lepidus; andof all his numeroils fleet, only 17 
sail accompanied his flight to Asia. Here for 
a moment he raised seditions, but Antony or- 
dered him to t?e seized and put to death, about 
35 years before the Christian era. Plut. in 
Anton., &c. — Paterc 2, c.55, &c. — Flor. 4, c. 2, 

&c. Trogus. Vid. Tragus. Sextus Fes- 

tus, a Latin grammarian, of whose treatise de 
verborum significatioic, the best edition is in 4to. 
Amst. 1699. 

PoMPiLius NuMA, I. the second king of Rome. 
Vid. Numa. The descendants of the monarch 
were called Pompilius Sanguis, an expression 
applied by Horace to the Pisos. Art. Poet. v. 

292. II. Andronicus, a grammarian of Syria, 

who opened a school at Rome, and had Cicero 
and Caesar among his pupils. Sueton. 

PoMPiiJA, a daughter of Numa Pompilius. 
She married Numa Martins, by whom she had 
Ancus Martius, the fourth king of Rome. 

PoMPoMA, the wife of Cl. Cicero, sister to 
Pomponius Atticus. She punished with the 
greatest cruelty Philologus, the slave who had 
betrayed her husband to Antony, and she or- 
dered him to cut his flesh by piecemeal, and 
afterwards to boil it and eat it in her presence, 

PoMPoNros, I, the father of Numa, advised 
his son to accept the regal dignity which e 

Roman ambassadors offered to him. II. 

Flaccus, a man appointed governor of Moesia 
and Syria by Tiberius, because he had con- 
tinued drinking and eating with him for two 
days without intermission. Suet, in Theb. 42. 
III. A tribune of the people in the time of 



Servilius Ahala, the consul. IV. Mela. Vid. 

Mela. V. A Roman, who accused Manlius 

563 



vo 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



the dictator of cruelty. He triumphed over 
Sardinia, of which he was made governor. He 
escaped from Rome and the tyranny of the tri- 
umvirs, by assuming the habit of a praetor, and 
by travelling with his servants disguised in the 

dress of lictors with their fasces. VI. Se- 

cundus, an officer in Germany in the age of 
Nero. He was honoured with a triumph for a 
victory over the barbarians of Germany. He 
wrote some poems, greatly celebrated by the 
ancients for their beauty and elegance. They 
are lost. 

PoNTicus, a poet of Rome, contemporary 
with Propertius, by whom he is compared to 
Homer. He wrote an account of the Theban 
war in heroic verse. Propert. 1, el. 7. 

PoNTiMUs, I. a friend of Cicero. II. A 

tribune of the people, who refused to rise up 
when Cassar passed in triumphal procession. 
He was one of Caesar's murderers, and was 
killed at the battle of Mutina. Sueton. in 
CcEsar. 78. — Cic. 10, ad fam. 

Pontius Auftdianus, I. a Roman citizen, 
who, upon hearing that violence had been of- 
fered to his daughter, punished her and her 

ravisher with death. Val. Max. 6, c. 1. II. 

Herennius, a general of the Samnites, who 
surrounded the Roman army under the consuls 
T. Veturius and P. Poslhumius. As there was 
no possibility of escaping for the Romans, 
Pontius consulted his father what he could do 
with an army that were prisoners in his hands. 
The old man advised him either to let them go 
untouched, or put them all to the sword. Pon- 
tius rejected his father's advice, and spared the 
lives of the enemy, after he had obliged them 
to pass under the yoke, with the greatest igno- 
miny. He was afterwards conquered, and 
obliged in his turn to pass under the yoke. 
Fabius Maximus defeated him, when he ap- 
peared again at the head of another army, and 
he was afterwards shamefully put to death by 
the Romans, after he had adorned the triumph 
of the conqueror. Liv. 9, c. 1, &c. 

PopiLius, (M.) I. a consul who was informed, 
as he was offering a sacrifice, that a sedition was 
raised in the city against the senate. Upon 
this he immediately went to the populace in his 
sacerdotal robes, and quieted the multitude with 
a speech. He lived about the year of Rome 

404. Liv. 9, c. ^\.— Val. Max. 7, c. 8. II. 

L3Bnas,a Roman ambassador to Antiochus, king 
of Syria. He was commissioned to order the 
monarch to abstain from hostilities against Pto- 
lemy, king of Egypt, who was an ally of Rome. 
Antiochus wished to evade him by his answers, 
but Popilius, with a stick which he had in his 
hand, made a circle round him on the sand, and 
bade him, in the name of the Roman senate and 
people, not to go beyond it before he spoke de- 
cisively. This boldness intimidated Antiochus ; 
he withdrew his garrisons from Egypt, and no 
longer meditated a war against Ptolemy. Val. 
Max. 6, c. 4. — Liv. 45, c. 12 — Paterc. 1. c. 10. 

III. A tribune of the people who murdered 

Cicero, to whose eloquence he was indebted 
for his life when he was accused of parricide. 
Plut. 

PoppjEA Sabina, a celebrated Roman matron, 
daughter of Titus Ollius. She married a Ro- 
man knight called Rufus Crispinus, by whom 
she had a son. Her personal charms, and the 
564 



elegance of her figure, captivated Otho, who 
was then one of Nero's favourites. He carried 
her away and married her ; but Nero, who had 
seen her, and had often heard her accomplish- 
ments extolled, soon deprived him of her com- 
pany, and sent him out of Italy on pretence of 
presiding over one of the Roman provinces. 
After he had taken this step, Nero repudiated 
his wife Octavia, on pretence of barrenness, and 
married Poppsea. She died of a blow which 
she received from his foot when many months 
advanced in her pregnancy, about the 65ih year 
of the Christian era. Her funecal was perform- 
ed with great pomp and solemnity, and statues 
were raised to her memory. It is said that she 
was so anxious to preserve her beauty and the 
elegance of her person, that 500 asses were kept 
on purpose to afford her milk, in which she used 
daily to bathe. Even in her banishment she was 
attended by 50 of these animals for the same 
purpose, and from their milk she invented a kind 
of ointment, or pomatum, to preserve beauty, 
called poppcBanum from her. Plhi. 11, c. 41. — 
Dio. 62. — Jiiv. 6. — Siieton. in Ner. d^ Oth. — 
Taci^. 13 and 14.. 

PoRCiA, a daughter of Cato of Utica, who 
married Bibulus, and, after his death, Brutus. 
She was remarkable for her prudence, philos- 
ophy, courage, and conjugal tenderness. She 
gave herself a heavy wound in the thigh, to see 
with what fortitude she could bear pain ; and 
when her husband asked her the reason of it, 
she said that she wished to try whether she had 
courage enough to share not only his bed, but to 
partake of his most hidden secrets. Brutus was 
astonished at her constancy, and no longer de- 
tained from her knowledge the conspiracy which 
he and many other illustrious Romans had 
formed against J. Caesar. Porcia wished them 
success, and though she betrayed fear, and fell 
into a swoon the day that her husband was 
gone to assassinate the dictator, yet she was 
faithful to her promise, and dropped nothing 
which might affect the situation of the conspira- 
tors. When Brutus was dead, she refused to 
survive him, and attempted to end her life as a 
daughter of Cato. Her friends attempted to 
terrify her ; but when she saw that every weapon 
was removed from her reach, she swallowed 
burning coals, and died, about 42 years before the 
Christian era. Valerius Maximus says that she 
was acquainted with her husband's conspiracy 
against Csesar when she gave herself the wound. 
Val. Max. 3, c. 2. 1. 4, c. 6.— Plut. in Brut. &c. 

PoRciA Lex, de civitate, by M. Porcius the 
tribune, A. U. C. 453. It ordained that no 
magistrate should punish with death, or scourge 
with rods, a Roman citizen when condemned, 
but only permit him to go into exile. Sallust. 
in Cat. — Liv. 10. — Cic. pro Rab. 

PoRCiNA, a surname of the orator M. JE. 
Lepidus, who lived a Utile before Cicero's age, 
and was distinguished for his abilities. Cic. ad 
Her. 4, c. 5. 

PoRcius Latro, (M.) I. a celebrated orator, 
who killed himself when labouring under a 

quartan ague, A. U. C. 750. II. Licinius, a 

Latin poet, during the time of the third Punic 
war, commended for the elegance, the graceful 
ease, and happy wit of his epigrams. 

PoREDORAX, one of the 40 Gauls whom Mith- 
ridates ordered to be put to death, and to re- 



IPO 



HISTORY, &c. 



PO 



main unburied for conspiring against him. His 
mistress, at Pergaraus, buried him against the 
orders of the monarch. Plut. de Vert. Mid. 

PoRPHTRius, a Platonic philosopher of Tyre. 
He studied eloquence at Athens, under Longi- 
nus, and afterwards retired to Rome, where he 
perfected himself under Plotinus. He express- 
ed his sentiments with elegance and dignity ; 
and while other philosophers studied obscurity 
in their language, his style was remarkable for 
its simplicity and grace. The books that he 
wrote were numerous, and some of his smaller 
treatises are still extant. His much celebrated 
work, which is now lost, was against the reli- 
gion of Christ ; and in this theological contest 
he appeared so formidable, that most of the fa- 
thers of the church have been employed in con- 
futing his arguments and developing the false- 
hood of his assertions. Porphyry resided for 
some time in Sicilv, and died at the advanced 
a^e of 71, A. D. 304. The best edition of his 
life of Pythagoras is that of Kuster, 4to. Amst. 
1707, that of his treatise De abstifientia, is De 
Rhoer. Traj. ad Rhen. 8vo. 1767, and that De 
Antra Nympharum is 8vo. Traj. ad Rhen. 1765, 

PoRSENNA, or PoRSENA, a king of Etruria, 
■who declared war against the Romans because 
they refused to restore Tarquin to his throne 
and to his royal privileges. He was at first suc- 
cessful, the Romans were defeated, and Porsen- 
na would have entered the gates of Rome, had 
not Codes stood at the head of a bridge and 
supported the fury of the whole Etrurian army, 
while his companions behind were cutting off 
the communication with the opposite shore. 
This act of bravery astonished Porsenna ; but 
w^hen he had seen Mutius Scsevola enter his 
camp with an intention to murder him, and 
when he had seen him burn his hand without 
emotion, he made peace with the Romans, and 
never after supported the claims of Tarquin. 
The generosity of Porsenna's behaviour to the 
captives was admired by the Romans, and to 
reward his humanity, they raised a brazen 
statue to his honour. Liv. 2, c. 9, &c. — Plut. 
in Public. — Flor. 1, c, 10. — Horat. ep. 16. — 
Virg. jEn. 8, v. 646. 

PoRTUMNALiA, festivals of Portumnus at 
Rome, celebrated on the 17th of August, in a 
very solemn and lugubrious manner, on the 
borders of the Tiber. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 547. — 
Varro de L. L. 5, c. 3. 

PoRUs, a king of India. When Alexander 
invaded Asia, he marched a large army to the 
banks of the Hydaspes. The stream of the 
river was rapid, but Alexander crossed it in the 
obscurity of the night, and defeated one of the 
sons of the Indian monarch. Porus himself re- 
newed the battle, but the valour of the Macedo- 
nians prevailed, and the Indian prince retired, 
covered with wounds, on the back of one of his 
elephants. Alexander sent one of the kings of 
India to demand him to surrender, but Porus, 
killed the messenger, exclaiming, Is not this the 
voice of the wretch who has abandoned his 
country 1 and when he at last was prevailed 
upon to come before the conqueror, he approach- 
ed him as an equal. Alexander demanded of 
him how he wished to be treated ; Like a king., 
replied the Indian monarch. This magnani- 
mous answer so pleased the Macedonian con- 
queror, that he not only restored him his do- 



minions, but he incrcELsed the kingdom by the 
conquest of new provinces ; and Porus, in ac- 
knowledgment of such generosity and benevo- 
lence, became one of the most faithful and 
attached friends of Alexander. Plut. in Alex. 
—Philostr. 2, c. \0.—Curt. 8, c. 8, &c.— Claud. 
Cons. Honor. 4. 

PosiDEs, a eunuch and freedman of the 
emperor Claudius, who rose to honours by the 
favour of his master. Juv. 14, v. 94. 

Posmippus, the last poet of the new comedy, 
was a Macedonian, and born at Cassandria. 
He did not begin to exhibit till three years af- 
ter Menander's death, B. C. 289. He attained 
great fame by the excellence of his dramatic 
compositions, of which he published upwards 
of fifty. 

PosiDONius, a philosopher of Apamea, He 
lived at Rhodes for some time, and afterwards 
came to Rome, where, after cultivating the 
friendship of Pompey Eind Cicero, he died in 
his 84th year. He wrote a treatise on the na- 
ture of the gods, and also attempted to measure 
the circumference of the earth; he accounted 
for the tides from the motion of the moon, and 
calculated the height of the atmosphere to be 
400 stadia, nearly agreeing to the ideas of the 
moderns. Cic. Tusc. 5, c, 37. — Strab. 14. 

PosTHUMUis Albinos, I. a man who suffered 
himself to be bribed by Jugurtha, against whom 

he had been sent with an army. XL A writer 

at Rome whom Cato ridiculed for composing a 
history in Greek, and afterwards offering apolo- 
gies for the inaccuracy and inelegance of his ex- 
pressions. III. Tubero, a master of horse to 

the dictator iEmilius Mamercus. He was him- 
self made dictator in the war which the Romans 
waged against the Volsci, and he punished his 
son with death for fighting against his orders, 

A. U. C. 312. Liv. 4, c. 23. IV. Spurius, a 

consul sent against the Samnites. He was taken 
in an ambush by Pontius, the enemy's general, 
and obliged to pass under the yoke with all his 
army. He saved his life by a shameful treaty, 
and when he returned to Rome, he persuaded 
the Romans not to reckon as valid the engage- 
ment he had made with the enemy, as it was 
without their advice. He was given up to the 
enemy because he could not perform his engage- 
ment ; but he was released by Pontius for his 

generous and patriotic behaviour. V. A 

general who defeated the Sabines, and who was 

the first who obtained an ovation. VI. A 

general who conquered the JEqui, and who was 
stoned by the army because he refused to divide 

the promised spoils. Flor. 22. VII. Lucius, 

a Roman consul, who was defeated by the Boii, 
He was left amons: the slain, and his head was 
cut off from his body, and carried in triumph by 
the barbarians into their temples, where they 
made with a scull a sacred vessel to offer liba- 
tions to their gods. VIII. Marcus Crassus 

Latianus,an officer proclaimed emperor in Gaul, 
A. D. 260. He reigned with great popularity, 
and gained the affection of his subjects by his 
humanity and moderation. He took his son of 
the same name as a colleague on the throne. 
They were both assassinated bv their soldiers, 
after a reign of six years. IX. Albus, a Ro- 
man decemvir, sent to Athens to collect the 
most salutary laws of Solon, &c. Liv. 3, c. 31. 

PoTHiNus, a eunuch, tutor of Ptolemy, king 
565 



PR 



HISTORY, &c. 



PR 



of Egypt. He advised the monarch to murder 
Pompey, when he claimed his protection after 
the battle of Pharsalia. He stirred up commo- 
tions in Alexandria when Caesar came there, 
upon which the conqueror ordered him to be 
put to death. Lucan. 8, v. 483, 1. 10, v. 95. 

Pr^tor, one of the chief magistrates at Rome. 
The office of praetor was first instituted A. U. 
C. 388, by the senators, who wished by some 
new honour to compensate for the loss of the 
consulship, of which the plebeians had claimed 
a share. The prastor received his name aprae- 
undo. Only one was originally elected, and 
another A. U. C. 501. One of them was totally 
employed in administering justice among the 
citizens, whence he was called Tpr^tortirbanus; 
and the other appointed judge in all causes 
which related to foreigners. In the year of 
Rome 520, two more praetors were created to as- 
sist the consul in the government of the prov- 
inces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been 
lately conquered, and two more when Spain was 
reduced into the form of a Roman province, A. 
U, C. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, 
and Julius Caesar increased the number to 10, 
and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate 
to 64. After this their numbers fluctuated, be- 
ing sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, in the decline 
of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their 
numbers were reduced to three. In his public 
capacity the praetor adminfistered justice, pro- 
tected the rights of widows and orphans, pre- 
sided at the celebration of public festivals, and 
in the absence of the consul assembled or pro- 
rogued the senate as he pleased. He also ex- 
hibited shows to the people ; and in the festi- 
vals of the Bona Dea, where no males were 
permitted to appear, his wife presided over the 
rest of the Roman matrons. Feasts were an- 
nounced and proclaimed by him, and he had the 
power to make and repeal laws, if it met with 
the approbation of the senate and people. The 
quaestors were subject to him, and in the absence 
of the consuls, he appeared at the head of the ar- 
mies, and in the city he kept a register of all the 
freedmen of Rome, with the reasons for which 
they had received their freedom. In the prov- 
inces the praetors appeared with great pomp, six 
lictors with the fasces walked before them; and 
when the empire was increased by conquests, 
they divided, like the consuls, their government, 
and provinces were given them by lot. When 
the year of their praetorship was elapsed, they 
were called proprators if they still continued at 
the head of the province. At Rome the praetors 
appeared also with much pomp, two lictors pre- 
ceded them, they wore the prafexta, or the white 
robe with purple borders; they sat in curule 
chairs ; and their tribunal was distinguished by 
a sword and a spear while they administered 
justice. The tribunal was called prcBtorium. 
When they rode they appeared on white horses 
at Rome, as a mark of distinction. The praetor 
who appointed judges to try foreign causes, was 
called prcetor peregrinus. The praetors Cereales, 
appointed by Julius Caesar, were employed in 
providing corn and provisions for the city. They 
were on that account often called frumentarii. 

Prjetoritjs, a name ironically applied to A. 
Sempronius Rufus, because he was disappoint- 
ed in his solicitations for the praetorship, as be- 
ing too dissolute and luxurious in his manners 
566. 



He was the first who had a stork brought to his 
table. Horat. 2, Sat. 2, v. 50. 

Pratinas, a Greek poet of Phlius, contem- 
porary with JEschylus. He was the first among 
the Greeks who composed satires, which were 
represented as farces. Borrowing from tra- 
gedy its external form and mythological ma- 
terials, Pratinas added a chorus of Saiyrs, with 
their lively songs, gestures, and movements. 
This new composition was called the Satyric 
Drama. The novelty was exceedingly well 
timed. The innovations of Thespis and Phryni- 
chiis had banished the satyric chorus wiih its 
wild pranks and merriment, to the great dis- 
pleasure of the commonalty ; who retained a 
strong regret for their old amusement amidst the 
new and more refined exhibitions. The saty- 
ric drama gave them back under an improved 
form the favourite diversion of former times : 
and was received with such universal applause, 
that the tragic poets, in compliance with the 
humour of their auditors, deemed it advisable 
to combine this ludicrous exhibition with their 
graver pieces. One satyric drama was added 
to each tragic trilogy, as long as the custom of 
contending with a series of plays, and not with 
single pieces, continued, ^schyius; Sophocles, 
and Euripides were all distinguished satyric 
composers ; and in the Cyclops of the latter we 
possess the only extant specimen of this singular 
composition. 

Praxagoras, an Athenian writer, who pub- 
lished a history of the kings of his own coun- 
try. He was then only 19 years old, and three 
years after, he wrote the life of Constantine the 
Great. He had also written the life of Alex- 
ander, all now lost. 

Praxiteles, a famous sculptor of Magna 
Grfficia, who flourished about 324 years before 
the Christian era. He chiefly worked on Parian 
marble, on account of its beautiful whiteness. 
The most famous of his pieces was a Cupid, 
which he gave to Phryne. This celebrated 
courtesan, who wished to have the best of all 
the statues of Praxiteles, and who could not 
depend upon her own judgment in the choice, 
alarmed the sculptor by telling him his house 
was on fire. Praxiteles upon this showed his 
eagerness to save his Cupid from the flames 
above all his other pieces ; but Phryne restrain- 
ed his fears, and by discovering her artifice, ob- 
tained the favourite statue. The sculptor em- 
ployed his chisel in making a statue of this 
beautiful courtesan, which was dedicated in the 
temple of Delphi, and placed between the sta- 
tues of Archidamus, king of Sparta, and Philip, 
king of Macedon. He also made a statue of 
Venus, at the request of the people of Cos, and 
gave them the choice of the goddess, either 
naked or veiled. The former was superior to 
the other in beauty and perfection, but the in- 
habitants of Cos preferred the latter. The Cni- 
dians, who did not wish to patronise modesty 
and decorum with the same eagerness as the 
people of Cos, bought the naked Venus ; and 
it was so universally esteemed, that Nicomedes, 
king of Bithynia, oflered the Cnidians to pay 
an enormous debt, under which they laboured, 
if they would ^vre him their favourite statue. 
This offer was not accepted. The famous Cu- 
pid was bought of the Thespians by Caius Cae-* 
sar, and carried to Rome; but Claudius restored 



PR 



HISTORY, «&c. 



PR 



It to them, and Nero afterwards obtained pos- 
session of it. Paus. 1, c. 40, 1. 8, c. 9. — Plin. 7, 
c. 34 and 36. 

Prexaspes, a Persian, who put Smerdis to 
death by order of king Cambyses. Herodot. 3, 
c. 30. 

Priamus, ihe last king of Troy, was son of 
Laomedon, by Strymo, called Placia by some. 
When Hercules took the city of Troy ( Vid. 
Lao'medaw) Priam was in the number of his 
prisoners, but his sister Hesione redeemed him 
from captivity, and he exchanged his original 
name of Podarces for that oi Priam, which sig- 
nifies bought or ransomed. Vid. Pordarces. 
He was also placed on his father's throne by 
Hercules, and he employed himself with well- 
directed diligence in repairing, fortifying, and 
embellishing the city of Troy. He had mar- 
ried, by his father's orders, Arisba, whom he di- 
vorced for Hecuba, the daughter of Dimas, or 
Cisseus, a neighbouring prince. He had by 
Hecuba, 17 children, according to Cicero, or ac- 
cording to Homer, 19; the most celebrated of 
whom are Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, 
Troilus, Creusa, Polyxena, and Cassandra. 
Besides these he had many others by concu- 
bines. After he had reigned for some time in 
the greatest prosperity, Priam expressed a de- 
sire to recover his sister Hesione, whom Her- 
cules had carried into Greece, and married to 
Telamon his friend. To carry this plan into 
execution, Priam manned a fleet, of which he 
gave the command to his son, Paris, with orders 
to bring back Hesione. Paris neglected in 
some measure his father's injunctions, and car- 
ried away Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of 
Sparta, during the absence of her husband. 
Priam beheld this with satisfaction, and he 
countenanced his son by receiving in his palace 
the wife of the king of Sparta. This rape 
. kindled the flames of war ; Troy was soon be- 
sieged, and Priam had the misfortune to see the 
greatest part of his children massacred by the 
enemy. Some time sifter, Troy was betrayed 
into the hands of the Greeks by Antenor and 
jEneas, and Priam upon this resolved to die in 
the defence of his country. He put on his 
armour and advanced to meet the Greeks ; but 
Hecuba, by her tears and entreaties, detained 
him near an altar of Jupiter, whither she had 
fled for protection. While Priam yielded to the 
prayers of his wife, Polites, one of his sons, fled 
also to the altar before Neoptolemus, who pur- 
sued him with fury. Polites, wounded and over- 
come, fell dead at the feet of his parents, and 
the aged father, fired with indignation, vented 
the most bitter invectives against the Greek, 
who paid no regard to the sanctity of altars and 
temples, and, raising his spear, darted it upon 
him. The spear, hurled by the feeble hand of 
Priam, touched the buckler of Neoptolemus and 
fell to the ground. This irritated the son of 
Achilles, he seized thegray hairs of Priam, and 
without compassion or reverence for the sanc- 
tity of the place, he plunged his dagger into his 
breast. His head was cut off, and the muti- 
lated body was left among the heaps of slain. 
DiclA/s Cret. 1, &c. — Dares Phryg. — Herodot. 2, 
c. 120.— Paws. 10, c. Tl.— Homer. 11. 22, &c.— 
Eurip.inTroad. — Cir. Tusc.l, c.35. — Q.Smyrn. 
l.— Virg. Mn. 2, v. .507, &.c.—Horat. Od. 10, 
V. 14.— j^T/o^m. fab. 110.— Q. C«Zflier. 15, v. 226. 



Priscus Servilius, ( Vid. Tarquinius,) a go- 
vernor of Syria, brother to the emperor Philip. 
He proclaimed himself emperor in Macedonia 
when he was informed of his brother's death, 
but he was soon after conquered and put to 
death by Decius, Philip's murderer. 

Proba, I. the wife of the emperor Probus. 
II. A woman who opened the gates of 



Rome to the Goths. 
- Probus, I. (M.AureliusSeverus,) a native of 
Sirmium in Pannonia. His father was origi- 
nally a gardener, who, by entering the army, 
rose to the rank of a military tribune. His son 
obtained the same oflice in the 22d year of his 
age, and he distinguished himself so much by 
his probiiy, his valour, his intrepidity, modera- 
tion and clemency, that, at the death of the em- 
peror Tacitus, he was invested v/ith the impe- 
rial purple by the voluntary and uninfluenced 
choice of his soldiers. His election was univer- 
sally approved by the Roman senate and the 
people ; and Probius, strengthened on his throne 
by the affection and attachment of his subjects, 
marched against the enemies of Rome in Gaul 
and Germany. Several battles were fought, 
and after he had left 400,000 barbarians dead 
in the field, Probus turned his arms against the 
Sarmatians. The same success attended him ; 
and the military character of the emperor was so 
well established, that the king of Persia sued 
for peace by his ambassadors, and attempted to 
buy the conqueror's favours by the most splen- 
did presents. Probus was then feasting upon 
the most common food when the ambassadors 
were introduced ; but, without even casting his 
eyes upon them, he said, that if their master 
did not give proper satisfaction to the Romans, 
he would lay his territories desolate, and as 
naked as the crown of his head. As he spoke 
the emperor took off" his cap, and showed the 
baldness of his head to the ambassadors. His 
conditions were gladly accepted by the Persian 
monarch, and Probus retired to Rome to con- 
vince his subjects of the greatness of his con- 
quests, and to claim from them the applause 
which their ancestors had given to the conqueror 
of Macedonia, or the destroyer of Carthage, as 
he passed along the streets of Rome. He at- 
tempted to drain the waters which were stag- 
nated in the neighbourhood of Sirmium, by 
conveying them to the sea by artificial canals. 
His armies were employed in this laborious un- 
dertaking ; but as they were unaccustomed to 
such toils, they soon mutinied, and fell upon the 
emperor as he was passing into one of the towns 
of Illyricum. He fled into an iron tow^er, which 
he himself had built to observe the marshes, but 
as he was alone and without arms, he was soon 
overpowered and murdered in the 50th year of 
his age, after a reign of six years and four 
months, on the second of November, after 
Christ 282. The new^s of his death w^as re- 
ceived with the greatest consternation; not only 
his friends, but his very enemies deplored his 
fate: and even the army which had been con- 
cerned in his fall erected a monument over his 
body, and placed upon it this inscription ; — Hie 
Probus imperator, vere probus^ situs est, victor 
omnium gentium barbararum, victor etiam ty- 
rannorum,. He was then preparing in a few 
days to march against the Persians that had 
revolted, and his victories there might have 
567 



PR 



HISTORY, &c. 



PR 



been as great as those he obtained in the two 
other quarters of the globe. He was succeeded 
by Carus, and his family, who had shared his 
greatness, immediately retired from Rome, not 
to become objects either of private or public 

malice. Zos, — Proh. — Saturn. 11. iEmilius, 

a grammarian in the age of Theodosius. The 
lives of excellent commanders, written by Cor- 
nelius Nepos, have been falsely attributed to 
him by some authors. 

Procles, a Carthaginian writer, son of Eu- 
crates. He wrote some historical treatises, of 
whichPausanias has preserved some fragments. 
Paus. 4, c. 35. 

PROCLiDis, the descendants of Procles, who 
sat on the throne of Sparta together with the 
Eurysthenidae. Vid. Lacedamon and Eurys- 
thenes. 

Procopius, I. a celebrated officer of a noble 
family in Cilicia, related to the emperor Julian, 
with whom he lived in great intimacy. He 
was universally admired for his integrity, but 
he was not destitute of ambition or pride. 
After he had signalized himself under Julian 
and his successor, he retired from the Roman 
provinces among the barbarians in the Thra- 
cian Chersonesus, and some time after he sud- 
denly made his appearance at Constantinople, 
when the emperor Valens had marched into 
the east, and he proclaimed himself master of 
the eastern empire. His usurpation was univer- 
sally acknowledged, and his victories were so 
rapid, that Valens would have resigned the im- 
perial purple had not his friends intervened. 
But now fortune changed, Procopius was de- 
feated at Phrygia, and abandoned by his army. 
His head was cut off, and carried to Valenti- 
nian, in Gaul, A. D. 366. Procopius was slain 
in the 42d year of his age, and he had usurped 
the title of emperor for about eight months. 

Ammian. Marcel. 25 and 26. II. A Greek 

historian of Csesarea in Palestine, secretary to 
the celebrated Belisarius, A. D. 534. He wrote 
the history of the reign of Justinian, and greatly 
celebrated the hero, whose favours and patron- 
age he enjoyed. This history is divided into 
eight books, two of which give an account of 
the Persian war, two of the Vandals, and four 
of the Goths, to the year 553, which was after- 
wards continued in five books by Agathias till 
559. Of this performance the character is 
great, though perhaps the historian is often too 
severe on the emperor. The works of Proco- 
pius were edited in 2 vols, folio, Paris, 1662. 

Proculeius, a Roman knight very intimate 
with Augustus. He is celebrated for his hu- 
manity and fraternal kindness to his brothers 
Muragna and Scipio, with whom, he divided his 
possessions, after they had fortified their es- 
tates, and incurred the displeasure of Augustus 
for siding with young Pompey. He was sent 
by Augustus to Cleopatra, to endeavour to 
bring her alive into his presence, but to no pur- 
pose. He destroyed himself when labouring 
under a heavy disease. Horat. 2, od. 2. — Plut. 
in Anton. — Plin. 36, c. 24. 

Proculus Julius, I. a Roman, who, after the 
death of Romulus, declared that he had seen 
him in his appearance more than human, and 
that he had ordered him to bid the Romans to 
offer him sacrifices under the name of duirinus, 
and to rest assured that Rome was destined by 
568 



the gods to become the capital of the world. 

Plut. in Rom. — Liv. 1, c. 16. II. An African 

in the age of Aurelius. He published a book 
entitled de regionibus, or religionibus, on foreign 
countries, &c. — —III. An ofiicer who pro- 
claimed himself emperor in Gaul, in the reign 
of Probus. He was soon after defeated, and 
exposed on a gibbet. He was very debauched 
and licentious in his manners, and had acquired 
riches by piratical excursions. 

Procyon, a star near Sirius, or the dog-star, 
before which it generally rises in July. Cicero 
calls it Anticanis, which is of the same signi- 
fication {npo Kvcov.) Horat. 3, od. 29. — Cic. de 
Nat. D. 2, c. 44. 

Prodicus, a sophist and rhetorician of Cos, 
about 396 years before Christ. He was sent 
as ambassador by his countrymen to Athens, 
where he publicly taught, and had among his 
pupils Euripides, Socrates, Theramenes, and 
Isocrates. He travelled from town to town in 
Greece, to procure admirers and get money. 
He made his auditors pay to hear him ha- 
rangue, which has given occasion to some of 
the ancients to speak of the orations of Prodi- 
cus, for 50 drachms. In his writings, which 
were numerous, he composed a beautiful epi- 
sode, in which virtue and pleasure were intro- 
duced as attempting to make Hercules one of 
their votaries. The hero at last yielded to the 
charms of virtue, and rejected pleasure. This 
has been imitated by Lucian. Prodicus was 
at last put to death by the Athenians, on pre- 
tence that he corrupted the morals of their 
youth. Xenophon. Memor. 

Prcbtus, a king of Argos, son of Abas and 
Ocalea. He was twin brother to Acrisius, with 
whom he quarrelled even, before their birth. 
This dissention between the two brothers in- 
creased with their years. After their father's 
death, they both tried to obtain the kingdom of 
Argos; but the claims of Acrisius prevailed, 
and PrcEtus left Peloponnesus, and retired to 
the court of Jobates, king of Lycia, where he 
married Stenoboea, called by some An tea or 
Antiope. He afterwards returned to Argolis, 
and by means of his father-in-law, he made 
himself master of Tirynthus. Stenobcea had 
accompanied her husband to Greece, and she 
became by him mother of the Proetides, and of a 
son called Megapenthes, who, after his father's 
death, succeeded to the throne of Tirynthus. 
Homer. 11. 6, v. \&).~Apollod. 2, c. 2. 

Promenjea, one of the priestesses of the tem- 
ple of Dodona. It was from her that Herodo- 
tus received the tradition that two doves had 
flown from Thebes, in Egypt, one to Dodona, 
and the other to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 
where they gave oracles. Herodot. 2, c. 55. 

Pronomus, a Theban, who played so skilfully 
on the flute, that the invention of that musical 
instrument is attributed to him. Pans. 9, c. 12. 
— Athen. 14, c. 7. 

PROPERTros, (Sextus Aurelius,) a Latin poet, 
born at Mevania in Umbria. His father was 
a Roman knight, whom Augustus proscribed 
because he had followed the interest of Antony. 
Mec8enas,Gallus,and Virgil,became his friends, 
and Augustus his patron. Mecaenas wished 
him to attempt an epic poem, of which he pro- 
posed the emperor for hero ; but Propertius re- 
fused, observing that his abilities were unequal 



PR 



HISTORY, &c. 



to the task. He died about 19 years before 
Christ, in the 40th year of his age. His works 
consist of four books of elegies, which are writ- 
ten with so much spirit, vivacity, and energy, 
that many authors call him the prince of the 
elegiac poets among the Latins. Cynthia, who 
is the heroine of all his elegies, was a Roman 
lady, whose real name was Hostia, or Hostilia, 
of whom the poet was deeply enamoured. 
Though Mevania is more generally supposed to 
be the place of his birth, yet four other cities 
in Umbria have disputed the honour of it ; Hes- 
pillus, Ameria, Perusia, and Assisium. The 
best edition is that of Santenius, 4to. Traj. ad 
Rh. 1780, and when published together with 
Catullus and Tibullus, those of Grsevius, 8vo. 
Utr. 1680, and of Vulpius, 4 vols. Patavii, 1737, 
1749, 1755, and the edition of Barbou, 12mo. 
Paris, 1754. Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 465, 1. 4, el. 10, 
V. 53, de Art. Am. 3, v. ^'2,'^.— Martial. 8, ep. 
73, 1. 14, ep. 189.— Qwm^iZ. 10, c. l.—Plin. 6, 
ep. 1, 9, ep. 22. 

Protagoras, a Greek philosopher of Abdera 
in Thrace, who was originally a porter. He 
became one of the disciples of Democriius, when 
that philosopher had seen him carrying fagots 
on his head, poised in a proper equilibrium. He 
soon rendered himself ridiculous by his doc- 
trines, and in a book which he published he 
denied the existence of a Supreme Being. This 
book was publicly burnt at Athens, and the 
philosopher banished from the city. Protago- 
ras visited, from Athens, different islands in 
the Mediterranean, and died in Sicily in a very- 
advanced age, about 400 years before the Chris- 
tian era. • He generally reasoned by dilemmas, 
and always left the mind in suspense about all 
the questions which he proposed. Some sup- 
pose that he was drowned. Diog. 9. — Plut. in 
Protag. 

Protogenes, a painter of Rhodes, who flour- 
ished about 328 years before Christ. He was 
originally so poor that he painted ships to main- 
tain himself His countrymen were ignorant 
of his ingenuity before Apelles came to Rhodes 
and offered to buy all his pieces. This opened 
the eyes of the Rhodians, they became sensible 
of the merit of their countr5'man, and liberally 
rewarded him. Protogenes was employed for 
seven years in finishing a picture of Jalysus, a 
celebrated huntsman, supposed to have been 
the son of Apollo and the founder of Rhodes. 
During all this time the painter lived only upon 
lupines and water, thinking that such aliment 
would leave him greater flights of fancy ; but all 
this did not seem to make him more successful 
in the perfection of his picture. He was to 
represent in the piece a dog panting, and with 
froth at his mouth, but this he never could do 
with satisfaction to himself; and when all his 
labours seemed to be without success, he threw 
liis sponge upon the piece in a fit of anger. 
Chance alone brought to perfection what the 
utmost labours of art could not do ; the fall of 
the sponge upon the picture represented the 
froth of the mouth of the dog in the most per- 
fect and natural manner, and the piece was uni- 
versally admired. Protogenes was very exact 
in his representations, and copied nature with 
the greatest nicety, but this was blamed as a 
fault by his friend Apelles, When Demetrius 
besieged Rhodes, he refused to set fire to a part 

Part II.— 4 C 



of the city which might have made him master 
of the whole, because he knew that Protogenes 
was then working in that quarter. When the 
town was taken, the painter was found closely 
employed in a garden in finishing a picture ; 
and when the conqueror asked him why he 
showed not more concern in the general ca- 
lamity, he replied that Demetrius made war 
against the Rhodians, and not agaiust the fine 
arts. PaxLS. 1, c. 3. — Plin. 35, c. 10. — Mlian. 
V. H. 12.— Juv. 3, V. 120.— Plut. in Dcm. 

Prudentius, (Aurelius Clemens,) a Latin 
poet, who flourished A. D. 392, and was succes- 
sively a soldier, an advocate, and a judge. His 
poems are numerous and all theological, devoid 
of the elegance and purity of the Augustan age, 
and yet greatly valued. The best editions are 
the Delphin, 4to, Paris, 1687; thatof Cellarius, 
12mo. Halse, 1703 ; and that of Parma, 2 vols. 
4to. 1788. 

Prusias, surnamed Venator^ who made an 
alliance with the Romans when they waged war 
with Antiochus, king of Syria. He gave a 
kind reception to Annibal, and by his advice he 
made war against Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 
and defeated him. Eumenes, who was an ally 
of Rome as well as Prusias, complained before 
the Romans of the hostilities of the king of 
Brthynia. Q.. Flaminius was sent from Rome 
to settle the disputes of the two monarchs, and 
he was no sooner arrived in Bilhynia, than 
Prusias, to gain his favour, prepared^to deliver 
to him, at his request, the celebrated Carthagi- 
nian, to whom he was indebted for all the ad- 
vantages he had obtained over Eumenes ; but 
Annibal prevented it by a voluntary death. 
When, some time after, he visited the capital of 
Italy, he appeared in the habit of a manumitted 
slave, called himself the freedman of the Ro- 
mans ; and when he was introduced into the 
senate-house, he saluted the senators by the 
name of visible deities, of saviours, and deliver- 
ers. Such abject behaviour rendered him con- 
temptible, not only in the eyes of the Romans, 
but of his subjects, and when he returned home, 
the Bithynians revolted, and placed his son Ni- 
comedes on the throne. The banished monarch 
fled to Nicomedia, where he was assassinated 
near the altar of Jupiter, about 149 years before 
Christ. Polyb. — Liv. — Justin, 31, &c. — C. Nep. 
in Anib. — Plut. in Flam. &c. 

Prytanes, certain magistrates at Athens, 
who presided over the senate, and had the pri- 
vilege of assembling it when they pleased, fes- 
tivals excepted. They generally met in a large 
hall, called prytaneum, where they gave audi- 
ences, offered sacrifices, and feasted together 
with all those who had rendered signal service 
to their country. The prytanes were elected 
from the senators, which were in mtmber 500, 
fifty of which were chosen from each tribe. 
When they were elected, the names of the 10 
tribes of Athens were thrown into one vessel, 
and into another were placed nine black beans 
and a white one. The tribe whose name was 
drawn with the white bean, presided the first, 
and the rest in the order in which they were 
dra^Ti. They presided each for 35 days, as the 
year was divided into 10 parts ; but it is un- 
known what tribe presided the rest of those 
days which were supernumerar)^ When the 
number of tribes was increased to 12, each of 
569 



PT 



HISTORY, &c. 



PT 



the prytanes presided one full month, Some 

of the principal magistrates of Corinth were 
also called prytanes. 

PsAMMENiTus, succcedcd his father Amasis 
on the throne of Egypt. Cambyses made war 
against him, Psammenitus was twice beaten, 
at Pelusium and in Memphis, and became one 
of the prisoners of Cambyses, who treated him 
with great humanity. Psammenitus, however, 
raised seditions against the Persian monarch ; 
and attempted to make the Egyptians rebel, for 
which he was put to death by drinking bull's 
blood. He had reigned about six months. He 
flourished about 525 years before the Christian 
era. Herodot. 3, c. 10, &c. 

PsAMMETicHUs, a king of Egypt. He was one 
of the 12 princes who shared the kingdom 
among themselves ; but as he was more popu- 
lar than the rest, he was banished from his do- 
minions, and retired into the marshes near the 
seashore, A descent of some of the Greeks 
upon Egypt proved favourable to his cause ; he 
joined the enemy, and defeated the 11 princes 
who had expelled him from the country. He 
rewarded the Greeks by whose valour he had 
recovered Egypt ; he allotted them some terri- 
tory on ihe seacoast, patronised the liberal arts, 
and encouraged commerce among his subjects. 
He made useless mquiries to find the sources of 
the Nile ; and he stopped, by bribes and money, 
a large army of Scythians that were marching 
against him. He died 617 years before the 
Christian era, and was buried in Minerva's 
temple at Sais. During his reign there was a 
contention among some of the neighbouring 
nations about the antiquity of their language. 
Psammetichus took a part in the contest. He 
confined two young children, and fed them with 
milk ; the shepherd to whose care they were 
intrusted, was ordered never to speak to them, 
but to watch diligently their articulations. Af- 
ter some time the shepherd observed, that when- 
ever he entered the place of their confinement 
they repeatedly exclaimed Beccos, and he gave 
information of this to the monarch, Psammeti- 
chus made inquiries, and found that the word 
Beccos signified bread in the Phoenician lan- 
guage, and from that circumstance, therefore, 
it was universally concluded that the language 
of Phoenicia was of the greatest antiquity, He- 
rodot. 2, c, 28, Scc—PolycBn. 8.—Strab. 16, 

PsAMMis, or PsAMMUTms, a king of Egypt, 
B. C. 376. 

PsAPHo, a Libyan, who taught a number of 
birds which he kept to say, Psapho is a god, 
and afterwards gave them their liberty. The 
birds did not forget the words which they had 
been taught, and the Africans paid divine hon- 
ours to Psapho. jElian. 

Ptolem^os I. surnamed Lagus, a king of 
Egypt, son of Arsinoe, who, when pregnant by 
Philip of Macedonia, married Lagus, a man of 
mean extraction, Vid. Lagus. Ptolemy was 
educated in the court of the king of Macedonia ; 
he became one of the friends and associates of 
Alexander, and when that monarch invaded 
Asia, the son of Arsinoe attended him as one of 
his generals. During the expedition, he behaved 
with uncommon valour ; he killed one of the 
Indian monarchs in single combat, and it was to 
his prudence and courage that Alexander was 
indebted for the reduction of the rockAornus. 
570 



After the conqueror's death, in the general divi- 
sion of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy ob- 
tained as his share the government of Egypt, 
with Libia, and part of the neighbouring terri- 
tories of Arabia, He made himself master of 
CoBlosyria, Phoenicia, and the neighbouring 
coast of Syria ; and when he had reduced Je- 
rusalem, he carried above 100,000 prisoners to 
Egypt, to people the extensive city of Alexan- 
dria, which became the capital of his dominions. 
After he had rendered these prisoners the most 
attached and faithful of his subjects, by his lib- 
erality and the grant of privileges, Ptolemy as- 
sumed the title of king of Egypt, and soon after 
reduced Cyprus under his power. He made 
war with success against Demetrius and Anti- 
gonus, who disputed his right to the provinces 
of Syria ; and from the assistance he gave to 
the people of Rhodes against their common 
enemies, he received the name of Soter. The 
bay of Alexandria being dangerous of access, 
he built a tower to conduct the sailors in the 
obscurity of the night ; ( Vid. Pharos,) and that 
hi« subjects might be acquainted with literature, 
he laid the foundation of a library, which, under 
the succeeding reigns, became the most cele- 
brated in the world. He also established in the 
capital of his dominions a society called mu- 
seum, of which the members, maintained at the 
public expense, were employed in philosophical 
researches, and in the advancement of science 
and the liberal arts, Ptolemy died in the 84th 
year of his age, after a reign of 39 years, about 
284 years before Christ. He was succeeded 
by his son Ptolemy Philadelphus, who had been 
his partner on the throne the last ten years of his 
reign. Ptolemy Lagus has been commended 
for his abilities, not only as a sovereign, but as 
a writer ; and among the many valuable com- 
positions which have been lost, we are to lament 
a history of Alexander the Great, by the king 
of Egypt, greatly admired and valued for ele- 
gance and authenticity. All his successors 
were called Ptolemies from him. Paus. 10, c. 
8, — Justin. 13, &c, — Polyh. 2, — Arrian. — Curt. 

— Plut. in Alex. The 2d son of Ptolemy the 

first, succeeded his father on the Egyptian 
throne, and was called Philadelphus by Anti- 
phrasis, because he killed two of his brothers; 
He showed himself worthy in every respect to 
succeed his great father, and, conscious of the 
advantages which arise from an alliance with 
powerful nations, he sent ambassadors to Italy 
to solicit the friendship of the Romans, whose 
name had become universally known for the 
victories which they had just obtained over 
Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, But while Ptole- 
my strengthened himself by alliances with for- 
eign powers, the internal peace of his kingdom 
was disturbed by the revolt of Magas, his bro- 
ther, king of Cyrene, The sedition, however, 
was stopped, though kindled by Antiochus, king 
of Syria, and the death of the rebellious prince 
re-established peace for some time in the family 
of Philadelphus, Antiochus, the Syrian king, 
married Berenice the daughter of Ptolemy, and 
the father, though old and infirm, conducted his 
daughter to her husband's kingdom, and assist- 
ed at the nuptials, Philadelphus died in the 
64th year of his age, 246 years before the Chris- 
tian era. He left two sons and a daughter, by 
Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, He had 



PT 



HISTORY, &c. 



PT 



afterwards married his sister Arsinoe, whom he 
loved with uncommon tenderness, and to whose 
memory he began to erect a celebrated monu- 
ment. Vid. Dinocrates. The inhabitants of 
the adjacent countries were allured by promises 
and presents to increase the number of the 
Egyptian subjects, and Ptolemy could boast of 
reigning over 33,339 well-peopled cities. He 
gave every possible encouragement to com- 
merce, and by keeping two powerful fleets, one 
in the Mediterranean and the other in the Red 
Sea, he made Egypt the mart of the world. His 
army consisted of 200,000 foot, 40,000 horse, 
besides 300 elephants and 2000 armed chariots. 
With justice, therefore, he has been called the 
richest of all the princes and monarchs of his 
age ; and, indeed, the remark is not false when 
it is observed, that at his death he left in his 
treasury 750,000 Egyptian talents, a sum equiv- 
alent to two hundred millions sterling. His 
palace was the asylum of learned men, whom 
he admired and patronised. He paid particular 
attention to Euclid, Theocritus, Callimachus, 
and Lycophron ; and by increasing the library 
which his father had founded, he showed his 
taste for learning and his wish to encourage 
genius. This celebrated library at his death con- 
tained 200,000 volumes of the best and choicest 
books,and it was afterwards increased to 700,000 
volumes. Part of it was burnt by the flames of 
Caesar's fleet when he set it on fire to save him- 
self, a circumstance, however, not mentioned by 
the general, and the whole was again magnifi- 
cently repaired by Cleopatra, who added to the 
Egyptian library that of the kings of Pergamus. 
It is said that the Old Testament was translated 
into Greek during his reign, a translation which 
has been called Septuagint, because translated 
by the labours of 70 different persons. Eutr. — 
Justin. 17, c. 2, &c. — Liv. — Plut. — Theocrit. 
—Athen. 12.— Plin. 13, c. 12.—Dio. i2.—Gel- 

lius. 6, c. 17. The 3d, succeeded his father 

Philadelphus on the Egyptian throne. He early 
engaged in a war against Antiochus Theus, for 
his unkindness to Berenice theEg}T)tian king's 
sister, whom he had married with the consent 
of Philadelphus. With the most rapid success 
he conquered Syria and Silicia, and advanced 
as far as the Tigris; but a sedition at home 
stopped his progress, and he returned to Egypt 
loaded with the spoils of conquered nations. 
Among the immense riches which he brought, 
he had above 2500 statues of the Egyptian gods, 
which Cambyses had carried away into Persia, 
when he conquered Egypt. These were re- 
stored to the temples, and the Egyptians called 
their sovereign Evergetes, in acknowledgment 
of his attention, beneficence, and religious zeal 
for the gods of his country. The last years of 
Ptolemy's reign were passed in peace, if we ex- 
cept the refusal of the Jews to pay the tribute of 
20 silver talents which their ancestors had al- 
ways paid to the Egyptian monarchs. He also 
interested himself in the affairs of Greece, and 
assisted Cleomenes, the Spartan king, against 
the leaders of the Achaean league ; but he had 
the mortification to see his ally defeated, and 
even a fugitive in Egypt. Evergetes died 221 
years before Christ, after a reign of 25 years, 
and, like his two illustrious predecessors, he was 
the patron of learning; and indeed he is the last 
of the Lagides who gained popularity among 



his subjects by clemency, moderation, and hu- 
manity, and who commanded respect, even from 
his enemies, by valour, prudence, and reputa- 
tion. It is said that he deposited 15 talents in 
the hands of the Athenians to be permitted to 
translate the original manuscripts of ^schylus, 
Euripides, and Sophocles. Plut. in Cleom. &c. 
—Polyb. 2.— Justin. 29, &c. The fourth suc- 
ceeded his father Evergetes on the throne of 
Egypt, and received the surname of Philopater 
by antiphrasis, because, according to some his- 
torians, he destroyed his father by poison. He 
began his reign with acts of the greatest cruelty, 
and he successively sacrificed to his avarice his 
own mother, his wife, his sister, and his brother. 
He received the name of Typhon^ from his ex- 
travagance and debauchery, and that of Gallus, 
because he appeared in the streets of Alexan- 
dria like one of the bacchanals, and with all the 
gestures of the priests of Cybele. In the midst 
of his pleasures Philopater was called to war 
against Antiochus,king of Syria,and at the head 
of a powerful army he soon invaded his enemy's 
territories, and might have added the kingdom 
of Syria to Egypt, if he had made a prudent use 
of the victories which attended his arms. In 
his return he visited Jerusalem, but the Jews 
prevented him forcibly from entering their tem- 
ple, for which insolence to his majesty the mon- 
arch determined to extirpate the whole nation. 
He ordered an immense number of Jews to be 
exposed in a plain, and trodden under the feet 
of elephants ; but by a supernatural instinct, the 
generous animals turned their fury not on those 
that had been devoted to death, but upon the 
Egyptian spectators. This circumstance terri- 
fied Philopater, and he behaved with more than 
common kindness to a nation which he had so 
lately devoted to destruction. In the latter part 
of his reign, the Romans, whom a dangerous 
M^ar with Carthage had weakened, but at the 
same time roused to superior activity, renewed, 
for political reasons, the treaty of alliance which 
had been made with the Egyptian monarchs. 
Philopater, at last, weakened and enervated by 
intemperance and continual debauchery, died 
in the 37th year of his age, after a reign of 17 
years, 204 years before the Christian era. His 
death was immediately followed by the murder 
of the companions of his voluptuousness and 
extravagance, and their carcasses were dragged 
with the greatest ignominy through the streets 
of Alexandria. Polyb. — Justin. 30, &c. — Phit. 

in Cleom. The 5th, succeeded his father 

Philopater as king of Egypt, though only in the 
4th year of his age. During the years of his 
minority he was under the protection of Sosi- 
cius and of Aristomenes, by whose prudent ad- 
ministration Antiochus was dispossessed of the 
provinces of Coelosyria and Palestine, which he 
had conquered by war. The Romans also re- 
newed their alliance with him after their victo- 
ries over Annibal and the conclusion of the 
second Punic war. This flattering embassy in- 
duced Aristomenes to offer the care of the pa- 
tronage of the young monarch to the Romans, 
but the regent was confirmed in his honourable 
office ; and by making a treaty of alliance with 
the people of Achaia, he convinced the Egyp- 
tians that he was qualified to wield the sceptre 
and to govern the nation. But now that Ptole- 
my had reached his 14th year, according to the 
571 



PT 



HISTORY, &c. 



PT 



laws and customs of Egypt, the years of his 
minority had expired. He received the sur- 
name of Epiphanes, or illustrious, and was 
crowned at Alexandria with the greatest solem- 
nity. Young Ptolemy was no sooner delivered 
from the shackles of a superior, than he betray- 
ed the same vices which had characterized his 
father ; the counsels of Aristomenes were de- 
spised ; and the minister, who for ten years had 
governed the kingdom with equity and modera- 
tion, was sacrificed to the caprice of the sove- 
reign, who abhorred him for the salutary advice 
which his own vicious inclinations did not per- 
mit him to follow. In the midst of his extrava- 
gance, Epiphanes did not forget his alliance 
with the Romans ; above all others he showed 
himself eager to cultivate friendship with a na- 
tion from which he could derive so many advan- 
tages, and during their war against Antiochus, 
he offered to assist them with money against a 
monarch, whose daughter Cleopatra he had 
married, but whom he hated on account of the 
seditions he raised in the very heart of Egypt. 
After a reign of 24 years, 180 years before 
Christ, Piolemy was poisoned by his ministers, 
whom he had threatened to rob of their posses- 
sions, to carry on a war against Seleucus, king 
of Syria. Liv. 35, c. 13, &c. — Justin. &c 



The 6th, succeeded his father Epiphanes on 
the Egyptian throne, and received the surname 
of Philometor, on account of his hatred against 
his mother Cleopatra. He was in the 6th year 
of his age when he ascended the throne, and 
during his minority the kingdom was governed 
by his mother, and at her death by a eunuch 
who was one of his favourites. He made war 
against Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, to 
recover the provinces of Palestine and Coelosy- 
ria, which were part of the Egyptian dominions, 
and after several successes he fell into the hands 
of the enemy, who retained him in confine- 
ment. During the captivity of Philometer, the 
Egyptians raised to the throne his younger bro- 
ther, Ptolemy E vergetes, or Physcon , also son cf 
Epiphanes ; but he was no sooner established in 
his power than Antiochus turned his arms against 
Egypt, drove the usurper, and restored Philo- 
metor to all his rights and privileges as king of 
Egypt. This artful behaviour of Antiochus was 
soon comprehended by Philometer, and when 
he saw that Pelusium, the key of Egypt, had 
remained in the hands of his Syrian ally, he re- 
called his brother Physcon, and made him part- 
ner on the throne, and concerted with him how 
to repel their common enemy. This union of 
interest in the tv/o royal brothers incensed An- 
tiochus ; he entered iEgypt with a large army, 
but the Romans checked his progress and obli- 
ged him to retire. No sooner were they deliver- 
ed from the impending war, when Philometor 
and Physcon, whom the fear of danger had 
united, began with mutual jealousy to oppose 
each other's views. Physcon was at last ban- 
ished by the superior power of his brother, 
and as he could find no support in Egypt, he 
immediately repaired to Rome. To excite more 
effectually the compassion of the Romans, and 
to gain their assistance, he appeared in the 
meanest dress, and took his residence in the 
most obscure corner of the ciiy. He received 
an audience from the senate, "and the Romans 
settled the dispute between the two royal bro- 
572 



thers, by making them independent of one ano- 
ther, and giving the government of Libya and 
Cyrene to Physcon, and confirming Philometor 
in the possession of Egypt and the island Oi. 
Cyprus. These terms of accommodation were 
gladly accepted, but Physcon soon claimed the 
dominion of Cyprus, and in this he was sup- 
ported by the Romans, who wished to aggran- 
dize themselves by the diminution of the Egyp- 
tian power. Philometor refused to deliver up 
the island of Cyprus, and to call away his bro- 
ther!s attention, he fomented the seeds of rebel- 
lion in Cyrene. But the death of Philometor, 
145 years before the Christian era, left Physcon 
master of Egypt and all the dependant prov- 
inces. Philometor has been commended by some 
historians for his clemency and moderation. 

Diod. — Liv. — Polijb. The 7th Ptolemy, sur- 

named Physcon, ascended the throne of Egypt 
after the death of his brother Philometor; and 
as he had reigned for some time conjointly with 
him, ( Vid PtolemcBus 6th,) his succession was 
approved, though the wife and the son of the 
deceased monarch laid claim to the crown. 
Cleopatra was supported in her claims by the 
Jews, and it was at last agreed that Physcon 
should marry the queen, and that her son should 
succeed on the throne at his death. The nup- 
tials were accordingly celebrated, but on that 
very day the tyrant murdered Cleopatra's son 
in her arms. He ordered himself to be called 
Evergetes, but the Alexandrians refused to do 
it, and stigmatized him with the appellation of 
Kakergetes, or evil-doer, a surname which he 
deserved by his tyranny and oppression. A 
series of barbarity rendered him odious, but as 
no one attempted to rid Egypt of her tyranny, 
the Alexandrians abandoned their habitations, 
and fled from a place which continually stream- 
ed with the blood of their massacred fellow- cit- 
izens. The king at last, disgusted with Cleopa- 
tra, repudiated her, and married her daughter, 
by Philometor, called also Cleopatra. He still 
continued to exercise the greatest cruelty upon 
his subjects, but the prudence and vigilance of 
his ministers kept the people in tranquillity, till 
all Egypt revolted when the king had basely 
murdered all the young men of Alexandria. 
Without friends or support in Egypt he fled to 
Cyprus, and Cleopatra, the divorced queen, 
ascended the throne. In his banishment Phys- 
con dreaded lest the Alexandrians should also 
place the crown on the head of his son by his 
sister Cleopatra, who was then governor of 
Cyrene, and under these apprehensions he sent 
for the young prince, called Memphitis to Cy- 
prus, and murdered him as soon as he had 
reached the shore. To make the barbarity more 
complete, he sent the limbs of Memphitis to 
Cleopatra, and they were received as the queen 
was going to celebrate her birthday. Soon af- 
ter this he invaded Egypt with an army, and 
obtained a victory over the forces of Cleopatra, 
who, being left without friends or assistance, 
fled to her eldest daughter Cleopatra, who had 
married Demetrius king of Syria. This deci- 
sive blow restored Physcon to his throne, where 
he continued to reign for some time, hated by 
his subjects and feared by his enemies. He died 
at Alexandria in the 67th year of his age, after 
a reign of 29 years, about 116 years before 
Christ. Some authors have extolled Physcon 



PT 



HISTORY, &c. 



PT 



for his fondness for literature; they have ob- 
served, that from his extensive knowledge he 
was called the philologist, and that he wrote a 
comment upon Homer, besides a history in 24 
books, admired for its elegance, and often quot- 
ed by succeeding authors whose pen was em- 
ployed on the same subject. Diod. — Justin. 38, 

&LQ..—Athen. 2.—Porphyr. The 8th, surna- 

med Lathyrus, from an excrescence like a pea 
on the nose, succeeded his father Physcon as 
king of Eg}T)t. He had no sooner ascended the 
throne, than his mother Cleopatra, who reigned 
conjointly with him, expelled him to Cyprus, 
and placed the crown on the head of his bro- 
ther Ptolemy Alexander, her favourite son. 
Lathyrus, banished from Egypt, became king 
of Cyprus, and soon after he appeared at the 
head of a large army, to make war against 
Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judse, through 
whose assistance and intrigue he had been ex- 
pelled by Cleopatra. The Jewish monarch was 
conquered, and 50,000 of his men were left on 
the field of battle. Lathyrus, after he had ex- 
ercised the greatest cruelty upon the Jews, and 
made vain attempts to recover the kingdom of 
Egypt, retired to C}T3rus till the death of his 
brother Alexander restored him to his native 
dominions. Some of the cities of Egypt re- 
fused to acknowledge him as iheir sovereign, 
and Thebes, for its obstinacy, was closely be- 
sieged for three successive years, and from a 
powerful and populous city it was reduced to 
ruins. In the latter part of his reign, Lathyrus 
was called upon to assist the Romans with a 
nav}^ for the conquest of Athens, but Lucullus, 
who had been sent to obtain the supply, though 
received with kingly honours, was dismissed 
with evasive and unsatisfactory answers, and 
the monarch refused to part with troops which 
he deemed necessary to preserve the peace of 
.his kingdom. Lathyrus died 81 years before the 
Christian era, after a reign of 36 years since the 
death of his father Physcon, eleven of which he 
had passed with his mother Cleopatra on the 
Egyptian throne, eighteen in Cyprus, and seven 
after his mother's death. He was succeeded by 
his only daughter, Cleopatra, whom Alexander, 
the son of Ptolemy Alexander, by means of the 
dictator Sylla, soon after married and murder- 
ed. Jose'ph. Hist. — Justin. 39. — Plut. in Luc. — 
Appian. in Mithrid. The 9ih. Vid. Alex- 
ander Ptolemy 1st ; for the 10th Ptolemy, vid. 
Alexander Ptolemy 2d ; for the 11th, vid. Alex- 
ander Ptolemy 3d. The 12th, the illegiti- 
mate son of Lathyrus, ascended the throne of 
Egypt at the death of Alexander 3d. He receiv- 
ed the surname of Auletes, because he played 
skilfully on the flute. His rise showed great 
marks of prudence and circumspection ; and as 
his predecessor by his will had left the king- 
dom of Eg}'pt to the Romans, Auletes knew that 
he could not be firmly established on his throne 
without the approbation of the Roman senate. 
He was successful in his applications, and Cae- 
sar, who was then consul, and in want of mo- 
ney, established his succession, and granted him 
the alliance of the Romans, after he had receiv- 
ed the enormous sum of about a million and 
162,500^ sterling. But these measures render- 
ed him unpopular at home, and when he had 
suffered the Romans quietly to take possession 
of Cyprus, the Egyptians revolted, and Auletes 



was obliged to fly from his kingdom, and seek 
protection among the most powerful of his allies. 
His complaints were heard at Rome, at first with 
indifference, and the murder of 100 noblemen of 
Alexandria, whom the Egyptians had sent to 
justify their proceedings before the Roman 
senate, rendered him unpopular and suspected. 
Pompey, however, supported his cause, and the 
senators decreed to re-establish Auletes on his 
throne ; but as they proceeded slowly in the ex- 
ecution of their plans, the monarch retired from 
Rome to Ephesus, where he lay concealed for 
some time in the temple of Diana. During his 
absence from Alexandria, his daughter Bere- 
nice had made herself absolute, and established 
herself on the throne by a marriage with Ar- 
chelaus, a priest of Bellona's temple at Comana, 
but she was soon driven from Egypt when Ga- 
binius, at the head of a Roman army, approach- 
ed to replace Auletes on his throne. Auletes 
was no sooner restored to power than he sacri- 
ficed to his ambition his daughter Berenice, and 
behaved with the greatest ingratitude and per- 
fidy to Rabirius, a Roman,who had supplied him 
with money when expelled from his kingdom. 
Auletes died four years after his restoration, 
about 51 years before the Christian era. He left 
two sons and two daughters, and by his will 
ordered the eldest of his sons to marry the eldest 
of his sisters, and to ascend with her the vacant 
throne. As these children were young, the 
dying monarch recommended them to the pro- 
tection and paternal care of the Romans, and 
accordingly Pompey the Great was appointed 
by the senate to be their patron and their guar- 
dian. Their reign was as turbulent els that of 
their predecessors ; and it is remarkable for no 
uncommon events ; only we may observe that 
the young queen w- as the Cleopatra who soon 
after became so celebrated as being the mistress 
of J. Csesar, the wife of M. Antony, and the 
last of the Egyptian monarchs of the family of 
Lagus. Cic. pro Rabir. — Strab. 17. — Dion. 39. 

— Appian. de Civ. The 13th, surnamed 

Dionysius or Bacchus ascended the throne of 
Egy^t conjointly with his sister Cleopatra, 
whom he had married according to the direc- 
tions of his father Auletes. He was under the 
care and protection of Pompey the Great, ( Vid. 
Ptolem(msl2(h,)hvit the wickedness and avarice 
of his ministers soon obliged him to reign inde- 
pendent. He w^as then in the 13th year of his 
age, when his guardian, after the fatal battle of 
Pharsalia, came to the shores of Eg5''pt and 
claimed his protection. He refused to grant the 
required assistance, and by the advice of his 
ministers, he basely murdered Pompey after he 
had brought him to shore under the mask of 
friendship and cordiality. To curry the favour 
of the conqueror of Pharsalia, Ptolemy cut oft 
the head of Pompey, but Caesar turned with 
indignation from such perfidy, and when he ar- 
rived at Alexandria he found the king of Egj^pt 
as faithless to his cause as that of his fallen 
enemy. Caesar sat as judge to hear the various 
claims of the brother and' sister to his throne; 
and, to satisfy the people, he ordered the will of 
Auletes to be read, and confirmed Piolemy and 
Cleopatra in the possession of Egypt, and ap- 
pointed the two younger children masters of the 
island of Cyprus. This fair and candid deci- 
sion might have left no room for dissatisfaction, 
573 



PT 



HISTORY, &c. 



PT 



but Ptolemy was governed by cruel and ava- 
ricious ministers, and therefore he refused to 
acknowledge Caesar as a judge or mediator. 
The Roman enforced his authority by arms, 
and three victories were obtained over the 
Egyptian forces. Ptolemy, who had been for 
some time a prisoner in the hands of Caesar, 
now headed his armies, but a defeat was fatal, 
and as he attempted to save his life by flight, he 
was drowned in the Nile, about 48 years before 
Christ, and three years and eight months after 
the death of Auietes. Cleopatra, at the death 
of her brother, became sole mistress of Egypt ; 
but as the Egyptians were no friends to female 
government, Caesar obliged her to marry her 
younger brother Ptolemy, who was then in the 
eleventh year of his age. Appian. Civ. — Cces. 
in Alex. — Strab. 17. — Joseph. Ant. — Dio. — Plut. 

in Ant. &c. Sueton. in Cas. Apion, 

king of Cyrene, was the illegitimate son of 
Ptolemy Physcon. After a reign of 20 years he 
died ; and as he had no children, he made the 
Romans heirs of his dominions. The Romans 
presented his subjects with their independence. 

Liv. 70. Ceraunus, a son of Ptolemy Soter, 

by Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater. 
Unable to succeed to the throne of Egypt, 
Ceraunus fled to the court of Seleucus where 
he was received with friendly marks of atten- 
tion, Seleucus was then king of Macedonia, 
an empire which he had lately acquired by 
the death of Lysimachus, in a battle in Phrygia; 
but his reign was short, and Ceraunus perfidi- 
ously murdered him and ascended his throne, 
280 B. C. The murderer, however, could not be 
firmly established in Macedonia as long as Ar- 
sinoe, the widow, and the children of Lysima- 
chus were alive, and entitled to claim his king- 
dom as the lawful possession of their father. 
To remove these obstacles Ceraunus made of- 
fers of marriage to Arsinoe, who was his own 
sister. The queen at first refused, but the pro- 
testations and solemn promises of the usurper 
at last prevailed upon her to consent. The 
nuptials, however, were no sooner celebrated, 
than Ceraunus murdered the two young princes, 
and confirmed his usurpation by rapine and 
cruelty. But now three powerful princes claim- 
ed the kingdom of Macedonia as their own, 
Antiochus, the son of Seleucus ; Antigonus, the 
son of Demetrius ; and Pyrrhus the king of 
Epirus. These enemies, however, were soon 
removed ; Ceraunus conquered Antigonus in 
the field of battle, and stopped the hostilities of 
his other two rivals by promises and money. 
He did not long remain inactive, a barbarian 
army of Gauls claimed a tribute from him, and 
the monarch immediately marched to meet them 
in the field. The battle was long and bloody. 
The Macedonians might have obtained the vic- 
tory if Ceraunus had shown more prudence. 
He was thrown down from his elephant, and 
taken prisoner by the enemy, who immediately 
tore his body to pieces. Ptolemy had been king 
of Macedonia only 18 months. Justin. 24, &c. 
Paiis. 10, c. 10. An illegitimate son of Ptole- 
my Lathyrus, king of Cyprus, of which he was 
tyrannically dispossessed by the Romans. Cato 
was at the head of the forces which were sent 
against Ptolemy by the senate, and the Roman 
general proposed to the monarch to retire from 
the throne, and to pass the rest of his days in 
574 



the obscure oflice of highpriest in the temple of 
Venus at Paphos. This oflfer was rejected with 
the indignation which it merited, and the mon- 
arch poisoned himself at the approach of the 
enemy. The treasures found in the island 
amounted to the enormous sum of 1,356,250^. 
sterling, which were carried to Rome by the 
conquerors. Plut. in Cat. — Val. Max.9. — Mor. 

3. A man who attempted to make himself 

king of Macedonia in opposition to Perdiccas, 

He was expelled by Pelopidas. A son of 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by Antigone, the 
daughter of Berenice. He was left governor 
of Epirus when Pyrrhus went to Italy to assist 
the Tarentines against the Romans, where he 
presided with great prudence and moderation. 
He was killed, bravely fighting, in the expedi- 
tion which Pyrrhus undertook against Sparta 

and Argos. A eunuch, by whose friendly 

assistance Mithridates the Great saved his life 
after a battle with Lucullus. A king of Epi- 
rus, who died very young, as he was marching 
an army against the JEtolians, who had seized 

part of his dominions. — Justin. 28. A king 

of Chalcidica, in Syria, about 30 years before 
Christ. He opposed Pompey when he invaded 
Syria, but he was defeated in the attempt, and 
the conqueror spared his life only upon receiv- 
ing one thousand talents. Joseph. Ant. 13. 

A nephew of Antigonus, who commanded an 
army in the Peloponnesus. He revolted from 
his uncle to Cassander, and sometime after he 
attempted to bribe the soldiers of Ptolemy La- 
gus, king of Egypt, who had invited him to his 
camp. He was seized and imprisoned for this 
treachery, and the Egyptian monarch at last 

ordered him to drink hemlock. A son of 

Seleucus, killed in the celebrated battle which 
was fought at Issus between Darius and Alex- 
ander the Great. A son of Juba, made king 

of Mauretania. He was son of Cleopatra Se- 
lene, the daughter of M. Antony and the cele- 
brated Cleopatra. He was put to death by 

Caius Caligula. Dio. — Tacit. Ann. 11. A 

friend of Otho. A favourite of Antiochus, 



king of Syria. He was surnamed Macron. 

A Jew, famous for his cruelty and avarice. He 

was for some time governor of Jericho, about 

135 years before Christ, A powerful Jew 

during the troubles which disturbed the peace 

of Judaea in the reign of Augustus. A son of 

Antony by Cleopatra, surnamed PhiladelpMis, 
by his father, and made master of Phoenicia, 
Syria, and all the territories of Asia Minor 
which were situated between the JEgean and 

the Euphrates. Plut. in Anton. Claudius, 

a celebrated geographer and astrologer in the 
reign of Adrian and Antoninus. He was a 
native of Alexandria, or, according to others, 
of Pelusium, and on account of his great learn- 
ing, he received the name of the most wise and 
most divine among the Greeks. In his system 
of the world, he places the earth in the centre 
of the universe, a doctrine universally believed 
and adopted till the 16th century, when it was 
confuted and rejected by Copernicus. His 
geography is valued for its learning, and the 
very useful information which it gives. Besides 
his system and his geography, Ptolemy wrote 
other books, in one of which he gives an ac- 
count of the fixed stars ; of 1022 of which he 
gives the certain and definite longitude and 



PU 



HISTORY, &c. 



FU 



latitude. The best edition of Ptolemy's geog- 
raphy is that of Bertius, fol. Amst. 1618, and 
that of his treatise de Judiciis Astrologicis, by 
Camerar, 4to. 1535, and of the Harmonica, 4to. 
WalHs, Oxon. 1683. 

PcBLicoLA, a name given to Publius Vale- 
rius on account of his great popularity, Vid. 
Valerius. Plut. in PvJb. — Liv. 2, c. 8. — Plin. 
30, c. 15. 

PuBLiLiA Lex, was made by Publilius Philo, 
the dictator, A. U. C. 445. Ii permitted one of 
the censors to be elected from the plebeians, 
since one of the consuls were chosen from that 

body. Liv. 8, c. 12. Another, by which it 

was ordained that all laws should be previously 
approved by the senators before they were pro- 
posed by the people. 

Publius Syrus, a Syrian mimic poet, who 
flourished about 44 years before Christ. This 
celebrated Mime was brought from Asia to 
Italy in early youth, in the same vessel with his 
countryman and kinsman, Manlius Antiochus, 
the professor of astrology, and Staberius Eros, 
the grammarian, who all, by some desert in 
learning, rose above their original fortune. He 
received a good education and liberty from his 
master, in reward for his witticisms and face- 
tious disposition. He first represented his 
Mimes in the provincial towns of Italy, whence, 
his fame having spread to Rome, he was sum- 
moned to the capital, to assist in those public 
spectacles which Caesar afforded his country- 
men, in exchange for their freedom. On one 
occasion, he challenged all persons of his own 
profession to contend with him on the stage ; 
and in this competition he successively over- 
came every one of his rivals. By his success in 
the representation of their popular entertain- 
ments, he amassed considerable wealth, and 
lived with such luxury, that he never gave a 
great supper without having sow's udder at the 
table — a dish which was prohibited by the cen- 
sors, as being too great a luxury even for the 
table of patricians. Nothing farther is known of 
his history, except that he was still continuing to 
perform his Mimes with applause at the period 
of the death of Laberius. We have not the 
names of any of the Mimes of Publius ; nor 
do we precisely know their nature or subject, — 
all that is preserved from them being a number 
of detached sentiments or maxims to the num- 
ber of 800 or 900, seldom exceeding a single 
line, but containing reflections of unrivalled 
force, truth, and beauty, on all the various re- 
lations, situations, and feelings of human life — 
friendship, love, fortune, pride, adversity, ava- 
rice, generosity. Both the writers and actors 
of Mimes were probably careful to have their 
memory stored with commonplaces and pre- 
cepts of morality, in order to introduce them 
. appropriately in their extemporaneous perform- 
ances. The maxims of Publius were interspers- 
ed through his dramas, but being the only por- 
tion of those productions now remaining, they 
have just the appearance of thoughts or senti- 
ments, like those of Rochefoucauld. His Mimes 
must either have been very numerous, or very 
thickly loaded with those moral aphorisms. It 
is also surprising that they seem raised far 
above the ordinary tone even of regular come- 
dy, and appear for the greater part to be almost 
stoical maxims. Seneca has remarked that 



many of his eloquent verses are fitter for the 
buskin than the slipper. How such exalted 
precepts should have been grafted on the lowest 
farce, and how passages, which would hardly 
be appropriated in the most serious sentimental 
comedy, were adapted to the actions or man- 
ners of gross and drunken buffoons, is a diffi- 
culty which could only be solved had we for- 
tunately received entire a larger portion of 
tjiese productions, which seem to have been pe- 
culiar to Roman genius. The sentiments of 
Publius Syrus now appear trite. They have 
become familiar to mankind, and have been re- 
echoed by poets and moralists from age to age. 
All of them are most felicitously expressed, and 
few of them seem erroneous, while at the same 
time they are perfectly free from the selfish or 
worldly-minded wisdom of Rochefoucauld, or 
Lord Burleigh. It would be endless to quote 
the lines of the different Latin poets, particu- 
larly Horace and Juvenal, which are nearly 
copied from the maxims of Publius Syrus. Se- 
neca, too, has availed himself of many of his 
reflections, and, at the same time, does full jus- 
tice to the author from whom he has borrowed. 
Publius, says he, is superior in genius both to 
tragic and comic writers: whenever he gives 
up the follies of the Mimes, and that language 
which is directed to the crowd, he writes many 
things not only above that species of composi- 
tion, but worthy of the tragic buskin.^ 

Publius, a prsenomen common among the 

Romans. Caius, a man who conspired with 

Brutus against J. Caesar. A praetor who 

conquered Palaepolis. He was only a plebeian, 
and, although neither consul nor dictator, he 
obtained a triumph in spite of the opposition of 
the senators. He was the first who was ho- 
noured with a triumph during a praetorship. 

PuLCHERiA, I. a daughter of the emperor 
Theodosius the Great, famous for her piety, 

moderation, and virtues. II. A daughter of 

Arcadius, who held the government of the Ro- 
man empire for many years. She was mother 
of Valentinian. Her piety, and her private 
as well as public virtues, have been universally 
admired. She died A. D. 452, and was interred 
at Ravenna, where her tomb is still to be seen. 

PuNicuM Bellum. The first Punic war was 
undertaken by the Romans against Carthage, 
B. C. 264. For upwards of 240 years, the two 
nations had beheld with secret jealousy each 
other's power, but they had totally eradicated 
every cause of contention, by settling, in three 
different treaties, the boundaries of their respec- 
tive territories, the number of their allies, and 
how far one nation might sail into the Mediter- 
ranean without giving offence to the other. Si- 
cily was the seat of the first dissentions. The 
Mamerdni, a body of Italian mercenaries, were 
appointed by the king of Syracuse to guard the 
town of Messana ; but this tumultuous tribe, in- 
stead of protecting the citizens, basely massa- 
cred them, and seized their possessions. This 
act of cruelty raised the indignation of all the 
Sicilians, and Hiero, king of Syracuse, who had 
employed them, prepared to punish their per- 
fidy ; and the Mamertini, besieged in Messana, 
and without friends or resources, resolved to 
throw themselves for protection into the hands 
of the first power that could relieve them. They 
were, however, divided in their sentiments, aai 
575 



PU 



HISTORY, &c. 



PU 



while some implored the assistance of Carthage, 
others called upon the Romans for protection. 
Without hesitation or delay the Carthaginians 
entered Messana, and the Romans also hastened 
to give to the Mamertini that aid which had been 
claimed from them with as much eagerness as 
from the Carthaginians. At the approach of the 
Roman troops, the Mamertini, who had implor- 
ed their assistance, took up arms, and forced the 
Carthaginians to evacuate Messana. Fresh 
forces were poured in on every side, and though 
Carthage seemed superior in arms and in re- 
sources, yet the valour and intrepidity of the Ro- 
mans daily appeared more formidable, and Hie- 
ro, the Syracusan king who hitherto embraced 
the interests of the Carthaginians, became the 
most faithful ally of the republic. From a 
private quarrel the war became general. The 
Romans obtained a victory in Sicily, but as 
their enemies were masters at sea, the ad- 
vantages they gained were small and incon- 
siderable. To make themselves equal to their 
adversaries, they aspired to the dominion of 
the sea, and in sixty days timber was cut 
down, and a fleet of 120 galleys completely 
manned and provisioned. The successes they 
met with at sea were trivial, and little ad- 
vantage could be gained over an enemy that 
were sailors by actual practice and long ex- 
perience. Duilius at last obtained a victory, 
and he was the first Roman who ever received 
a triumph after a naval battle. The losses they 
had already sustained induced the Carthagini- 
ans to sue for peace, and the Romans, whom an 
unsuccessful descent upon Africa, under Regu- 
lus, ( Vid. Regulus,) had rendered diffident, lis- 
tened to the proposal, and the first punic war was 
concluded B.C. 241, on the following terras : — 
The Carthaginians pledged themselves to pay 
to the Romans, within twenty years, the sum of 
3000 Euboic talents, they promised to release 
all the Roman captives without ransom, to 
evacuate Sicily and the other islands in the Me- 
diterranean, and not to molest Hiero, king of 
Syracuse, or his allies. After this treaty the 
Carthaginians, who had lost the dominion of 
Sardinia and Sicily, made new conquests in 
Spain, and soon began to repair their losses by 
industry and labour. They planted colonies and 
secretly prepared to revenge themselves upon 
their powerful rivals. The Romans were not 
insensible of their successes in Spain, and to stop 
their progress towards Italy, they made a stipu- 
lation with the Carthaginians, by which they 
were not permitted to cross the Iberus, or to 
molest the cities of their allies, the Saguntines, 
This was for some time observed, but when An- 
nibal succeeded to the command of the Cartha- 
ginian armies in Spain, he spurned the bound- 
aries which the jealousy of Rome had set to his 
arms, and he immediately formed the siege of 
Saguntum. The Romans were apprized of the 
hostilities which had been begun against their 
allies, but Saguntum was in the hands of the 
active enemy before they had taken any steps 
to oppose him. Complaints were carried to 
Carthage, and war was determined upon by the 
influence of Annibal in the Carthaginian senate. 
Without delay or diffidence, B. C. 218, Annibal 
marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 
12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry 

He crossed the 
576 



the war to the gates of Rome 



Alps and the Appenines with uncommon cele- 
rity, and the Roman consuls who were stationed 
to stop his progress were universally defeated. 
After this, Annibal called his brother Asdrubal 
from Spain with a large reinforcement ; bui the 
march of Asdrubal was intercepted by the Ro- 
mans, his army was defeated, and himself slain. 
Affairs had now taken a different turn, and 
Marcellus, who had the command of the Roman 
legions in Italy, soon taught his countrymen 
that Annibal was not invincible in the field. 
The conquests of young Scipio in Spain mean- 
while had raised the expectations of the Ro- 
mans, and he had no sooner returned to Rome 
than he proposed to remove Annibal from the 
capital of Italy by carrying the war to the gates 
of Carthage. The conquests of the young Ro- 
man were as rapid in Africa as in Spain, and 
the Carthaginians, apprehensive of the fate of 
their capital, recalled Annibal from Italy, and 
preferred their safety at home to the maintain- 
ing of a long and expensive war in another 
quarter of the globe. Annibal received their 
order with indignation, and with tears in his 
eyes he left Italy, -where for 16 years he had 
kn own no superior in the field of battle. At his 
arrival in Africa, the Carthaginian general 
soon collected a large army, and met his ex- 
ulting adversary in the plains of Zama. The 
Romans obtained the victory, and Annibal, who 
had sworn eternal enmity to the gods of Rome, 
fled from Carthage after he had advised his 
countrymen to accept the terms of the conqueror. 
This battle of Zama was decisive, the Cartha- 
ginians sued for peace, which the haughty con- 
querors granted with difficulty. The conditions 
were these : Carthage was permitted to hold all 
the possessions which she had in Africa before 
the war, and to be governed by her own laws 
and institutions. She was ordered to make res- 
titution of all the ships and other effects which 
had been taken in violation of a truce that had 
been agreed upon by both nations. She was to 
surrender the whole of her fleet, except 10 gal- 
leys ; she was to release and deliver up all the 
captives, deserters, or fugitives, taken or re- 
ceived during the war ; to indemnify Masinissa 
for all the losses which he had sustained ; to 
deliver up all her elephants, and for the future 
never more to tame or break any more of these 
animals. She was not to make war upon any 
nation whatever without the consent of the Ro- 
mans, and was to reimburse the Romans, to 
pay the sum of 10,000 talents, at the rate of 200 
talents a year for 50 years, and she was to give 
up hostages from the noblest families for the 
performance of these several articles ; and, till 
the ratification of the treaty, to supply the Ro- 
man forces with money and provisions. These 
humiliating conditions were accepted 201 B. C. 
and immediately 4000 Roman captives were 
released, five hundred galleys were delivered 
and burnt on the spot ; but the immediate ex- 
action of 200 talents was more severely felt, 
and many of the Carthaginian senators burst 
into tears. During the 50 years which followed 
the conclusion of the second Punic war, the 
Carthaginians were employed in repairing 
their losses by unwearied application and in- 
dustry ; but they found still in the Romans a 
jealous rival and a haughty conque/or, and in 
Masinissa, the ally of Rome, an intriguing, and 



m 



HISTORY, &G. 



PY 



ambitious monarch. The king of Numidia 
made himself master of one of their provinces; 
and as they were unable to make war without 
the consent of Rome, the Carthaginians sought 
relief by embassies, and made continual com- 
plaints in the Roman senate of the tyranny 
and oppression of Masinissa. While the senate 
were debating about the existence of Carthage, 
and while they considered it as a dependant 
power, and not as an ally, the wrongs of Africa 
were without redress, and Masinissa continued 
his depredations. Upon this the Carthaginians 
resolved to do to their cause that justice which 
the Romans had denied them ; they entered 
the field against the Numidians, but they 
were defeated in a bloody battle by Masinissa, 
who was then 90 years old. In this bold mea- 
sure they had broken the peace ; and as their 
late defeat had rendered them desperate, they 
hastened with all possible speed to the capital 
of Italy to justify their proceedings, and to im- 
plore the forgiveness of the Roman senate. 
The news of Masinissa's victory had already 
reached Italy,and immediately some forces were 
sent to Sicily, and from thence ordered to pass 
into Africa. The ambassadors of Carthage re- 
ceived evasive and unsatisfactory answers from 
the senate. The consuls replied, that to pre- 
vent every cause of quarrel, the Carthaginians 
must deliver into their hands 300 hostages, all 
children of senators, and of the most noble and 
respectable families. The demand was great 
and alarming, but it was no sooner granted, than 
the Romans made another demand, and the 
Carthaginians were told that peace could not 
continue' if they refused to deliver up all their 
ships, their arms, engines of war, with all their 
naval and military stores. The Carthaginians 
complied, and immediately 40,000 suits of ar- 
mour, 20,000 large engines of war, with a plen- 
tiful store of ammunition and missile weapons, 
were surrendered. After this duplicity had 
succeeded, the Romans laid open the final reso- 
lutions of the senate, and the Carthaginians 
were then told, that, to avoid hostilities, they 
must leave their ancient habitations and retire 
into the inland parts of Africa, and found ano- 
ther city, at the distance of no less than ten 
miles from the sea. This was heard with hor- 
ror and indignation; the Romans were fixed 
and inexorable, and Carthage was filled with 
tears and lamentations. But the spirit of liberty 
and independence v/as not yet extinguished in 
the capital of Africa, and the Carthaginians 
determined to sacrifice their lives for the pro- 
tection of their gods, the tombs of their forefa- 
thers, and the place which bad given them birth. 
Before the Roman army approached the city, 
preparations to support a siege were made, and 
the ramparts of Carthage were covered with 
stones, to compensate for the weapons and in- 
struments of war which they had ignorantly 
betrayed to the duplicity of their enemies. As- 
drubal, whom the despair of his countrymen had 
banished on account of the unsuccessful ex- 
pedition against Masinissa, was immediately 
recalled ; and, in the moment of danger, Car- 
thage seemed to have possessed more spirit and 
vigour, than when Annibal was victorious at 
the gates of Rome. The town was blocked up 
bv the Romans, and a regular siege begun. 
Two years were spent in useless operations, and 
Part II.— 4 D 



Carthage seemed still able to rise from its ruins, 
to dispute for the empire of the world ; when 
Scipio, the descendant of the great Scipio, who 
finished the second Punic war, was sent to 
conduct the siege. The vigour of his operations 
soon baffled the eiforts and the bold resistance 
of the besieged ; the communications which they 
had with the land were cut oif, and the city, 
which was twenty miles in circumference, was 
completely surrounded on all sides by the ene- 
my. Despair and famine now raged in the 
city, and Scipio gained access to the city walls, 
where the battlements were low and unguarded. 
His entrance into the streets was disputed with 
uncommon fury, the houses as he advanced 
were set on fire to stop his progress; but when 
a body of 50,000 persons of either sex had claim- 
ed quarter, the rest of the inhabitants were dis- 
heartened, and such as disdained to be prisoners 
of war, perished in the flames, which gradually 
destroyed their habitations, 147 B. C, after a 
continuation of hostilities for three years. Du- 
ring 17 days Carthage was in flames ; and the 
soldiers were permitted to redeem from the fire 
whatever possessions they could. This remark- 
able event happened about the year of Rome 
606. The news of this victory caused the great- 
est rejoicings at Rome ; and immediately com- 
missioners were appointed by the Roman senate, 
not only to raze the walls of Carthage, but even 
to demolish and burn the very materials with 
which they were made ; and in a few days, that 
city which had been once theseat of commerce, 
and model of magnificence, the common store 
of the wealth of nations, and one of the most 
powerful states of the world, left behind no 
traces of its splendour, of its power, or even of 
its existence. Polyb. — Orosius. — Appian. de 
Punic, d^c. — Flor. — Plut. in Cat. d^c. — Strab. 
— Liv. epit. — Diog. 

PupiENUs, (Marcus Claudius Maximus,) a 
man of an obscure family, who raised himself 
by his merit to the highest ofiices in the Roman 
armies, and gradually became a praetor, consul, 
prefect of Rome, and a governor of the pro- 
vtnces. His father was a blacksmith. After 
the death of the Gordians, Pupienus was elect- 
ed with Balbinus to the imperial throne, and 
soon after prepared to make war against the 
Persians; but in this he was prevented, and 
massacred, A. D. 236, by the praetorian guards. 
Balbinus shared his fate. Pupienus is some- 
times called Maximus. In his private charac- 
ter he appeared always grave and serious; he 
was the constant friend of justice, moderation, 
and clemency ; and no greater encomium can 
be passed upon his virtues, than to say that he 
was invested with the purple without soliciting 
for it, and that the Roman senate said that they 
had selected him from thousands, because they 
knew no person more worthy or better quali- 
fied to support the dignity of an emperor. 

Puppius, a tragic poet in the age of J. Csesar. 
His tragedies were so pathetic, that when they 
were represented on the Roman stage, the au- 
dience melted into tears ; from which circum- 
stance Horace calls them lacrymosa, 1, ep. v. 67. 

Pygmalion, I. a king of Tyre, son of Belus, 
and brother to the celebrated Dido, who founded 
Carthage. At the death of his father, he as- 
cended the vacant throne, and soon became 
odious by his cruelty and avarice. He sacri- 
577 



PY 



HISTORY, &c. 



PY 



ficed every thing to the gratification of his pre- 
dominant passions, and he did not even spare 
the life of Sichasus, Dido's husband, because he 
was the most powerful and opulent of all the 
Phoenicians. This murder he committed in a 
temple, of which Sichseus was the priest ; but 
instead of obtaining the riches which he desired, 
Pygmalion was shunned by his subjects, and 
Dido, to avoid further acts of cruelty, fled away 
with her husband's treasure, and a large colony, 
to the coast of Africa, where she founded a city. 
Pygmalion died in the 56th year of his age and 
in the 47th of his reign. Virg. jEn. 1, v. 347, 
&c. — Justin. 18, c. 5. — Apollod. 3. lial. 1 



II. A celebrated statuary of the island of Cy- 
prus. He became enamoured of a beautiful 
statue of marble which he had made, and at his 
earnest request and prayers, according to the 
mythologists, the goddess of beauty changed 
the favourite statue into a woman, whom the 
artist married, and by whom he had a son called 
Paphus, who founded the city of that name in 
Cyprus. Ovid. Met. 10, fab. 9. 

Pylades, I. a son of Strophius, king of Phocis, 
by one of the sisters of Agamemnon. He was 
educated together with his cousin Orestes, with 
whom he formed the most inviolable friend- 
ship, and whom he assisted to revenge the 
murder of Agamemnon, by assassinating Cly- 
temnestra and iEgysthus, He also accompa- 
nied him to Taurica Chersonesus, and for his 
services Orestes rewarded him, by giving him 
his sister Electra in marriage. Pylades had 
by her two sons, Medon and Strophius. The 
friendship of Orestes and Pylades became pro- 
verbial. Vid. Orestes. Eurip. in Iphig. — A^s- 
chyl. inAg., &c. — Paios. 1, c. 28. 11. A cele- 
brated Roman pantomime, was a native of Ci- 
licia. He was brought to Rome in the flower 
of youth, and first gave grace and dignity to the 
pantomimic stage, on which only unmeaning at- 
titudes and rude gesticulations had been hitherto 
exhibited. The recitation, however, of the 
regular tragedy had always been accompanied 
with vehement and significant gestures. In 
consequence of one person thus gesticulating 
while the other declaimed, the Roman people 
had probably become expert in the interpreta- 
tion of mimetic action ; and, before the time of 
Pylades, certain signs, both natural and con- 
ventional, would be recognised as the tokens of 
corresponding emotions. It was principally 
tragic and majestic parts that Pylades repre- 
sented, such as OEdipus and Hercules Furens ; 
and his dancing chiefly expressed the grandeur 
of heroic sentiments. 

Pylas, a king of Megara. He had the mis- 
fortune accidentally to kill his uncle Bias, for 
which he fled away, leaving his kingdom to 
Pandion, his son-in-law, who had been driven 
from Athens. Apollod. 3, c. 15. — Pans. 1, c. 39. 

Pyramus, a youth of Babylon, who became 
enamoured of Thisbe, a beautiful virgin who 
dwelt in the neighbourhood. The flame was 
mutual, and the two lovers, whom their parents 
forbade to marry, regularly received each 
other's addresses through the chink of a wall 
which separated their houses. After the most 
solemn vows of sincerity, they both agreed to 
elude the vigilance of their friends, and to meet 
one another at thetombof Ninus, under a white 
mulberry-tree, without the walls of Babylon. 
578 



Thisbe came first to the appointed place, but 
the sudden arrival of a lioness frightened her 
away ; and as she fled into a neighbouring cave 
she dropped her veil, which the lioness found 
and besmeared with blood, Pyramus soon ar- 
rived, he found Thisbe's veil all bloody, and 
concluding that she had been torn to pieces by 
the wild beasts of the place, he stabbed himself 
with his sword. Thisbe, when her fears were 
vanished, returned from the cave, and at the 
sight of the dying Pyramus, she fell upon the 
sword which still reeked with his blood. This 
tragical scene happened under a white-mul- 
berry-tree, which, as the poets mention, was 
stained with the blood of the lovers, and ever 
after bore fruit of the colour of blood. Ovid. 
Met. 4, V. 55, &c.—Hygin. fab. 243. 

Pyrgoteles, a celebrated engraver on gems, 
in the age of Alexander the Great. He had the 
exclusive privilege of engraving the conqueror, 
as Lysippus was the only sculptor who was per- 
mitted to make statues of him. Pli7i. 37, c. 1. 

Pyrodes, a son of Cilix, said to be the first 
who discovered and applied to human purposes 
the fire concealed in flints. Plin. 7, c, 56. 

PYRRmAs, a boatman of Ithaca, remarkable 
for his humanity. He delivered from slavery 
an old man v/ho had been taken by pirates, and 
robbed of some pots full of pitch. The old man 
was so grateful for his kindness, that he gave 
the pots to his deliverer, after he had told him 
that they contained gold under the pitch. Pyr- 
rhias upon this ofiered the sacrifice of a bull to 
the old man, and retained him in his house, 
with every act of kindness and attention, till the 
time of his death. Plut. in qucest. G. 

Pyrrhicha, a kind of dance, said to be in- 
vented and introduced into Greece by Pyrrhus 
the son of Achilles. The dancers were gene- 
rally armed. Pli7i. 7, c. 56. 

Pyrrho, a philosopher of Elis, disciple to 
Anaxarchus, and originally a painter. His 
father's name was Plistarchus, or Pistocrates. 
He was in continual suspense of judgment, he 
doubted of every thing, never made any con- 
clusions, and when he had carefully examined 
a subject, and investigated all its parts, he con- 
cluded by still doubting of its evidence. This 
manner of doubting in the philosopher has been 
called Pyrrhonyism, and his disciples have re- 
ceived the appellation of skeptics, inquisitors, 
examiners, &c. He pretended to have acquired 
an uncommon dominion over opinion and pas- 
sions. The former of these virtues he called 
ataraxia, and the latter matriopathia ; and so 
far did he carry his want of common feeling 
and sympathy, that he passed with unconcern 
near a ditch in whichfhis master Anaxarchus 
had fallen, and where he nearly perished. As 
he showed so much indifference in every thing, 
and declared that life and death were the same 
thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he 
did nothurry himself out of the world: Because, 
says he, there is no difference between life and 
death. When he walked in the streets he never 
looked" behind or moved from the road of a 
chariot, even in its most rapid course; and, in- 
deed, as some authors remark, this indifference 
for his safety often exposed him to the g'reatest 
and most imminent dangers, from which he 
was saved by the interference of his friends who 
followed him. He flourished B. C. 304, and 



PY 



HISTORY, &c. 



PY 



died at the advanced age of 90. He left no 
writings behind him. His countrymen were 
so partial to him, that they raised statues to his 
memory, and exempted all the philosophers of 
Elis from taxes. Diog. 9. — Cic. de Oral. 3, c. 
Vl.—Aul. Gel. 11, c. b.—Paus. 6, c. 24. 

Pyrrhus, {yid. Neoptolimus,) I. a king of 
Epirus, descended from Achilles, by the side of 
his mother, and from Hercules by that of his 
father, and son of ^acides and Phthia. He was 
saved when an infant, by the fidelity of his ser- 
vants, from the pursuits of the enemies of his 
father,who had been banished from his kingdom, 
and he was carried to the court of Glautias, king 
of Illyrium, who educated him with great ten- 
derness. Cassander, king of Macedonia, wished 
to despatch him, as he had so much to dread 
from him ; but Glautias not only refused to de- 
liver him up into the hands of his enemy, but 
he even went with an army, and placed him on 
the throne of Epirus, though only 12 years of 
age. About five years after, the absence of 
Pyrrhus, to attend the nuptials of one of the 
daughters of Glautias, raised new commotions. 
The monarch was expelled from the throne by 
Neoptolemus, who had usurped it after the 
death of iEacides ; and being still without re- 
sources, he applied to his brother-in-law Deme- 
trius for .assistance. He accompanied Deme- 
trius at the battle of Ipsus, and fought there with 
all the prudence and intrepidity of an experi- 
enced general. He afterwards passed into 
Egypt, where, by his marriage with Antigone, 
the daughter of Berenice, he soon obtained a 
sufficient force to attempt the recovery of his 
throne. He was successful in the undertaking ; 
but to remove all causes of quarrel, he took the 
usurper to share with him the royalty, and some 
time after he put him to death under pretence 
that he had attempted to poison him. In the 
subsequent years of his reign Pyrrhus engaged 
in the quarrels which disturbed the peace of the 
Macedonian monarchy, he marched against 
Demetrius, and gave the Macedonian soldiers 
fresh proofs of his valour and activity. By dis- 
simulation he ingratiated himself in the minds 
of his enemy's subjects, and when Demetrius 
laboured under a momentary illness, Pyrrhus 
made an attempt upon the crown of Macedonia, 
which, if not then successful, soon after render- 
ed him master of the kingdom. This he shared 
with L3'-simachus for seven months, till the 
jealousy of the Macedonians, and the ambition 
of his colleague, obliged him to retire. Pyrrhus 
was meditating new conquests, when the Taren- 
tines invited him to Italy to assist them against 
the encroaching power of Rome. He gladly 
accepted the invitation, but his passage across 
the Adriatic proved nearly fatal, and he reach- 
ed the shores of Italy after the loss of the greatest 
part of his troops in a storm. At his entrance 
into Tarentum,.B. C. 280, he began to reform 
the manners of the inhabitants, and by introdu- 
cing the strictest discipline among their troops, 
to accustom them to bear fatigue and to despise 
dangers. In the first battle which he fought 
with the Romans he obtained the victory, but 
for this he was more particularly indebted to 
his elephants, whose bulk and uncommon ap- 
pearance astonished the Romans and terrified 
their cavalry. The number of the slain was 
equal on both sides, and the conqueror said that 



such another victory would totally ruin him. 
He also sent Cineas, his chief minister, to 
Rome, and though victorious, he sued for peace. 
These offers of peace were refused, and when 
Pyrrhus questioned Cineas, about the manners 
and the character of the Romans, the sagacious 
minister replied, that their senate was a vene- 
rable assembly of kings, and that to fight against 
them was to attack another Hydra. A second 
battle was fought near Asculum, but the slaugh- 
ter was so great, and the valour so conspicuous 
on both sides, that the Romans and their ene- 
mies reciprocally claimed the victory as their 
own. Pyrrhus still continued the war in favour 
of the Tarentines, when he was invited into 
Sicily by the inhabitants, who laboured under 
the yoke of Carthage and the cruelty of their 
own petty tyrants. His fondness of novelty soon 
determined him to quit Italy, he left a garrison 
at Tarentum, and crossed over to Sicily, where 
he obtained two victories over the Carthagini- 
ans, and took many of th§ir towns. He was for 
a while successful, and formed the project of 
invading Africa ; but soon his popularity van- 
ished, his troops became insolent, and he be- 
haved with haughtiness, and showed himself 
oppressive, so that his return to Italy was deem- 
ed a fortunate event for all Sicily. He had no 
sooner arrived at Tarentum than he renewed 
hostilities with the Romans with great acrimo- 
ny, but when his army of 80,000 menjiad been 
defeated by 20,000 of the enemy under Curius, 
he left Italy with precipitation, B. C. 274, 
ashamed of the enterprise, and mortified by the 
victories which had been obtained over one of 
the descendants of Achilles. In Epirus he be- 
gan to repair his military character by attacking 
Antigonus, who was then on the Macedonian 
throne. He gained some advantages over his 
enemy, and was at last restored to the throne of 
Macedonia. He afterwards marched against 
Sparta, at the request of Cleonymus, but when 
all his vigorous operations were insufficient 
to take the capital of Laconia, he retired to 
Argos, where the treachery of Aristeus invited 
him. The Argives desired him to retire, and 
not to interfere in the affairs of their republic, 
which were confounded by the ambition of two 
of their nobles. He complied with their wishes, 
but in the night he marched his forces into the 
town, and might have made himself master of 
the place had he not retarded his progress by 
entering it with his elephants. The combat 
that ensued was obstinate and bloody ; and the 
monarch, to fight with more boldness, and to 
encounter dangers with more facility, exchang- 
ed his dress. He was attacked by one of the 
enemy, but as he was going to run him through 
in his own defence, the mother of the Argive, 
who saw her son's danger from the top of a 
house, threw down a tile and brought Pyrrhus 
to the ground. His head was cut off and car- 
ried to Antigonus, who gave his remains a 
magnificent funeral, and presented his ashes to 
his son Helenus, 272 years before the Christian 
era. Pyrrhus has been deservedly commended 
for his talents as a general ; and not only his 
friends, but also his enemies, have been warm 
in extolling him; and Annibal declared, that 
for experience and sagacity the kins: of Epirus 
was the first of commanders. He bad chosen 
Alexander the Great as a model, and in every 
579 



PY 



HISTORY, &c. 



PY 



thing he wished not only to imitate, but to 
surpass him. In the art of war none were 
superior to him ; he not only made it his 
study as a general, but he even wrote many 
books on encampments, and the different ways 
of training up an army ; and whatever he 
did was by principle and rule. Pyrrhus mar- 
ried many wives, and all for political reasons ; 
besides Antigone, he had Lanassa the daughter 
of Agathocles, as also a daughter of Auioleon 
king of Pseonia. His children, as his biographer 
observes, derived a warlike spirit from their 
father, and when he was asked by one to which 
of them he should leave the kingdom of Epirus, 
he replied, To him who has the sharpest sword. 
uElian. Hist. an. 10. — Plut. in vitd.-^Justin. 
17, &c.—Liv. 13 and U.—Horat. 3, od. 6 



II. A king of Epirus, son of Ptolemy, murder- 
ed by the people of Ambracia. His daughter, 
called Laudamia, orDeidamia, succeeded him. 

Paus. III. A son of Daedalus. 

Pythagoras, I. a celebrated philosopher, born 
at Samos. His father, Mnesarchus, was a per- 
son of distinction, and therefore the son receiv- 
ed that education which was most calculated to 
enlighten his mind and invigorate his body. 
Like his contemporaries, he was early made 
acquainted with poetry and music ; eloquence 
and astronomy became his private studies, and 
in gymnastic exercises he often bore the palm 
for strength and dexterity. He first made him- 
self known in Greece, at the Olympic games, 
where he obtained, in the 18th year of his age, 
the prize for wrestling ; and, after he had been 
admired for the elegance and the dignity of his 
person, and the brilliancy of his understanding, 
he retired into the east. In Egypt and Chaldea 
he gained the confidence of the priests, and 
learned from them the artful policy, and the 
symbolic writings, by which they governed the 
princes as well as the people ; and after he had 
spent many years in gathering all the informa- 
tion which could be collected from antique tra- 
ditions, concerning the nature of the gods and 
the immorality of the soul, Pythagoras revisit- 
ed his native island. The tyranny of Polycrates 
at Samos disgusted the philosopher, who was a 
great advocate for national independence ; and 
though he was the favourite of the tyrant, he re- 
tired from the island, and a second time assisted 
at the Olympic games. His fame was too well 
known to escape notice; he was saluted in the 
public assembly by the name of Sophist, or wise 
man ; but he refused the appellation, and was 
satisfied with that of Philosopher, or the friend 
of wisdom. " At the Olympic games," said he, 
in explanation of this new appellation he wish- 
ed to assume, " some are attracted with the de- 
sire of obtaining crowns and honours, others 
come to expose their different commodities to 
sale, while curiosity draws a third class, and 
the desire of contemplating whatever deserves 
notice in that celebrated assembly; thus, on 
the more extensive theatre of the world, while 
many struggle for the glory of a name, and 
many pant for the advantages of fortune, a 
few, and indeed but a few, who are neither de- 
sirous of money, nor amlDitious of fame, are 
sufficiently gratified to be spectators of the 
wonder, the hurry, and the magnificence of the 
scene." From Olympia, the philosopher visited 
the republics of Elis and Sparta, and retired to 
580 



Magna Greecia, where he fixed his habitation 
in the town of Crotona, about the 40th year of 
his age. Here he founded a sect which has 
received the name of the Italian ; and he soon 
saw himself surrounded by a great number of 
pupils, which the recommendation of his 
mental, as well as his personal accomplish- 
ments, had procured. His skill in music and 
medicine, and his knowledge of mathematics 
and of natural philosophy, gained him friends 
and admirers ; and amidst the voluptuousness 
that prevailed among the inhabitants of Cro- 
tona, the Samian sage found his instructions 
respected, and his approbation courted: the 
most debauched and effeminate were pleased 
with the eloquence and the graceful delivery 
of the philosopher, who boldly upbraided them 
for their vices, and called them to more virtu- 
ous and manly pursuits. These animated ha- 
rangues were attended with rapid success, and 
a reformation soon took place in the morals and 
the life of the people of Crotona. The females 
were exhorted to become modest, and they left 
off their gaudy ornaments ; the youths were 
called away from their pursuits of pleasure, 
and instantly they forgot their intemperance, 
and paid to their parents that submissive at- 
tention and deference which the precepts of 
Pythagoras required. As to the old, they were 
directed no longer to spend their time in amass- 
ing money, but to improve their understanding, 
and to seek that peace and those comforts of 
mind which frugality, benevolence, and phi- 
lanthropy alone can produce. The sober and 
religious behaviour of the philosopher strongly 
recommended the necessity and importance of 
these precepts. Pythagoras was admired for 
his venerable aspect ; his voice was harmonious, 
his eloquence persuasive, and the reputation he 
had acquired by his distant travels, and by 
being crowned at the Olympic games, was great 
and important. He regularly frequented the 
temples of the gods, and paid his devotion to 
the divinity at an early hour ; he lived upon 
the purest and most innocent food, he clothed 
himself like the priests of the Egyptian gods, 
and by his continual purifications and regular 
offerings, he seemed to be superior to the rest of 
mankind in sanctity. These artful measures 
united to render him an object, not only of re- 
verence but of imitation. To set himself at a 
greater distance from his pupils, a number of 
years was required to try their various dis- 
positions, but the most talkative were not per- 
mitted to speak in the presence of their master 
before they had been his auditors for five 
years ; and those who possessed a natural taci- 
turnity were allowed to speak after a probation 
of two years. When they were capable of re- 
ceiving the secret instructions of the philoso- 
pher, they were taught the use of ciphers and 
hieroglyphic writings; and Pythagoras might 
boast that his pupils could correspond together, 
though in the most distant regions, in un- 
known characters ; and by the signs and words 
which they had received^ they could discover, 
though strangers and barbarians, those that 
had been educated in the Pythagorean school. 
So great was his authority among his pupils, 
that to dispute his word was deemed a crime, 
and the most stubborn were drawn to coin- 
cide with the opinions of their opponents, 



PY 



HISTORY, &c. 



PY 



when they helped their arguments by the words 
of the master said so, an expression which be- 
came proverbial in jurare in verba magistri. 
The great influence which the philosopher pos- 
sessed in his school was traxisferred to the 
world ; the pupils divided the applause and the 
approbation of the people with their venerated 
master, and in a short time, the rulers and the 
legislators of all the principal towns of Greece, 
Sicily, and Italy, boasted in being the disciples 
of Pythagoras. The Samian philosopher was 
the first who supported the doctrine of metemp- 
sychosis, or transmigration of the soul into dif- 
ferent bodies ; and those notions he seemed to 
have imbibed among the priests of Egypt, or in 
the solitary retreats of the Brachmans, More 
strenuously to support his chimerical system, 
he declared he recollected the different bodies 
his soul had animated before that of the son 
of Mnesarchus. He remembered to have been 
jEthalides, the son of Mercury ; to have assisted 
the Greeks during the Trojan war, in the char- 
acter of Euphorbus; ( Vid. Euphorbus,) to have 
been Hermotimus ; afterwards a fisherman ; and 
last of all, Pythagoras. He forbade his dis- 
ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he 
supposed them to have been produced from the 
same putrefied matter from which, at the crea- 
tion of the world, man was formed. In his 
theological system, Pythagoras supported that 
the universe was created from a shapeless heap 
of passive matter, by the hands of a powerful 
being, who himself was the mover and soul of 
the world, and of whose substance the souls of 
mankind were a portion. He considered 
numbers as the principles of every thing, and 
perceived in the universe, regularity, corre- 
spondence, beauty, proportion, and harmony, as 
intentionally produced by the creator. In his 
doctrines of morality, he perceived in the 
human mind propensities common to us with 
the brute creation ; and besides these, and the 
passions of avarice and ambition, he discovered 
the nobler seeds of virtue, and supported that 
the most ample and perfect gratification was to 
be found in the enjoyment of moral and intel- 
lectual pleasures. The thoughts of the past he 
considered as always present to us, and he be- 
lieved that no enjoyment could be had where 
the mind was disturbed by consciousness of 
guilt or fears about futurity. This opinion 
induced the philosopher to recommend to his 
followers a particular mode of education. The 
tender years of the Pythagoreans were employ- 
ed in continual labour, in study, in exercise, 
and repose ; and the philosopher maintained 
his well-known and important maxim, that 
many things, especially love, are best learned 
late. In a more advanced age the adult was 
desired to behave with caution, spirit, and pa- 
triotism, and to remember that the community 
and civil society demanded his exertions, and 
that the good of the public, and not his own 
private enjoyments, were the ends of his crea- 
tion. From lessons like these, the Pythago- 
reans were strictly enjoined to call to mind, and 
carefully to review, the actions, not only of the 
present, but of the preceding days. In their 
acts of devotion they early repaired to the most 
solitary places of the mountains, and after they 
had examined their private and public conduct, 
and conversed with themselves, they joined in 



the company of their friends, and early refresh- 
ed their body with light and frugal aliments. 
Their conversation was of the most innocent 
nature ; political or philosophic subjects were 
discussed with propriety, but without warmth ; 
and, after the conduct of the following day was 
regulated, the evening was spent with the same 
religious ceremony as the morning, in a strict 
and impartial self-examination. From such 
regularity, nothing but the most salutary conse- 
quences could arise; and it will not appear 
wonderful that the disciples of Pythagoras were 
so much respected and admired as legislators, 
and imitated for their constancy, friendship, and 
humanity. The authors that lived in, and after 
the age of Alexander, have rather tarnished 
than brightened the glory of the founder of the 
Pythagorean school, and they have obscured 
his fame by attributing to him actions which 
were dissonant with his character as a man 
and a moralist. To give more weight to his 
exhortations, as some writers mention, Pytha- 
goras retired into a subterraneous cave, where 
his mother sent him intelligence of every thing 
which happened dujing his absence. After a 
certain number of months he again reappeared 
on the earth, with a grim and ghastly counte- 
nance, and declared, in the assembly of the 
people, that he was returned from hell. From 
similar exaggerations it has been asserted that 
he appeared at the Olympic games with a 
golden thigh, and that he could write in letters 
of blood whatever he pleased on a looking- 
glass, and that by setting it opposite to the 
moon, when full, all the characters which were 
on the glass became legible on the moon's disk. 
They also support, that, by some magical words, 
he tamed a bear, stopped the flight of an eagle, 
and appeared on the same day and at the same 
instant in the cities of Crotona and Metapon- 
tum, &c. The time and the place of the death 
of this great philosopher are unknown ; yet 
many suppose that he died at Metapontum, 
about 497 years before Christ : and so great was 
the veneration of the people of Magna Graecia 
for him, that he received the same honours as 
were paid to the immortal gods, and his house 
became a sacred temple. Succeeding ages 
likewise acknowledged his merits; and when 
the Romans, A. U. C. 411, were commanded 
by the oracle of Delphi to erect a statue to the 
bravest and wisest of the Greeks, the distin- 
guished honour was conferred on Alcibiades 
and Pythagoras. Pythagoras had a daughter, 
called Damo. There is now extant a poetical 
composition ascribed to the philosopher, and 
called the golden verses of Pythagoras, which 
contains the greatest part of his doctrines and 
moral precepts; but many support that it is a 
supposititious composition, and that the true 
name of the writer was Lysis. Pythagoras 
distinguished himself also by his discoveries in 
geometry, astronomy, and mathematics ; and it 
is to him that the world is indebted for the de- 
monstrations of the 47th proposition of the first 
book of Euclid's elements, about the square 
of the hypothenuse. It is said that he was so 
elated after making the discovery, that he made 
an offering of a hetacorab to the gods; but the 
sacrifice was undoubtedly of small oxen, made 
with wax, as the philosopher was ever an enemy 
to shedding the blood of all animals. His sys- 
581 



PY 



HISTORY, &c. 



PY 



tern of the universe, in which he placed the sun 
in the centre, and all the planets moving in 
elliptical orbits round it, was deemed chimerical 
and improbable, till the deep inquiries and the 
philosophy of the 16th century proved it, by the 
most accurate calculations, to be true and in- 
contestable. Diogenes, Porphyry, lamblicus, 
and others, have written an account of his life, 
but with more erudition, perhaps, than veracity. 
Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 5. — Tusc. 4, c. 1. — Diog. 
&c. S.—Hygin. fab. \l^.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 60, 
&LC.— Plato.— Plin. 34, c. 6.—Gell. 9.—lam- 

blic. — Porphyr. — Plut. II. A soothsayer of 

Babylon, who foretold the death of Alexander 
and of Hephsestion, by consulting the entrails 

of victims. III. A tyrant of Ephesus. 

IV. One of Nero's wicked favourites. 

Pytheas, I. an archon at Athens. II. A 

native of Massilia, famous for his knowledge of 
astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and geo- 
graphy. He also distinguished himself by his 
travels ; and with a mind that wished to seek 
information in every corner of the earth, he 
advanced far into the northern seas, and dis- 
covered the island of Thule, and entered that 
then unknown sea which is now called the 
Baltic. His discoveries in astronomy and 
geography Avere ingenious, and, indeed, modern 
navigators have found it expedient to justify 
and accede to his conclusions. He was the 
first who established a distinction of climate by 
the length of days and nights. He wrote dif- 
ferent treatises in Greek, which have been lost, 
though some of them were extant in the begin- 
ning of the fifth century. Pytheas lived, accor- 
ding to some, in the age of Aristotle. Strah. 2, 

&c. — Plin. 37. III. An Athenian rhetorician 

in the age of Demosthsnes, who distinguished 
himself by his intrigues, rapacity, and his oppo- 
sition to the measures of Demosthenes, of whom 
he observed that his orations smelt of the lamp. 
Pytheas joined Antipater after the death of 
Alexander the Great. His orations were de- 
void of elegance, harsh, unconnected, and dif- 
fuse ; and from this circumstance he has not 
been ranked among the orators of Athens. 
jElian. V. H. 7, c. l.—Plut. in. Dem. (^ Polit.pr. 

Pythes, a native of Abdera in Thrace, son 
of Andromache, who obtained a crown at the 
Olympian games. Plin. 34, c. 7. — Pans. 6, c. 14. 

IPytheus, a Lydian, famous for his riches in 
the age of Xerxes. He kindly entertained the 
monarch and all his army when he was march- 
ing on his expedition against Greece, and ofier- 
ed him to defray the expenses of the whole war. 
Xerxes thanked him with much gratitude, and 
promisedto give bim whatever he should require. 
Pytheus asked him to dismiss his son from the 
expedition : upon which the monarch ordered 
the young man to be cut in two, and one half 
of the body to be placed on the right hand of 
the way, and the other on the left, that his army 
might march between them. Plut. de mul. 
virt. — Herodot. 

Pythia, the priestess of Apollo at Delphi. 
She delivered the answer of the god to such as 
came to consult the oracle, and was supposed 
to be suddenly inspired by the sulphurous va- 
pours which issued from the hole of a subter- 
raneous cavity within the temple, over which 
she sat bare on a three-legged stool, called a 
tripod. In the stool was a small aperture, 
582 



through which the vapour was exhaled by the 
priestess, and at this divine inspiration, her eyes 
suddenly sparkled, her hair stood on end, and 
a shivering ran all over her body. In this con- 
vulsive state she spoke the oracles of the god, 
often with loud bowlings and cries, and her ar- 
ticulations were taken down by the priest and 
set in order. Sometimes the spirit of inspira- 
tion was more gentle, and not always violent ; 
yet Plutarch mentions one of the priestesses 
who was thrown into such excessive fury, that 
not only those that consulted the oracle, but 
also the priests that conducted her to the sacred 
tripod, and attended her during the inspiration, 
were terrified and forsook the temple ; and so 
violent was the fit, that she continued for some 
days in the most agonizing situation, and at last 
died. The Pythia, before she placed herself 
on the tripod, used to wash her whole body, and 
particularly her hair, in the waters of the foun- 
tain Castalis, at the foot of mount Parnassus. 
She also shook a laurel-tree that grew near the 
place, and sometimes eat the leaves with which 
she crowned herself The priestess was origi- 
nally a virgin, but the institution was changed 
when Echecrates, a Thessalian, had ofiered 
violence to one of them, and none- but women 
who were above the age of fifty were permitted 
to enter upon that sacred ofiice. They always 
appeared dressed in the garments of virgins, to 
intimate their purity and modesty ; and they 
were solemnly bound to observe the strictest 
laws of temperance and chastity, that neither 
fantastical dresses nor lascivious behaviour 
might bring the ofiice, the religion, or the sanc- 
tity of the place into contempt. There was 
originally but one Pythia, besides subordinate 
priests, and afterwards two were chosen, and 
sometimes more. The most celebrated of all 
these is Phemonoe, who is supposed by some to 
have been the first who gave oracles at Delphi. 
The oracles were always delivered in hexame- 
ter verses, a custom which was some time after 
discontinued. The Pythia was consulted only 
one month in the year, about the spring. It 
was always required that those who consulted 
the oracle should make large presents to Apollo, 
and from thence arose the opulence, splendour, 
and the magnificence of that celebrated temple 
of Delphi. Sacrifices were also offered to the 
divinity, and if the omens proved unfavourable, 
the priestess refused to give an answer. There 
were generally five priests who assisted at the 
offering of the sacrifices, and there was also 
another who attended the Pythia, and assisted 
her in receiving the oracle. Vid. Delphi, Ora- 
culum. Pans. 10, c. 5. — Died. 16. — Strab. 6 
and 9. — Justin. 24, c. 5. — Plut. de orat. def. — 

Eurip. in Ion. — Chrysost. Games celebrated 

in honour of Apollo near the temple of Del- 
phi. They were first instituted, according to 
the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in 
commemoration of the victory which he had ob- 
tained over the serpent Python, from which 
they received their name ; though others main- 
tain that they were first established by Aga- 
memnon, or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or 
lastly, by the council of the Amphiciyons, B. C. 
1263. They were originally celebrated once in 
nine years, but afterwards every fifth year, on 
the second year of every Olympiad, according 
to the number of the Parnassian nymphs who 



au 



HISTORY, &c. 



au 



congratulated Apollo after his victory. The 
gods themselves were originally among the 
combatants; and, according to some authors, 
the first prizes were won by Pollux, in boxing ; 
Castor, in horseraces ; Hercules, in the pan- 
cratium ; Zetes, in fighting with the armour ; 
Calais, in running ; Telamon, in wrestling ; and 
Peleus, in throwing the quoit. These illustrious 
conquerors were rewarded by Apollo himself, 
who was present, with crowns and laurel. Some 
however observe, that it was nothing but a 
musical contention, in which he who sung best 
the praises of Apollo obtained the prize, which 
was presents of gold or silver, which were af- 
terwards exchanged for a garland of the palm- 
tree or of the beach leaves. It is said that 
Hesiod was refused admission to these games 
because he was not able to play upon the harp, 
which was required of all such as entered the 
lists. The songs which were sung were called 
nvdiKOL vojxoi, the Pythian modes, divided into five 
parts, which contained a representation of the 
fight and victory of Apollo over Python ; avaK- 
pitaig, the preparation for the fight; ejxiTEipa, the 
first attempt ; KaraKehevcrnog, taking breath and 
collecting courage ; lajxPoi kui SaKrv)^otj the insult- 
ing sarcasms of the god over his vanquished 
enemy ; cvpiyyes, an imitation of the hisses of the 
serpent ; just as he expired under the blows of 
Apollo. A dance was also introduced ; and in 
the 48th Olympiad, the Amphictyons, who pre- 
sided over the games, increased the number of 
musical instruments by the addition of a flute, 
but as it was more particularly used in funeral 
songs and lamentations, it was soon rejected as 
unfit for merriment, and the festivals which 
represented the triumph of Apollo over th^ 
conquered serpent. The Romans, according 
to some, introduced them into their city, and 
called them Apollinares ludi. Paus. 10, c. 13 
and Sl.—Strab. 9.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. Ul.—Plin. 
"I.—Liv. 25. 

Pythocles, an Athenian, descended from 
Aratus. It is said, that on this account, and for 
his instruction, Plutarch wrote the life of Aratus. 

Python, a native of Byzantium, in the age 
of Philip of Macedonia. He was a great fa- 
vourite of the monarch, who sent him to Thebes, 
when that city, at the instigation of Demos- 
thenes, was going to take arms against Philip. 
Plut. in Dem. — Diod. 

Pythonice, an Athenian prostitute, greatly 
honoured by Harpalus, whom Alexander some 
time before had intrusted with the treasures of 
Babylon. He married her ; and, according to 
some, she died the very moment that the nup- 
tials were going to be celebrated. He raised her 
a splendid monument on the road which led 
from Athens to Eleusis, which cost him 30 
talents, Diod. 17. — Paus. 1. — Athen. 13, &c. 

a 

QuADRiGARius, CI. Claudius, composed an- 
nals of Rome in twenty-four books, which, 
though now almost entirely lost, were in exist- 
ence as late as the end of the 12th century, be- 
ing referred to bv John of Salisbury in his book 
De Nugis Curialibus. Some passages, however, 
are still preserved, particularly the account of 
the defiance by the gigantic Gaul, adorned with 
a chain, to the whole Roman army, and his com- 



bat with Titus Manlius, afterwards surnamed 
Torquatus, from this chain which he took from 
his antagonist. " Who the enemy was," says 
Au. Gellius, " of how great and formidable 
stature, how audacious the challenge, and in 
what kind of battle they fought, Q,. Claudius 
has told with much purity and elegance, and 
in the simple unadorned sweetness of ancient 
language. There is likewise extant from these 
Annals the story of the consul CI. Fabius Max- 
imus making his father, who was then procon- 
sul, alight from his horse when he came out to 
meet him. We have also the letter of the 
Roman consuls, Fabricius and Gl. Emilius, to 
Pyrrhus, informing him of the treachery of his 
confidant, Nicias, Avho had oflfered to the Ro- 
mans to make away with his master for a re- 
ward. The Annals of duadrigarius must at 
least have brought down the history to the civil 
wars of Marius and Sylla, since, in the nine- 
teenth book,the author details the circumstances 
of the defence of the Piraeus against Sylla, by 
Archelaus, the prefect of Mithridates. As to the 
style of these Annals, AulusGellius reports,that 
they were written in a conversational manner." 
Q,u.EST0REs, two ofQccrs at Rome, first crea- 
ted A. U. C. 269. They received their name, 
a qucerendo, because they collected the revenues 
of the state, and had the total management of 
the public treasury. The quaestorship was the 
first office which could be had in the State. It 
was requisite that the candidates should be 24 
or 25 years of age, or, according to some, 27. 
In the year 332 U. C. two more were added to 
the others, to attend the consuls, to take care of 
the pay of the armies abroad, and sell the plun- 
der and booty which had been acquired by con- 
quest. These were called Peregrini, whilst 
the others, whose employment was in the city, 
received the name of Urbani. When the Ro- 
mans were masters of all Italy, four more were 
created, A. U. C. 439, to attend the procon- 
suls and proprsetors in their provinces, and to 
collect all the taxes and customs which each 
particular district owed to the republic. They 
were called Provinciates. Sylla, the dictator, 
created 20 quaestors, and J. Csesar 40, to fill up 
the vacant seats in the senate; from whence it 
is evident that the quaestors ranked as senators 
in the senate. The quaestors were always ap- 
pointed by the senate at Rome, and if any per- 
son was appointed to the quaestorship without 
their permission, he was only called Proqnastor. 
The quaestores urbani were apparently of more 
consequence than the rest, the treasury was in- 
trusted to their care, they kept an account of 
all receipts and disbursements, and tlie Roman 
eagles or ensigns were always in their possession 
when the armies were not on an expedition. 
They required every general before he triumph- 
ed, to tell them, upon his oath, that he had given 
a just account of the number of the slain on 
both sides, and that he had been saluted impe- 
rator by the soldiers, a title which every com- 
mander generally received from his army after 
he had obtained a victory, and which was after- 
wards confirmed and approved by the senate. 
The city quaestors had also the care of the am- 
bassadors; they lodged and received them, and 
some time after, when Augustus was declared 
emperor, they kept the decrees of the senate, 
which had been before intrusted with the ediles 
583 



au 



HlSTORY,&c. 



au 



and the tribunes. This gave rise to two new 
offices of trust and honour, one of which was 
QucBstor palatii, and the other quastor principis 
or augusti, sometimes called candidatus princi- 
pis. The tent of the quaestor in the camp was 
called qucBstorium. It stood near that of the 
general. Varro. de L. L. 4. — Liv. 4, c. 43. — 
Dio. 43. 

GtuiNCTius, (T.) I. a Roman consul who gain- 
ed some victories over the iEqui and the Volsci, 
and obtained a triumph for subduing Prajneste. 
II. A Roman consul when Annibal invad- 
ed Italy. 

duiNDEciMviRi, an order of priests whom 
Tarquin the proud appointed to take care of 
the Sibylline books. They were originally 
two, but afterwards the number was increased 
to ten, to whom Sylla added five more, whence 
their name. Vid. Decemviri and Duumviri. 

GluiNau ATRIA, a festival in honour of Minerva 
at Rome, which continued during five days. 
The beginning of the celebration was the 
I8th of March. The first day sacrifices and 
oblations were presented, but, however, without 
the efiusion of blood. On the second, third and 
fourth days, shows of gladiators were exhibited, 
and on the fifth day there was a solemn proces- 
sion through the streets of the city. On the 
days of the celebration, scholars obtained holy- 
days, and it was usual for them to offer prayers 
to Minerva for learning and wisdom, which the 
goddess patronised; and on their return to 
school, they presented their master with a gift, 
which has received the name of Minerval. 
They were much the same as the Panatheneea 
of the Greeks. Plays were also acted and dis- 
putations were held on subjects of literature. 
They received their names from the j^re days 
which were devoted for their celebration. 

CtuiNauENNALEs LuDi, gamcs celebrated by 
the Chians in honour of Homer every fifth 
year. There were also some games among the 
Romans which bore this name. They are the 
same as the Actian games. Vid. Actia. 

GluiNTiLiANUs, (Marcus Fabius,) a celebrated 
rhetorician born in Spain. He opened a school 
of rhetoric at Rome, and was the first who ob- 
tained a salary from the state as being a public 
teacher. After he had remained twenty years 
in this laborious employment, and obtained the 
merited applause of the most illustrious Ro- 
mans, not only as a preceptor but as a pleader 
of the bar, Q,uintilian, by the permission of the 
emperor Domitian retired to enjoy the fruits of 
his labours and industry. In his retirement he 
assiduously dedicated his time to the study of 
literature, and wrote a treatise on the causes of 
the corruption of eloquence. Some time after, 
at the pressing solicitation of his friends, he 
wrote the insiitntiones oratorica, the most per- 
fect and complete system of oratory extant. 
He was appointed preceptor to the two young 
princes whom Domitian destined for his suc- 
cessors on the throne ; but the pleasures which 
the rhetorician received from the favours and 
the attention of the emperor, and from the suc- 
cess which his writings met in the world, were 
imbittered by the loss of his wife and of his two 
sons. It is said that Cluintilian was poor in his 
retirement, and that his indigence was relieved 
by the liberality of his pupil, Pliny the younger. 
He died A. D. 95. His institutions were dis- 
584 



covered in the 1415th year of the Christian era, 
in the old tower of a m<3nastery of St. Gal, by 
Poggio Bracciolini, a native of Florence. The 
best editions of Gluintilian are those of Gesner, 
4to, Gotting. 1738; of L, Bat. 8vo, cum noiis 
variorum, 1665 ; of Gibson, 4to, Oxon, 1693 ; 
and that of Rollin, republished in 8vo. London, 
1792. 

CluiNTiLius Varus, a Roman governor of 
Syria. Vid. Varus. 

GluiNTiLLUs, (M. Arelius Claudius,) a brother 
of Claudius, who proclaimed himself emperor, 
and 17 days after destroyed himself by opening 
his veins in a bath, when he heard that Aure- 
lian was marching against him, about the 270th 
year of the Christian era, 

CluiNTus CuRTius RuFus, a Latin historian, 
who flourished, as some suppose, in the reign of 
Vespasian or Trajan, He has rendered him- 
self known by his history of the reign of Alex- 
ander the Great. The history was divided into 
10 books, of which the two first, the end of the 
fifth, and the beginning of the sixth, are lost. 
The work is admired for the purity of the style. 
It is, however, blamed for great anachronisms, 
and glaring mistakes in geography as well as 
history. Freinshemius has written a supple- 
ment to Curtius, from all the different aiithors 
who have employed their pen in writing an 
account of Alexander, and of his Asiatic con- 
quests. Some suppose that the historian is the 
same with that Curtius Rufus, who lived in the 
age of Claudius, under whom he was made 
consul. This Rufus was born of an obscure 
family, and he attended a Roman quaestor in 
Africa, when he was met at Adrumetum by a 
woman above human shape, in the middle of 
the day, who told him that the day should come 
in which he should govern Africa with consular 
power. He repaired to Rome, where he gain- 
ed the favours of the emperor, obtained consular 
honours, and at last retired as proconsul to 
Africa, where he died. The best edition of 
Curtius are those of Elzevir, 8vo. Amsl, 1673 ; 
or of Snakenburg, 4to. L. Bat. 1724; and of 
Barbou, 12mo. Paris, 1757. Tacit. Ann. 11, c. 
23, &c. 

duiRiNALiA, festivals in honour of Romulus, 
surnamed Cluirinus, celebrated on the 13th of 
the calends of March. 

duiRiNUs, (Sulpitius,) a Roman consul, bom 
at Lanuvium. Though descended of an obscure 
family, he was raised to the greatest honours by 
Augustus. He was appointed governor of Sy- 
ria,and was afterwards made preceptor to Caius, 
the grandson of the emperor. He married 
Emilia Lepida,the grand-daughter of Sylla and 
Pompey, but some time after, he shamefully 
repudiated her. He died A. D. 22. Tacit. 
Ann. 3, &c. 

QuiRiTES, a name given to the Roman citi- 
zens, because they admitted into their city the 
Sabines, who inhabited the town of Cures, 
and who on that account were called Quirites. 
After this union, the two nations were indis- 
criminately and promiscuously called by that 
name. It is, however, to be observed, that the 
word was confined to Rome, and not used in 
the armies, as we find some of the generals 
applying it only to such of their soldiers as they 
dismissed or "disgraced. Even some of the . 
emperors appeased a sedition by calling their 



RE 



HISTORY, &c. 



RH 



rebellious soldiers by the degrading appellation 
of Cluirites. Sueton. Ccbs. 70. — Lamprid. 53. — 
Lucan. 5, v. 558. — Horat. 4, od. 14, v. 1. — Varro. 
de L. L. 4:.—Liv. 1, c. 13.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 479. 



Rabirius, (C.) I. a Roman knight, who lent 
an immense sum of money to Ptolemy Auletes, 
king of Egypt. The monarch afterwards not 
only refused to repay him, but even confined 
him, and endangered his life. Rabirius escaped 
from Egypt with difficulty, but at his return to 
Rome he was accused by the senate of having 
lent money to an African prince for unlawful 
purposes. He was ably defended by Cicero, 
and acquitted with difficulty. Cic. pro Rah.- 



II. A Latin poet, in the age of Augustus, who 
wrote, besides satires and epigrams, a poem on 
the victory which the emperor had gained over 
Antony at Actium. Seneca has compared him 
to Virgil for elegance and majesty, but Q.uin- 

lilian is not so favourable to his poetry. III. 

An architect in the reign of Domiiian, who 
built a celebrated palace for the emperor, of 
which the ruins are still seen at Rome. 

Regillianus, d. Nonius, a Dacian, who en- 
tered the Roman armies, and was raised to the 
greatest- honours under Valerian. He was 
elected emperor by the populace, who were 
dissatisfied with Gallienus, and was soon after 
murdered by his soldiers, A. D. 262. 

Regulus, I. (M. Attilius,) a consul during 
the first Punic war. He reduced Brundusium, 
and in his second consulship he took 64 and 
sunk 30 galleys of the Carthaginian fleet on the 
coast of Sicily. Afterwards he landed in Afri- 
ca, and so rapid was his success, that in a short 
time he defeated three generals, and made him- 
self master of about 200 places of consequence 
on the coast. The Carthaginians sued for 
peace, but the conqueror refused to grant it, and 
soon after he was defeated in a battle by Xan- 
thippus, and 30,000 of his men were left on the 
field of battle, and 15,000 taken prisoners. 
Regulus was in the number of the captives, and 
he was carried in triumph to Carthage. He 
was afterwards sent by the enemy to Rome, to 
propose an accommodation and an exchange of 
prisoners; and if his commission was unsuc- 
cessful, he was bound by the most solemn oaths 
to return to Carthage without delay. When he 
came to Rome, Regulus dissuaded his country- 
men from accepting the terms which the enemy 
proposed, and when his opinions had had due 
influence on the senate, Regulus retired to 
Carthage agreeable to his engagements. The 
Carthaginians were told that their offers of 
peace had been rejected at Rome by the means 
of Regulus, and therefore they prepared to 
punish him with the greatest severity. His 
eyebrows were cut, and he was exposed for 
some days to the excessive heat of the meridian 
snn, and afterwards confined in a barrel, whose 
sides were every where filled with large iron 
spikes, till he died in the greatest agonies. His 
sufferings were heard at Rome, and the senate 
permitted his widow to inflict whatever pun- 
ishment she pleased on some of the most illus- 
trious captives of Carthage who were in their 
hands. She confined them also in presses filled 
with sharp iron points, and was so exquisite in 

Part II,— 4 E 



her cruelty, that the senate at last interfered, 
and stopped the barbarity of her punishments. 
Regulus died about 251 years before Christ. 
Sil. 6, V. 319.— i^or. 2, c. X— Horat. 3, od. 5. 
—Cic. de Off. 1, c. \3.— Val.Max. 1, c. 1, 1. 9, 

c. 2. — Liv. ep. 16. II. Memraius, a Roman, 

made governor of Greece by Caligula. While 
Regulus was in his province, the emperor wish- 
ed to bring the celebrated statue of Jupiter 
Olympius, by Phidias, to Rome ; but this was 
supernaturally prevented, and, according to an- 
cient authors, the ship which was to convey it 
was destroyed by lightning, and the workmen 
who attempted to remove the statue were terri- 
fied away by sudden noises. Dio. Cass. 

Remijlus Sylvius, a king of Alba, destroyed 
by lightning on account of his impiety. Ovid. 
Trist. 4, V. 50. 

Remuria, festivals established at Rome by 
Romulus, to appease the manes of his brother 
Remus. They were afterwards called Lemu- 
ria, and celebrated yearly. 

Remus, the brother of Romulus, was exposed, 
together with him, by the cruelty of his grand- 
father. In the contest between the two brothers 
about building a city, Romulus obtained the 
preference, and Remus, for ridiculing the rising 
walls, was put to death by his brother's orders, 
or by Romulus himself Vid. Romulus. The 
Romans were afflicted with a plague after this 
murder, upon which the oracle was consulted, 
and the manes of Remus appeased by* the insti- 
tution of the Remuria. Ovid. 

Rhadamistus, a son of Pharnasmanes, king 
of Iberia. He married Zenobia, the daughter 
of his uncle Mithridates, king of Armenia, and 
some time after put him to death. He was put 
to death by his father for his cruelties, about the 
year 52 of the Christian era. 7''acit. Ann. 13, 
c. 37. 

Rhampsinitus, an opulent king of Egypt, who 
succeeded Proteus. He built a large tower 
with stones, at Memphis, where his riches were 
deposited, and of which he was robbed by the 
artifice of the architect, who had left a stone in 
the wall easily moveable, so as to admit a plun- 
derer. Herodot. 2, c. 121, &c, 

Rhamses, or Ramises, a powerful kin 2: of 
Egypt, who, with an army of 700,000 men, con- 
quered Ethiopia, Libya, Persia, and other east- 
ern nations. In his reign, according to Pliny, 
Troy was taken. Some authors consider him 
to be the same as Sesostris. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 
60.— PZm. 36, c. 8. 

Rhascuporis, a king ofitf'hrace, who invaded 
the possessions of Coty^and was put to death 
by order of Tiberius, &c. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 64. 

Rhesus. Vid. Part III. 

RmANUs, a Greek poet of Thrace, originally 
a slave. He wrote an account of the war be- 
tween Sparta and Messenia, which continued 
for twenty years ; as also a history of the prin- 
cipal revolutions and events which had taken 
place in Thessaly. Of this poetical composi- 
tion nothing but a few verses are extant. He 
flourished about 200 years before the Christian 
era. Paus. 4, c. 6. 

RmMOTACLEs,a king ofThrace, who revolted 
from Antony to Augustus. He boasted of his 
attachment to the emperor's person at an enter- 
tainment, upon which Augustus said, prodv- 
tionem, avw, vroditares vern odi. 
585 



RO 



HISTORY, &c. 



RO 



Rhodope, or Rhodopis, a celebrated courte- 
zan of Greece, who was fellow-servant with 
jEsop at the court of a king of Samos. She 
was carried to Egypt by Xanthus, and her 
liberty was at last bought by Charajces of Mity- 
lene, the brother of Sappho, who was enamour- 
ed of her, and who married her. She sold her 
favours at Naucratis, where she collected so 
much money, that, to render her name immor- 
tal, she consecrated a number of spits in the 
temple of Apollo at Delphi; or, according to 
others, erected one of the pyramids of Egypt. 
iElian says, that as Rhodope was one day bath- 
ing herself, an eagle carried away one of her 
sandals, and dropped it near Psammetichus, 
king of Egypt, at Memphis. The monarch 
was struck with the beauty of the sandal, strict 
inquiry was made to find the owner, and Rho- 
dope, when discovered, married Psammetichus. 
Herodot. 2, c. 134, &c.' — Ovid. Heroid. 15. — 
jElian. V. H. 13, c. 33. Vid. Part I. 

Rhcetus, a king of the Marubii, who married 
a woman called Casperia. to whom Archemo- 
rus, his son by a former wife, oiFered violence. 
After this incestuous attempt, Archemorus fled 
to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. Virg. ^n. 10, 
V. 388. 

Rhosaces, a Persian, killed by Clitus, as he 
was going to stab Alexander at the battle of the 
Granicus. Curt. 8, c. 1. 

Rhynthon, a dramatic writer of Syracuse, 
who flourished at Tarentum, where he wrote 38 
plays. Authors are divided with respect to the 
merit of his compositions and the abilities of the 
writer. Vid. Rhinthon. 

Romulus, a son of Mars and Ilia, grandson 
of Numitor, king of Alba, was born at the 
same birth with Remus. These two children 
were thrown into the Tiber by order of Amu- 
lius, who usurped the crown of his brother Nu- 
mitor ; but they were preserved, and, according 
to Florus, the river stopped its course, and a 
she- wolf came and fed them with her milk till 
they were found by Faustulus, one of the king's 
shepherds, who educated them as his own chil- 
dren. When they knew their real origin, the 
twins, called Romulus and Remus, put Amu- 
lius to death, and restored the crown to their 
grandfather Numitor. They afterwards under- 
took to build a city, and, to determine which of 
the two brothers should have the management 
of it, they had recourse to omens and the flight 
of birds. Remus went to mount Aventine, 
and Romulus to mount Palatine. Remus saw 
first a flight of six vultures, and soon after 
Romulus twelve ; and, therefore, as the number 
was greater, he began to lay the foundations of 
the city, and marked with a furrow the place 
where he wished to erect the walls ; but their 
sienderness was ridiculed by Remus, who leap- 
ed over them with the greatest contempt. This 
irritated Romulus, and Remus was immedi- 
ately put to death, either by the hand of his 
brother or one of the workmen. When the walls 
were built, the city was without inhabitants ; 
but Romulus, by making an asylum of a sacred 
grove, soon collected a multitude of fugitiv3s, 
foreigners, and criminals, whom he received as 
his lawful subjects. Yet, however numerous 
these might be, they were despised by the neigh- 
bouring inhabitants, and none were willing to 
form matrimonial connexions with them. But 
586 



Romulus obtained by force what was denied to 
his petitions. The Romans celebrated games 
in honour of the god Consus, and forcibly car- 
ried away all the females who had assembled 
there to be spectators of these unusual exhibi- 
tions. A violent engagement was begun in the 
middle of the Roman forum ; but the Sabines 
were conquered, or, according to Ovid, the two 
enemies laid down their arms when the women 
had rushed between the two armies, and by their 
tears and entreaties raised compassion in the 
bosoms of their parents and husbands. The 
Sabines left their original possessions, and came 
to live in Rome, where Tatius, their king, 
shared the sovereign power with Romulus. 
Afterwards Romulus divided the lands which 
he had obtained by conquest ; one part was re- 
served for religious uses, to maintain the priests, 
to erect temples, and to consecrate altars ; the 
other was appropriated for the expenses of the 
state ; and the third part was equally distrib- 
uted among his subjects, who were divided 
into three classes or tribes. The most aged and 
experienced, to the number of 100, were also 
chosen, whom the monarch might consult in 
matters of the highest importance, and from 
their age they were called senators, and from 
their authority patres. The whole body of the 
people were also distinguished by the name of 
patricians and plebeians, patron and client, who 
by mutual interest were induced io preserve the 
peace of the state, and to promote the public 
good. Some time after, Romulus disappeared 
as he was giving instructions to the senators, 
and the eclipse of the sun, which happened at 
that time, was favourable to the rumour which 
asserted that the king had been taken up to hea- 
ven, 714 B. C. after a reign of 39 years. This 
was further confirmed by J. Proculus, one of the 
senators, who solemnly declared, that as he re- 
turned from Alba he "had seen Romulus in a 
form above human, and that he had directed him 
to tell the Romans to pay him divine honours 
under the name of Quirinus, and to assure 
them that their city was doomed one day to 
become the capital of the world. This report 
was immediately credited, and the more so as 
the senators dreaded the resentment of the peo- 
ple, who suspected them of having offered him 
violence. A temple was raised to him, and a 
regular priest, called F%amen Quirinalis, was 
appointed to offer him sacrifices. Romulus 
was ranked by the Romans among the 12 great 
gods, and it is not to be wondered that he re- 
ceived such distinguished honours, when the 
Romans considered him as the founder of their 
city and empire, and the son of the god of war. 
He is generally represented like his father, so 
much that it is difficult to distinguish them. 
The fable of the two children of Rhea Sylvia 
being nourished by a she-wolf, arose from Lupa, 
Faustulus's wife, having brought them up. 
Vid. Acca. Dionys. Hal. 1 and 2. — Liv. 1, c. 
4, &.C.— Justin. 43, c. 1 and 2.—Flor. 1, c. 1.— 
Plut. in Romul. — Val. Max. 3, c. 2, 1. 5, c. 3. — 
Plin. 15, c. 18, Sic—Virg. JEn. 2, v. 342, 605. 
— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 616 and 845. Fast. 4, «&c. 
—Horat. 3, od. Z.—Juv. 18, v. 272. 

Romulus Sylvtos, or Alladius, (Momyllus 
Augustulus,) the last of the emperors of the 
western empire of Rome. His country was 
conquered, A. D. 476, 'by the Heruli, under 



RXJ 



HISTORY, &c. 



SA 



Odoacer, who assumed the name of king of 
Italy. 

RoMUs, I. a son of jEneas, by Lavinia. Some 

suppose that he was the founder of Rome. 

II. A son of ^mathion, sent by Diomedes to 
Italy, and also supposed by some to be the 
founder of Rome. 

RosciA Lex, de theairis, by L. Roscius Otho, 
the tribune, A. U. C. 685. It required that 
none should sit in the first 14 seats of the, 
theatre, if they were not in possession of 400 
sestertia, which was the fortune required to be 
a Roman knight. 

Roscius, (Ct.) I. a Roman actor, born at La- 
nuvium, so celebrated on the stage, that every 
comedian of excellence and merit has received 
his name. His eyes were naturally distorted, 
and he always appeared on the stage with a 
mask, but the Romans obliged him to act his 
characters without, and they overlooked the 
deformities of his face, that they might the bet- 
ter hear his elegant pronunciation, and be de- 
lighted with the sweetness of his voice. He 
was accused on suspicion of dishonourable 
practices; but Cicero, who had been one of his 
pupils, undertook his defence, and cleared him 
of the malevolent aspersions of his enemies, in 
an elegant oration still extant. Roscius wrote 
a treatise, in which he compared, with great 
success and much learning, the profession of 
the orator with that of the comedian. He died 
about 60 years before Christ. Horat. 2, ep. 1. 
— Quintil. — Cic. pro Ros. de Oral. 3, de Div. 

1, &c. Tusc. 3, &c.—Plut. in Cic. II. Sex- 

tus, a rich citizen of Ameria, murdered in the 
dictatotship of Sylla. His son, of the same 
name, was accused of the murder, and elo- 
quently defended by Cicero, in an oration still 
extant, A. U. C. 673. Cic. pro S. Roscio Amer. 

RoxANA, I. a Persian woman, taken prisoner 
by Alexander. The conqueror became ena- 
moured of her and married her. She behaved 
with great cruelty after Alexander's death, and 
she was at last put to death by Cassander's 
order. She was daughter of Darius, or, ac- 
cording to others, of one of his satraps. Curt. 

8, c. 4, 1. 10, c. 6.—Plut. in Alex. II. A wife 

of Mithridates the Great, who poisoned herself 

RuFUs, ( Vid. Quintius), one of the ancestors 
of Sylla, degraded from the rank of a senator, 
because ten pounds weight of gold was found 
in his house. 

RupiLius, I. an officer surnamed Rex, for his 
authoritative manners. He was proscribed by 
Augustus, and fled to Brutus. Horat. 1, sat. 7, 

V. 1. II. A writer, whose treatises dejiguris 

sententiarum, &c., were edited by Runken. 8vo. 
L. Bat. 1786. 

RusTicus, L. Jdn. Arulenus, a man put to 
death by Domitian. He was the friend and 
preceptor of Pliny the younger, who praises his 
abilities; and he is likewise commended by 
Tacitus, 16, H. c. 26.—Plin. 1, ep. H.—Suet. 
in Doni- 

RuTiLius RuFUs, (P.) I. a Roman consul in 
the age of Sylla, celebrated for his virtues and 
writings. When Sylla had banished him from 
Rome he retired to Smyrna, amidst the accla- 
mations and praises of the people ; and when 
some of his friends wished him to be recalled 
home by means of a civil war, he severely re- 
primanded them, and said that he-wished rather 



to see his country blush at his exile than to 
plunge it into distress by his return. He was 
the first who taught the Roman soldiers the 
principles of fencing, and by thus mixing dex- 
terity with valour, rendered their attacks more 
certain and more irresistible. During his ban- 
ishment he employed his time in study, and 
wrote a history of Rome in Greek, and an 
account of his own life in Latin, besides many 
other works. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 563. — Seneca de 
Benef. — Cic. in Brut, de Orat. 1, c. 53. — Vol. 

Max. 2, c. 3, 1. 6, c. ^.—Paterc. 2, c. 9. 

II. Claud. Numantianus, a poet of Gaul in the 
reign of Honorius. According to some, he 
wrote a poem on mount ^tna. He wrote also 
an Itinerary, published by Burman in the poetas 
Latini minores, L. Bat. 4to. 1731. 

S. 

Sabachus, or Sabacon, a king of ^Ethiopia, 
who invaded Egypt, and reigned there after the 
expedition of the king of Amasis, After a 
reign of fifty years he was terrified by a dream, 
and retired into his own kingdom. Herodot. 2, 
c. 137, &c. 

Sabina, Julia, a Roman matron, who mar- 
ried Adrian. She is celebrated for her private 
as well as public virtues. Adrian treated her 
with the greatest asperity, though he had re- 
ceived from her the imperial purple ; and the 
empress was so sensible of his unkindness, 
that she boasted in his presence that she had 
disdained to make him a father, lest his children 
should become more odious and more tyrannical 
than he himself was. The behaviour of Sabina 
at last so exasperated Adrian, that he poisoned 
her, or, according to some, obliged her to de- 
stroy herself. The emperor at that time la- 
boured under a mortal disease, and therefore 
he was the more encouraged to sacrifice Sabina 
to his resentment, that she might not survive 
him. Divine honours were paid to her mem- 
ory. She died after she had been married 
38 years to Adrian, A. D. 138. 

Sabini. Vid. Part I. 

Sabinus Aulus, I. a Latin poet intimate with 
Ovid. He wrote some epistles and elegies, in 
the number of which were mentioned an epistle 
from iEneas to Dido, from Hippolytus to Phae- 
dra, and from Jason to Hipsipyle, from De- 
mophoon to Phyllis, from Paris to CEnone, 
from Ulysses to Penelope ; the three last of 
which, though said to be his composition, are 

spurious. Ovid. Am. 2, el. 18, v. 27. II. A. 

man from whom the Sabines received their 
name. He received divine honours after 
death, and was one of those deities whom 
jEneas invoked when he entered Italy. He 
was supposed to be of Lacedaemonian origin. 

Virg. JSti. 7, V. 171. III. Julius, an officer, 

who proclaimed himself emperor in the be- 
ginning of Vespasian's reign. He was soon 
after defeated in a battle ; and, to escape from 
the conqueror, he hid himself in a subterrane- 
ous cave, with two faithful domestics, where he 
continued unseen for nine successive years. 
His wife found out his retreat, and spent her 
time with him, till her frequent visits to the 
cave discovered the place of his concealment. 
He was dragged before Vespasian, and by his 
orders put to death though his friends inter- 
587 



SA 



mSTORY, &c. 



3A 



ested themselves in his cause, and his wife en- 
deavoured to raise the emperor's pity by show- 
ing him the twins she had brought forth in 

their subterraneous retreat. IV. Titius, a 

Roman senator, shamefully accused and con- 
demned by Sejanus. His body, after execution, 
^vas dragged through the streets of Rome, and 
treated with the greatest indignities. His dog 
constantly followed the body, and when it was 
thrown into the Tiber, the faithful animal 
plunged in after it, and was drowned. Plin. 8, 

c. 40. V. Poppaeus, a Roman consul, who 

presided above 24 years over McEsia, and ob- 
tained a triumph for his victories over the bar- 
barians. He was a great favourite of Augustus 

and of Tiberius. Tacit. Ann. VI. Flavins, 

a brother of Vespasian, killed by the populace. 
He was well known for his fidelity to Vitellius. 
He commanded in the Roman armies 35 years, 

and was governor of Rome for 12. VII. A 

friend of Domitian. VIII. A Roman who 

attempted to plunder the temple of the Jews. 

IX. A friend of the emperor Alexander, 

X. A lawyer. 

Saburanus, an officer of the praetorian guards. 
When he was appointed to this office by the 
emperor Trajan, the prince presented him with 
a sword, saying. Use this loeapon in my service 
so long as my commands are just ; but turn it 
against my own breast whenever 1 become cruel 
or malevolent. 

Sabus, the same as Sabinus. Vid. Sabinus. 

Sacadas, a musician and poet of Argos, 
who obtained three several times the prize at 
the Pythian games. Plut. de mus. — Paus. 6, 
c. 14. 

Sachata Lex, militaris, A. U. C. 411, by 
the dictator Valerius Cojvus, as some suppose, 
enacted that the name of no soldier which had 
been entered in the muster roll should be struck 
out but by his consent, and that no person who 
had been a military tribune should execute the 
office of ductor ordinum. 

Sacrum Bellum, a name given to the wars 
carried on concerning the temple of Delphi. 
The first began B. C. 448, and in it the Athe- 
nians and Lacedaemonians were auxiliaries on 
opposite sides. The second war began 357 B. 
C. and w^as finished nine years after by Philip 
of Macedonia, who destroyed all the cities of 
thePhocians. Vid. Phocis. 

Sadales, a son of Cotys, king of Thrace, 
who assisted Pompey with a body of 500 horse- 
men. Cces. Bell. G. 3.— Cic. Ver. 1. 

Sadyates, one of the Mermnadae, Vv^ho reign- 
ed in LydJa 12 years after his father Gyges. 
He made war against the Milesians for six 
years. Herodot. 1, c. 16, &c. 

Saleius, a poet of great merit in the age of 
Domitian, yet pinched by poverty, though born 
of illustrious parents, and distinguished by pu- 
rity of manners and integrity of mind. Juv. 7, 
V. SO.— Quint. 10, c. 1. 

Salii, a college of priests at Rome instituted 
in honour of Mars, and appointed by Numa, to 
take care of the sacred shields called Ancylia, 
B. C. 709. Vid. Ancyle. They were twelve 
in number, the three elders among them had the 
superintendence of all the rest; the first was 
called prcesul, the second vates, and the third 
magister. Their number was afterwards dou- 
bled by Tullus Hostilius, after he had obtained 
588 



a victory over the Fidenaies, in consequence of 
a vow which he had made to Alars. The Salii 
were all of patrician families, and the office was 
very honourable. The first of March was the 
day on which the Salii observed their festivals 
in honour of Mars. They r\^ere generally dress- 
ed in a short scarlet tunic, of which only the 
edges were seen ; they wore a large purple co- 
loured belt about the waist, which was fastened 
with brass buckles. They had en their heads 
round bonnets, with two corners standing up, and 
they wore in their right hand a small rod, and 
in their left a small buckler. In the observation 
of their solemnity they first offered sacrifices, 
and afterwards went through the streets dancing 
in measured motions, sometimes all together, 
or at other times separately, while musical in- 
struments were playing beforet iiem. They 
placed their body in different attitudes, and 
struck with their rods the shields which they 
held in their hands. They also sung hymns in 
honour of the gods, particularly of Mars, Juno, 
Venus, and Minerva, and they were accom- 
panied in the chorus by a certain number of vir- 
gins, habited like .themselves, and called Salice. 
The Salii instituted by Numa were called Pa- 
latini, in contradistinction from the others, be- 
cause they lived on mount Palatine, and offered 
their sacrifices there. Those that were added 
by Tullus were called Collini, Agonales, or 
Quirinales, from a mountain of the same name, 
where they had fixed their residence. Their 
name seems to have been derived a saliendo, or 
saltando, because, during their festivals, it was 
particularly requisite that they should leap and 
dance. Their feasts and entertainments were 
uncommonly rich and sumptuous, whence dapes 
saliares is proverbially applied to such repasts 
as are most splendid and costly. It was usual 
among the Romans, when they declared war^ 
for the Salii to shake their shields with great 
violence, as if to call upon the god Mars to 
come to their assistance. Liv. 1, c. 20. — Varro 
de L. L. 4, c. 15.— Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 381.— Dio- 
nys. 3.—Flor. 1, c. 2, &c.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 285. 

Salinator, a surname common to the family 
of the Livii and others. 

Salius, an Acarnanian, at the games exhibit- 
ed by iEneas in Sicily, and killed in the wars 
with Turnus. It is said by some that he taught 
the Latins those ceremonies, accompanied with 
dancing, which afterwards bore his name in the 
appellation of the Salii. Virg. JEn.b, v. 298, 
1. 10, V. 753. 

Sallustius, I. (Crispus), has been generally 
considered as the first among the Romans who 
merited the title of historian. This celebrated 
writer M^asborn at Amiternum, in the territory 
of the Sabines, in the year 668. He received 
his education at Rome, and, in his early youth, 
appears to have been desirous to devote himself 
to literary pursuits. But it was not easy for 
one residing in the capital to escape the conta- 
gious desire of military or political distinction. 
At the age of twenty-seven, he obtained the 
situation of quaestor, which entitled him to a 
seat in the senate, and about six years afier- 
w^ards he was elected tribune of the people. 
While in this office, he attached himself to the 
fortunes of Csesar, and along with one of his 
colleagues of the tribunate, conducted the pro- 
secution against Milo for the murder of Clo- 



-SA 



HISTORY, &c. 



SA 



dius. In the year 704, he was excluded from 
the senate, on pretext of immoral conduct, but 
more probably from the violence of the patrician 
party, to which he was opposed. Aulas Gel- 
lius, on the authority of Varro's treatise, Pius 
aut de Pace^ informs us that he incurred this 
disgrace in consequence of being surprised in 
an intrigue with Fausta,the wife of Milo, by the 
husband, who made him be scourged by his 
slaves. It has been doubted, however, by mod- 
ern critics, whether it was the historian Sal- 
lust who was thus detected and punished, or his 
nephew, Crispus Sallustius, to whom Horace 
has addressed the second ode of the second book. 
It seems, indeed, unlikely, that in such a cor- 
rupt age, an amour with a woman of Fausta's 
abandoned character, should have been the real 
cause of his expulsion from the senate. After 
undergoing this ignominy, which, for the pre- 
sent, baffled all his hopes of preferment, he 
quilted Rome, and joined his patron, Cassar, in 
Gaul. He continued to follow the fortunes of 
that commander, and, in particular, bore a share 
in the expedition to Africa, where the scattered 
remains of Pompey's party had united. That 
region being finally subdued, Sallust was left by 
Caesar as praetor of Numidia ; and about the 
same time he married Terentia, the divorced 
wife of Cicero. He remained only a year in 
his government, but during that period he en- 
riched himself by despoiling the province. On 
his return to Rome, he was accused by the Nu- 
mjdians, whom he had plundered, but escaped 
With impunity, by means of the protection of 
Caesar, and was quietly permitted to betake 
himself to a luxurious retirement with his ill- 
gotten wealth. He chose for his favourite re- 
treat a villa at Tibur, which had belonged to 
Caesar ; and he also built a magnificent palace 
in the suburbs of Rome, surrounded by delight- 
ful pleasure-grounds, which were afterwards 
well known and celebrated by the name of the 
Gardens of Sallust. The Sallustian palace and 
gardens became, after the death of their original 
proprietor, the residence of successive empe- 
rors. Augustus chose them as the scene of 
his most sumptuous entertainments. The taste 
of Vespasian preferred them to the palace of 
the Csesars. Even the virtuous Nerva, and 
stern Aurelian, were so attracted by their beauty, 
that, while at Rome, they were their constant 
abode. In his urban gardens, or villa at Tibur, 
Sallust passed the close of his life, dividing his 
time between literary avocations and the soci- 
ety of his friends — among whom he numbered 
Lucullus, Messala, and Cornelius Nepos. Such 
having been his friends and studies, it seems 
highly improbable that he indulged in that ex- 
cessive libertinism which has been attributed to 
him, on the erroneous supposition that he was 
the Sallust mentioned by Horace in the first 
book of his Satires. The subject of Sallust's 
character is one which has excited some inves- 
tigation and interest, and on which very dif- 
ferent opinions have been formed. That he 
was a man of loose morals is evident ; and it 
cannot be denied that he rapaciously plundered 
his province, like other Roman governors of 
the day. But it seems doubtful if he was that 
monster of iniquity he has been sometimes rep- 
resented. He was extremely unfortunate in the 
first permanent notice taken of his character 



by his contemporaries. The decided enemy of 
Pompey and his faction, he had said of that cele- 
brated chief, in his general history, that he was 
a man " oris probi, animo inverecundo." Le- 
naeus, the freedman of Pompey, avenged his 
master, by the most virulent abuse of his enemy, 
in a work which should rather be regarded as 
a frantic satire than an historical document. 
Of the injustice which he had done to the life 
of the historian we may, in some degree, judge, 
from what he said of him as an author. He 
called him, as we learn from Suetonius, " Nebu- 
lonem, vita scriplisque monstrosum; praeterea, 
priscorum Catonisque incruditissimum furem." 
The life of Sallust, by Asconius Pedianus, 
which was written in the age of Augustus, and 
might have acted, in the present day, as a cor- 
rective, or palliative, of the unfavourable im- 
pressions produced by this injurious libel, has 
unfortunately perished ; and the next work on 
the subject now extant is professedly rhetorical 
declamation against the character of Sallust, 
which was given to the world in the name of 
Cicero, but was not written till long after the 
death of that orator, and is now generally as> 
signed by critics, to a rhetorician, in the reign of 
Claudius, called Porcius Latro. The calumnies 
invented or exaggerated by Lenseus, and prop- 
agated in the scholiastic theme of Porcius 
Latro, have been adopted by Le Clerc, professor 
of Hebrew at Amsterdam, and by Professor 
Meisner, of Prague, in. their respective accounts 
of the life of Sallust. His character has re- 
ceived more justice from the prefatory Memoir 
and Notes of De Brosses, his French transla- 
tor, and from the researches of Wieland in 
Germany. The first book of Sallust was the 
Conspiracy of Catiline. There exists, however, 
some doubt as to the precise period of its com- 
position. The general opinion is, that it was 
written immediately after the author went out 
of office as tribune of the people, that is, in 
the year 703 : and the composition of the M- 
gurthine War, as well as of his general history, 
are fixed by Le Clerc between that period and 
his appointment to the praetorship of Numidia. 
The subjects chosen by Sallust form two of the 
most important and prominent topics in the his- 
tory of Rome. The periods, indeed, which he 
describes, were painful, but they were interest- 
ing. Full of conspiracies, usurpations, and 
civil wars, they chiefly exhibit the mutual rage 
and iniquity of imbittered factions, furious 
struggles between the patricians and plebeians, 
open corruption in the senate, venality in the 
courts of justice, and rapine in the provmces. 
This state of things, so forcibly painted by Sal- 
lust, produced the conspiracy, and even in some 
degree formed the character of Catiline: but 
it was the oppressive debts of individuals, the 
temper of Sylla's soldiers, and the absence of 
Pompev with his army, which gave a possibil- 
ity, and even prospect of success to a plot which 
affected the vital existence of the common- 
wealth, and which, although arrested in its com- 
mencement,- was one of those violent shocks 
which hasten the fall of a state. The History 
of the Jugurthine War, if not so important or 
menacing: to the vital interests and immediate 
safety of Rome, exhibits a more extensive field 
of action, and a greater theatre of war. No 
prince, except Mithridates, gave so much era- 
589 



SA 



HISTORY, &c. 



SA 



ployment to the arms of the Romans. In the 
course of no war in which they had ever been 
engaged, not even the second Carthaginian, 
were the people more desponding, and in none 
were they more elated with ultimate success. 
Nothing can be more interesting than the ac- 
count of the vicissitudes of this contest. The 
endless resources and hair-breadth escapes of 
Jugurtha — his levity, his fickle, faithless dispo- 
sition, contrasted with the perseverance and 
prudence of the Roman commander, Metellus, 
are all described in a manner the most vivid 
and picturesque. In general, Sallust's painting 
of character is so strong, that we almost foresee 
how each individual will conduct himself in 
the situation in which he is placed. Tacitus 
attributes all the actions of men to policy — to 
refined, and sometimes imaginary views ; but 
Sallust, more correctly, discovers their chief 
springs in the passions and dispositions of indi- 
viduals. Besides the Conspiracy of Catiline 
and the Jugurthine War, which have been pre- 
served entire, and from which our estimate of 
the merits of Sallust must be chiefly formed, he 
was author of a civil and military history of the 
republic, in five books, entitled, Historia rerwrn 
in Repvblica Romana Geslarum. This work, 
inscribed to Lucullus, the son of the celebrated 
commander of that name, was the mature fruit 
of the genius of Sallust, having been the last 
history he composed. It included, properly 
speaking, only a period of thirteen years — 
extending from the resignation of the dictator- 
ship by Sylla, till the promulgation of the Ma- 
nilian law, by which Pompey was invested 
with authority equal to that which Sylla had 
relinquished, and obtained, with unlimited 
power in the East, the command of the army 
destined to act against Mithridates. This pe- 
riod, though short, comprehends some of the 
most interesting and luminous points which 
appear in the Roman Annals. During this in- 
terval, and almost at the same moment, the 
republic was attacked in the East by the most 
powerful and enterprising of themonarchswith 
whom it had yet waged war ; in the West, by 
one of the most skilful of its own generals; 
and in the bosom of Italy, by its gladiators and 
slaves. This work also was introduced by two 
discourses — the one presenting a picture of the 
government and manners of the Romans, from 
the origin of their city to the commencement of 
the civil wars, the other containing a general 
view of the dissensions of Marius and Sylla ; 
so that the whole book may be considered as 
connecting the termination of the Jugurthine 
war and the breaking out of Catiline's conspi- 
racy. The loss of this valuable production is 
the more to be regretted, as all the accounts of 
Roman history which have been written, are 
defective during the interesting period it com- 
prehended. Nearly 700 fragments belonging 
to it have been amassed, from scholiasts and 
grammarians, by De Brosses, the French trans- 
lator of Sallust ; but they are so short and un- 
connected, that they merely serve as land- 
marks, from which we may conjecture what 
subjects were treated of, and what events were 
recorded. The only parts of the history which 
have been preserved in any degree entire, are 
four orations and two letters. Pomponius Lae- 
tus discovered the orations in a JVIS. of the 
590 



Vatican, containing a collection of speeches 
from Roman history. The first is an oration 
pronounced against Sylla by the turbulent 
Marcus iEmilius Lepidus ; who (as is well 
known) being desirous, at the expiration of 
his year, to be appointed a second time consul, 
excited, for that purpose, a civil war, and ren- 
dered himself master of a great part of Italy. 
The second oration, which is that of Lucius 
Philippus, is an invective against the treason- 
able attempt of Lepidus, and was calculated to 
rouse the people from the apathy with which 
they beheld proceedings that were likely to 
terminate in the total subversion of the gov- 
ernment. The third harangue was delivered 
by the tribune Licinius; it was an effort of 
that demagogue to depress the patrician and 
raise the tribunitial power, for which purpose 
he alternately flatters the people and reviles the 
senate. The oration of Marcus Cotta is un- 
questionably a fine one. He addressed it to the 
people, during the period of his consulship, in 
order to calm their minds, and allay their re- 
sentment at the bad success of public affairs, 
which, without any blame on his part, had late- 
ly, in many respects, been conducted to an un- 
prosperous issue. Of the two letters which are 
extant, the one is from Pompey to the senate, 
complaining, in very strong terms, of the defi- 
ciency in the supplies for the army which he 
commanded in Spain against Sertorius; the 
other is feigned to be addressed from Mithrida- 
tes to Arsaces, king of Parthia, and to be writ- 
ten when the aflfairs of the former monarch 
were proceeding unsuccessfully. It exhorts 
him, nevertheless, with great eloquence and 
power of argument, to join him in an alliance 
against the Romans : for this purpose, it places 
in a strong point of view that unprincipled po- 
licy, and ambitious desire of universal empire 
—all which could not, without this device of an 
imaginary letter by a foe, have been so well 
urged by a national historian. It concludes 
with showing the extreme danger which the 
Parthians would incur from the hostility of the 
Romans, should they succeed in finally subju- 
gating Pontus and Armenia. The only other 
fragment, of any length, is the description of a 
splendid entertainment given to Metellus, on 
his return, after a year's absence, to his govern- 
ment of Farther Spain. It appears, from several 
other fragments that Sallust had introduced, on 
occasion of the Mifliridaticwar, a geographical 
account of the shores and countries bordering 
on the Euxine, in the same manner as he enters 
into a topographical description of Africa in 
his history of the Jugurthine war. This part 
of his work has been much applauded by 
ancient writers for exactness and liveliness ; 
and is frequently referred to, as the highest au- 
thority, by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and other 
geographers. Besides his historical works, 
there exist two political discourses, concerning 
the administration of the governmont, in the 
form of letters to Juliui» Caesar, which have 
generally, though not on sufficient grounds, 
been attributed to the pen of Sallust. The best 
editions of Sallust are those of Anthon, New- 
York, 1836 ; of Haverkamp, 2 vols. 4to. Amst. 
1742 ; and of Edinburgh, 12mo. 1755. Quintil. 
10, c. l.—Suet. da Gram, in Cas.— Martial. 14, 
ep. 191. II. A nephew of the historian by 



SA 



HISTORY, &c. 



SA 



whom he was adopted. He imitated the mod- 1 
eration of Maecenas, and remained satisfied 
with the dignity of a Roman knight, when he 
could have made himself powerful by the fa- 
vours of Augustus and Tiberius. He was very 
effeminate and luxurious. Horace dedicated 

2, od. 2, to him. Tacit. Ann. 1. — Plin. 34. 

III. Secundus Promotus, a native of Gaul, very 
intimate with the emperor Julian, He is re- 
markable for his integrity and the soundness of 
his counsels. Julian made him prefect of Gaul. 
There is also another Sallust, called Se- 
cundus^ whom some have improperly confound- 
ed with Promotus. Secundus was also one of 
Julian's favourites, and was made by him pre- 
fect of the East. He conciliated the good graces 
of the Romans by the purity of his morals, his 
fondness for discipline, and his religious prin- 
ciples. After the death of the emperor Jovian, 
he was universally named by the officers of the 
Roman empire to succeed to the imperial 
throne ; but he refused ihis great though dan- 
gerous honour, and pleaded infirmities of body 
and old age. The Romans wished upon this 
to invest his son with the imperial purple, but 
Secundus opposed it, and observed that he was 
too young to support the dignity, 

Salonika, a celebrated matron, who married 
the emperor Gallienus, and distinguished herself 
by her private as well as public virtues. She 
was a patroness of all the fine arts , and to her 
clemency, mildness and benevolence, Rome was 
indebted some time for her peace and prosperity. 
She accompanied her husband in some of his 
expeditions, and often called him away from 
the pursuits of pleasure to make war against 
the enemies of Rome. She was put to death 
by the hands of the conspirators, who also as- 
sassinated her husband and family about the 
year 268 of the Christian era, 

Saloninus, I. a son of Asinius Pollio, He 
received his name from the conquest of Sa- 
lona, by his father. Some suppose that he is 
the hero of Virgil's fourth eclogue, in which 
the return of the golden age is so warmly and 
beautifully anticipated. II. P. Licinius Cor- 
nelius, a son of Gallienus, by Salonina, sent into 
Gaul, there to be taught the art of war. He 
remained there some time, till the usurper 
Posthumius arose and proclaimed himself em- 
peror. Saloninus was upon this delivered up to 
his enemy, and put to death in the 10th year of 
his age. 

Salvian, one of the fathers of the 5th centu- 
ry, of whose works the best edition is the 12mo. 
Paris, 1684, 

Salvius, a flute-player saluted king by the 
rebellious slaves of Sicily in the age of Marius. 
He maintained for some time war against the 
Romans, 
Samnites, Vid. Part I. 
Sanchoniathon, a Phcsnician historian, bom 
at Berytus, or, according to others, at Tyre. 
He flourished a few years before the Trojan 
war, and wrote, in the language of his country, 
a history in nine books, in which he amply 
treated of the theology and antiquities of Phe- 
nicia and the neighbouring places. It was 
compiled from the various records found in 
cities, and the annals which were usually kept 
in the temples of the gods among the ancients. 
This history was translated into Greek by Philo, 



a native of Byblus, who lived in the reign of 
the emperor Adrian. Some few fragments of 
this Greek translation are extant. Some, how- 
ever, suppose them to be spurious, while others 
contend that they are true and authentic. 

Sandrocottds, an Indian of a mean origin. 
His impertinence to Alexander was the begin- 
ning of his greatness ; the conqueror ordered him 
to be seized, butSandrocottus fled away, and at 
last dropped down overwhelmed with fatigue. 
As he slept on the ground, a lion came to him 
and gently licked the sweat from his face. This 
uncommon tamen ess of the animal appeared su- 
pernatural to Sandrocottus, and raised his am- 
bition. He aspired to the monarchy, and after 
the death of Alexander he made himself mas- 
ter of a part of the country which was in the 
hands of Seleucus. Justin. 15, c. 4. 

Sannyrion, a tragic poet of Athens, He 
composed many dramatic pieces, one of which 
was called lo, and another Danae. Athens. 9. 

Sapor, a king of Persia, who succeeded his 
father Artaxerxes about the 238th year of the 
Christian era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, 
Sapor wished to increase his paternal domin- 
ions by conquest ; and as the indolence of the 
emperors of Rome seemed favourable to his 
views, he laid waste the provinces of Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria, and Cilicia ; and he might have 
become master of all Asia, if Odenatus had 
not stopped his progress. If Gordian attempted 
to repel him, his efibrts were weak, and Philip, 
who succeeded him on the imperial throne, 
bought the peace of Sapor with money. Va- 
lerian, who was afterwards invested with the 
purple, marched against the Persian monarch, 
but he was defeated and taken prisoner, Ode- 
natus no sooner heard that the Roman emperor 
was a captive in the hands of Sapor, than he 
attempted to release him by force of arms. The 
forces of Persia were cut to pieces, the wives 
and the treasures of the monarch fell into the 
hands of the conqueror, and Odenatus pene- 
trated, with little opposition, into the very heart 
of the kingdom. Sapor, soon after this defeat, 
was assassinated by his subjects, A. D. 273, 
after a reign of 32 years. He was succeeded 
by his son, called Hormisdas. Marcellin. &c. 

The 2d of that name succeeded his father 

Hormisdas on the throne of Persia. He was 
as great as his ancestor of the same name ; 
and by undertaking a war against the Romans, 
he attempted to enlarge his dominions, and to 
add the provinces on the west of the Euphrates 
to his empire. His victories alarmed the Ro- 
man emperors, and Julian would have perhaps 
seized him in the capital of his dominions, if 
he had not received a mortal wound. Jovian, 
who succeeded Julian, made peace with Sapor ; 
but the monarch, always restless and indefatiga- 
ble, renewed hostilities, invaded Armenia, and 
defeated the emperor Valens. Sapor died A. 
D. 308, after a reign of 70 years, in which he 
had often been the sport of fortune. He was 
succeeded by Artaxerxes, and Artaxerxes by 
Sapor the third, a prince who died after a reign 
of five years, A. D. 389, in the age of Theodo- 
sius the Great. Marcellin. &c. 

Sappho, or Sapho, celebrated for her beauty, 
her poetical talents, and her amorous disposi- 
tion, was born in the island of Lesbos, about 
600 years before Christ. Her father's name, 
.591 



SA 



HISTORY, &c. 



SC 



according to Herodotus, was Seaman dronymus, 
or, according to others, Symon, or Semus, or 
Etarchus, and her mother's name was Cleis. 
She conceived such a passion for Phaon, a 
youth of Mitylene, that upon his refusal to 
gratify her desires, she threw herseJf into the 
sea from mount Leucas. She had composed 
nine books in lyric verses, besides epigrams, 
elegies, &c. Of all these compositions nothing 
now remains but two fragments. Her com- 
positions were all extant in the age of Horace, 
The Lesbians were so sensible of the merits of 
Sappho, that after her death they paid her 
divine honours, and raised her temples and 
altars, and stamped their money with her 
image. The Sapphic verse has been called 
after her name. Ovid. Heroid. 15. Trist. 2. v. 
^Qb.—Horat. 2, Od. l3.—HerodoL 2, c. 135.— 
Stat. 5. Sylv. 3, v. 155.— ^lian. V. H. 12, c. 
18 and 29.— Plin. 22, c. 8. 

Sardanapalus, the 40th and last king of As- 
syria, celebrated for his luxury and volup- 
tuousness. His effeminacy irritated his officers; 
Bolesis and Arsaces conspired against him, 
and collected a numerous force to dethrone 
him. The rebels were defeated in three suc- 
cessive battles, but at last Sardanapalus was 
beaten and besieged in the city of Ninus for 
two years. When he despaired of success, he 
burned himself in his palace, with his eunuchs, 
concubines, and all his treasures ; and the em- 
pire of Assyria was divided among the con- 
spirators. This famous event happened B. C. 
820, according to Eusebius ; though Justin and 
others, with less probability, place it 80 years 
earlier. Sardanapalus was made a god after 
death. Herodot, 2, c. 150.— Diod. 2.—Strab. 
U.—Cic. TiLSC. 5, c. 35. 

Sarpedon. Vid. Part III, 

Saturnalia, festivals in honour of Saturn ; 
celebrated the 16th or the 17th, or, according to 
others, the 18th of December. Some suppose 
that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome 
in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory 
obtained over the Sabines ; while others sup- 
port that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
to Saturn, from whom he had learned agricul- 
ture. Others suppose that they were first cele- 
brated in the year of Rome 257, after a victory 
obtained over the Latins by the dictator of 
Posthumius. The Saturnalia were originally 
celebrated only for one day, but afterwards the 
solemnity continued for 3, 4, 5, and at last for 
7 days. The celebration was remarkable for 
the liberty which universally prevailed. The 
slaves were permitted to ridicule their masters, 
and to speak with freedom upon every subject. 
It was usual for friends to make presents one 
to another. In the sacrifices the priests made 
their offerings with their heads uncovered, a 
custom which was never observed at other 
festivals. Sencc. ep. 18. — Cato. de R. R. 57. — 
Sueton. in Vesp. 19. — Cic. ad Attic. 5, ep. 20. 

Saturninus, (P. Sempronius,) I. a general of 
Valerian, proclaimed emperor in Eg)rpt by his 
troops. His integrity, his complaisance and 
affability, had gained him the affection of the 
people ; but his fondness of ancient discipline 
provoked his soldiers, who wantonly murdered 

him in the 43d year of his age, A. D. 262. 

IT. Sextius Junius, a Gaul, intimate Avith Aure- 
lian. The emperor esteemed him greatly, not 
592 



only for his private virtues, but for his abilities 
as a general. He was saluted emperor at Alex- 
andria, and compelled by the clamorous army 
to accept of the purple. Probus, who was then 
emperor, marched his forces against him, and 
besieged him m Apamea, where he destroyed 
himself when unable to make head against his 
powerful adversary. III. Appuleius, a tri- 
bune of the people, who raised a sedition atRom e, 
intimidated the senate, and tyrannised for three 
years. Meeting at last with opposition, he seiz- 
ed the capitol. but being induced by the hopes 
ofa reconciliation to trust himself amidst the 
people, he was suddenly torn to pieces. His 
sedition has received the name oi Appuleiana 

in the Roman annals. Flor. IV. Lucius, 

a seditious tribune, who supported the oppres- 
sion of Marius. He was at last put to death 
on account of his tumultuous disposition. Plut. 

in Mario. — Flor. 5. c. 16. V. Pompeius, a 

writer in ihe reign of Trajan. He was greatly 
esteemed by Pliny, who speaks of him with 
great warmth and approbation as an historian, 
a poet, and an orator, Pliny always consulted 
the opinion of Saturninus before he published 
his compositions. 

Satyrus, I. a Rhodian, sent byhis country- 
men to RomCj when Eumenes had accused some 
of the allies of intentions to favour the interest 

of Macedonia against the republic. 11. A 

peripatetic philosopher and historian, who 

flourished B. C. 148. III. A tyrant of Hera- 

clea, 346 B. C. IV. An architect who, to- 
gether with Petus, is said to have planned and 
built the celebrated tomb which Artemisia had 
erected to the memory of Mau solus, and which 
became one of the wonders of the world. The 
honour of erecting it is ascribed to others. 

Saxones. Vid. Part I. 

ScANTiLLA, the wife of Didius Julianus. It 
was by her advice that her husband bought the 
empire which was exposed to sale at the death 
of Pertinax. 

Scapula, a native of Corduba, who defended 
the town against Csesar, after the battle of 
Munda. When he saw that all his efforts were 
useless against the Roman general, he destroyed 
himself Cas. Bell. H. 33. 

Scatinia Lex de pudicitio,, by C. Scatinius 
Aricinus, the tribune, was enacted against such 
as prostituted themselves to any unnatural ser- 
vice. The penalty was originally a fine, but 
it was afterwards made a capital crime under 
Augustus, It is sometimes called Scantinia, 
from a certain Scantinius upon whom it was 
first executed. 

Scaurus, I. (M. ^railius,) a Roman consul, 
who distinguished himself by his eloquence at 
the bar, and by his successes in Spain in the 
capacity of commander. He was sent against 
Jugurtha, and some time after accused of suf- 
fering himself to be bribed by the Numidian 
prince. Scaurus conquered the Ligurians, and 
in his censorship he built the Milvian bridge 
at Rome, and began to pave the road, which 
from him was called the iEmilian. He was 
originally very poor. He wrote some books, 
and among these a history of his own life, all 
now lost. His son of the same name, made 
himself known by the large theatre he built 
during his edileship. Scaurus married Murcia. 
Cic. in Brut.— Val. Max. 4, c. A.— Plin. 34, c. 



sc 



HISTORY, &c. 



SC 



7, 1. 36, c. 2. II. A Roman of consular dig- 
nity. "When the Cimbri invaded Italy, the son 
of Scaur us behaved with great cowardice, upon 
which the father sternly ordered him never to 
appear again in the field of battle. The se- 
verity of this command renderedyoung Scaurus 
melancholy, and he plunged a sword into his 
own heart, to free himself from farther igno- 
miny. III. Aurelius, a Roman consul taken 

prisoner by the Gauls. He was put to a cruel 
death because he told the king of the enemy 
not to cross the Alps to mvade Italy, which was 

universally deemed unconquerable. IV. M. 

iEmilius, a man in the reign of Tiberius, ac- 
cused of adultery with Livia, and put to death. 
He was an eloquent orator, but very lascivious 

and debauched in his morals. V. Teren- 

tius, a Latin grammarian. He had been precep- 
tor to the emperor Adrian. A, Gellius. 11, c. 15. 

SciPiADiE, a name applied to the two Scipios, 
who obtamed the surname of Africanus, from 
the conquest of Carthage. Virg. JEn. v. 843. 

SciPio, a celebrated family at Rome, who ob- 
tained the greatest honours in the republic. 
The name seems to be derived from scipio, 
which signifies a stick, because one of the fami- 
ly had conducted his blind father, and had been 
to him as a stick. The Scipios were a branch 
of the Cornelian family. The most illustrious 
were — I. P. Corn, a man made master of horse 

by Camillus, &c. II. A Roman dictator. 

III. L. Cornel, a consul, A. U. C. 454, 

who defeated the Etrurians near Volaterra. 

IV. Another consul, A. U. C. 493. V. 

Cn. surnamed Asina, was consul A. U. C. 492. 
and 498. He was conquered in his first consul- 
ship in a naval battle, and lost 17 ships. The 
following year he took Aleria in Corsica, and 
defeated Hanno, the Carthaginian general, in 
Sardinia. He also took 200 of the enemy's 
ships, and the city of Panormum in Sicily. He 

was father to Publius and Cneus Scipio. 

VI. Publius, in the beginning of the second 
Punic war, was sent with an army to Spain to 
oppose Annibal ; but when he heard that his 
enemy had passed over into Italy, he attempted, 
by his quick marches and secret evolutions, to 
stop his progress. He was conquered by An- 
nibal near the Ticinus, where his son saved his 
life. He again passed into Spain, where he 
obtained some memorable victories over the 
Carthaginians and the inhabitants of the coun- 
try. His brother Cneus shared the supreme 
command with him, but their great confidence 
proved their ruin. They separated their armies, 
and soon after Publius was furiously attacked 
by the two Asdrubals and Mago, who com- 
manded the Carthaginian armies. The forces 
of Publius were too few to resist with success 
the three Carthaginian generals. Tho Ro- 
mans were cut to pieces, and their commander 
was left on the field of battle. No sooner had 
the enemy obtained this victory than they im- 
mediately marched to meet Cneus Scipio, whom 
the revolt of 30,000 Celtiberians had weakened 
and alarmed. The general, who was already 
apprized of bis brother's death, secured an emi- 
nence, where he was soon surrounded on all 
sides. After desperate acts of valour he was 
left among the slain, or, according to some, he 
fled into a tower, where he was burnt with some 
of his friends by the victorious enemy. Liv. 
Part II.— 4 P 



21, &,c.—Polyb. i.—Mor. 2, c. 6, Scc—Eutrop. 
3, c. 8, &c. VII. Publius Cornelius, sur- 
named Africanus, was son of Publius Scipio, 
who was killed in Spain. He first distinguish- 
ed himself at the battle of Ticinus, where he 
saved his father's life by deeds of unexampled 
valour and boldness. The battle of CanntB 
which proved so fatal to the Roman arms, in- 
stead of disheartening Scipio, raised his ex- 
pectations, and he no sooner heard that some 
of his desperate countrymen wished to abandon 
Italy, and to fly from the insolence of the con- 
queror, than with sword in hand he obliged 
them to swear eternal fidelity to P^ome, and to 
put to immediate death the first man who at- 
tempted to retire from his country. In his 21st 
year Scipio was made an edile, an honourable 
office, which was never given but to such as had 
reached their 27th year. Some time after, the 
Romans were alarmed by the intelligence that 
the commanders of their forces in Spain, Pub- 
lius and Cneus Scipio, had been slaughtered, 
and immediately young Scipio was appointed 
to avenge the death of his father and of his 
uncle, and to vindicate the military honour of 
the republic. It was soon known how able he 
was to be at the head of an army ; the various 
nations of Spain were conquered, and in four 
years the Carthaginians were banished from 
that part of the continent, and the whole prov- 
ince became tributary to Rome ; n^ew Carthage 
submitted in one day, and in a battle 54,000 of 
the enemy were left dead on the field. After 
these signal victories, Scipio w^as recalled to 
Rome, which still trembled at the continual 
alarms of Annibal, who was at their gates. 
The conqueror of the Carth&ginians in Spain 
was looked upon as a proper general to en- 
counter Annibal in Italy ; but Scipio opposed 
the measures which his countrymen wished to 
pursue, and he declared in the senate that if 
Annibal was to be conquered, he must be con- 
quered in Africa. These bold measures were 
immediately adopted, though opposed by the 
eloquence, age, and experience of the great 
Fabiu-s, and Scipio was empowered to conduct 
the war on the coasts of Africa. With the 
dignity of consul he embarked for Carthage. 
Success attended his arms, his conquests were 
here as rapid as in Spain; the Carthaginian 
armies were routed, the camp of the crafty 
Asdrubal was set on fire during the night, and 
his troops totally defeated. These repeated 
losses alarmed Carthage ; Annibal, who was 
victorious at the gates of Rome, was instantly 
recalled to defend the walls of his country, and 
the two greatest generals of the age met each 
other in the field. This celebrated battle was 
fought near Zama. About 20,000 Carthagi- 
nians were slain, and the same number made 
prisoners- of war, B. C. 202. Only 200 of the 
Romans were killed. The battle was decisive ; 
the Carthaginians sued for peace, which Scipio 
granted on the most severe and humiliating 
terms. The conqueror, after this returned to 
Rome, where he was received with the most 
unbounded applause, honoured with a triumph, 
and dignified with the appellation of Africanus, 
He offended the populace, however, in wishing 
to distinguish the senators from the rest of the 
people at the public exhibitions ; and when he 
canvassed for the consulship for two of his 
I 593 



sc 



HISTORY, &c. 



SO 



friends, he had the mortification to see his ap- 
plication slighted. He retired from Rome, no 
longer to be spectator of the ingratitude of 
his countrymen ; and in the capacity of lieu- 
tenant he accompanied his brother against An- 
tiochus, king of Syria. In this expedition his 
arms were attended with usual success, and 
the Asiatic monarch submitted to the conditions 
which the conquerors dictated. At his return 
to Rome, Africanus found the malevolence of 
his enemies still unabated. Cato, his inveterate 
rival, raised seditions against him and the Pe- 
tilii, two tribunes of the people, accused the 
conqueror of Annibal of extortion in the prov- 
inces of Asia, and of living in an indolent and 
luxurious manner. Scipio condescended to an- 
swer to the accusation of his calumniators ; the 
first day was spent in hearing the different 
charges, but when he again appeared on the 
second day of his trial, the accused interrupt- 
ed his judges, and exclaimed, Tr^wnes and 
fellow-citizens, on this day, this very day, did 
1 conquer Annibal and the Carthaginians : come, 
therefore, with me, Romans ; let us go to the capi- 
tol, and there return our thanks to the immortal 
gods for the victories which have attended our 
arms. These words had the desired eflfect ; all 
the assembly followed Scipio, and the tribunes 
were left alone in the seat of judgment. Yet 
when this memorable day was past, Africanus 
was a third time summoned to appear ; but he 
had retired to his country-house at Liternum. 
The accusation, however, was stopped when 
one of the tribunes, formerly distinguished for 
his malevolence against Scipio, rose to defend 
him, and declared in the assembly, that it re- 
flected the highest disgrace on the Roman peo- 
ple that the conqueror of Annibal should be 
exposed to the malice and envy of disappointed 
ambition. Some time after, Scipio died in the 
place of his retreat, about 184 years before 
Christ, in the 48th year of his age ; and so 
great an aversion did he express, as he expired, 
for the depravity of the Romans and the in- 
gratitude of their senators, that he ordered his 
bones not to be conveyed to Rome. They were 
accordingly inhumated at Liternum, where his 
wife Emilia, the daughter of Paulus .^milius, 
who fell at the battle of Cannae, raised a mau- 
soleum on his tomb, and placed upon it his 
statue, with that of the poet Ennius, who had 
been the companion of his peace and of his re- 
tirement. If Scipio was robbed during his life- 
time of the honours which belonged to him as a 
conqueror of Africa, he was not forgotten when 
dead. The Romans viewed his character with 
reverence ; with raptures they read of his war- 
like actions, and Africanus was regarded in the 
following age as a pattern of virtue, of inno- 
cence, courage, and liberality. As a general, the 
fame and the greatness of his conquests explain 
his character; and indeed we hear that Annibal 
declared himself inferior to no general that ever 
lived except Alexander the Great, and Pyrrhus 
king of Epirus ; and when Scipio asked him 
what rank he would claim if he had conquered 
him, the Carthaginian general answered. If I 
had conquered you, Scipio, 1 would call myself 
greater than the conqueror of Darius and the ally 
of tlie Tarentines. As an instance of Scipio's 
continence, ancient authors have recorded that 
he refused to see a beautiful princess that had 
594 



fallen into his hands after the taking of New 
Carthage ; and that he not only restored her in- 
violate to her parents, but also added immense 
presents for the person to whom she was betroth- 
ed. It was to the artful complaisance of A frica- 
nus that the Romans owed their alliance with 
Masinissa, king of Numidia, and also that with 
King Syphax. The friendship of Scipio and 
Laslius is well known. Polyb. 6. — Plut. — Flor. 
2, c. 6. — Cic. in Brut. &c. — Eutrop. II. Lu- 
cius Cornelius, surnamed Asiaticus, accompa- 
nied his brother Africanus in his expeditions in 
Spain and Africa. He was rewarded with the 
consulship, A. U. C. 562, for his services to the 
state, and he was empowered to attack Antio- 
chus, king of Syria, who had declared war 
against the Romans. Lucius was accompanied 
in this campaign by his brother Africanus ; and 
by his own valour, and the advice of the con- 
querors of Annibal, he routed the enemy in a 
battle near the city of Sardis. Peace was soon 
after settled by the submission of Antiochus, 
and the conqueror, at his return home, obtained 
a triumph, and the surname of Asiaticus. He 
did not, however,, long enjoy his prosperity. 
Cato, after the death of Africanus, turned his 
fury against Asiaticus, and the two -Petilii, his 
devoted favourites, presented a petition to the 
people, in which they prayed that an inquiry 
might be made to know what money had been 
received from Antiochus and his allies. The 
petition was instantly received, and Asiaticus 
was summoned to appear before Terentius Cu- 
leo, who was on this occasion created praetor. 
The judge, who was an inveterate enemy to the 
family of the Scipios, soon found Asiaticus, with 
his two lieutenants, and his quaestor, guilty of 
having received, the first 6000 pounds weight 
of gold and 480 pounds weight of silver, and the 
others nearly an equal sum, from the monarch 
against whom, in the name of the Roman people, 
they were enjoined to make war. Immediately 
they were condemned to pay large fines ; but 
while the others gave security, Scipio declared 
that he had accounted to the public for all the 
money that he had brought from Asia, and 
therefore that he was innocent. For this obsti- 
nacy he was dragged to prison, but his cousin 
Nasica pleaded his cause before the people, and 
the praetor instantly ordered the goods of the 
prisoner to be seized and confiscated. The 
sentence was executed, but the effects of Scipio 
were insufficient to pay the fine, and it was the 
greatest justification of his innocence, that 
whatever was found in his house had never been 
in the possession of Antiochus or his subjects. 
This, however, did not totally liberate him, he 
was reduced to poverty, and refused to accept 
the offers of his friends and of his clients. Some 
time after he was appointed to settle the dis- 
putes between Eumenes and Seleucus, and at his 
return, the Romans, ashamed of their severity 
towards him, rewarded his merit with such un- 
common liberality, that Asiaticus was enabled 
to celebrate games in honour of his victory over 
Antiochus, for ten successive davs, at his own 

expense. Liv. 38, c. 55, &c.— Eutrop. 4. 

III. Nasica, was son of Cneus Scipio and cous- 
in to Scipio Africanus. He was refused the 
consulship, though supported by the interest 
and the fame of the conqueror of Annibal, 
Afterwards, having obtained it, he conquered 



sc 



HISTORY, &c. 



SG 



the Boii, and gained a triumph. He was also 
successful in an expedition which he undertook 
in Spain. When the statue of Cybele was 
brought to Rome from Phrygia,the Roman sen- 
ate delegated one of their body, who was the 
most remarkable for the innocence of his life, to 
go and meet the goddess in the harbour of Ostia. 
Nisica was the object of their choice. He dis- 
tinguished himself by the active part he took in 
confuting the accusations laid against the twO' 
Scipios, Africanus and Asiaticus. There was 
also another of the same name, who distinguish- 
ed himself by his enmity against the Gracchi, 
to whom he was nearly related. Pater c. 2, c. 

1, &.c.—Flor. 2, c. \b.—Liv. 29, c. 14. &c. 

IV. Publ. iEmilianus, son of Paulus, the con- 
queror of Perseus, was adopted by the son of 
Scipio Africanus. He received, the same sur- 
name as his grandfather, and was called Afri- 
canus the younger, on account of his victories 
over Carthage. iEmilianus first appeared in 
the Roman armies under his father, and after- 
wards distinguished himself as a legionary tri- 
bune in the Spanish provinces. He passed into 
Africa to demand a reinforcement from King 
Masinissa, the ally of Rome ; and he was the 
spectator of a long and bloody battle which was 
fought between that monarch and the Carthagi- 
nians, and which soon produced the third Punic 
war. Some time after iEmilianus was made 
edile, and next appointed consul, though under 
the age required for that important office. The 
surname which he had received from his grand- 
father he was doomed lawfully to claim as his 
own. He was empowered to finish the war with 
Carthage, and as he was permitted by the senate 
to choose his colleague, he took with him his 
friend Lselius, whose father of the same name 
had formerly enjoyed the confidence and shared 
the victories of the first Africanus. The siege 
of Carthage was already begun, but the opera- 
tions of the Romans were not continued with 
vigour. Scipio had no sooner appeared before 
the walls of the enemy than every communica- 
tion with the land was cut off"; and, that they 
might not have the command of the sea, a stu- 
pendous mole was thrown across the harbour 
with immense labour and expense. All the 
inhabitants, without distinction of rank, age, or 
sex, employed themselves without cessation to 
dig another harbour, and to build and equip ano- 
ther fleet. In a short time, in spite of the vigil- 
ance and activity of ^Emilianus, the Romans 
were astonished to see another harbour formed, 
and 50 galleys suddenly issuing under sail, 
ready for the engagement. This unexpected 
fleet, by immediately attacking the Roman 
ships, might have gained the victory, but the 
delay of the Carthaginians proved fatal to their 
cause, and the enemy had sufficient time to 
prepare themselves. Scipio soon got possession 
of a small eminence in the harbour, and by his 
subsequent operations, he broke open one of the 
gates of the city, and entered the streets, where 
he made his way by fire and sword. The sur- 
render of about 50,000 men was followed by the 
reduction of the citadel, and the total submission 
of Carthage, B. C. 147. The captive city was 
vset on fire, and though Scipio was obliged to 
demolish its veiy walls to obey the orders of the 
Romans, yet he wept bitterly over the melan- 
choly and tragical scene; and in bewailing the 



miseries of Carthage, he expressed his fears lest 
Rome, in her turn, in some future age, should 
exhibit such a dreadful conflagration. The re- 
turn of iEmilianus to Rome was that of another 
conqueror of Annibal; and, like him, he was 
honoured with a magnificent triumph, and re- 
ceived the surname of Africanus. He was 
chosen consul a second time, and appointed to 
finish the war which the Romans had hitherto 
carried on without success against Numantia. 
The fall of Numantia was more noble than that 
of the capital of Africa, and the conqueror of 
Carthage obtainedthe victory only when the ene- 
mies had been consumed by famine or by self- 
destruction, B. C. 133. From his conquests in 
Spain, iEmilianus was honoured with a second 
tri;imph, and with the surname of Numantinus. 
Yet his popularity was short, and, by telling the 
people that the murder of their favourite, his 
brother-in-law Gracchus, was lawful, Scipio 
incurred the displeasure of the tribunes, and 
was received with hisses. His firmness, how- 
ever, silenced the murmurs of the assembly, 
and some time after he retired from the clam- 
ours of Rome to Caieta, where, with his friend 
Laelius, he passed the rest of his time in inno- 
cent pleasures and amusements. Though fond 
of retirement and literary ease, yet Scipio often 
interested himself in the affairs of the state. His 
enemies accused him of aspiring to the dictator- 
ship, and the clamours were most k)ud against 
him when he had opposed the Sempronian law, 
and declared himself the patron of the inhabi- 
tants of the provinces of Italy. This active 
part of Scipio was seen with pleasure by the 
friends of the republic, and not only the senate, 
but also the citizens, the Latins, and neighbour- 
ing states, conducted their illustrious friend 
and patron to his house. It seemed also the 
universal wish that the troubles might be quiet- 
ed by the election of Scipio to the dictatorship, 
and many presumed that that honour would be 
on the morrow conferred upon him. In this, 
however, the expectations of Rome were frus- 
trated, Scipio was found dead in his bed to the 
astonishment of the world ; and those who in- 
quired for the causes of this sudden death per- 
ceived violent marks on his neck, and concluded 
that he had been strangled, B. C. 128. This 
assassination, as it was then generally believed, 
was committed by the triumvirs, Papirius Car- 
bo, C. Gracchus, and Fulvius Flaccus, who 
supported the Sempronian law, and by his wife 
Sempronia, who is charged with having intro- 
duced the murderers into his room. No inqui- 
ries were made after the authors of his death ; 
Gracchus was the favourite of the mob, and the 
only atonement which the populace made for 
the death of Scipio was to attend his funeral, 
and to show their concern by their cries and 
loud lamentations, ^milianus, like his grand- 
father, was fond of literature, and he saved from 
the flames of Carthage many valuable composi- 
tions, written by Phoenician and Punic authors. 
In the midst of his greatness he died poor, and 
his nephew, Q.. Fabius Maximus, who inherited 
his estate, scarce found in his house thirty-two 
pounds weight of silver, and two and a half of 
gold. His liberality to his brother and to his 
sisters deserves the greatest commendations; 
and, indeed, no higher encomium can be passed 
upon his character, private as well as public, 
595 



SE 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



than the words of his rival Metellus, who told 
his sons, at the death of Scipio, to go and attend 
the funeral of the greatest man that ever lived 
or should live in Rome. Liv, 44, &c. — Cic. de 
Senect. Orat. in Brut. &c. — Polyb. — Appian. 

—Paterc. 1, c. 12, &.q.—FIoi\ V. A son of 

the first Africanus, taken captive by Antiochus, 
king of Syria, and restored to his father without 
a ransom. He adopted as his son young ^Emil- 
ianus, the son of Paulus jEmilius, who was 
afterwards surnamed Africanus. Like his fa- 
ther Scipio, he distinguished himself by his 
fondness for literature and his valour in the 
Roman armies. VI. Metellus, the father-in- 
law of Pompey, appointed commander in Ma- 
cedonia. He was present at the battle of Phar- 
salia, and afterwards retired to Africa with 
Cato. He was defeated by Caesar at Thapsus. 

Plut. VII. Salutio,a mean person in Caesar's 

army in Africa. The general appointed him 
his chief commander, either to ridicule him, or 
because there was an ancient oracle that de- 
clared that the Scipios would ever be victorious 
in Africa. Plut. VIII. L. Cornelius, a con- 
sul who opposed Sylla. He was at last deserted 
by his army and proscribed. 

Sgopas, I. an architect and sculptor of Ephe- 
sus, for some time employed in making the 
mausoleum which Artemisia raised to her hus- 
band. One of his statues of Venus was among 
the antiquities with which Rome was adorned. 
Scopas lived about 430 years before Christ, 

Paus. 1, c, 43, &c. Horat. 4, Od. 8.— Virg. 

9, c. 9.—Plin. 34, c. 8. 1. 36, c. 5. II. An 

^tolian, who raised some forces to assist Pto- 
lemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, against his 
enemies Antiochus and his allies. He after- 
w^ards conspired against the Egyptian monarch, 
and was put to death, B. C. 196. 

ScoRDisci, and ScoRDisciE. Vid. Part III. 
ScRiBONiA, a daughter of Scribonius, who 
married Augustus after he had divorced Clau- 
dia, He had by her a daughter, the celebrated 
Julia. Scribonia was some time after repudi- 
ated that Augustus might marry Livia, She 
had been married twice before she became the 
wife of the emperor, Sueton. in Aug. 62. 

ScYLAx, a geographer and mathematician of 
Caria, in the age of Darius, son of Hystaspes, 
about 550 years before Christ. He was com- 
missioned by Darius to make discoveries in the 
East, and after a journey of 30 months he visited 
Eg5rpt. Some suppose that he was the first who 
invented geographical tables. The latest edition 
of the Periplus of Scylax, is that of Gronovius, 
4to. L. Bat. 1591.— Herodot. 4, c. U.—Strab. 

ScYLLis and Dipcenus, statuaries of Crete, 
before the age of Cyrus, king of Persia. They 
were said to be sons and pupils of Daedalus, and 
they established a school at Sicyon, where they 
taught the principles of their profession. Paus. 
— Plin.36, c, 4. 

ScYLURus, a monarch who left 80 sons. He 
called them to his bedside as he expired, and 
by enjoining them to break a bundle of sticks 
tied together, and afterwards separately, he con- 
vinced them that when aliogether firmly united 
their power would be insuperable, but if ever 
disunited, they would fall an easy prey to their 
enemies, Plut. de garr. 

Sejantjs, jEliijs, a native of Vulsinum in 
Tuscany, who distinguished himself in the court 
596 



of Tiberius. His father's name was Seius 
Strabo, a Roman knight, commander of the 
praetorian guards. His mother was descended 
from the Junian family. Sejanus first gained 
the favour of Caius Caesar, the grandson of Au- 
gustus, but afterwards he attached himself to 
the interest and the views of Tiberius, who then 
sat on the imperial throne. The emperor, while 
he distrusted others, communicated his greatest 
secrets to his fawoiing favourite. Sejanus im- 
proved his confidence, and when he had found 
that he possessed the esteem of Tiberius, he 
next endeavoured to become the favourite of the 
soldiers and of the senate. As commander of 
the praetorian guards he was the second man in 
Rome, and in that important office he made use 
of every mean artifice to make himself beloved. 
His affability and condescension gained him 
the hearts of the common soldiers, and by ap- 
pointing his own favourites and adherents to 
places of trust and honour, all the officers and 
centurions of the army became devoted to his 
interest. The views of Sejanus in this were 
well knov/n ; yet to advance with more success, 
he attempted to gain the affection of the sena- 
tors. In this he met with no opposition. A 
man who had the disposal of places of honour 
and dignity, and who had the command of the 
public money, cannot but be a favourite of 
those who are in need of his assistance. It is 
even said that Sejanus gained to his views all 
the wives of the senators by a private and most 
secret promise of marriage to each of them 
whenever he had made himself independent 
and sovereign of Rome. Yet, however success- 
ful with the best and noblest families in the 
empire, Sajanus had to combat numbers in the 
house of the emperor ; but these seeming obsta- 
cles were soon removed. All the children and 
grandchildren of Tiberius were sacrificed to the 
ambition of the favourite under various pre- 
tences ; and Drusus, the son of the emperor, by 
striking Sejanus, made his destruction sure 
and inevitable. Livia, the wife of Drusus, was 
gained by Sejanus, and, though the mother of 
many children, she was prevailed upon to assist 
her adulterer in the murder of her husband, and 
she consented to marry him when Drusus was 
dead. No sooner was Drusus poisoned, than 
Sejanus openly declared his wish to marry Li- 
via. This was strongly opposed by Tiberius ; 
and the emperor, by recommending Germanicns 
to the senators for his successor, rendered Se- 
janus bold and determined. He was more ur- 
gent in his demands; and when he could not 
gain the consent of the emperor, he persuaded 
him to retire to solitude from the noise of Rome 
and the troubles of the government. Tiberius, 
naturally fond of ease and luxury, yielded to 
his representations, and retired to Campania, 
leaving Sejanus at the head of the empire. 
This was highly gratifying to the favourite, 
and he was now without a master. Prudence 
and moderation might have made him what he 
wished to be, but he offended the whole empire 
when he declared that he was emperor of Rome, 
and Tiberius only the dependant prince of the 
island of Cipreae, where he had retired. Ti- 
berius was upon this fully convinced of the de- 
signs of Sejanus, and when he had been in- 
formed that his favourite had had the meanness 
and audacity to ridicule him by introducing him 



SE 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



on the stage, the emperor ordered him to be 
accused before the senate. Sejanus was de- 
serted by all his pretended friends as soon as by 
fortune; and the man who aspired to the em- 
pire, and who called himself the favourite of the 
people, the darling of the praetorian guards, 
and the companion of Tiberius, was seized 
without resistance, and the same day strangled 
in prison, A. D. 31. His remains were ex- 
posed to the fury and insolence of the populace,- 
and afterwards thrown into the Tiber. His 
children and all his relations were involved in 
his ruin, and Tiberius sacrificed to his resent- 
ment and suspicions all those who were even 
connected with Sejanus, or had shared his fa- 
vours and enjoyed his confidence. Tacit. 3, 
Ann. &c. — Dio. 58. — Suet, in Tib. 

Seius, Cn. a Roman who had a famous horse, 
ot large size and uncommon beauty. He was 
put to death by Antony, and it was observed, 
that whoever obtained possession of his horse, 
which was supposed to be of the same race as 
the horses of Diomedes destroyed by Hercules, 
and which was called Sejanus equus, became 
unfortunate, and lost all his property, with every 
member of his family. Hence arose the proverb, 
ille homo habet Sejanum equum, applied to such 
as were oppressed with misfortunes. Au. Gel- 
lius, 3,- c. 9. 

Seius Strabo, the father of Sejanus, was a 
Roman knight, and commander of the praetorian 
guards. 

Selene, the wife of Antiochus, king of Syria, 
put to death by Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
She was daughter of Physcon, king of Egypt, 
and had first married her brother Lathurus, 
according to the custom of her country, and 
afterwards by desire of her mother, her other 
brother Gryphus. At the death of Gryphus, 
she had married Antiochus, surnamedEusebes, 
the son of Antiochus Cyzicenus, by whom she 
had two sons. According to Appian, she first 
married the father, and after his death, his son 
Eusebes. Appian. Syr. &c. 

SeleucidjE, a surname given to those mo- 
narchs who sat on the throne of Syria, which 
was founded by Seleucus the son of Antiochus, 
from whom the word is derived. The era of 
the Seleucidse begins with the taking of Babylon 
by Seleucus, B. C. 312, and ends at the con- 
quest of Syria by Pompey, B. C. 65. The order 
in which these monarchs reigned is shown in 
the account of Syria. Vid. Syria. 

Seleucus, 1st, one of the captains of Alexan- 
der the Great, surnamed Nicator or VictoriouSy 
was son of Antiochus. After the king's death 
he received Babylon as his province ; but his 
ambitious views, and his attempt to destroy 
Eumenes as he passed through his territories, 
rendered him so unpopular that he fled for 
safety to the court of his friend Ptolemy, king 
of Egypt. He was soon after enabled to re- 
cover Babylon, which Antigonas had seized in 
his absence, and he increased his dominions by 
the immediate conquest of Media, and some of 
the neighbouring provinces. When he had 
strengthened himself in his empire, Seleucus 
imitated the example of the rest of the generals 
of Alexander, and assumed the title of inde- 
pendent monarch. He afterwards made war 
against Antigonus, with the united forces of 
Ptolemy, Gassander, and Lysimachus ; and 



after this monarch had been conquered and 
slain, his territories were divided among his 
victorious enemies. When Seleucus became 
master of Syria, he built a city there, which he 
called Antioch, in honour of his father, and 
made it the capital of his dominions. He also 
made war against Demetrius and Lysimachus, 
though he had originally married Stratonice, 
the daughter of the former, and had lived in 
the closest friendship with the latter. Seleucus 
was at last murdered by one of his servants, 
called Ptolemy Ceraunus, a man on whom he 
bestowed the greatest favours. According to 
Arrian, Seleucus was the greatest and most 
powerful of the princes who inherited the 
Macedonian empire after the death of Alexan- 
der. His benevolence has been commended ; 
and it has been observed, that he conquered not 
to enslave nations, but to make them more 
happy. He founded no less than 34 cities in 
different parts of his empire, which he peopled 
with Greek colonies, whose national industry, 
learning, religion, and spirit, were communi- 
cated to the indolent and luxurious inhabitants 
of Asia. Seleucus was a great benefactor to 
the Greeks, he restored to the Athenians the 
library and statues which Xerxes had carried 
away from their city when he invaded Greece, 
and among them were those of Harmodius and 
Aristogiton. Seleucus was murdered 280 years 
before the Christian era, in the 32d''year of his 
reign, and the 78th, or, according to others, the 
73d year of his age, as he was going to conquer 
Macedonia, where he intended to finish his days 
in peace and tranquillity in that province where 
he was born. He was succeeded by Antiochus 
Soter. Justin. 13, c. 4, 1. 15, c. 4, 1. 16, c. 3, 
&c. — Plut. in Dem. — Plin. 6, c. 17. — Paus. 8, 

c. 51. — Joseph. Ant. 12. The 2d, surnamed 

Callinicus, succeeded his father Antiochus 
Theus on the throne of Syria. He attempted 
to make war against Ptolemy, king of Egypt, 
but his fleet was shipwrecked in a violent 
storm, and his armies soon after conquered by 
his enemy. He was at last taken prisoner by 
Arsaces, an oflicer who made himself powerful 
by the dissensions which reigned in the house 
of the Seleucidffi, between the two brothers, 
Seleucus and Antiochus ; and after he had been 
a prisoner for some time in Parthia, he died of 
a fall from his horse, B. C. 226, after a reign of 
20 years. Seleucus had received the surname 
of Pogon, from his long beard, and that of Cal~ 
Zmicws, ironically to express his very unfortu- 
nate reign. He had married Laodice, the sis- 
ter of one of his generals, by whom he had two 
sons, Seleucus and Antiochus, and a daughter 
whom he gave in marriage to Mithridates king 
of Pontus. Strab. 16. — Justin. 27. — Appian. de 

Syr. The 3d, succeeded his father Seleucus 

2d, on the throne of Syria, and received the 
surname of Ceraunus, by antiphrasis, as he was 
a very weak, timid, and irresolute monarch. 
He was murdered by two of his oflicers after a 
reign of three years, B. C. 223, and his brother 
Antiochus, though only 15 years old, ascended 
the throne and rendered himself so celebrated 
that he acquired the name of the Great. Appian. 
•The 4th, succeeded his father Antiochus 



the Great, on the throne of Syria. He was sur- 
named Philopator, or, according to Josephus, 
Soter. His empire had been weakened by the 
597 



SE 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



Romans when he became monarch, and the 
yearly tribute of a thousand talents to these 
victorious enemies concurred in lessening his 
power and consequence among nations. Seleu- 
cus was poisoned after a reign of 12 years, B. 
C. 175. His son Demetrius had been sent to 
Rome, there to receive his education, and he 
became a prince of great abilities. Strab. 16. — 

Justin. 32. — Appian The 5th, succeeded his 

father Demetrius Nicator on the throne of 
Syria, in the 20th year of his age. He was put 
to death in the first year of his reign by Cleo- 
patra^ his mother, who had also sacrificed her 
husband to her ambition. He is not reckoned 
by many historians in the number of the Syrian 

monarchs. The 6th, one of the Seleucidse, 

son of Antiochus Gryphus, killed his uncle 
Antiochus Cyzicenus, who wished to obtain the 
crown of Syria. He was some time after ban- 
ished from his kingdom by Antiochus Pius, son 
of Cyzicenus, and fled to Cilicia, where he was 
burnt in a palace by the inhabitants, B. C. 93. 

Appian. — Joseph. A prince of Syria to 

whom the Egyptians offered the crown of 
which they had robbed Auletes. Seleucus ac- 
cepted it, but he soon disgusted his subjects, and 
received the surname of Cybiosactes, or Scul- 
lion, for his meanness and avarice. He was at 
last murdered by Berenice, whom he had mar- 
ried. 

Semirams, a celebrated queen of Assyria, 
daughter of the goddess Derceto by a young 
Assyrian. She was exposed in a desert, but 
her life was preserved by doves for one whole 
year, till Simmas, one of the shepherds of Ni- 
nus, found her and brought her up as his own 
child. Semiramis, when grown up, married 
Menones, the governor of Niniveh, and accom- 
panied him to the siege of Bactra, where, by 
her advice and prudent directions, she hastened 
the king's operations and took the city. These 
eminent services, but chiefly her uncommon 
beauty, endeared her to Ninus. The monarch 
asked her of her husband, and oflTered him 
instead, his daughter Sosana ; but Menones, 
who tenderly loved Semiramis, refused, and 
and when Ninus had added threats to entrea- 
ties, he hung himself. No sooner was Me- 
nones dead, than Semiramis, who was of an 
aspiring soul, married Ninus, by whom she 
had a son called Ninyas. Ninus was so fond 
of Semiramis, that at her request he resigned 
the crown to her, and commanded her to be 
proclaimed queen and sole emperess of Assyria. 
Of this, however, he had cause to repent; Se- 
miramis put him to death, the better to establish 
herself on the throne ; and when she had no 
enemies to fear at home, she began to repaii* 
the capital of her empire, and by her means, 
Babylon became the most superb and magnifi- 
cent city in the world. She visited every pjart 
of her dominions, and left every where im- 
mortal monuments of her greatness and be- 
nevolence. To render the roads passable and 
communications easy, she hollowed mountains 
and filled up valleys ; and water was conveyed 
at a great expense, by large and convenient 
aqueducts, to barren deserts and unfruitful 
plains. She was not less distinguished as a war- 
rior; many of the neighbouring nations were 
conquered; and when Semiramis was once 
told, as she was dressin? her hair, that Babylon 
598 



had revolted, she left her toilet with precipita- 
tion, and, though only half dressed, she re- 
fused to have the rest of her head adorned 
before the sedition was quelled and tranquillity 
re-established. Semiramis has been accused of 
licentiousness, and some authors have ob- 
served, that she regularly called the strongest 
and stoutest men in her army to her arms, and 
afterwards put them to death that they might 
not be living witnesses of her incontinence. Her 
passion for her son was also unnatural, and it 
was this criminal propensity which induced 
Ninyas to destroy his mother with his own 
hands. Some say that Semiramis was changed 
into a dove after death, and received immortal 
honours in Assyria. It is supposed that she 
lived about 1965 years before the Christian era, 
and that she died in the 62d year of her age 
and the 25th of her reign. Many fabulous re- 
ports have been propagated about Semiramis, 
and some have declared that for gome time she 
disguised herself and passed for her son Ninyas, 
Val.Max. 9, c. 3.—Herodot. 1, c. 18i.—Diod. 2. 
—Mela. 1, c. 3.— Strab. b.—PaUrc. 1, c. 6.— 
Justin. l,c. 1, &c.. — Propert. 3, el. 11, v. 21. — 
Plut. de Fort. &c. — Ovid. Amor. 1, el. 5, v. 11, 
Met. 4, V. b'^.—Marcell. 14, c. 6. 

Sempronia, I. a Roman matron, mother of 
the two Gracchi, celebrated for her learning, 

and her private as well as public virtues. 11. 

Also a sister of the Gracchi, who is accused of 
having assisted the triumvirs Carbo, Gracchus, 
and Flaccus, to murder her husband, Scipio 
African us the younger. The name of Sempro- 
nia was common to the female descendants of 
the family of the Sempronii, Gracchi, and 
Scipios. 

Sempronia Lex de magistratihus, by C. Sem- 
pronius Gracchus, the tribune, A. tJ. C. 630, 
ordamed that no person who had been legally 
deprived of a magistracy for misdemeanors, 
should be capable of bearing an office again. 
This law was afterwards repealed by the author. 
Another, de civitate, by the same, A. U 



C. 630. It ordained that no capital judgment 
should be passed over a Roman citizen without 
the concurrence and authority of the senate. 
There were also some other regulations includ- 
ed in this law. Another, de comitiis, by the 

same, A. U. C. 635. It ordained that in giving 
their votes, the centuries should be chosen by 
lot, and not give it according to the order of 

their classes. Another de comitiis, by the 

same, the same year, which granted to the Latin 
allies of Rome, the privilege of giving their 
votes at elections, as if they were Roman citi- 
zens. Another, de provinciis, by the same, 

A. U. C. 630. It enacted that the senators 
should be permitted, before the assembly of the 
consular comitia, to determine as they pleased 
the particular provinces which should be 
proposed to the consuls, to be divided by lot, 
and that the tribunes should be deprived of the 
power of interposing against a decree of the 

senate. Another, called Agraria prima, by 

T. Sempronius Gracchus, the tribune, A. U. C, 
620. It confirmed the lex agraria Licinia, 
and enacted that all such as were in possession 
of more lands than that law allowed, should 
immediately resign them to be divided among 
the poorer citizens. Three commissioners were 
appointed to put this law into execution, and its 



SE 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



consequences were so violent, as it was directly- 
made against the nobles and senators, that it 

cost the author his life. Another, called 

Agrarian altera^ by the same. It required that 
all the ready money which was found in the 
treasury of Attalus, king of Pergamus, who had 
left the Romans his heirs, should be divided 
among the poorer citizens of Rome, to supply 
them with all the various instruments requisite 
in husbandry, and that the lands of that monarch- 
should be farmed by the Roman censors, and 
the money drawn from thence should be di- 
vided among the people. Another, /rw7»e7i- ! 

taria^ byC. Sempronius Gracchus. It required 
that a certain quantity of corn should be dis- j 
tributed among the people, so much to every in- 
dividual, for which it was required that they 
should only pay the trifling sum of a semissis 
and a triens. Another, de usurd, by M. Sem- 
pronius, the tribune, A. U. C. 560. It ordained 
that in lending money to the Latins and the 
allies of Rome, the Roman laws should be ob- 
served as well as among the citizens. Ano- 
ther, de judicibiis, hy the tribune C. Sempronius, 
A. U. C. 630. It required that the right of judg- 
ing, which had been assigned to the senatorian 
order by Romulus, should be transferred from 
them to the Roman knights. Another, mili- 
tarise by the same, A. U. C. 630. It enacted that 
the soldiers should be clothed at the public ex- 
pense without any diminution of their usual pay. 
It also ordered that no person should be obliged 
to serve in the army before the age of 17. 

Sempronius, I. (A. Atratinus,) a senator 
who opposed the Agrarian law, which was pro- 
posed by the consul Cassius soon after the elec- 
tion of the tribunes. II. L. Atratinus, a con- 
sul, A. U. C. 311, He was one of the first 
censors with his colleague in the consulship, Pa- 
pirius. III. Caius, a consul, summoned be- 
fore an assembly of the people because he had 
fought with ill success against the Volsci. 

IV, Sophus, a consul against the ^qui. He 
also fought against the Picentes, and during the 
engagement there wels a dreadful earthquake. 
The soldiers were terrified, but Sophus encour- 
aged them, and observed that the earth trem- 
bled only for fear of changing its old masters. — 

V. A man who proposed a law that no person 
should dedicate a temple or altar without the 
previous approbation of the magistrates, A. U, 
C, 449. He repudiated his wife because she 
had gone to see a spectacle without his permis- 
sion or knowledge. VI. A legionary tribune, 

who led away from Cannas the remaining part 
of the soldiers who had not been killed by the 
Carthaginians. He was afterwards consul, and 
fought in the field against Annibal with great 
success. He was killed in Spain. VII. Ti- 
berius Longus, a Roman consul, defeated by the 

•Carthaginians, in an engagement which he had 
begun against the approbr.tion of his colleague 
C. Scipio, He afterwards obtained victories 

over Hanno and the Gauls. VIII. Tiberius 

Gracchus, a consul who defeated the Carthagi- 
nians and the Campanians. He was afterwards 
betrayed by Fulvius, a Lucanian, into the hands 
of the Carthaginians, and was killed, after he 
had made a long and bloody resistance against 
the enemy. Hannibal showed great honour to 
his remains ; a funeral pile was raised at the 
head of the camp, and the enemy's cavalry 



1 walked round it in solemn procession. IX. 

I The father of the Gracchi. Vid. Gracchus. 

Senatus, the chief counsel of the state among 
the Romans, The members of this body, called 
: senatores, on account of their age, and patres, 
; on account of their authority, were of the great- 
I est consequence in the republic. The senate 
I was first instituted by Romulus, to govern the 
j city, and to preside over the affairs of the state 
I during his absence. The senators whom Romu- 
j lus created were a hundred, to whom he after- 
; wards addedthe same number when the Sabines 
had migrated to Rome. Tarquin the ancient 
made the senate consist of 300, and this number 
remained fixed for a long time. After the ex- 
pulsion of the last Tarquin, whose tyranny had 
thinned the patricians as well as the plebeians, 
164 new senators were chosen to complete the 
300 ; and as they were called conscripts, the 
senate ever afterwards consisted of members 
who were denominated patres and conscripti. 
The number continued to fluctuate during the 
times of the republic, but gradually increased to 
700, and afterwards to 900 under Julius Caesar, 
who filled the senate with men of every rank and 
order. Under Augustus the senators amounted 
to 1000, but this number was reduced to 300, 
which being the cause of complaints, induced 
the emperor to limit the number to 600. The 
place of a senator was always bestowed upon 
merit ; the monarchs had the privilege of choos- 
ing the members, and after the expulsion of the 
Tarquins it was one of the rights of the consuls, 
till the election of the censors, who from their 
office seemed most capable of making choice 
of men whose characters were irreproachable. 
Sometimes the assembly of the people elected 
senators, but it was only upon some extraordi- 
nary occasions ; there was also a dictator chosen 
to fill up the number of the senate after the bat- 
tle of Cannas. Only particular families were 
admitted into the senate ; and when the plebe- 
ians were permitted to share the honours of the 
state, it was then required that they should be 
born of free citizens. It was also required that 
the candidates should be knights before their 
admission into the senate. They were to be 
above the age of 25, and to have previously 
passed through the inferior offices of quaestor, 
tribttne of the people, edile, praetor, and consul. 
Some, however, suppose that the senators whom 
Romulus chose were all old men ; yet his suc- 
cessors neglected this, and often men who were 
below the age of 25 were admitted by courtesy 
into the senate. The dignity of a senator could 
not be supported without the possession of 80,000 
sesterces, or about 7000Z, English money ; and 
therefore such as squandered away their money, 
and whose fortune was reduced below this sura, 
were generally struck out of the list of senators. 
This regulation was not made in the first age of 
the republic, when the Romans boasted of their 
poverty. The senators were not permitted to 
be of any trade or profession. They were dis- 
tinguished from the rest of the people by their 
dress ; they wore the laticlave, half boots of a 
black colour, with a crescent or silver buckle in 
the form of a C ; but this last honour was con- 
fined only to the descendants of those hundred 
senators who had been elected by Romulus, as 
the letter C seems to imply. They had the sole 
right of feasting publiclv in the capital in cere- 
599 



S£ 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



monial habits ; they sat in curule chairs, and at 
the representation of plays and public specta- 
cles they were honoured with particular seats. 
Whenever they travelled abroad, even on their 
own business, they were maintained at the 
public expense, and always found provisions for 
themselves and their attendants ready prepared 
on the road ; a privilege that was generally 
termed free legaiio7i. On public festivals they 
wore ihe pratexta, or long white robe with pur- 
ple borders. The right of convocating the sen- 
ate belonged only to the monarchs ; and after 
the expulsion of the Tarquins, to the consuls, 
the dictator, master of the horse, governor of 
Rome, and tribunes of the fjeople ; but no magis- 
trate could exercise this privilege except m the 
absence of a superior officer, the tribunes ex- 
cepted. The time of meeting was generally 
three times a month, on the calends, nones, and 
ides. Under Augustus they were not assem- 
bled on the nones. It was requisite that the 
place where they assembled should have been 
previously consecrated by the augurs. This 
was generally in the temple of Concord, of Ju- 
piter Capitolinus, Apollo, Castor and Pollux, 
&c., or in the Curiae called Hostilia, Julia Pom- 
peia, &c. When audience was given to foreign 
ambassadors, ihe senators assembled without 
the walls of the city, either in the temples of 
Bellona or of Apollo ; and the same ceremony as 
to their meeting was also observed when they 
transacted business with their generals. To 
render their decrees valid and authentic, a cer- 
tain number of members was requisite, and such 
as were absent without some proper cause, were 
always fined. In the reign of Augustus, 400 
senators were requisite to make a senate. No- 
thing was transacted before sunrise or after 
sunset. In their office the senators were the 
guardians of religion, they disposed of the pro- 
vinces as they pleased, they prorogued the as- 
semblies of the people, they appointed thanks- 
givings, nominated their ambassadors, distribu- 
ted the public money, and, in short, had the 
management of every thing political or civil in 
the republic, except the creating of magistrates, 
the enactment of laws, and the declarations of 
war or peace, which was confined to the as- 
semblies of the people. Rank was always re- 
garded in their meetings ; the chief magistf ates 
of the state, such as the consuls, the prsetors, 
and censors, sat first; after these the inferior 
magistrates, such as the ediles and quaestors ; 
and, last of all, those that then exercised no 
office in the state. Their opinions were origi- 
nally collected, each according to his age ; but 
when the office of censor was instituted, the 
opinion of the princeps senatus, or the person 
whose name stood first on the censor's list, was 
first consulted, and afterwards those who were 
of consular dignity, each in their respective 
order. In the age of Cicero the consuls elect 
were first consulted ; and in the age of Caesar, 
he was permitted to speak first till the end of 
the year, on whom the consul had originally 
conferred that honour. Under the emperors, 
the same rules were observed, but the consuls 
were generally consulted before all others. 
When any public matter was introduced into 
the senate, which was always called referre ad 
senatum, any senator whose opinion was asked, 
was permitted to speak upon it as long as he 
€00 



pleased, and on that account it was often usual 
for the senators to protract their speeches till it 
was too late to determine. When the question 
was put, they passed to the side of that speaker 
whose opinion they approved, and a majority of 
votes was easily collected without the trouble of 
counting the numbers. This mode of proceed- 
ing was called pediJ)us in alicujus sententiam. 
ire, and therefore on that account, the senators 
who had not the privilege of speaking, but only 
the right of giving a silent vote, such as bore 
some curule honours, and on that account were 
permitted to sit in the senate, but not to deliber- 
ate, were denominated ^et^arii senator es. After 
the majority had been known, the matter was 
determined, and the senatus consultum was im- 
mediately written by the clerks of the house, at 
the feet of the chief magistrates, and it was 
signed by all the principal members of the 
house. When there was not a sufficient number 
of members to make a senate, the decision was 
called senatus auctoritas, but it was of no con- 
sequence if it did not afterwards pass into a 
senatus consultum. The tribunes of the peo- 
ple, by the word- veto, could stop the debates, 
and the decrees of the assembled senate, as 
also any one who was of equal authority with 
him who had proposed the matter. The sena- 
tus consulta were left in the custody of the con- 
suls, who suppress or preserve them ; but about 
the year of Rome 304, they were always depo- 
sited in the temple of Ceres, and afterwards in 
the treasury, by the ediles of the people. The 
degradation of the senators was made by the 
censor, by omitting their name when he called 
over the list of the senate. This was called 
praterire. A senator could be again introduced 
into the senate if he could repair his character, 
or fortune, which had been the causes why the 
censor had lawfully called him unqualified. 
The meeting of the senate was often sudden, 
except the particular times already mentioned, 
upon any emergency. After the death of J. 
Caesar they were not permitted to meet on the 
ides of March, which were c2\\ed parricidium, 
because on that day the dictator had been assas- 
sinated. The sons of the senators, after they 
had put on the toga virilis, were permitted to 
come into the senate, but this was afterwards 
limited. Vid. Papirius. The rank and au- 
thority of the senators, which were so conspic- 
uous in the first ages of the republic, and 
which caused the minister of Pyrrhus to de- 
clare that the Roman senate was a venerable 
assembly of kings, dwindled into nothing un- 
der the emperors. Men of the lowest charac- 
ter were admitted into the senate ; the emperors 
took pleasure in robbing this illustrious body 
of their privileges and authority ; and the sena- 
tors themselves by their meanness and servility, 
contributed, as much as the tyranny of the sove- 
reign, to diminish their own consequence ; and 
by applauding the follies of a Nero and the 
cruelties of a Domitian, they convinced the 
world that they no longer possessed sufficient 
prudence or authority to be consulted on mat- 
ters of weight and importance. In the election 
of successors to the imperial purple after Au- 
gustus, the approbation of the senate was con- 
sulted; but it was only a matter of courtesy, 
and the concurrence of a body of men was 
little regarded who were without power, and 



SE 



HISTORY, doc. 



SE 



under the control of a mercenary army. The 
title of Clarissimus was given to the senators 
under the emperors, and indeed this was the 
only distinction they had in compensation for 
the' loss of their independence. The senate 
was abolished by Justinian, 13 centuries after 
its first institution by Romulus. 

Seneca, M. Ann^us, a native of Corduba in 
Spain, who married Helvia, a woman of Spain, 
by whom he had three sons, Seneca the philo- 
sopher, Annseus Novatus, and Annaeus Mela, 
the father of the poet Lucan. Seneca made 
himself known by some declamations of which 
he made a collf/^.tion from the most celebrated 
orators of the age, and from that circumstance, 
and for distinction, he obtained the appellation 
of declamator. He left Corduba and went to 
Rome, where he became a Roman knight. His 
son, L. Annaeus Seneca, who was born about 
six years before Christ, was early distinguished 
by his extraordinary talents. He was taught 
eloquence by his father, and received lessons in 
philosophy from the best and most celebrated 
stoics of the age. As one of the followers of 
the Pythagorean doctrines, Seneca observed 
the most reserved abstinence, and in his meals 
never ate the flesh of animals; but this he 
abandoned at the representation of his father, 
when Tiberius threatened to punish some Jews 
and Egyptians, who abstained from certain 
meats. In the character of a pleader, Seneca 
appeared with great advantage ; but the fear 
of Caligula, who aspired to the name of an 
eloquent speaker, and who consequently was 
jealous of his fame, deterred him from pursuing 
his favourite study, and he sought a safer em- 
ployment in canvassing for the honours and 
offices of the state. He was made qusester, but 
the aspersions which were thrown upon him on 
account of a shameful amour with Julia Livilla, 
removed him from Rome, and the emperor ban- 
ished him for some time into Corsica. During 
his banishment, the philosopher wrote some 
spirited epistles to his mother, remarkable for 
elegance of language and sublimity ; but he 
soon forgot his philosophy, and disgraced him- 
self by his flatteries to the emperor, and in 
wishing to be recalled, even at the expense of 
his innocence and character. The disgrace of 
Messalina at Rome, and the marriage of Agrip- 
pina with Claudius, proved favourable to Sen- 
eca, and after he had remained five years in 
Corsica, he was recalled by the emperess to take 
care of the education of her son Nero, who was 
destined to succeed to the empire. In the hon- 
ourable duty of preceptor, Seneca gained ap- 
plause, and as long as Nero followed his advice, 
Rome enjoyed tranquillity, and believed her- 
self safe and happy under the administration 
of the son ofAgrippina. Some, however, are 
clamorous against the philosopher, and observe 
that Seneca initiated his pupil in those vices 
which disgraced him as a monarch and as a 
man. This may be the language of malevo- 
lence or the insinuation of jealousy. In the 
corrupted age of Nero, the preceptor had to 
withstand the clamours of many wicked and 
profligate ministers, and if he had been the fa- 
vourite of the emperor, and shared his pleasures, 
his debauchery, and extravagance, Nero would 
not perhaps have been so anxious of destroving 
a man v-hose example, from vicious inclina- 

Paut II.— 4 G 



tions, he could not follow, and whose salutaiy 
precepts his licentious associates forbade him to 
obey. Seneca was too well acquainted with the 
natural disposition of Nero to think himself 
secure ; he had been accused of having amassed 
the most ample riches, and of having built 
sumptuous houses and adorned beautiful gar- 
dens, during the four years in which he had 
attended Nero as a preceptor, and therefore he 
desired his imperial pupil to accept of the riches 
and the possessions which his attendance on his 
person had procured, and to permit him to retire 
to solitude and study. Nero refused, and Sen- 
eca, to avoid further suspicions, kept himself 
at home for .some time as if labouring under a 
disease. In ihe conspiracy of Piso, which hap- 
pened some time after, Seneca's name was 
mentioned byNatalis, and Nero ordered him to 
destroy himself He was at table with his wife 
Paulina and two of his friends when the mes- 
senger from Nero arrived. He heard the words 
which commanded him to destroy himself with 
philosophical firmness. As for his wife, he 
attempted to calm her emotions, and when she 
seemed resolved to die with him, he said he was 
glad to find his example followed with so much 
constancy. Their veins were opened at the 
same moment, but the life of Paulina was pre- 
served, and Nero, who was partial to her, or- 
dered the blood to be stopped, and from that 
moment, according to some authors, the philo- 
sopher's wife seemed to rejoice that she could 
still enjoy the comforts of life. Seneca's veins 
bled but slowly, and the conversation of his 
dying moments was collected by his friends. 
To hasten his death he drank a dose of poison, 
but it had no effect ; and therefore he ordered 
himself to be carried into a hot bath, to accele- 
rate the operation of the draught, and to make 
the blood flow more freely. This was attended 
with no better success, and as the soldiers were 
clamorous, he was carried into a stove, and 
suffocated by the steam, on the 12th of April, 
in the 65th year of the Christian era, in his 53d 
year. His body was burnt without pomp or 
funeral ceremony, according to his will, which 
he had made when he enjoyed the most un- 
bounded favours of Nero. The compositions 
of Seneca were numerous, and chiefly on moral 
subjects. He is so much admired for his re- 
fined sentiments and virtuous precepts, for his 
morality, his constancy, and his innocence of 
manners, that St, Jerome has not hesitated to 
rank him among Christian writers. His st}^le 
is nervous, it abounds with ornaments, and 
seems well suited to the taste of the age in 
which he lived. His treatises are de ird, Sa 
consolatione, de providentid, de tranquillhnte 
animi, de dementia, de sapientis constantid, 
de otis sapientis, de brevitate vita, de beneficiis, 
de vitd beatd, besides his naturales quastioms, 
Indus in Claudivm, moral letters, &c. There 
are also some tragedies ascribed to Seneca. 
Cluintilian supposes that the Medea is his com- 
position, and, according to others, Troas and 
the Hippolytus were also written by him, and 
the Agamemnon, Hercules, fur ens Thyestes 4* 
Hercules in Oeta, by his father, Seneca the de- 
claimer. The best editions of Seneca are those 
of Antwerp, fol. 1615, and of Gronovius, 3 
vols. Amsf , 1672 ; and those of his tragedies, 
are that of Schroder, 4to. Delph. 1728, and 
601 



SE 



HISTORY, &C. 



SE 



the 8vro. of Gronovius, L. Bat. 1682. Tacit. 
Ann. 12, &c. — Dio. — Sueton. in Ner. &c. — 
Quintil. 

Sentia Lex, de senatu, by C. Sentius, the 
consul, A. U. C. 734, enacting the choosing of 
proper persons to fill up the number of senators. 

Sentius, Cn. a writer in the reign of the 
emperor Alexander, of whose life he wrote an 
account in Latin, or, according to others, in 
Greek. 

Septerion, a festival observed once in nine 
years at Delphi, in honour of Apollo. It was 
a representation of the pursuit of Python by 
Apollo, and of a victory obtained by the god. 

Septimius, I. (Tit.) a Roman knight, distin- 
guished by his poetical compositions, both lyric 
and tragic. He was intimate with Augustus 
as well as Horace, who has addressed the 6 of 

his 2 ZiZ>. of Odes to him.- II. A native of 

Africa, who distinguished himself at Rome as a 
poet. He wrote, among other things, a hymn 
in praise of Janus. Only 11 of his verses are 
preserved. M. Terent. — CriniUis in vita. 

Segiuani. Vid. Part. I. 

Serapio, a Greek poet, who flourished in the 
age of Trajan. He was intimate with Plutarch. 

Serenus Samonicus, a physician in the age 
of the emperor Severus andCaracalla. There 
remains a poem of his composition on medi- 
cine, the last edition of which is that of 1706, in 
8vo. Amst. 

Sergius, one of the names of Catiline. 

A military tribune at the siege of Veii. The 
family of the Sergii was patrician, and branched 
out into the several families of the Fidenates, 
Sili, Catilincp, Natta, OcellcE, and Planci. 

Serranus, a surname given to Cincinnatus, 
because he was found sowing his fields when 
told that he had been elected dictator. Some 
however suppose that Serranus was a different 
person from Cincinnatus. Plin. 18, c. 3. — 

Liv. 3, c. 26.— Virg. JEn. 6, v. 844. A poet 

of some merit in Domitian's reign. Juv. 7, v. 80. 

Sertorius, CluTNTOs, a Roman general, son 
of Cluintus and Rhea, born at Nursia. His 
first campaign was under the great Marius, 
against the Teutones and Cimbri. He had the 
misfortune to lose one eye in the first battle he 
fought. When Marius and Cinna entered 
Rome and slaughtered all their enemies, Serto- 
rius accompanied them, but he expressed his 
sorrow and concern at the melancholy death of 
so many of his countrymen. He afterwards 
fled for safety into Spain, when Sylla had pro- 
scribed him, and in this distant province he be- 
haved himself with so much address and valour 
that he was looked upon as the prince of the 
country. He instituted public schools, and 
educated the children of the country in the 
polite arts, and the literature of Greece and 
Rome. He had established a senate, over which 
he presided with consular authority, and the 
Romans who followed his standard, paid equal 
reverence to his person. He pretended to hold 
commerce with heaven by means of a white 
hind which he had tamed with great success, 
and which followed him every where, even in 
the field of battle. The success of Sertorius in 
Spain, and his popularity among the natives, 
alarmed the Romans. They sent some troops 
to oppose him, but with little success. Four 
armies were found insufficient to crush, or even 
602 



hurt Sertorius ; and Pompey and Metellus, who 
never engaged an enemy without obtaining the 
victory, where driven with dishonour from the 
field. But the favourite of the Lusitanians 
was exposed to the dangers which usually at- 
tend greatness. Perpenna, one of his ofiicers, 
who was jealous of his fame, and tired of a su- 
perior, conspired against him. At a banquet 
the conspirators began to open their intentions 
by speaking with freedom and licentiousness 
in Ihe presence of Sertorius, whose age and 
character had hitherto claimed deference from 
others. Perpenna overturned a glass of wine 
as a signal to the rest of the conspirators, and 
immediately Antonius, one of his officers, stab- 
bed Sertorius, and the example was followed 
by all the rest, 73 years before Christ. Serto- 
rius has been commended for his love of justice 
and moderation. The flattering description he 
heard of the Fortunate Islands when he passed 
into the west of Africa, almost tempted him to 
bid adieu to the world. Plut. in vita. — Pater c. 
2, c. 30, &c. — Flor. 3, c. 21, &c. — Appian. de 
Civ.— Val. Max. 1, c. 2, 1. 7, c. S.—Eutrop. — 
Aul. Gell. 15, c. 22. 

Servilia, I. a sister of Cato of Utica, greatly 
enamoured of J. Caesar, though her brother was 
one of the most inveterate enemies of her lover. 
To convince Caesar of her affection, she sent 
him a letter filled with the most tender expres- 
sions of regard for his person. The letter was 
delivered to Caesar in the senate-house, while 
they were debating about punishing the asso- 
ciates of Catiline's conspiracy; and when Cat(^ 
saw it, he exclaimed that it was a letter from 
the conspirators, and insisted immediately on 
its being made public. Upon this Caesar gave 
it to Cato, and the stern senator had no sooner 
read its contents, than he threw it back with the 
words of, take it, drunkard. From the intimacy 
which existed between Servilia and Caesar, 
some have supposed that the dictator was the 
father of M. Brutus. Plut. in Cces. — C. ISlep. 

in Attic. II. Another sister of Cato, who 

married Silanus. Id. III. A daughter of 

Trasea, put to death by order of Nero, with her 
father. Her crime was the consulting of ma- 
gicians, only to know what would happen in 
her family. 

Servilia Lex de pecuniis repetundis, by C. 
Servilius the praetor, A. U. C. 653. It punished 
severely such as were guilty of peculation and 
extortion in the provinces. Its particulars are 

not precisely known. Another, de judicibus, 

by Q,. Servilius Caepio, the consul, A. U. C. 
648. It divided the right of judging between 
the senators and the equites, a privilege which, 
though originally belonging to the senators, had 
been taken from them and given to the equites. 
Another, de civitate, by C. Servilius, or- 



dained that if a Latin accused a Roman sena- 
tor, so that he was condemned, the accuser 
should be honoured with the name and the pri- 
vileges of a Roman citizen. Another, Agra- 

ria, by P. Servilius RuUus, the tribune, A. U. C. 
690. It required the immediate sale of certain 
houses and lands which belonged to the people, 
for the purchase of others in a different part of 
Italy. It reported that ten commissioners should 
be appointed to see it carried into execution, but 
Cicero prevented its passing into a law by the 
three orations which he pronoimced against it^ 



SE 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



Servilius CIdintus, I. a Roman, who in his 

dictatorship defeated the jEqui. II. Publius, 

a consul, who supported the cause of the people 
against the nobles, and obtained a triumph in 
spite of the opposition of the senate, after de- 
feating the Volsc.i. He afterwards changed his 
opinions, and very violently opposed the people, 

because they had illiberally treated him. III. 

A proconsul killed at the battle of Cannae by 

Annibal. IV. Ahala, a master of horse to 

the dictator Cincinnatus. When Maelius re- 
fused to appear before the dictator, to answer 
the accusations which were brought against him 
on suspicion of his aspiring to tyranny, Ahala 
slew him in the midst of the people whose pro- 
tection he claimed. Ahala was accused for this 
murder, and banished, but his sentence was af- 
terwards repealed. He was raised to the dic- 
tatorship. V. Publius, a proconsul of Asia 

during the age of Mithridates. He conquered 
Isauria, for which service he was surnamed 

Isauricus, and rewarded with a triumph. 

VI. Geminus, a Roman consul, who opposed 

Annibal with success. VII. Nonianus, a 

Latin historian, who wrote a history of Rome 
in the reign of Nero. There were more than 
one writer of this name, as Pliny speaks of a 
Servilius remarkable for his eloquence and 
learning ; and Cluintilian mentions another also 

illustrious for his genius and literary merit. 

VIII. Casca, one of Csesar's murderers. 



The family of the Servilii was of patrician 
rank, and came to settle at Rome after the de- 
struction of Alba, where they were promoted 
to the highest offices of the state. To the seve- 
ral branches of this family were attached the 
different surnames of Ahala, Axilla, Priscus, 
CcBfiOy Structus, Geminus, Pulex, Vatia, Casca, 
'Fidenas, Longus, and Tucca. 

Servius Tcllius, I. the sixth king of Rome, 
was son of Ocrisia, a slave of Cprniculum, by 
TuUius, a man slain in the defence of his coun- 
try against the Romans. Ocrisia was given by 
Tarquin to Tanaquil, his wife, and she brought 
up her son in the king's family, and added the 
name of Servius to that which he had inherited 
from his father to denote his slavery. Young 
Servius was educated in the palace of the mon- 
arch with great care, and, though originally a 
slave, Tarquin gave him his daughter in mar- 
riage. His own private merit and virtues re- 
commended him to notice not less than the 
royal favours, and Servius, become the favourite 
of the people and the darling of the soldiers by 
his liberality and complaisance, was easily rais- 
ed to the throne on the death of his father-in- 
law. Rome had no reason to repent of her 
choice. Servius endeared himself still more as 
a warrior and as a legislator. He defeated the 
Veientes and the Tuscans, and by a proper act 
of policy he established the census. He in- 
creased the number of the tribes, he beautified 
and adorned the city, and enlarged its bounda- 
ries by taking within its walls the hills Cluiri- 
nalis, Viminalis, and Esquilinus, That he 
might not seem to neglect the worship of the 
gods, he built several temples to the goddess of 
fortune, to whom he deemed himself particu- 
larly indebted for obtaining the kingdom. He 
also built a temple to Diana on mount Aven- 
tine, and raised himself a palace on the hill 
Esquilinus. Servius married his two daugh- 



ters to the grandsons of his father-in-law ; the 
elder to Tarquin, and the younger to Aruns. 
This union, as might be supposed, tended to 
insure the peace of his family ; but if such were 
his expectations, he was unhappily deceived. 
The wife of Aruns, naturally fierce and impet- 
uous, murdered her own husband to unite her- 
self to Tarquin, who had likewise assassina- 
ted his wife. These bloody measures were no 
sooner pursued, than Servius was murdered by 
his own son-in-law, and his daughter Tullia 
showed herself so inimical to filial gratitude 
and piety, that she ordered her chariot to be 
driven over the mangled body of her father, 
B. C, 534, His death was universally lament- 
ed, and the slaves annually celebrated a festival 
in his honour, in the temple of Diana, on mount 
Aventine, the day that he was murdered. Tar- 
quinia, his wife, buried his remains privately, 
and died the following day. Liv. 1, c. 41. — 
Dionys. Hal. 4. — Flor. 1, c. 6. — Cic. de Div. 1, 
c. 53, — Val. Max. 1, c. 6. — Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 

601. II. Sulpitius, an orator in the age of 

Cicero and Hortensius. He was sent as am- 
bassador to M. Antony, and died before his re- 
turn. Cicero obtained a statue for him from the 
senate and the Roman people, which was raised 
in the Campus Martius. Besides orations, he 
wrote verses, which were highly censured for 
their indelicacy. His works are lost. Cic. in 
Brut. Phil. &c. — Plin. 5, ep. 3, 

Sesostris, a celebrated king of lEgypt some 
ages before the Trojan war. His father order- 
ed all the children in his dominions who were 
born on the same day with him to be publicly 
educated, and to pass their youth in the com- 
pany of his son. This succeeded in the highest 
degree, and Sesostris had the pleasure to find 
himself surrounded by a number of faithful 
ministers and active warriors, whose education 
and intimacy with their prince rendered them 
inseparably devoted to his interest. When 
Sesostris had succeeded on his father's throne, 
he became ambitious of military fame, and af- 
ter he had divided his kingdom into 36 different 
districts, he marched at the bead of a numerous 
army to make the conquest of the world. Libya; 
^Ethiopia, Arabia, with all the islands of the 
Red Sea, were conquered ; and the victorious 
monarch marched through Asia, and penetrated 
farther into the east than the conqueror of Da- 
rius. He also invaded Europe, and subdued the 
Thracians ; and that the fame of his conquests 
might long survive him, he placed columns in 
the several provinces he had subdued ; and 
many ages after, this pompous inscription was 
read in many parts of Asia, Sesostris, the king 
of kings, has conquered this territory by his o.rvis. 
At his return home the monarch employed his 
time in encouraging the fine arts, and in im- 
proving the revenues of his kingdom. He 
erected 100 temples to the gods for the victories 
he had obtained, and mounds of earth were 
heaped up in several parts of Egypt, where 
cities were built for the reception of the inhabi- 
tants duringthe inundations ol the Nile. Some 
canals were also dug near Memphis, to facili- 
tate navigation and the communication of one 
province with another. In his old age Sesos- 
tris, grown infirm and blind, destroyed himself, 
after a reign of 44 years, according to some. 
His mildness towards the conquered has been 
603 



SE 



HISTORY, &c. 



SE 



admired, while some have upbraided him for 
his cruelty and insolence in causing his chariot 
to be drawn by some of the monarchs whom he 
had conquered. The age of Sesostris is so re- 
mote from every authentic record, that many 
have supported that the actions and conquests 
ascribed to this monarch are uncertain and 
totally fabulous. Herodot. 2, c. 102, &c.-^Diod. 
l.— Val. Flucc. 5, V. 419.— PZm. 33, c. 3.— 
Lnican. 10, v. 216.—Strab. 16. 

Sethon, a priest of Vulcan, who made him- 
self king of Egypt after the death of Anysis. 
He was attacked by the Assyrians an ddeliver- 
ed from this powerful enemy by an immense 
number of rats, which in one night gnawed 
their bow strings and thongs, so that on the 
morrow their arms were found to be useless. 
From this wonderful circumstance Sethon had 
a statue which represented him with a rat in his 
hand, with the inscription of Whoever fixes his 
eyes upon me, let him be pious. Herod. 2, c. 141. 

Severus, I. (Lucius Septimius,) a Roman 
emperor, born at Leptis in Africa, of a noble 
family. He gradually exercised all the offices 
of the state, and recommended himself to the 
notice of the world by an ambitious mind and a 
restless activity, that could, for the gratification 
of avarice, endure the most complicated hard- 
ships. After the murder of Pertinax, Severus 
resolved to remove Didius Julianus, who had 
bought the imperial purple when exposed to sale 
by the pretorians, and therefore he proclaimed 
himself emperor on the borders of Illyricum, 
where he was stationed against the barbarians. 
To support himself in this bold measure, he 
took as his partner in the empire Albinus, who 
was at the head of the Roman forces in Britain, 
and immediately marched towards Rome, to 
crush Didius and his partisans. He was re- 
ceived as he advanced through the country with 
universal acclamations, and Julianus was assas- 
sinated by his own soldiers. The reception of 
Severus at Rome was sufficient to gratify his 
pride ; the streets were strewed with flowers, 
and the submissive senate were ever ready to 
grant whatever honours or titles the conqueror 
claimed. In professing that he had assumed 
the purple only to avenge the death of the vir- 
tuous Pertinax, Severus gained many adhe- 
rents, and was enabled not only to disarm, but 
to banish the pretorians, whose insolence and 
avarice were become alarming not only to the 
citizens but to the emperor. But while he was 
victorious at Rome, Severus did not forget that 
there was another competitor for the imperial 
purple. Pescennius Niger was in the East at 
the head of a powerful army, and with the 
name and ensigns of Augustus. Many obstinate 
battles were fought between the troops and of- 
ficers of the imperial rivals, till, on the plains 
of Issus, which had been above five centuries 
before covered with the blood of the Persian 
soldiers of Darius, Niger was totally ruined by 
the loss of 20,000 men. The head of Niger was 
cut off and sent to the conqueror, who punished 
in a most cruel manner all the partisans of his 
unfortunate rival, Severus afterwards pillaged 
Byzantium, which had shut her gates against 
him ; and after he had conquered several na- 
tions in the East, he returned to Rome, resolved 
to destroy Albinus, with whom he had hitherto 
reluctantly shared the imperial power. He 
604 



attempted to assassinate him by his emissaries; 
but wlien this had failed of success, Severus 
had recourse to arms, and the fate of the empire 
was again decided on the plains of Gaul, Albi- 
nus was defeated, and the conqueror was so 
elated with the recollection that he had now no 
longer a competitor for the purple, that he in- 
sulted the dead body of his rival, and ordered 
it to be thrown into the Rhone, after he had 
suffered it to putrify before the door of his tent, 
and to be torn to pieces by his dogs. The family 
and adherents of Albinus shared his fate; and 
the' return of Severus to the capital rivalled 
the bloody triumphs of Marius and Sylla. The 
richest of the citizens were sacrificed, and their 
money became the property of the emperor. 
The wicked Commodus received divine hon- 
ours, and his murderers were punished in the 
most wanton manner. Tired of the inactive 
life he had led in Rome, Severus marched into 
the East, with his two sons Caracalla and Geta, 
and with uncommon success made himself 
master of Selucia, Babylon, andCtesiphon; and 
advanced without opposition far into the Par- 
thian territories. .From Parthia the emperor 
marched towards the more southern provinces 
of Asia; after he had visited the tomb of 
Pompey the Great, he entered Alexandria ; 
and granted a senate to this celebrated city. 
The revolt of Britain recalled him from the 
East. After he had reduced it under his power, 
he built a wall across the northern parts of the 
island, to defend it against the frequent inva- 
sions of the Caledonians. Hitherto successful 
against his enemies, Severus now found the 
peace of his family disturbed, Caracella at- 
tempted to murder his father as he weis conclud- 
ing a treaty of peace with the Britons ; and the 
emperor was so shocked at the undutifulness of 
his son, that on his return home he called him 
into his presence, and after he had upbraided 
him for his ingratitude and perfidy, he offered 
him a drawn sword, adding, If you are so am- 
bitious of reigning alone, now imbrue your hands 
in the blood of your father, and let not the eyes of 
the loorld be loitness of yotcr want of filial ten- 
derness. If these words checked Caracalla, 
yet he did not show himself concerned ; and 
Severus, worn out with infirmities, which the 
gout and the uneasiness of his mind increased, 
soon after died, exclaiming he had been 
every thing man could wish, but that he was 
then nothing. Some say that he wished to 
poison himself, but that when this was denied, 
he eat to great excess, and soon after expired at 
York, on the fourth of February, in the 211th 
year of the Christian era, in the 66th year of his 
age, after a reign of 17 years 8 months and 3 
days. Severus has been so much admired for 
his military talents, that some have called him 
the most warlike of the Roman emperors. As a 
monarch he was cruel, and it has been observed 
that he never did an act of humanity or forgave 
a fault. In his diet he was temperate, and he 
always showed himself an open enemy to pomp 
and splendour. He loved the appellation of a 
man of letters, and he even composed a history 
of his own reign, which some have praised for 
its correctness and veracity. Dio. — Herodian. 

— Victor, &c. II. Alexander, (Marcus Au- 

relius,) a native of Phoenicia, adopted by He- 
liogabalus. His father's name was Genesius 



S£ 



HISTORY, &c. 



gl 



Marcianus, and his mother's Julia Mammaea, 
and he received the surname of Alexander be- 
cause he was bom in a temple sacred to Alex- 
ander the Great. He was carefully educated, 
and his mother, by paying particular attention 
to his morals and the character of his preceptors, 
preserved him from licentiousness. At the 
death ofHeliogabalus, who had been jealous of 
his virtues, Alexander, though only in the 14th 
year of his age, was proclaimed emperor, and 
his nomination was approved by the shouts of 
the army and the congratulations of the senate. 
He had not been long on the throne before the 
peace of the empire was disturbed by the incur- 
sions of the Persians. Alexander marched into 
the east without delay, and soon obtained a 
decisive victory over the barbarians. At his re- 
turn to Rome he was honoured with a triumph, 
but the revolt of the Germans soon after called 
him away from the indolence of the capital. 
His expedition in Germany was attended with 
some success, but the virtues and the amiable 
qualities of Alexander were forgotten in the 
stern and sullen strictness of the disciplinarian. 
His soldiers, fond of repose, murmured against 
his severity ; their clamours were fomented by 
the artifice of Maximinus, and Alexander was 
murdered in his tent, after a reign of 13 years 
and 9 days, on the 18th of March, A. D." 235. 
His mother Mammsea shared his fate with all 
his friends ; but this was no sooner known than 
the soldiers punish 3d with immediate death all 
such as had been concerned in the murder, ex- 
cept Maximinus. Alexander has been admired 
for his many virtues, and every historian, ex- 
cept Herodian, is bold to assert, that if he had 
lived the Roman empire might soon have been 
freed from those tumults and abuses which con- 
tinually disturbed her peace, and kept the lives 
of her emperors and senators in perpetual 
alarms. His severity in punishing offences "was 
great ; and such as had robbed the public, were 
they even the most intimate friends of the em- 
peror, were indiscriminately sacrificed to the 
tranquillity of the state which they had vio- 
lated. The great offices of the state which had 
before his reign been exposed to sale, and oc- 
cupied by favourites, were now bestowed upon 
merit ; and Alexander could boast that all his 
officers Vv^ere men of trust and abilities. He 
M^as a patron of literature, and he dedicated the 
hours of relaxation to the study of the best 
Greek and Latin historians, orators, and poets ; 
and in the public schools which his liberality 
and the desire of encouraging learning had 
founded, he often heard with pleasure and sa- 
tisfaction the eloquent speeches and declama- 
tions of his subjects. The provinces were well 
supplied with provisions, and Rome was em- 
bellished w^ith many stately buildings and mag- 
nificent porticos. AUx. vit. — Herodian, — Zosim. 

— Victor. HI. Flavins Valerius, a native of 

lUyricum, nominated Ceesar by Galerius. He 
was put to death by Maximianus, A. D. 307. 

IV. Julius, a governor of Britain under 

Adrian. V. Libius, a man proclaimed em- 
peror of the West, at Ravenna, after the death 
of Majorianus. He was soon after poisoned. 

VI, Lucius Cornelius, a Latin poet in the 

age of Augustus, for some time employed in 

the judicial proceedings of the forum. VII. 

Cassius, an orator, banished into the island of 



Crete by Augustas, for his illiberal language 
He was banished 17 years, and died in Seri- 
phos. He is commended as an able orator, yet 
declaiming with more warmth than prudence. 
His writings were destroyed by order of the 

senate. Siiet. in Oct. — Quint. VIII. Sul- 

pitius, an ecclesiastical historian, who died 
A. D. 420. The best of his works is hi.s His- 
toria Sac7-a, from the creation of the world to 
the consulship of Stilicho, of which the style is 
elegant, and superior to that of the age in which 
he lived. The best edition is in 2 vols. 4to. 

Patavii. 1741. IX. Aquilius, a native of 

Spain, who wrote an account of his own life in 
the reign of the emperor Valens. X. A ce- 
lebrated architect employed in building Nero's 
golden palace at Rome, after the burning of 
that city. 

Seuthes, a name common to several of the 
Thracian princes. 

Sextia LicTNiA Lex, de Magistratibus, by C. 
Licinius and L. Sextius, the tribunes, A. U. C. 
386. It ordained that one of the consuls should 
be elected from among the plebeians. Ano- 
ther, de religione, by the same, A. U. C. 385. 
It enacted that a decemvirate should be chosen 
from the patricians and plebeians instead of the 
decemviri sacri faciundis. 

Septilius, a governor of Africa, who ordered 
Marius when he landed there to depart imme- 
diately from his province. Marius ^heard this 
with some concern, and said to the messenger, 
Go and tell your master that you have seen the 
exiled Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage. 
Plut. in Mar. 

Sextius, I. (Lucius,) was remarkable for his 
friendship with Brutus ; he gained the confi- 
dence of Augustus, and was consul. Horace, 
who was in the number of his friends, dedicat- 
ed 1 od. 4, to him. II. The first plebeian 

consul. III. One of the sons of Tarquin. 

Vid. Tarquinius. 

Sextds, a praenomen given to the sixth son 

of a family. 1. A son of Pompey the Great. 

Vid. Pompeius. II. A stoic philosopher, born 

at Chseronaea in Boeotia. Some suppose that he 
was Plutarch's nephew. He was preceptor to 
M. Aurelius and L. Verus. III. A philoso- 
pher in the age of Antoninus. He was one of 
the followers of the doctrines of Pyrrho. Some 
of his works are still extant. The best edition 
of the treatise of Sextus Pompeius Festus de ver- 
borum, significations, is that of Arast. 4to. 1699. 

Sibylla. Vid. Part III. 

SicAMBRi, or Sygambri. Vid. Part I. 

SicANi. Vid. Part I. 

S1CH.EUS, called also Sicharbas and Akerbas, 
was a priest of the temple of Hercules in Phoe- 
nicia. His father's name was Plisthenes. He 
married Elisa the daughter of Belus, and sister 
of king Pygmalion, better known by the name 
of Dido. He was so rich that his brother-in- 
law murdered him to obtain his possessions. 
This murder Pygmalion endeavoured to con- 
ceal from his sister Dido ; but the shade of Si- 
chaeus appeared to Dido, and advised her to fly 
from Tyre, after she had previously secured 
some treasures which Avere concealed in an 
obscure and unknown place. According to 
Justin, Acerbas was the uncle of Dido. Virg. 
JEn. 1. V. 847, ^c.—Patcrc. 1, c. 6.— Justin. 
18, c. 4. 

605 



SI 



HISTORY, &c. 



'BI 



SiciNius Dentatds, (L.) I. a tribune of Rome, 
celebrated for his valour and the honours he 
obtained in the field of battle during the period 
of 40 years in which he was engaged in the 
Roman armies. He was present in 121 battles : 
he obtained 14 civic crowns ; 3 mural crowns, 8 
crowns of gold ; 83 golden collars ; 60 brace- 
lets ; 18 lances ; 23 horses with all their orna- 
ments, and all as the reward of his uncom- j 
mon services. He could show the scars of 451 
wounds, which he had received all in his breast, j 
particularly in opposing the Sabines when they j 
took the capitol. The popularity of Sicinius ! 
became odious to Appius Claudius, who wished 
to make himself absolute at Rome, and there- 
fore, to remove him from the capital, he sent 
him to the army, by which, soon after his ar- 
rival, he was attacked and murdered. Of 100 
men who were ordered to fall upon him, Sici- 
nius killed 15 and wounded 30. For his un- 
common courage Sicinius has been called the 

Roman Achilles. Val. Max. 3, c. 2. Dionys. 

8. II. Vellutus, one of the first tribunes in 

Rome. He raised cabals against Coriolanus, 
and was one of his accusers. Plut. in Cor. 
III. Sebinus, a Roman general, who de- 
feated the Volsci. 

SiouLi. Vid. Part I. 

SiDONius Caius Sollius Apollinaris, a Chris- 
tian writer, born A. D. 430. He died in the 
52d year of his age. There are remaining of 
his composition some letters, and different 
poems, consisting chiefly of panegyrics on the 
great men of his time, of which the best edition 
is that of Labbseus, Paris, 4to. 1652. Virg. 
jEn. 1, V. 682. 

SiLANUs, (D.) I. a son of T. Manlius, Tor- 
quatus, accused of extortion in the management 
of the province of Macedonia. The father him- 
self desired to hear the complaints laid against 
his son, and after he had spent two days in ex- 
amining the charges of the Macedonians, he 
pronounced, on the third day, his son guilty of 
extortion, and unworthy to be called a citizen 
of Rome. He also banished him from his pre- 
sence, and so struck was the son at the severity 
of his father, that he hanged himself on the fol- 
lowing night. Liv.M. — Cic.de Finib. — Val. 

Max. 5, c. 8. -II. C. Junius, a consul under 

Tiberius, accused of extortion, and banished to 
the island of Citheraea. Tacit. II. A pro- 
praetor in Spain, who routed the Carthaginian 

forces there while Annibal was in Italy. IV. 

Turpilius, a lieutenant of Metellus against Ju- 
gurtha. He was accused by Marius, though 
totally mnocent, and condemned by the malice 

of his judges. V. Lucius, a man betrothed 

to Octavia, the daughter of Claudius. Nero 
took Octavia away from him, and on the day of 
her nuptials Silanus killed himself. 

SiLius Italicus, (C.) I. a Latin poet, who was 
originally at the bar, where he for some time 
distinguished himself, till he retired from Rome 
more particularly to consecrate his time to 
study. He was consul the year that Nero was 
murdered. Pliny has observed, that when Tra- 
jan was invested with the imperial purple, Silius 
refused to come to Rome and congratulate him 
like the rest of his fellow-citizens, a neglect 
which was never resented by the emperor. 
Silius was in possession of a house where Ci- 
cero had lived, and another in which was the 
606 



tomb of Virgil. The birth-day of Virgil was 
yearly celebrated with unusual pomp and so- 
lemnity by Silius ; and for his partiality, not 
only to the memory, but to the compositions, of 
the Mantuan poet, he has been called the ape of 
Virgil. Silius starved himself while labouring 
under an imposthume, which his physicians 
were unable to remove, in the beginning of 
Trajan's reign, about the 75th year of his age. 
There remains a poem of Italicus on the se- 
cond punic war, divided into 17 books, greatly 
commended by^ Martial. The moderns have 
not been so favourable in their opinions con- 
cerning its merit. He has every where imitated 
Virgil, but with little success. Silius was a 
great collector of antiquities. His son was ho- 
noured with the consulship during his life-time. 
The best editions of Italicus will be found to 
be Drakenborch's in 4to. Utr. 1717, and that 
of Cellarius, 8vo. Lips. IG95.— Mart. 11, ep. 49, 

&c. II. Caius, a man of consular dignity, 

greatly loved by Messalina for his comely ap- 
pearance and elegant address. Messalina 
obliged him to divorce his wife that she might 
enjoy his ccmpanj without intermission. Silius 
was forced to comply, though with great re- 
luctance, and he was at last put to death for 
the adulteries which the emperess obliged him to 
commit. Tacit. — Sv£t. — Dio. 

Simon, a currier of Athens, whom Socrates 
often visited on account of his great sagacity 
and genius. He collected all the information 
he could receive from the conversation of the 
philosopher, and afterwards published it with 
his own observations in 33 dialogues. He was 
the first of the disciples of Socrates who at- 
tempted to give an account of the opinions of 
his master. These dialogues were extant in 
the age of the biographer Diogenes, who has 
preserved their title. Diog. 2, c. 14. 

SiMoNiDEs, a celebrated poet of Cos, who 
flourished 538 years B. C. His father's name 
was Leoprepis, or Theoprepis. He wrote ele- 
gies, epigrams, and dramatical pieces, esteemed 
for their elegance and sweetness, and composed 
also epic poems. Simonides was universally 
courted by the princes of Greece and Sicily, 
and, according to one of the fables of Phaedrus, 
he was such a favourite of the gods, that his 
life was miraculously preserved in an entertain- 
ment when the roof of the house fell upon all- 
those who were feasting. He obtained a poeti- 
cal prize in the 80th year of his age, and he 
lived to his 90th year. The people of Syracuse, 
who had hospitably honoured him when alive, 
erected a magnificent monument to his memory. 
Simonides, according to some, added the four 
letters v, w, I, ^, to the alphabet of the Greeks. 
Some fragments of his poetry are extant. Ac- 
cording to some, the grandson of the elegiac 
poet of Cos was called Simonides. He flourish- 
ed a few years before the Peloponnesian war, 
and was the author of some books of invention, 
genealogies, &c. Qintil. 10, c. 1. — Phadr. 4, 
fab. 21 and 'M.—Horat. 2, Od. 1, v. 3S.—Horat. 
5, c. 102.— Czc. de Orat. &c.—Arist.— Pindar. 
Isth. %—Catull. 1, ep. 39.—LMcan. de Macrob. — 
jElian. V. H. 8, c. 2. 

SiMPLicius, a Greek commentator on Aris- 
totle, whose works were all edited in the 16th 
century, and the latter part of the 15th, but 
without a Latin version. 



SI 



HISTORY, &c. 



SO 



SiNON, a son of Sisyphus, who accompanied 
the Greeks to the Trojan war, and there dis- 
tinguished himself by his cunning and fraud, 
and his intimacy with Ulysses. When the 
Greeks had fabricated the famous wooden horse, 
Sinon went to Troy with his hands bound be- 
hind his back, and by the most solemn protesta- 
tions, assured Priam that the Greeks were gone 
from Asia, and that they had been ordered to 
sacrifice one of their soldiers to render the wind 
favourable fo their return, and that because the 
lot had fallen upon him, at the instigation of 
Ulysses he had fled away from their camp, not 
to be cruelly immolated. These false assertions 
were immediately credited by the Trojans, and 
Sinon advised Priam to bring into his city the 
wooden horse which the Greeks had left behind 
them, and to consecrate it to Minerva. His 
advice was followed, and Sinon, in the night, 
to complete his perfidy, opened the sides of the 
horse, from which issued a number of armed 
Greeks, who surprised the Trojans and pilla- 
ged their city. Dares Phryg. — Homer. Od. 8, 
V. 492, 1. 11, V. b'il.— Virg.Mn. 2, v. 79, &.Z.— 
Pans. 10, c. 27.— Q. Smyrn. 12, &c. 

SiSAMNEs, a judge flayed alive for his par- 
tiality, by order of Cambyses, His skin was 
nailed on the bench of the other judges to in- 
cite them to act with candour and impartiality. 
Herodot. 5, c. 25. 

SisENNA, (L.) I. an ancient historian among 
the Romans, 91 B. C. He was the friend of 
Macer, and coeval with Antias and Gluadriga- 
rius; but he far excelled his contemporaries, 
as well as predecessors, in the art of historical 
narrative. He was of the same family as Sylla, 
the dictator, and was descended from that Si- 
senna who was praetor in 570. In his youth he 
practised as an orator, and is characterized by 
Cicero as a man of learning and wit, but of no 
great industry or knowledge in business. In 
more advanced life he was praetor of Achaia, 
and a friend of Atticus. Vossius says his his- 
tory commenced after the taking of Rome by 
the Gauls, and ended with the wars of Marius 
and Sylla. Now, it is possible that he may 
have given some sketch of Roman affairs from 
the burning of the city by the Gauls, but it is 
evident he had touched slightly on these early 
portions of the history, for though his work 
consisted of twenty, or, according to others, of 
twenty-two books, it appears from a fragment 
of the second, which is still preserved, that he 
had there advanced as far in his narrative as 
the SocialWar,which broke out in the year 663. 
The greater part, therefore, I suspect, was de- 
voted to the history of the civil wars of Marius ; 
and indeed Velleius Paterculus calls his work 
Ofus Belli Civilis Sullani. The great defect 
of his history consisted, it is said, in not being 
written with sufficient political freedom, at least 
concerning the character and conduct of Sylla, 
which is regretted by Sallust in a passage bear- 
ing ample testimony to the merits of Sisenna in 
other particulars. Cicero, while he admits his 
superiority over his predecessors, adds, that he 
was far from perfection, and complains that 
there was something puerile in his Annals, as 
if he had studied none of the Greek historians 
but Clitarchus. I have quoted these opinion.s, 
since we must now entirely trust to the senti- 
ments of others in the judgment which we 



form of the merits of Sisenna ; for although the 
fragments which remain of his history are more 
numerous than those of any other old Latin an- 
nalists, being about 150, they are also shorter and 
more unconnected. Indeed, there are scarcely 
two sentences any where joined together. Ovid. 
Trist. 2, V. 443.— Cic. in Brut. 64 and 67.— 

Pater c. 2, c. 9. II. Corn, a Roman, who, on 

being reprimanded in the senate for the ill con- 
duct and depraved manners of his wife, accused 
publicly Augustus of unlawful commerce with 

her. Dio. 54. The family of the Cornelii 

and Apronii received the surname of Sisenna. 

SisiGAMBis, or SisYGAMBis, the mother of Da- 
rius, the last king of Persia. She was taken 
prisoner by Alexander the Great, at the battle 
of Issus, with the rest of the royal family. The 
conqueror treated her with uncommon tender- 
ness and attention ; he salated her as his own 
mother, and what he had sternly denied to the 
petitions of his favourites and ministers, he of- 
ten granted to the intercession of Sisygambis. 
The regard of the queen for Alexander was un- 
common, and, indeed, she no sooner heard that 
he was dead, than she killed herself, unwilling 
to survive the loss of so generous an enemy; 
though she had seen with less concern the fall 
of her son's kingdom, the ruin of his subjects, 
and himself murdered by his servants. She had 
also lost, in one day, her husband and 80 of her 
brothers, whom Ochus had assassinated to make 
himself master of the kingdom of Persia. Curt. 
4, c. 9, 1. 10, c. 5. 

Sisyphus, a son of M. Antony, who was born 
deformed, and received the name of Sisyphus, 
because he was endowed witli genius and an 
excellent understanding. Horat. 1, sat. 3, v. 
47. Vid. Part III. 

SiTius, a Roman, who assisted Caesar in Af- 
rica with great success. He was rewarded with 
a province of Numidia. Sallust. Jug. 21. 

Smerdis, a son of Cyrus, put to death by or- 
der of his brother Cambyses. As his execution 
was not public, and as it was only known to 
one of the officers of the monarch, one of the 
Magi of Persia, who was himself called Smer- 
dis, and who greatly resembled the deceased 
prince, declared himself king at the death of 
Cambyses. After he had reigned for six months 
with universal approbation, seven noblemen of 
Persia conspired to dethrone him, and when this 
had been executed with success, they chose one 
of their number to reign in the usurper's place, 
B. C. 521. This was Darius, the son of Hys- 
taspes. Herodot. 3, c. 30. — Justin. 1, c. 9. 

Socrates, I. the most celebrated philosopher 
of all antiquity, was a native of Athens. His 
father, Sophfoniscus, was a statuary, and his 
mother, Phenarete, was by profession a midwife. 
For some time he followed the occupation of his 
father, and some have mentioned the statue of 
the Graces, admired for their simplicity and 
elegance, as the work of his own hands He 
was called away from thisemplo5Tnentby Crito, 
who admired his genius and courted his friend- 
ship. Philosophy soon became the study of So- 
crates, and under Archelaus and Anaxagoras 
he laid the foundation of that exemplary virtue 
which succeeding ages have ever loved and ven- 
erated. He appeared, like the rest of his coun- 
trymen, in the field of battle ; he fought with 
boldness and intrepidity, and to his courage two 
60-? 



so 



HISTORY, &c. 



SO 



of his friends and disciples, Xenophon and Al- 
cibiades, owed the preservation of their life. 
But the character of Socrates appears more con- 
spicuous as a philosopher and moralist than as 
that of a warrior. He was fond of labour, he 
inured himself to suffer hardships, and he ac- 
quired that serenity of mind and firmness of 
countenance which the most alarming dangers 
could never destroy, or the most sudden calami- 
ties alter. If he was poor, it was from choice, 
and not the effects of vanity or tlie wish of ap- 
pearing singular. He bore injuries with pa- 
tience, and the insults of malice or resentment 
he not only treated with contempt, but even re- 
ceived with a mind that expressed some con- 
cern, and felt compassion for the depravity of 
human nature. So single and so venerable a 
character was admired by the most enlightened 
of the Athenians. Socrates was attended by a 
number of illustrious pupils, whom he instruct- 
ed by his exemplary life as M^ell as by his doc- 
trines. He had no particular place where to 
deliver his lectures, but as the good of his coun- 
trymen, and the reformation of their corrupted 
morals, and not the aggregation of riches, was 
the object of his study, he was present every 
where, and drew the attention of his auditors 
either in the groves of Academus, the Lyceum, 
or on the banks of the Ilyssus. He spoke with 
freedom on every subject, religious as well as 
civil, and had the courage to condemn the vio- 
lence of his countrymen, and to withstand the 
torrent of resentment by which the Athenian 
generals were capitally punished for not bury- 
ing the dead at the baitle of Arginusae. This 
Independence of spirit, and that visible supe- 
riority of mind and genius over the rest of his 
countrymen, created many enemies to Socrates ; 
but as his character was irreproachable and his 
doctrines pure, the voice of malevolence was 
silent. Yet Aristophenes undertook, in his 
comedy of the Clouds, to ridicule the venerable 
character of Socrates on the stage ; and when 
once the way was open to calumny and defa- 
mation, the fickle and licentious populace paid 
no reverence to the philosopher whom they had 
before regarded as a being of a superior order. 
When this had succeeded, Melitus stood forth 
to criminate him, together with Anitus and 
Lycon, and the philosopher was summoned be- 
fore the tribunal of the five hundred. He was 
accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, of 
making innovations in the religion of the 
Greeks, and of ridiculing the many gods which 
the Athenians worshipped. Lysias, one of the 
most celebrated orators of the age, composed 
an oration in a laboured and pathetic style, 
which he offered to his friend to be pronounced 
as his defence in the presence of his judges. 
Socrates read it, but after he had praised the 
eloquence and the animation of the whole, he 
rejected it, as neither manly nor expressive of 
fortitude. In his apology he spoke with great 
animation, and confessed that while others 
boasted that they were acquainted with every 
thing, he himself knew nothing. The whole 
discourse was full of simplicity and noble gran- 
deur. He modestly said, that what he possessed 
was applied for the service of the Athenians ; it 
was his wish to make his fellow-citizens happy, 
and it was a duty be performed by the special 
command of the gods, who$e authority, said he 
608 



emphatically to his judges, / regard more iha/i 
yours. Such language from a man who was 
accused of a capital crime astonished and ir- 
ritated the judges. Socrates was condemned, 
but only by a majority of three voices ; and 
when he was demanded, according to the spirit 
of the Athenian laws, to pass sentence on 
himself, and to mention the death he preferred, 
the philosopher said, For my attempts to teach 
the Athenian youth justice and moderation^ and 
to render the rest of my countrymen more lutppy, 
let me be maintained at the pid)lic expense the 
remaining years of my life in the Prylaneum^ 
a.n honour^ O Athenians, lohich 1 deserve more 
than the victors of the Olympic games. They 
make their countrymeii more happy in appear- 
ance^ but 1 have made you so in reality. This 
exasperated the judges in the highest degree, 
and he was condemned to drink hemlock. 
Upon this he addressed the court, and more 
particularly the judges who had decided in his 
favour in a pathetic speech. He told them that 
to die was a pleasure, since he was going to hold 
converse with the greatest heroes of antiquity ; 
he recommended, to their paternal care his 
defenceless children, and as he returned to the 
prison, he exclaimed : 1 go to die, you to live ; 
but which is the best the Divinity alone can know. 
The solemn celebration of the Delian festivals 
( Vid. Delia,) prevented his execution for thirty 
days, and during that time he was confined in 
the prison and loaded with irons. His friends, 
and particularly his disciples, were his constant 
attendants; he discoursed with them upon dif- 
ferent subjects with all his usual cheerfulness 
and serenity. He reproved them for their sor- 
row, and when one of them was uncommonly 
grieved because he was to suffer though inno- 
cent, the philosopher replied. Would you then 
have me die guilty ? With this composure he 
spent his last days ; he continued to be a pre- 
ceptor till the moment of his death, and instruct- 
ed his pupils on questions of the greatest im- 
portance ; he told them his opinions in support 
of the immortality of the soul, and reprobated 
with acrimony the prevalent custom of suicide. 
He disregarded the intercession of his friends, 
and when it was in his power to make his 
escape out of prison, he refused it, and asked 
with his usual pleasantry, where he could 
escape death ; W7tere, says he to Crito, who had 
bribed the gaoler, and made his escape certain, 
where shall 1 fly to avoid the irrevocable doom 
passed on all mankind 7 When the hour to drink 
the poison was come, the executioner presented 
him the cup with tears in his eyes. Socrates- 
received it with composure, and after he had 
made a libation to the gods, he drank it with 
an unaltered countenance, and a few moments 
after he expired. Such was the end of a man 
whom the uninfluenced answer of the oracle 
of Delphi had pronounced the wisest of man- 
kind. Socrates died 40O years before Christ, 
in the 70th year of his age. He was no sooner 
buried than the Athenians repented of their 
cruelty, his accusers were universally despised 
and shunned, one suffered death, some were 
banished, and others, with their own hands, 
put an end to their life. The actions, sayings, 
and opinions of Socrates have been faithfully 
recorded by two of the most celebrated of his 
pupils, Xenophon and Plato , and every thing 



so 



HISTORY, &0. 



SO 



which relates to the life and circumstances of 
this great philosopher is now minutely known. 
To his poverty, his innocence, and his example, 
the Greeks were particularly indebted for their 
greatness and splendour; and the learning which 
was universally disseminated by his pupils, gave 
the whole nation a consciousness of their supe- 
riority over the rest of the world, not only in the 
polite arts, but in the more laborious exercises, 
■which their writings celebrated. The philoso- 
phy of Socrates forms an interesting epoch in 
the history of the human mind. The son of 
Sophroniscus derided the more abstruse inqui- 
ries and metaphysical researches of his prede- 
cessors, and by first introducing moral philoso- 
phy,he induced mankind to consider themselves, 
their passions, their opinions, their duties, ac- 
tions, and faculties. From this it was said that 
the founder of the Socratic school drew philo- 
sophy down from heaven upon the earth. The 
portrait usually drawn of Socrates, and the his- 
torical importance attributed to him appear to 
be at irreconcilable variance. "With him most 
•writers make a new period to begin in the his- 
tory of Greek philosophy, which manifestly 
implies that he breathed a new spirit and char- 
acter into those intellectual exertions of his 
countrymen, which we comprehend under the 
name of philosophy ; so that they assume a 
new form under his hands, or at least that he 
immediately widened their range. But if we 
inquire how the same writers described So- 
crates as an individual, we are informed that 
he did not at all busy himself with the physical 
investigations which constituted a main part of 
Greek philosophy, but rather withheld others 
from them ; and that, even with regard to m.oral 
inquiries, which were those in which he en- 
gaged the deepest, he did not by any means 
aim at reducing them into a scientific shape, 
and that he established no fixed principle for 
this more than for any other branch of human 
knowledge. The base of his intellectual con- 
stitution was rather religious than speculative ; 
his exertions rather those of a good citizen for 
the improvement of the people, and especially 
of the young, than those of a philosopher ; in 
short, he is represented as a virtuoso in the 
exercise of sound common sense, and of that 
strict integrity and mild philanthropy with 
which it is always associated in an uncorrupted 
mind. All this, however, tinged with a slight 
air of enthusiasm. But these are not qualities 
which could have produced the conspicuous 
and permanent effects on the philosophical ex- 
ertions of a people already far advanced in in- 
tellectual culture. The question then is, what 
must Socrates have been to give Plato an in- 
ducement and a right to exhibit him as he has 
done in his dialogues, and thus lead us to the 
inference that he must have had a strictly phi- 
losophical basis in his composition so far as he 
is recognized by Plato as the author of his 
philosophical life, and is therefore to be regard- 
ed as the first vital movement of Greek philo- 
sophy in its advanced stage, and that he can 
only be entitled to that place by an element 
which, though properly philosophical, was 
foreign to the preceding period. The charac- 
ter which is peculiar to the post Socratic philo- 
sophy beginning with Plato, is the co-existence 
and inter-communion of the three branches 
Part II.— 4 H 



of knowledge— dialectics, physics, and ethics. 
This distinction separates the two periods very 
definitely. In the earlier period, the idea of 
science, as such, was not the governing idea, 
and had even become a distinct subject of con- 
sciousness, as it became in the second. Hence 
the main business every where is to distinguish 
knowledge from opinion ; hence the precision 
of scientific language ; hence the peculiar prom- 
inence of dialectics, which have no other object 
than the idea of science ; things not compre- 
hended even by the Eleatics in the same way 
as by the Socratic schools, since the former still 
make the idea of Being the starting point ra- 
ther than that of knowledge. Now this waking 
of the idea of science and its earliest manifest- 
ations must have been, in the first instance, 
what constituted the philosophical basis in So- 
crates ; and for this reason he is justly regard- 
ed as the founder of that later Greek philosophy 
which, in its whole essential form, together 
with its several variations, was determined by 
that idea. The actions of men furnished ma- 
terials also for his discourse ; to instruct them 
was his aim, and to render them happy was the 
ultimate object of his daily lessons. From prin- 
ciples like these, which were enforced by the 
unparalleled example of an affectionate hus- 
band, a tender parent, a warlike soldier, and a 
patriotic citizen in Socrates, soon aflerthe cele- 
brated sects of the Platonists, the Peripatetics, 
the Academics, Cyrenaics, Stoics, &c. arose, 
Socrates never wrote for the public eye, yet 
many support that the tragedies of his pupil, 
Euripides, were greatly composed by him. A 
physiognomist observed, in looking in the face 
of the philosopher, that his heart was the most 
depraved, immodest, and corrupted that ever 
was in the human breast. This nearly cost the 
satirist his life, but Socrates upbraided his dis- 
ciples, who wished to punish the physiogno- 
mist, and declared that his assertions were true, 
but that all his vicious propensities had been 
duly corrected and curbed by means of reason. 
Socrates made a poetical version of iEsop's 
fables while in prison. Laert. — Zenoph. — Pla- 
to. — Pans. 1, c. 22. — Plut. de op. Phil. &c. — 
Cic. de Oral. 1, c, 54. — Tusc. 1, c. 41, &c. — 

Val. Max. 3, c. 4. II. Aleaderof the Achse- 

ans at the battle of Cunaxa. He was seized 

and put to death by order of Artaxerxes. 

III. A scholiast, born A. D. 380, at Constanti- 
nople. He wrote an ecclesiastical history from 
the year 309, where Eusebius ended, down to 
440, with great exactness and judgment, of 
which the best edition is that of Reading, fol. 
Cantab. 1720. 

SoEMtAS, (Julia,) mother of the emperor He- 
liogabaluSj.was made president of a senate of 
women, which she had elected to decide the 
quarrels, and the affairs of the Roman matrons. 
She at last provoked the people by her debauch- 
eries, extravagance, and cruelties, and was 
murdered with her son and family. She was a 
native of Apamea; her father's name was Ju- 
lius Avilus, and her mother's Masa. Her sister 
Julia Mammaea married the emperor Septi- 
mius Severus. 

SoGDiANUs, a son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, 

who murdered his elder brother, king Xerxes, 

to make himself master of the Persian throne. 

He was but seven months in possession of the 

609 



so 



HISTORY, &c. 



60 



crown. His brother Ochus, who reigned under 
the name of Darius Nothus, conspired against 
him, and suffocated him in a tower full of warm 
ashes. 

SoLiNus, (C. Julius,) a grammarian at the 
end of the first century, who wrote a book call- 
ed Polyhistor, which is a collection of historical 
remarks and geographical annotations on the 
most celebrated places of every country. He 
has been called Pliny's ape, because he imitated 
that well-known naturalist. The last edition of 
the Polyhistor is that of Norimb. ex editione 
Salmasii. 1777. 

Solon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, 
was born at Sal amis and educated at Athens. 
His father's name was Euphorion, or Exeche- 
stides, one of the descendants of king Codrus, 
and by his mother's side he reckoned among his 
relations the celebrated Pisistratus. After he 
had devoted part of his time to philosophical 
and political studies, Solon travelled over the 
greatest part of Greece ; but at his return home 
he was distressed with the dissensions which 
were kindled among his countrymen. All fixed 
their eyes upon Solon as a deliverer, and he 
was unanimously elected archon and sovereign 
legislator. He might have become absolute, 
but he refused the dangerous office of king of 
Athens, and in the capacity of lawgiver he be- 
gan to make a reform in every department. 
The complaints of the poor citizens found re- 
dress, all debts were remitted, and no one was 
permitted to seize the person of his debtor if 
unable to make a restoration of his money. 
After he had made the most salutary regula- 
tions in the state, and bound the Athenians by a 
solemn oath that they would faithfully observe 
his laws for the space of 100 years, Solon re- 
signed the office of legislator, and removed him- 
self from Athens. He visited Egypt, and in the 
court of Croesus, king of Lydia, he convinced 
the monarch of the instability of fortune, and 
told him, when he wished to know whether he 
was not the happiest of mortals, that Tellus, 
an Athenian, who had always seen his country 
in a flourishing state, who had seen his chil- 
dren lead a virtuous life, and who had himself 
fallen in defence of his country, was more en- 
titled to happiness than the possessor of riches 
and the master of empires. After ten years' 
absence Solon returned to Athens, but he had 
the mortification to find the greatest part of his 
regulations disregarded by the factious spirit of 
his countrymen and the usurpation of Pisistra- 
tus. Not to be longer a spectator of the divi- 
sions that reigned in his country, he retired to 
Cyprus, where he died at the court of king Phi- 
locyprus, in the 80th year of his age, 558 years 
before the Christian era. The salutary conse- 
quences of the laws of Solon can be discovered 
in the length of time they were in force in the 
republic of Athens. For above 400 years they 
flourished in full vigour, and Cicero, who was 
himself a witness of their benign influence, 
passes the highest encomiums upon the legisla- 
tor, whose superior wisdom framed such a code 
of regulations. It was the intention of Solon to 
protect the poorest citizens, and by dividing the 
whole body of the Athenians into four classes, 
three of which were permitted to discharge the 
most important offices and magistracies of the 
state, and at last to give their opinion in the as- 
610 



semblies, but not have a share in the distinctions 
and honours of their superiors, the legislator 
gave the populace a privilege which, though at 
first small and inconsiderable, soon rendered 
them masters of the republic and of all the af- 
fairs of government. He made a reformation 
in the Areopagus, he increased the authority of 
the members, and permitted them yearly to in- 
quire how every citizen maintained himself, 
and to punish such as lived in idleness, and 
were not employed in some honourable and lu- 
crative profession. He also regulated the Pry- 
tan eum, and fixed the number of its judges to 
400. The sanguinary laws of Draco were all 
cancelled, except that against murder; and the 
punishment denounced against every offender 
was proportioned to his crime. But Solon made 
no law against parricide or sacrilege. The 
former of these crimes, he said, was too hor- 
rible to human nature for a man to be guilty of 
it, and the latter could never be committed, 
because the history of Athens had never fur- 
nished a single instance. Such as had died in 
the service of their country were buried with 
great pomp, and their family was maintained 
at the public expense ; but such as had squan- 
dered away their estates, such as refused to 
bear arms in defence of their country, or paid 
no attention to the infirmities and distress of 
their parents, were branded with infamy. The 
laws of marriage were newly regulated. To 
speak with ill language against the dead as well 
as the living, was made a crime, and the legis- 
lator wished that the character of his fellow- 
citizens should be freed from the aspersions of 
malevolence and envy. A person who had no 
children was permitted to dispose of his estates 
as he pleased, and the females were not allow- 
ed to be extravagant in their dress or expenses. 
To be guilty of adultery was a capital crime. 
These celebrated laws were engraved on seve- 
ral tables ; and that they might be better known 
and more familiar to the Athenians, they were 
written in verse. The indignation which So- 
lon expressed on seeing the tragical represent- 
ations of Thespis is well known; and he sternly 
observed, that if falsehood and fiction were 
tolerated on the stage, they would soon find their 
way among the common occupations of men. 
According to Plutarch, Solon was reconciled 
to Pisistratus, but this seems to be false, as the 
legislator refused to live in a country where the 
privileges of his fellow-citizens were trampled 
upon by the usurpation of a tyrant. ( Vid. Ly. 
curgus.) Plut. in Sol. — Herodot. 1, c. 29 — 
Diog. 1. — Pans. 1, c. 40. — Cic. 

SoNCHis, an Egyptian priest in the age of 
Solon. It was he who told that celebrated phi- 
losopher a number of traditions, particularly 
about the Atlantic isles, which he represented 
as more extensive than the continent of Africa 
and Asia united ; one of which disappeared, as 
it is said, in one day and one night. Plut. in 
Isid. &c. 

SoPATER, a philosopher of Apamea, in the 
age of the emperor Constantine. He was one 
of the disciples of lamblicus, and after his death 
he was at the head of the Platonic philoso- 
phers. 

Sophocles, I. Colonus, a beautiful village 
little more than a mile from Athens, gave birth 
to Sophocles in the second year of the seventy^ 



. so 



HISTORY. &c. 



SO 



first Olympiad, B. C. 495. He was conse- 
quently thirty years junior to iEschylus and 
fifteen senior to Euripides. Sophilus, his father, 
a man of opulence and respectability, bestowed 
upon his son a careful education in all the lite- 
rary and personal accomplishments of his age 
and country. The powers of the future dra- 
matist were developed, strengthened, and re- 
fined by a careful instruction in the principles 
of music and poetry ; whilst the graces of a 
person, eminently handsome, derived fresh ele- 
gance and ripened into a noble manhood amidst 
the exercises of the palaestra. The garlands 
which he won, attested his attainments in both 
these departments of Grecian education. A 
still more striking proof of his personal beauty 
and early proficiency is recorded in the fact, 
that when, after the battle of Salamis, the po- 
pulation of Athens stood in solemn assembly 
round the trophy raised by their valour, So- 
phocles, at the age of sixteen, was selected 
to lead with dance and lyre the chorus of 
youths, who performed the paean of their coun- 
try's triumph. The commencement of his dra- 
matic career was marked not more by its suc- 
cess than the singularity of the occasion on 
which his first tragedy appeared. The bones 
of Theseus had been solemnly transferred by 
Cimon from their grave in the isle of Scyros to 
Athens. An eager contest between the the tra- 
gedians of the day ensued. Sophocles, then in 
his twenty- fifth year, ventured to come iforward 
as one of the candidates ; amongst whom was 
the veteran iEschylus, now for thirty years the 
undoubted master of the Athenian stage. Party 
feeling excited such a tumult among the spec- 
tators, that the archon, Aphepsion, had not bal- 
lotted the judges, when Cimon advanced with 
his nine fellow generals to offer the customary 
libations to Bacchus. No sooner were these 
completed, than detaining his colleagues, he 
directed them to take with him the requisite 
oath, and then seat themselves as judges of the 
performance. Before this self-constituted tri- 
bunal Sophocles exhibited his maiden drama, 
and by their decision was proclaimed first vic- 
tor. This remarkable triumph was an earnest 
of the splendid career before him. From this 
event, before Christ 468, to his death, before 
Christ 405, during a space of three and sixty 
years, he continued to compose and exhibit. 
Twenty times did he obtain the first prize, 
still more frequently the second; and never 
sank to the third. An accumulation of success, 
which left the victories of his two great rivals 
far behind, -^schylus won but thirteen dra- 
matic contests. Euripides was still less for- 
tunate. — Such a continuation of poetic exertion 
and triumph is the more remarkable from the 
circumstance, that the powers of Sophocles, so 
far from becoming dulled and exhausted by 
these multitudinous efforts, seem to have con- 
tracted nothing from labour and age save a 
mellower tone, a more touching pathos, a sweet 
and gentle character of thought and expression. 
The life of Sophocles, however, was not alto- 
gether devoted to the service of the muses. In 
his fifty-seventh year he was one of the ten 
generals,with Pericles and Thucydides amongst 
his colleagues ; and served in the war against 
Saraos. But his military talents were probably 
of no high order ; and his generalship added no 



brilliancy to his dramatic fame. At a more ad- 
vanced age he was appointed priest to Alon, one 
of the ancient heroes of his country; an oflfice 
more suited to the peaceful temper of Sophocles. 
In the civil duties of an Athenian citizen, he 
doubtless took a part. Nay, in extreme age, we 
find him one of the committee of ten rrpdPov'Xoi, 
appointed in the progress of the revolution 
brought about by Pisander to investigate the 
state of affairs and report thereon to the people 
assembled on the hill of Colonus, his native 
place ; and there, as Trp6,8ov\os, he assented with 
characteristic easiness of temper to the esta- 
blishment of oligarchy under the council of 
four hundred, " as a bad thing, but the least 
pernicious measure which circumstances al- 
lowed." The civil dissensions and external 
reverses, which marked the concluding years 
of the Peloponnesian war, must have fallen 
heavily upon the mind of one whose chief de- 
light was in domestic tranquillity, and who re- 
membered that proud day of Salaminian tri- 
umph, in which he bore so conspicuous a part. 
His sorrows, as a patriotic citizen, were aggra- 
vated by the unnatural conduct of his own 
family. Jealous at the old man's affection for 
a grandchild by a second wife, an elder son, 
or sons, endeavoured to deprive him of the 
management of his property, on the ground of 
dotage and incapacity. The only refutation 
which the father produced, was to read before 
the court his CEdipus at Colonus, a piece which 
he had just composed ; or, according to others, 
that beautiful chorus only, in which he cele- 
brates the loveliness of his favourite residence. 
The admiring judges instantly arose, dismissed 
the cause, and accompanied the aged poet to 
his house with the utmost honour and respect. 
Sophocles was spared the misery of witnessing 
the utter overthrow of his declining country. 
Early in the year 405 B.C., some months be- 
fore the defeat of iEgospotami put the finish- 
ing stroke to the misfortunes of Athens, death 
came gently upon the venerable old man, full 
of years and glory. The accounts of his death 
are very diverse ; all tending to the marvel- 
lous, Ister and Neanthes state that he was 
choked by a grape ; Satyrus makes him expire 
from excessive exertion in reading aloud a long 
paragraph out of the Antigone; others ascribe 
his death to extreme joy at being proclaimed 
the tragic victor. Not content with the singu- 
larity of his death, the ancient recorders of his 
life add prodigy to his funeral also. He died 
when the Athenians were cooped up within 
their walls, and the Lacedemonians were in 
possession of Decelea, the place of his family 
sepulture. Bacchus twice appeared in a vision 
to Lysander, the Spartan general, and bid him 
allow the interment ; which accordingly took 
place with all due solemnity. Ister states, more- 
over, that the Athenians passed a decree, to ap- 
point an annual sacrifice to so admirable aman. 
Seven tragedies alone remain out of the great 
number which Sophocles composed ; 3''et among 
these seven we probably possess the most 
splendid productions of his genius. The per- 
sonal character of Sophocles, without rising 
into spotless excellence or exalted heroism, was 
honourable, calm, and amiable. In his younger 
days he seems to have been addicted to intem- 
perance in love and wine. And a saying of 
611 



so 



HISTORY, &c. 



SO 



his, recorded by Plato, Cicero, and Athenaeus, 
whilst it confirms the charge just mentioned, 
would also imply that years had cooled the tur- 
bulent passions of his youth: " T thank old 
age," said the poet, " for delivering me from 
the tyranny of my appetites." Yet even in his 
later days, the charms of a Theoris and an 
Archippe are reported to have been too power- 
ful for the still susceptible dramatist. Aristo- 
phanes, who in his Ranae manifests so much 
respect for Sophocles, then just dead, had, four- 
teen years before accused him of avarice ; an 
imputation, however, scarcely reconcileable 
with all that is known or can be inferred re- 
specting the character of Sophocles. The old 
man, who was so absorbed in his art as to incur 
a charge of lunacy from the utter neglect of his 
affairs, could hardly have been a miser. A 
kindly and contented disposition, however 
blemished with intemperance in pleasures, was 
the characteristic of Sophocles : a characteristic 
which Aristophanes himself so simply and yet 
so beautifully depicts in that smgle line, 

'O J' EVKoXos fXEv evda8\ evKoXos J' eke'i. — Ran. 82. 

It was Sophocles who gave the last improve- 
ments to the form and exhibition of tragedy. 
To the two performers of >ffischylus he added 
a third actor ; a number which was never after- 
wards increased. Under his directions the 
effect of theatric representation was heightened 
by the illusion of scenery carefully painted and 
duly arranged. The choral parts were still 
farther curtailed, and the dialogue carried out 
to its full development. The odes themselves 
are distinguished by their close connexion with 
the business of the play, the correctness of their 
sentiments, and the beauty of their poetry. His 
language, though at times marked by harsh 
metaphor and perplexed construction, is pure 
and majestic, without soaring into the gigantic 
phraseology of iEschylus on the one hand, or 
sinking into the common-place diction of Euri- 
pides on the other. His management of a sub- 
ject is admirable. No one understood so well 
the artful envelopment of incident, the secret 
excitation of the feelings, and the gradual 
heightening of the interest up to the final crisis, 
when the catastrophe bursts forth in all the 
force of overwhelming terror or compassion. 
Such was Sophocles ; the most perfect in dra- 
matic arrangement, the most sustained in the 
even flow of dignified thought, word, and tone, 
among the tragic triumvirate. As characteris- 
tic of this poet, the ancients have praised that 
native sweetness and gracefulness, on account 
of which they call him the Attic Bee. Who- 
ever has penetrated into the feeling of this pe- 
culiarity, may flatter himself that the spirit for 
antique art has arisen within him ; for modern 
sensibility, very far from being able to fall in 
with that judgment, would be more likely to 
find in the Sophoclean tragedy, both in respect 
of the representation of bodily suflfering, and in 
the sentiments and arrangements, much that is 
unsufferably austere. In proportion to the great 
fertility of Sophocles, considering that accord- 
ing to some accounts he wrote a hundred and 
thirty pieces, (of which, however, the gramma- 
rian Aristophanes declared seventeen not to be 
genuine,) and eighty, according to the most 
moderate statements, little, it must be owned, 
612 



has remained to us, for we have but seven of 
them. But chance has taken good care of us, 
for among this number are some which the 
ancients considered his most excellent master- 
pieces, as the Antigone, and Electra, and both 
those on CEdipus; they have also come down 
to us tolerably free from mutilation, and with 
the text uncorrupted. By modern critics the 
King CEdipus and the Philoctetes have been 
admired, but without reason, above all the rest ; 
the former, for the artificial complication of the 
plot, in which the horrible catastrophe, which 
keeps the curiosity ever on the stretch, (a rare 
occurrence, this, in the Greek tragedies,) is 
brought on inevitably by a series of connected 
causes ; the latter for its masterly delineation of 
character, and the beautiful contrasts between 
the three principal figures, together with the 
simple structure of the piece, in which, notwith- 
standing there are so few persons, all is deduced 
from the truest motives. But the tragedies of 
Sophocles, collectively, are each one of them 
resplendent with its own peculiar excellences. 
In the Antigone, we have heroism exhibited 
in the most purely feminine character ; in the 
Ajax, the manly sense of honour in all its 
strength; in the Trachinian Women, (or, as 
we should call it, the dying Hercules,) the 
female levity of Dejanira is beautifully atoned 
for by her death and the sufferings of Her- 
cules are depicted in a worthy manner; the 
Electra is distinguished by energy and pathos ; 
in the CEdipus at Colonos, the predominant 
character is a most touching mildness, and an 
extreme gracefulness is diifused over the 
whole. To weigh the comparative merits of 
these pieces I will not venture : but I own I 
cherish a preference for the last-mentioned, 
because it seems to me to be most expres- 
sive of the personal character of Sophocles. 
As this piece is devoted to the glory of 
Athens in general and of his birth-place in 
particular, he seems to have laboured on 
it with particular aifection. The least usu- 
ally understood are the Ajax and Antigone. 
The reader cannot conceive why these plays 
run on so long after what we are accustomed to 
call the catastrophe. The story of CEdipus is 
perhaps of all the fate-fables of ancient mytho- 
logy, the most ingenious. The diflference be- 
tween the characters of -^schylus and Sopho- 
cles, nowhere shows itself more strikingly than 
in the Eumenides, and the CEdipus at Colonos, 
as these two pieces were composed with similar 
intentions. In both of them the object is to set 
forth the glory of Athens, as the holy habitation 
of justice and of mild humanity, and the crimes 
of foreign hero-families, after suffering their 
punishment are to find their final atonement in 
this domain through a higher mediation, while 
it is also prophesied, that lasting welfare shall 
thence accrue to the Attic people. In the pa- 
triotic and free-spirited iEschylus this is effect- 
ed by a judicial procedure ; in the pious Sopho- 
cles, bv a religious one ; and this, indeed, is the 
death-devotion of CEdipus, when, bowed down 
as he is by the consciousness of involuntary 
guilt, and by long misery, the gods thereby, as 
it were, finally clear up his honour, as though, 
in the fearful example given in his person, they 
did not intend to afflict him in particular, but . 
only wished to give a severe lesson to mankind 



so 



HISTORY, &c 



€0 



in general. Sophocles, to whom the whole 
course of life is one continued worship, delights 
to throw all possible lustre on its last moment, 
as though it were that of a higher solemnity, 
and thus he inspires an emotion of quite a dif- 
ferent kind from that which is excited by the 
thought of mortality in general. There are 
two plays of Sophocles which, agreeably to the 
Greek way of thinking, refer to the sacred rites 
of the dead and the importance of burial : in 
the Antigone, the whole action turns upon this, 
and in the Ajax, this alone gives a satisfactory 
conclusion to the piece. The ideal of the fe- 
male character in the Antigone, is marked by 
great severity ; so much so, that this alone would 
be sufficient to neuiralize all those mawkish 
conceptions of Greek character, which have 
lately become so much the mode. Her indig- 
nation at Ismene's refusal to take a part in her 
daring resolution ; the manner in which she 
afterwards rejects Ismene, when, repenting of 
her weakness, she offers to accompany her 
heroic sister to death, borders on harshness; 
her silence and her speeches against Creon, 
whereby she provokes him to execute his tyran- 
nous resolution, are a proofof unshaken manly 
courage. But the poet has found out the secret 
of revealing the loving womanly character in 
one single line, where to the representations of 
Creon, that Polynices died the foe of his coun- 
try, she replies, 

ov Toi avve^deiv dWa ffVn<pi\£Tv eipvv. 

At first sight the chorus in the Antigone may 
seem weak, accommodating itself, as it does, 
without contradiction, to the tyrannous com- 
mands of Creon, and not once attempting a 
favourable representation in behalf of the young 
heroine. But it is necessary that she should 
stand all alone in her resolution and its accom- 
plishment, that she may appear in all her dig- 
nity; she must find no stay, no hold. It is 
quite otherwise in the Electra, where it was fit 
that the chorus should take as eager and en- 
couraging a part with the two principal charac- 
ters, inasmuch as there are powerful moral 
feelings opposed to their design, while others 
spur them on to it ; whereas in the deed of Anti- 
gone there is no such variance, but she is to be 
withheld by merely exterior terrors. After the 
completion of the deed, and the suffering en- 
dured for it, there yet remains the chastisement 
of insolence, and retribution for the destruction 
of Antigone : nothing less than the utter ruin 
of Creon's whole family, and his own despair 
can be a worthy death-ofifering for the sacrifice 
of a life so costly. To Grecian feelings it would 
have been impossible to look upon the poem as 
properly closed by the death of Antigone, with- 
out any atoning retribution. The case is the 
same with the Ajax. His arrogance, which is 
punished with dishonourable phrensy, is atoned 
for by the deep shame which drives him even 
to self-murder. As Ajax, in the feeling of in- 
delible shame, flings away his life in the haste 
of a vehement resolve, so Philoctetes bears its 
wearisome burden through years of suffering 
with persevering endurance. As Ajax is en- 
nobled by his despair, so is Philoctetes by his 
constancy. The play of " The Trachinian 
Women" seems so far inferior in value to the 
rest which have come down to us, that we could 



wish to find something that would favour the 
conjecture, that this tragedy was composed in 
the age, indeed, and in the school of Sophocles, 
but by his son lophon, and was erroneously 
attributed to the father. There are several 
suspicious circumstances not only in its struc- 
ture and plan, but also in the style of writing; 
different critics have already remarked, that the 
needless soliloquy of Dejanira at the opening, 
has not the character of the Sophoclean pro- 
logues. Even if, upon the whole, the maxims 
of this poet are observed, it is but a superficial 
observance; the deep mind of Sophocles is 
wanting. But as the genuineness of the piece 
was never doubted by the ancients, as even 
Cicero confidently quotes the sufferings of Her- 
cules from this drama, as from a work of Sopho- 
cles, we must perhaps be content to say, that 
the tragedian has in this one instance remained 
below his usual elevation. The best editions 
of Sophocles are those of Capperonier, 2 vols. 
4to. Paris, 1780 ; of Glasgow, 2 vols. 12mo, 
1745; of Geneva, 4to. 1603; and that by 
Brunck, 4 vols. 8vo. 1786. Cic. in Cat. de Div. 
1, c. 25. — Phit. in Cim. &c. — Quintil. 1, c. 10, 
1. 10, c. l.— Val. Max. 8, c. 7, 1. 9, c. l2.—PHn. 

7, c. 53. — Athen. 10, &c. II. The grandson 

of the great tragedian, exhibited the CEdipus 
Coloneus of his grandfather, Olymp. 94th, 4, B. 
C. 401. He first contended in his own name, 
Olymp. 96, B. C. 396. 

SoPHONisBA, a daughter of Asdrubal, the 
Carthaginian, celebrated for her beauty. She 
married Syphax, aprince of Numidia, and when 
her husband was conquered by the Romans and 
Masinissa, she fell into the hands of the enemy. 
Masinissa became enamoured' of her, and mar- 
ried her. This behaviour displeased the Ro- 
mans; and Scipio, who at that time had the 
command of the armies of the republic in Africa, 
rebuked the monarch severely, and desired him 
to part with Sophonisba. This was an arduous 
task for Masinissa; yet he dreaded the Ro- 
mans. He entered Sophonisba's tent with tears 
in his eyes, and told her, that as he could not 
deliver her from captivity and the jealousy of 
the Romans, he recommended her, as the strong- 
est pledge of his love and affection for her per- 
son, to die like the daughter of Asdrubal. 
Sophonisba obeyed, and drank with unusual 
composure and serenity the cup of poison 
which Masinissa sent to her, about 203 years 
before Christ. Liv. 30, c. 12, &e. — Sallust. de 
Jug. — Justin. 

Sopm^oN, a comic poet of Syracuse, son of 
Agathocles and Damasyllis, His compositions 
were so universally esteemed, that Plato is said 
to have read them with rapture. Val. Max. 8, 
c. 7. — Quintil. 1, c. 10. 

SoPHRONiscus, the father of Socrates. 

SosiBius, I. a grammarian of Laconia, B. C. 
255. He was a great favourite of Ptolemy Phi- 
lopator, and advised him to murder his brother, 
and the queen his wife, called Arsinoe. He 
lived to a great age, and was on that account 
called Polychronos. He was afterwards per- 
mitted to retire from the court, and spend the 
rest of his days in peace and tranquillity, after 
he had disgraced the name of minister by the 
most abominable crimes, and the murder of 
many of the royal family. His son of the same 
name was preceptor to king Ptolemy Epipha- 
613 



so 



HISTORY, &C. 



W 



nes. II. The preceptor of Britannicus, the 

son. of Claudius. Tacit. A. 11, c. 1. 

SosicLEs, a native of Syracuse, composed 
seventy-three tragedies, and was seven times 
victor. He lived during the reigns of Philip of 
Macedon and his son Alexander. 

SosicRATEs, a noble senator among the 
Achffians, put to death because he wished his 
countrymen to make peace with the Romans. 
' SosiGENEs, I. an Egyptian mathematician, 
who assisted J. Caesar in regulating the Roman 

calendar. Suet. — Diod. — Plin. 18, c. 25. 

II. A commander of the fleet of Eumenes. 
Pol'i/cEri. 

Sosii, celebrated booksellers at Rome in the 
age of Horace, 1, ep. 20, v. 2. 

SosiLus, a Lacedaemonian, in the age of An- 
nibal. He lived in great intimacy with the Car- 
thaginian, taught him Greek, and wrote the 
history of his life. C. Nep. in Annib. 

SosiPATER, a grammarian, in the reign of 
Honorius. He published five books of observa- 
tions on grammar. 

SosisTRATus, a tyrant of Syracuse, in the age 
of Agathocles. He invited Pyrrhus into Sicily, 
and afterwards revolted from him. He was at 
last removed by Hermocrates. Polycen. 1. 

SosTHENEs, a general of Macedonia, who 
flourished B. C. 281. He defeated the Gauls 
under Brennus, and was killed in the battle. 
Justin. 24, c. 5. 

SoTADEs, a Greek poet of Thrace. He wrote 
verses against Philadelphus Ptolemy, for which 
he was thrown into the sea in a cage of lead. 
He was called Cinadus, not only because he 
was addicted to the abominable crime which 
the surname indicates, but because he wrote a 
poem in commendation of it. Some suppose, 
that, instead of the word Socraticos, in the 2d 
satire, verse the 10th of Juvenal, the word Sota- 
dicos should be inserted, as the poet Sotades, 
and not the philosopher Socrates, deserved the 
appellation of Cinaedus. Obscene verses were 
generally called Sotadea carmina from him. 
They could be turned and read different ways 
without losing their measure or sense, such as 
the following, which can be read backwards : — 

RomOy tibi subito motibus ibit amor. 

Si bene te tua laus tazat, sua laute tenebis. 

Sole medere pede, ede, perede melos. 

Quintil. 1, c. 8, 1, 9, c. 4. — Plin. 5, ep. 3. — 
Anson, ep. 17, v. 29. 

SoTER, a surname of the first Ptolemy. 

It was also common to other monarchs. 

SoTERiA, days appointed for thanksgivings 
and the offerings of sacrifices for deliverance 
from danger. One of these was observed at 
Sicyon, to commemorate the deliverance of that 
city from the hands of the Macedonians by 
Aratus. 

SoTERiEcus, a poet and historian, in the age of 
Diocletian. He wrote a panegyric on that em- 
peror, as also a life of Apollonius Thyanaeus. 
His works, greatly esteemed, are now lost, ex- 
cept some few fragments preserved by the scho- 
liast of Lycophron. 

SoTioN, a grammarian of Alexandria, pre- 
ceptor to Seneca, B. C. 204. Senec. ep. 49 
and 58. 

SozoMEN, an ecclesiastical historian, who 
died 450 A. D. His historv extends from the 
614 ' 



year 324 to 439, and is dedicated to Theodo- 
sius the yoimger, being written in a style of 
inelegance and mediocrity. The best edition 
is that of Reading, fol. Cantab. 1720, 

Spartacus, I. a king of Bosphorus, who died 
B. C. 433. His son and successor of the same 
name died B. C. 407. II. A Thracian shep- 
herd, celebrated for his abilities, and the victo- 
ries he obtained over the Romans. Being one of 
the gladiators wno were kept at Capua in the 
house of Lentulus, he escaped from the place of 
his confinement with 30 of his companions, and 
took up arms against the Romans. He soon, 
found himself with 10,000 men equally resolute 
with himself, and, though at first obliged to hide 
himself in the woods and solitary retreats of 
Campania, he soon laid waste the country ; and 
when his followers were increased by additional 
numbers, and better disciplined, he attacked the 
Roman generals in the field of battle. Two 
consuls and other officers were defeated with 
much loss ; and Spartacus, superior in counsel 
and abilities, appeared more terrible, though 
often deserted by his fickle attendants. Cras- 
sus was sent against him, but this celebrated 
general at first despaired of success. A bloody 
battle was fought, in which, at last, tlie gladia- 
tors were, defeated. Spartacus behaved with 
great valour ; when wounded in the leg he 
fought on his knees, covering himself with his 
buckler in one hand, and using his sword with 
the other ; and when at last he fell, he fell upon 
a heap of Romans whom he had sacrificed to 
his fury, B. C. 71. In this battle no less than 
40,000 of the rebels were slain, and the war to- 
tally finished. Flor. 3, c. 20.—Liv. 95.— Eu- 
trop. 6, c. 2. — Plut. in Crass. — Pater c. 2, c. 30 
— Appian. 

Spartianos jElius, a Latin historian, who 
wrote the lives of all the Roman emperors from 
J. Ceesar to Diocletian. He dedicated them to 
Diocletian, to whom, according to some, he was 
related. Of these compositions, only the life 
of Adrian, Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimus 
Severus, Caracalla, and Geta, are extant, pub- 
lished among the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. 
Spartianus is not esteemed as an historian or 
biographer. 

Speusippus, an Athenian philosopher, neph- 
ew, as also successor, of Plato. His father's 
name was Eurymedon, and his mother's,Potone. 
He presided in Plato's school for eight years, 
and disgraced himself by his extravagance. 
Plato attempted to check him, but to no purpose. 
He died of the lousy sickness, or killed himself 
according to some accounts, B. C. 339. Plid. 
in Lys. — Diog. 4. — Val. Max. 4, c. 1. 

Spintharus, a Corinthian architect, who built 
Apollo's temple at Delphi. Pans. 10, c. 5. 

Spinther, a Roman consul. He was one of 
Pompey's friends, and accompanied him at the 
battle of Pharsalia, where he betrayed his mean- 
ness by contending for the possession of Caesar's 
offices and gardens before the action. Plut. 

Spurina, a mathematician and astrologer, 
who told J. Csesar to beware of the ides of 
March. As he went to the senate-house on the 
morning of the ides, Caesar said to Spurina, IVie 
ides are at last come. Yes, replied Spurina, but 
not yet past. Caesar was murdered a few mo- 
ments after. Suet, in Cas. 81.— Val. Max. I 
and 8. 



ST 



HISTORY, &o. 



ST 



Spurius, a praBnomen common to many of the 

Romans. One of Ceesar's murderers. 

Larlius, a Roman, who defended the bridge over 
the Tiber against Porsenna's army. 

Staberius, L. a friend of Pompey, set over 
Apollonia, which he was obliged to yield to 
Caesar because the inhabitants favoured his 
cause. CcBsar. B. G. 

Staseas, a peripatetic philosopher, engaged 
to instruct young M. Piso in philosophy. Cic. , 
in Oral. 1, c. 22. 

Stasiorates, a statuary and architect in the 
wars of Alexander, who offered to make a sta- 
tue of mount Athos, which was rejected by the 
conqueror. 

Stasileus, an Athenian, killed at the battle 
of Marathon. He was one of the ten praetors. 

Statilius, I. a young Roman, celebrated for 
his courage and constancy. He was an in- 
veterate enemy to Caesar, and when Cato mur- 
dered himself, he attempted to follow his ex- 
ample, but was prevented by his friends. The 
conspirators against Caesar wished him to be in 
the number, but the answer which he gave dis- 
pleased Brutus. He was at last killed by the 

army of the triumvirs. Pint. II. Lucius, 

one of the friends of Catiline. He joined in his 
conspiracy, and was put to death. Cic. Cat. 2. 

III. A young general in the war which the 

Latins undertook against the Romans. He was 
killed with 25,000 of his troops. 

Statira, I. a daughter of Darius, who mar- 
ried Alexander. The conqueror had formerly 
refused her, but when she had fallen into his 
hands at Issus, the nuptials were celebrated 
with uncommon splendour. No less than 9000 
persons attended, to each of whom Alexander 
gave a golden cup to be offered to the gods. Sta- 
tira had no children by Alexander. She was 
cruelly put to death by Roxana after the con- 
queror's death. Justin. 12, c. 12. II. A sis- 
ter of Darius, the last king of Persia. She also 
became his wife, according to the manners of 
the Persians. She died after an abortion in 
Alexander's camp, where she was detained as a 
prisoner. She was buried with great pomp by 

the conqueror. Pint, in Alex. III. A wife 

of Artaxerxes Mnemon, poisoned by her 
mother-in-law, queen Parysatis. Plxil. in Art. 
Statius, I. (Csecilius,) a comic poet in the 
age of Ennius. He was a native of Gaul, and 
originally a slave. His latinity was bad, yet he 
acquired great reputation by his comedies. He 

died a little after Ennius. Cic. de cen. II. 

Annaeus, a physician, the friend of the philoso- 
pher Seneca. Tacit. A. 15, c. 64. III. P. 

Papinius, a poet, born at Naples in the reign of 
the emperor Domitian. His father's name was 
Statius, of Epirus, and his mother's, Agelina. 
Statius has made himself known by two epic 
poems, the ThebaAs in 12 books, and the Achil- 
leis in two books, which remained unfinished 
on account of his premature death. There 
are, besides, other pieces composed on several 
subjects, which are extant, and well known 
under the name of Sylva, divided into four 
books. The two epic poems of Statius are 
dedicated to Domitian, whom the poet ranks 
among the gods. They were universally ad- 
mired in his age at Rome, but the taste of the 
times was corrupted, though some of the mod- 
erns have called them inferior to no Latin com- 



positions except Virgil's, The style of Statius 
is bombastic and affected ; he often forgets the 
poet to become the declaimer and the historian. 
In his Sylvcs, which were written generally ex- 
tempore, are many beautiful expressions and 
strokes of genius. Statius, as some suppose, 
was poor, and he was obliged to maintain him- 
self by writing for the stage. None of his dra- 
matic pieces are extant. Martial has satirised 
him; and what Juvenal has written in his 
praise some have interpreted as an illiberal re- 
flection upon him. Statius died about the 100th 
year of the Christian era. The best editions of 
his works are that of Barthius, 2 vols, 4to. Cyg. 
1664, and that of the Variorum, 8vo. L. Bat. 
1671 ; and that of the Thebais, separate, that of 
Warrington, 2 vols. 12mo. 1778. 

Stenocrates, an Athenian, who conspired to 
murder the commander of the garrison which 
Demetrius had placed in the citadel. Polycen. 5. 

Stephanus, a Greek writer of Byzantium, 
known for his dictionary giving an account of 
the towns and places of the ancient world, of 
which the best edition is that of Gronovius, 2 
vols. fol. L. Bat. 1694. 

Stersichorus, a lyric Greek poet of Himera, 
in Sicily. He was originally called Tisias. and 
obtained the name of Stersichorus from the al- 
terations he made in music and dancing. His 
compositions were written in the Doric dialect, 
and comprised in 26 books, allnowjost, except 
a few fragments. Some say he lost his eye- 
sight for writing invectives against Helen, and 
that he received it only upon making a recanta- 
tion of what he had said. He was the first in- 
ventor of that fable of the horse and stag, which 
Horace and some other poets have imitated, and 
this he wrote to prevent his countrymen from 
making an alliance with Phalaris. According 
to some he was the first who wrote an epithala- 
mium. He flourished 556 B. C. and died at 
Catana in the 85th year of his age. Isocrat. 
in Hel. — Aristot. rhet. — Strab. 3. — L/u.cian. in 
Macr. — Cic. in Verr. 3, c. 35. — Pint, de Mus. 
— Quintil. 10, c. l.—Paus. 3, c. 19, 1. 10, c. 26. 

Sthenelus, is coupled by Aristotle with 
Cleophon, as instances of too low a style. His 
compositions appear to have been dull and 
uninteresting ; for which fault we find him 
ridiculed by Aristophanes in a fragment of the 
Gerytade : — 

a. Ka\ TTwf tyu) SSeveXoU ^ayoifx av p^fiara J 
B. £tf i'|of SjjiffaiTTOnevos t] \evkovs a'Xai. 

Harpocration likewise informs us that he was 
attacked by another comic writer as a plagiary. 
Vid. Part III. 

Stilicho, a general of the emperor Theodo- 
sius the Great. He behaved with much cour- 
age, but under the emperor Honorius he showed 
himself turbulent and disaffected. As being of 
barbarian extraction, he wished to see the Ro- 
man provinces laid desolate by his countrymen, 
but in this he Avas disappointecl. Honorius dis- 
covered his intrigues, and ordered him to be 
beheaded about the year of Christ 408. His 
family were involved in his ruin. Claudian has 
been loud in his praises, and Zosimus, Hist. 5, 
denies the truth of the charges laid against him. 

Stilpo, a celebrated philosopher of Megara, 
who flourished 336 years before Christ, and was 
greatly esteemed by Ptolemy Soter. He was 
615 



ST 



HISTORY, &c 



STJ 



naturally addicted to riot and debauchery, but 
he reformed his manners when he opened a 
school at Megara. He was universally re- 
spected, his school was frequented, and Deme- 
trius, when he plundered Megara, ordered the 
house of the philosopher to be left safe and un- 
molested. It is said that he intoxicated himself 
when about to die, to alleviate the terrors of 
death. He was one of the chiefs of the stoics. 
Plut. in Dem. — Diog. 2. — Setieca. de Const. 

SxoBiEus, a Greek writer, who flourished A. 
D. 405. His work is valuable for the relics of 
ancient literature he has preserved. The best 
edition is that of Aurel. Allob. fol. 1609. 

Stoigi, a celebrated sect of philosophers, 
founded by Zeno of Citium. They received 
the name from the portico, groa, where the philo- 
sopher delivered his lectures. They preferred 
virtue to every thing else, and whatever was 
opposite to it they looked upon as the greatest 
of evils. They required, as well as the disci- 
ples of Epicurus, an absolute command over 
the passions, and they supported that man alone, 
in the present state of his existence, could attain 
perfection and felicity. They encouraged sui- 
cide, and believed that the doctrine of future 
punishments and rewards was unnecessary to 
excite or intimidate their followers. Vid. Zeno. 

Strabo, a name among the Romans, given 
to those whose eyes were naturally deformed or 
distorted. Pompey's father was distinguished 

by that name. A native of Araasia, on the 

borders of Cappadocia, who flourished in the 
age of Augustus and Tiberius. He first stu- 
died under Xenarchus, the peripatetic, and 
afterwards warmly embraced the tenets of the 
stoics. Of all his compositions nothing re- 
mains but his geography, divided into 17 books, 
a work justly celebrated for its elegance, purity, 
the erudition and universal knowledge of the 
author. It contains an account, in Greek, of 
the most celebrated places of the world, the 
origin, the manners, religion, prejudices, and 
government of nations ; the foundation of cities, 
and the accurate history of each separate pro- 
vince. Strabo travelled over great part of the 
world in quest of information, and to examine 
with the most critical inquiry not only the situ- 
ation of the places, but also the manners of the 
inhabitants, whose history he meant to write. 
In the two first books the author wishes to show 
the necessity of geography ; in the 3d he gives 
a description of Spain ; in the 4th, of Gaul and 
the British Isles. The 5th and 6th contain an 
account of Italy and the neighbouring islands ; 
the 7th, which is mutilated at the end, gives a 
full description of Germany, and the country of 
the Getas, Illyricum, Taurica Chersonesus, and 
Epirus. The affairs of Greece and the adjacent 
islands are separately treated in the 8th, 9th, 
and 10th ; and in the four next, Asia within 
mount Taurus ; and in the 15th and 16th, Asia 
without Taurus, India, Persia, Syria, and Ara- 
bia ; the last book gives an account of Egypt, 
iEthiopia, Carthage, and other places of Africa. 
Among the books of Strabo which have been 
lost, were historical commentaries. This cele- 
brated geographer died A. D. 25. The best 
editions of his geography are those of Cassau- 
bon, fol. Paris, 1620 ; of Amst. 2 vols. fol. 1707. 

Strato, or Straton, I. a king of the island 
Aradus, received into alliance by Alexander. 
616 



of Antigo- 



Curt. 4, c. 1. II. A king of Sidon, depend- 
ant upon Darius. Alexander deposed him be- 
cause he refused to surrender. Cm I. ii. 

III. A. philosopher of Lampsacus, disciple and 
successor in the school of Theophrg^tus, about 
289 years before the Christian era. He applied 
himself with uncommon industry to the study 
of nature, and was surnamed PMsicus, and af- 
ter the most mature investigations, he supported 
that nature was inanimate, and that there was 
no God but nature. He was appointed preceptor 
to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who not only revered 
his abilities and learning, but also rewarded his 
labours with unbounded liberality. He wrote 
difl'erent treatises, all now lost. Diog. 5. — Cic. 

Acad. 1, c. 9, 1. 4, c. 38, &c. IV. A native 

of Epirus, very intimate with Brutus, the mur- 
derer of Caesar. He killed his friend at his 

own request V. A rich Orchomenian, who 

destroyed himself because he could not obtain 
in marriage a young woman of Haliartus. Plut. 

Stratonice, I. a daughter of Ariarathes, king 
of Cappadocia, who married Eumenes, king 
of Pergamus, and became mother of Attains. 

Strab. 13. II. A. daughter of Demetrius Po- 

liorcetes, who married Seleucus, king of Syria 
Antiochus, her husband's son, by a former wife, 
became enamoured of her, and married her 
with his father's consent, when the physicians 
had told him that if he did not comply his son's 
health would be impaired. Plut. in Dem. — 

Val. Max. 5, c. 7. 11. The wife 

nus, mother of Demetrius Poliorcetes 

Strophius, a son of Crisus, king of Phocis. 
He married asister of Agamemnon, called An- 
axibia, or Astyochia, or according to others, 
Cyndragora, by whom he had Pylades, cele- 
brated for his friendship with Orestes. After 
the murder of Agamemnon by Clytemnestra 
and iEgysthus, the king of Phocis educated, at 
his own house, with the greatest care, his neph- 
ew, whom Electra had secretly removed from 
the dagger of his mother and her adulterer. 
Orestes was enabled by means of Strophius to 
revenge the death of 'his father. Paus. 2, c. 
29.— Hygin. fab. 1, 17. 

SuETONros, I. (C. Paulinus,) the first Roman 
general who crossed mount Atlas with an army, 
of which expedition he wrote an account. He 
presided over Britain, as governor for about 20 
years, and was afterwards made consul. He 
forsook the interest of Otho, and attached him- 
self to Vitellius. II. C. Tranquillus, a Latin 

historian, son of a Roman knight of the same 
name. He was favoured by Adrian, and be- 
came his secretary, but he was afterwards ban- 
ished from court for want of attention and 
respect to the emperess Sabina. In his retire- 
ment Suetonius enjoyed the friendship and 
correspondence of Pliny the younger, and dedi- 
cated his time to study. He wrote a history of 
the Roman kings, divided into three books ; a 
catalogue of all the illustrious men of Rome ; a 
book on the games and spectacles of the Greeks, 
&c. which are all now lost. The only one of 
his compositions extant is the lives of the twelve 
first Caesars, and Bome fragments of his cata- 
logue of celebrated grammarians. Suetoniu.^, 
in his lives, is praised for his impartiality and 
correctness. His expressions, however, are 
often too indelicate ; and it has been justly ob- 
served, that while he exposed the deformities of 



su 



HISTORY, &c. 



SY 



the Caesars, he wrote with all the licentiousness \ 
and extravagance with which they lived. The ; 
best editions of Suetonius are those of Pitiscus, i 
4to. 2 vols. Leovard, 1714; that of Oudendorp, ■ 
2 vols. 8vo. L. Bat. 1751 ; and that of Ernesti, 
8vo. Lips, 1775. Plin. 1, ep. 18, 1, 5, ep. 11, &c. , 

SuEvi. Vid. Part I. j 

SuFFENUs, a Latin poet in the age of Catul- 
lus. He wEis but of moderate abilities, but I 
puffed up with a high idea of his own excel--, 
lence, and therefore deservedly exposed to the 
ridicule of his contemporaries. Catull. 22. | 

SuiDAS, a Greek writer, who flourished A. D. i 
1 100. The best edition of his excellent Lexicon 
is that of Kuster, 3 vols. fol. Cantab. 1705. 

SuLPiTiA, I. a daughter of Paterculus, who 
married Fulvius Flaccus. She was so famous 
for her chastity, that she consecrated a temple 
to Venus Verticordia, a goddess who was im- 
plored to turn the hearts of the Roman women 

to virtue. Plin. 7, c. 35. 11. A poetess m 

the age of Domitian, against whom she wrote a 
poem because he had banished the philosophers 
from Rome. This composition is still extant. 
She had also written a poem on conjugal af- 
fection, commended by Martial, ep. 35, now lost. 
III. A daughter of Serv. Sulpitius, men- 
tioned in the fourth book of elegies falsely at- 
tributed to Tibullus. 

SuLPiTiA Lex, militaris, by C. Sulpitius, the 
tribune, A. U. C.665, invested Marius with the 
full power of the war against Mithridates, of 

which Sylla was to be deprived. Another, 

de senatu. by Servius Sulpicius, the tribune, A. 
U. C. 665. It required that no senators should 

own more than 2000 drachmae. Another, de 

civitate, by P. Sulpicius the tribune, A. U. C. 
665. It ordered that the new citizens who com- 
posed the eight tribes lately created, should be 
divided among the 35 old tribes, as a greater 

honour. Another, called also Sempronia de 

religione, by P. Sulpicius Saverrio and P. Sem- 
pronius Sophus, consuls, A. U. C. 449. It for- 
bade any person to consecrate a temple or altar 
without the permission of the senate and the 
majority of the tribunes. Another, to em- 
power the Romans to make war against Philip 
of Macedonia. 

Sulpitius, or Sulpicius, an illustrious family 

at Rome, of whom the most celebrated are 

I. Peticus, a man chosen dictator against the 
Gauls. His troops mutinied when first he took 
the field, but soon after he engaged the enemy 

and totally defeated them. Liv. 7. IT. Se- 

verrio, a consul who gained a victory over the 

^qui. Id. 9, c. 45. III. C. Paterculus, a 

consul sent against the Carthaginians. He 
conquered Sardinia and Corsica, and obtained 
a complete victory over the enemy's fleet. He 
was honoured with a triumph at his return to 

Rome. Id. 17. IV. Spurius, one of the three 

commissioners whom the Romans sent to col- 
lect the best laws which could be found in the 
different cities and republics of Greece. Id. 3, 
c. 10. V. One of the first consuls who re- 
ceived intelligence that a conspiracy was form- 
ed in Rome to restore the Tarquins to power, 
&c. VI. P. Galba, a Roman consul, who sig- 
nalized himself greatly during the war which 
his countrymen waged against the Achseans and 

the Macedonians. VII. Pablius, one of the 

associates of Marius, well known for his in- 

Pakt II.— 4 I 



frigues and cruelty. He made some laws in 
favour of the allies of Rome, and he kept about 
3000 young men in continual pay, whom he 
called his anti-senatorial band, and with these he 
had often the impertinence to attack the consul 
in the popular assemblies. He became at last so 
seditious, that he was proscribed by Sylla's ad- 
herents, and immediately murdered. His head 
was fixed on a pole in the rostrum, where he 
had often made many seditious speeches in the 
capacity of tribune. Liv. 77. VIII. A Ro- 
man consul who fought against Pyrrhus,and de- 
feated him. IX. C. Longus, a Roman con- 
sul who defeated the Samnites, and killed 30,000 
of their men. He obtained a triumph for this 
celebrated victor)\ He was afterwards made 
dictator to conduct a war against the Etrurians. 

X. Rufus, a lieutenant of Caesar in Gaul. 

XL Gall us, a celebrated astrologer in the 

age of Paulus. He accompanied the consul in 
his expedition against Perseus, and told the Ro- 
man army that the night before the day on which 
they were to give the enemy battle there would 
be an eclipse of the moon. This explanation 
encouraged the soldiers, which, on the contrary, 
would have intimidated them if not previously 
acquainted with the causes of it. Sulpitius was 
universally regarded, and he was honoured a 
few years after with the consulship. Liv. 44, 

c. 31.— Plin. 2, c. 12. XII. Apollinaris, a 

grammarian in the age of the emperor M. Au- 
relius. He left some letters, and a few gram- 
matical observations now lost. Cic. — Li . — 
Plut. — Flor. — Eutrop. 

SuovETAURiLiA, a sacrificc among the Ro- 
mans which consisted of the immolation of a 
sow (sus), a sheep (ovis), and a bull (taurus), 
whence the name. It was generally observed 
every fifth year. 

SuRENA, a powerful officer in the armies of 
Orodes, king of Parthia. His family had the 
privilege of crowning the kings of Parthia. He 
was appointed to conduct the war against the 
Romans, and to protect the kingdom of Parthia 
against Crassus, who wished to conquer it. He 
defeated the Roman triumvir, and after he had 
drawn him perfidiously to a conference, he or- 
dered his head to be cut off. He afterwards 
returned to Parthia, mimicking the triumphs of 
the Romans. Orodes ordered him to be put to 
death, B. C. 52. Surena has been admired for 
his valour, his sagacity as a general, and his 
prudence and firmness in the execution of his 
plans ; but his perfidy, his effeminate manners, 
and his lasciviousness, have been deservedly 
censured. Polycen. 7. — Plut. in Crass. 

SusARioN, a Greek poet of Megara, who is 
supposed with Dolon to be the inventor of com- 
edy, and to have first introduced it at Athens on 
a moveable stage, B. C. 562. 

Syagrus, an ancient poet, the first who wrote 
on the Trojan war. He is called Sagaris by 
Diogenes Laertius, who adds that he lived in 
Homer's age of whom he was the rival. JElian. 
V. H. 14, c.21. 

S7LLA, T. (L. Cornelius,) a celebrated Roman 
of a noble family. The poverty of his early 
years was relieved by the liberality of Nicopolis, 
who left him heir to a large fortune ; and, with 
the addition of the immense wealth of his mo- 
ther-in-law, he soon appeared one of the most 
opulent of the Romans. He first entered the 
617 



SY 



HISTORY, &e. 



SY 



army under Marius, whom he accompanied in 
Numidia in the capacity of queestor. He ren- 
dered himself conspicuous in military affairs ; 
and Bocchus, one of the princes of Numidia, de- 
livered Jugurtha into his hands for the Roman 
consul. The rising fame of Sylla gave umbrage 
to Marius, who was always jealous of an equal 
as well as of a superior; but the ill language 
which he might use rather mflamed than ex- 
tinguished the ambition of Sylla. He left the 
conqueror of Jugurtha, and carried arms under 
Catulus. Some time after he obtained the prae- 
torship, and was appointed by the Roman senate 
to place Ariobarzanes on the throne of Cappa- 
docia against the views and interest of Mithri- 
dates, king of Pontus. This he easily effected ; 
one battle left him victorious, and before he 
quitted the plains of Asia, the Roman praetor 
had the satisfaction to receive in his camp the 
ambassadors of thekingof Parthia, who wished 
to make a treaty of alliance with the Romans. 
Sylla received them with haughtiness, and be- 
haved with such arrogance, that one of them 
exclaimed, Surely this man is master of the 
world, or doomed to be such! At his return to 
Rome he was commissioned to finish the war 
with the Marsi, and when this was successfully 
ended, he was rewarded with the consulship in 
the 50th year of his age. In this capacity he 
wished to have the administration of the Mithri- 
datic war ; but he found an obstinate adversary 
in Marius, and he attained the summit of his 
wishes only when he had entered Rome sword 
in hand. Afler he had slaughtered all his ene- 
mies, set a price upon the head of Marius, and 
put to death the tribune Sulpilius, who had 
continually opposed his views, he marched to- 
wards Asia, and disregarded the flames of dis- 
cord which he left behind him unextinguished. 
Mithridates was already master of the greatest 
part of Greece ; and Sylla, when he reached 
the coast of Peloponnesus, was delayed by the 
siege of Athens and of the Pirseus, His ope- 
rations were carried on with vigour, and when 
he found his money fail, he made no scruple to 
take the riches of the temples of the gods to 
bribe his soldiers and render them devoted to 
his service. His boldness succeeded, the Piraeus 
surrendered ; and the conqueror, as if struck 
with reverence at the beautiful porticoes where 
the philosophic followers of Socrates and Plato 
had often disputed, spared the city of Athens, 
which he had devoted to destruction, and for- 
gave the living for the sake of the dead. Two 
celebrated battles, at Chaeronaea and Orchome- 
nos, rendered him master of Greece. He crossed 
the Hellespont, and attacked Mithridates in the 
very heart of his kingdom. The artful mon- 
arch, who well knew the valour and persever- 
ance of his adversary, made proposals of peace ; 
and Sylla, whose interest at home was then 
decreasing, did not hesitate to put an end to a 
war which had rendered him master of so much 
territory, and which enabled him to return to 
Rome like a conqueror, and to dispute with his 
rival the sovereignty of the republic with a vic- 
torious army. Murasna was left at the head of 
the Roman forces in Asia, and Sylla hastened 
to Italy. In the plains of Campania he was 
met by a few of his adherents, whom the suc- 
cess of his rivals had banished from the capital ; 
and he was soon informed, that if he wished to 
618 



contend with Marius, he must encounter fifleen 
generals, followed by 25 well-disciplined le- 
gions. In these critical circumstances he had 
recourse to artifice, and while he proposed 
terms of accommodation to his adversaries, he 
secretly strengthened himself, and saw with 
pleasure his armies daily increase by the re- 
volt of soldiers whom his bribes or promises 
had corrupted. Pompey embraced his cause, 
and marched to his camp with three legions. 
Soon after he appeared in the field with ad- 
vantage ; the confidence of Marius decayed 
with his power, and Sylla entered Rome like a 
tyrant and a conqueror. The streets were daily 
filled with dead bodies, and 7000 citizens, lo 
whom the conqueror had promised pardon, were 
suddenly massacred in the circus. The senate, 
at that time assembled in the temple of Bellona, 
heard the shrieks of their dying countrymen ; 
and when they inquired into the cause of it, 
Sylla coolly replied, They are only a few rebels 
whom I have ordered to be chastised. If this 
had been the last and most dismal scene, Rome 
might have been called happy ; but it was only 
the beginning of her misfortunes, each succeed- 
ing day exhibited a greater number of slaugh- 
tered bodies ; and when one of the senators had 
the boldness to ask the tyrant when he meant to 
stop his cruelties, Sylla, with an air of uncon- 
cern, answered, that he had not yet determined, 
but that he would take it into his consideration. 
The slaughter was continued, and a list of such 
as were proscribed daily stuck up in the public 
streets. No less than 4700 of the most power- 
ful and opulent were slain, and Sylla wished 
the Romans to forget his cruelties in aspiring to 
the title of perpetual dictator. In this capacity, 
he made new laws, abrogated such as were in- 
imical to his views, and changed every regula- 
tion where his ambition was obstructed. After 
he had finished whatever the most absolute sove- 
reign may do, Sylla abdicated the dictatorial 
power, and retired to a solitary retreat at Puteoli, 
where he spent the rest of his days, if not in 
literary ease and tranquillity, yet far from the 
noise of arms, in the midst of riot and debauch- 
ery. The companions of his retirement were the 
most base and licentious of the populace, and 
Sylla took pleasure still to wallow in volup- 
tuousness, though on the verge of life and cov- 
ered with infirmities. His intemperance has- 
tened his end, his blood was corrupted, and an 
imposthume was bred in his bowels. He at last 
died in the s:reatest torments, of the lousy dis- 
ease, about 78 years before Christ, in the 60th 
year of his age; and it has been observed, that, 
like Marius, on his death-bed, he wished to 
drown the stings of conscience and remorse by 
continual intoxication. His funeral was very 
magnificent ; his body was attended by the sen- 
ate and the vestal virgins, and hymns were 
sung to celebrate his exploits and to honour his 
memory. A monument was erected in the field 
of Mars, on which appeared an inscription 
written by himself, in which he said, the good 
services he had received from his friends, and 
the injuries of his enemies, had been returned 
with unexampled usury. The character ol 
Sylla is that of an ambitious, dissimulating, ty- 
rannical, and resolute commander. Sylla has 
been commended for the patronage he gave to 
the arts and sciences. He btought from Asia 



6Y 



HISTORY, &C, 



TA 



the extensive library of Apellicon, the peri- 
patetic philosopher, in which were the works of 
Aristotle and Theophrastus ; and he himself 
composed 22 books of memoirs concerning 
himself. These memoirs were meant to have 
been dedicated to Lucullus, on condition that 
he should arrange and correct them. Syila was 
employed on them the evening before his death, 
and concluded them by relating, that on the 
preceding night he had seen in a dream one of. 
his children, who had died a short while before, 
and who, stretching out his hand, showed to 
him his mother Metella, and exhorted him 
forthwith to leave the cares of life, and hasten 
to enjoy repose along with them in the bosom of 
eternal rest. " Thus" adds the author, who 
accounted nothing so certain as what was signi- 
fied to him in dreams, " I finish my days, as 
"was predicted to me by the Chaldeans, who 
announced that I should surmount en\7- itself 
by my glory, and should have the good fortune 
to fall in tlie full blossom of my prosperity." 
These memoirs were sent by Epicadus, the 
freedman of Sylla, to Lucullus, in order that 
he might put to them the finishing hand. If 
preserved, they would have thrown much light 
on the most important affairs of Roman history, 
as they proceeded from the person who must, 
of all -others, have been the best informed con- 
cerning them. They are quoted by Plutarch 
as authority for many curious facts, as — that in 
the great battle by which the Cimbrian invasion 
was repelled, the chief execution was done in 
that quarter where Sylla was stationed ; the 
main body, under Marius, having been misled 
by a cloud of dust, and having in consequence 
wandered about for a long time without finding 
the enemy. Plutarch also mentions that, in 
these Commentaries, the author contradicted 
the current story of his seeking a refuge during 
a tumult at the commencement of the civil wars 
with Marius, in the house of his rival, who, it 
had been reported, sheltered and dismissed him 
in safetj'. Besides their importance for the his- 
tory of events, the Memoirs of Sylla must have 
been highly interesting, as developing, in some 
degree, the most curious character in Roman 
history, " In the loss of his Memoirs," says 
Blackwell, in his usual inflated style, " the 
strongest draught of human passions, in the 
highest wheels of fortune and sallies of power, 
is for ever vanished. The character of Caesar, 
though greater, was less incomprehensible than 
that of Sylla ; and the mind of Augustus, though 
unfathomable to his contemporaries, has been 
sounded by the long line of posterity ; but it is 
difficult to analyse the disposition which inspir- 
ed the inconsistent conduct of Sylla. Gorged 
with power, and blood, and vengeance, he seems 
to have retired from what he chiefly coveted, 
as if surfeited ; but neither this retreat, nor 
old age, could mollify his heart ; nor could dis- 
ease, or the approach of death, or the remem- 
brsmce of his past life, disturb his tranquillity. 
No part of his existence was more strange than 
its termination ; and nothing can be more sin- 
gular than that he, who, on the day of his de- 
cease, caused, in mere wantonness, a provincial 
magistrate to be strangled in his presence, 
should, the night before, have enjoyed a dream 
so elevated and tender. It is probable that the 
Memoirs were well written, in point of style, 



as Sylla loved the arts and sciences, and was 
even a man of some learning, though Caesar is 
reported to have said, on hearing his literary 
acquirements extolled, that he must have been 
but an indifferent scholar who had resigned a 
dictatorship. — Cic. in Verr. &c. — C. Nep. in 
Att.—Paterc. 2, c. 17, &c.—Liv. 75, &c.—Paus. 
1, c. 20.—Fior. 3, c. 5, &c., 1. 4, c. 2, &c.— Val. 
Max. 12, &c.—Polyb. 5.— Justin. 37 and 38.— 

Eutro-p. 5, c. 2. — Plut. in vita. II. A nephew 

of the dictator, who conspired against his coun- 
try because he had been deprived of his consul- 
ship for bribery. 

Syncellus, one of the Byzantine histo- 
rians, whose works were edited in fol. Paris, 
1652. 

Synesids, a bishop of Cyrene, in the age of 
Theodosius the younger, as conspicuous for his 
learning as his piety. He wrote 155 epistles, be- 
sides other treatises in Greek, in a style pure and 
elegant, and bordering much upon the poetic. 
The last edition is in 8vo. Paris, 1605 ; inferior, 
however, to the editio princeps by Petavius, fol. 
Paris, 1612, The best edition of Synesius de 
febribus is that of Bernard, Amst. 1749. 

Syphax, a king of the Masaesyli in Libya, 
who married Sophronisba, the daughter of As- 
drubal, and forsook the alliance of the Romans 
to join himself to the interest of his father-in- 
law and of Carthage. He was conquered in a 
battle by Masinissa, the ally of Jlome, and 
given to Scipio, the Roman general. The con- 
queror carried him to Rome, where he adorned 
his triumph. Syphax died in prison, 201 years 
before Christ, and his possessions were given to 
Masinissa. According to some, the descend- 
ants of Syphax reigned for some time over a 
part of Numidia, and continued to make oppo- 
sition to the Romans. Liv. 24, &c. — Plut. in 
Scip.—Flor. 2, c. e.—Poh/b.—ltal. 16, v. 171 
and 118.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v." 769. 

Syracosia, festivals at Syracuse, celebrated 
during ten days, in which women were busily 

employed in offering sacrifices. Another, 

yearly observed near the lake of Syracuse, 
where, as they supposed, Pluto had disappeared 
with Proserpine. 

Sysimethres, a Persian satrap, who had two 
children by his mother, an incestuous commerce 
tolerated % the laws of Persia, He opposed 
Alexander with 2000 men, but soon surrender- 
ed. He was greatly honoured by the conqueror. 
Curt. 8, c. 4. 

Sysinas, the elder son of Datames, who re- 
volted from his father to Aitaxerxes. 

T. 

Tabellari^ Leges, laws made by suffrages 
delivered upon tables (labellcg) and not viva voce. 
There were four of these laws, the Gabinia lex, 
A. U, C. 614, by Gabinius ; the Cassia, by Cas- 
sius, A, U. C. 616; the Papiria. by Carbo, A. 
U. C. 622; and the Ccelia, by Caelius, A. U. C. 
646. Cic. de Leg. 3, c. 16. 

Tacfarinas, a Numidian, who commanded 
an army against the Romans in the reign of 
Tiberius. He had formerly served in the Ro- 
man legions, but in the character of an enemy 
he displayed the most inveterate hatred against 
his benefactor. After he had severally defeated 
the officers of Tiberius, he was at last routed 
619 



TA 



HISTORY, &©. 



TA 



and killed on the field of battle, fighting with un- 
common fury, by Dolabella. Tacit. Ann. 2, &c. 

Tachos, or Tachus, a king of Egypt, in the 
reign of Artaxerxes Ochus, against whom he 
sustained a long war. He was assisted by the 
Greeks, but his confidence in Agesilaus, king of 
Lacedaemon, proved fatal to him. Chabrias, 
the Athenian, had been intrusted with the fleet 
of the Egyptian monarch, and Agesilaus was 
left with the command of the mercenary army. 
The Lacedaemonian disregarded his engage- 
ments, and by joining with Nectanebus, who 
had revolted from Tachus, he ruined the affairs 
of the monarch, and obliged him to save his life 
by flight. Some observe that Agesilaus acted 
wich that duplicity to avenge himself upon Ta- 
chus, who had insolently ridiculed his short and 
deformed stature. The expectations of Tachus 
had been raised by the fame of Agesilaus ; but 
when he saw the lame monarch, he repeated, on 
the occasion, the fable of the mountain which 
brought forth a mouse ; upon which Agesilaus 
replied with asperity, though he called him a 
mouse, yet he soon should find him to be a lion. 
C. Nep. in Ages. 

Tacitus, I. (C. Cornelius,) a celebrated Latin 
historian , born in the reign of Nero. His father 
was a Roman knight, who had been appointed 
governor of Belgic Gaul. The native genius 
and the rising talents of Tacitus were beheld 
with rapture by the emperor Vespasian, and, as 
he wished to protect and patronize merit, he 
raised the young historian to places of trust and 
honour. The succeeding emperors were not 
less partial to Tacitus, and Domitian seemed to 
forget his cruelties when virtue and innocence 
claimed his patronage. Tacitus was honoured 
with the consulship, and he gave proofs of his 
eloquence at the bar, by supporting the cause 
of the injured Africans against the proconsul 
Marius Priscus, and in causing him to be con- 
demned for his avarice and extortion. The 
friendly intercourse of Pliny and Tacitus has 
often been admired ; and many have observed, 
that the familiarity of these two great men arose 
from similar principles,and a perfect conformity 
of manners and opinions. Yet Tacitus was as 
much the friend of a republican government as 
Pliny was an admirer of the imperial power, 
and of the short-lived virtues of his patron Tra- 
jan. Pliny gained the hearts of his adherents 
by affability, and all the elegant graces which 
became the courtier and the favourite, while 
Tacitus conciliated the esteem of the world by 
his virtuous conduct, which prudence and love 
of honour ever guided. The friendship of Ta- 
citus and of Pliny almost became proverbial. 
The time of Tacitus was not employed in tri- 
vial pursuits, the orator might have been now 
forgotten if the historian had not flourished. 
Tacitus wrote a treatise on the manners of the 
Germans, a composition admired for the fidelity 
and exactness with which it is executed, though 
some have declared that the historian delineated 
manners and customs with which he was not 
acquainted, and which never existed. His life 
of Cn. Julius Agricola, whose daughter he had 
married, is celebrated for its purity, elegance, 
and the many excellent instructions and impor- 
tant truths which it relates. His history of the 
Roman emperors is imperfect ; of the 28 years 
of which it treated, that is, from the 69th to the 
620 



96th year of the Christian era, nothing remains 
but the year 69 and part of the 70th. His An- 
nals were the most extensive and complete of 
his works. The history of the reign of Tibe- 
rius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, was treated 
with accuracy and attention ; yet we are to 
lament the loss of the history of the reign of 
Caius, and the beginning of that of Claudius. 
Tacitus had reserved for his old age the history 
of the reign of Nerva and Trajan, and he also 
proposed to give to the world an account of the 
interesting administration of Augustus; but 
these important subjects never employed the pen 
of the historian ; and, as some of the ancients 
observe, the only compositions of Tacitus were 
contained in 30 books, of which we have now 
left only 16 of his annals and five of his history. 
The style of Tacitus has always been admired 
for peculiar beauties ; the thoughts are great, 
and every thing is treated with precision and 
dignity, yet many have called him obscure, be- 
cause he was fond of expressing his ideas in 
few words. This was the fruit of experience 
and judgment ; the history appears copious and 
diffuse, while the annals, which were written in 
his old age, are less flowing as to style, more 
concise, and more heavily laboured." 'His Latin 
is remarkable for being pure and classical. In 
his biographical sketches he displays an un- 
common knowledge of human nature, he paints 
every scene wdth a masterly hand, and gives 
each object its proper size and becoming co- 
lours. Afl^airs of importance are treated with 
dignity, the secret causes of events and revolu- 
tions are investigated, and the historian every 
where shows his reader that he was a lover of 
truth, and an inveterate enemy to oppression. 
The history of the reign of Tiberius is his mas- 
ter-piece: the deep policy, the dissimulation, 
and various intrigues of this celebrated prince, 
are painted with all the fidelity of the historian. 
It is said that the emperor Tacitus, who boasted 
in being one of the descendants of the historian, 
ordered the works of his ancestor to be placed 
in all public libraries, and directed that ten co- 
pies, well ascertained for accuracy and exact- 
ness, should be yearly written, that so great and 
so valuable a work might not be lost. Some 
ecclesiastical writers have exclaimed against 
Tacitus for the partial manner in which he 
speaksof the Jews and Christians; but it should 
be remembered that he spoke the language of 
the Romans, and that the peculiarities of the 
Christians could not but draw upon them the 
odium and the ridicule of the Pagans, and the 
imputation of superstition. Among the many 
excellent editions of Tacitus, these may pass 
for the best; that of Rome, fol. 1515; that in 
8vo. 2 vols. L. Bat 1673 ; that in usura Del- 
phini, 4 vols. 4to. Paris, 1682 ; that of Lips. 2 
vols. 8vo. 1714 ; of Gronovius, 2 vols. 4to. 1721 ; 
that of Brotier, 7 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1776 ; that 
of Ernesti, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips, 1777; and Bar- 

bou's, 3 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1760. II. M. 

Claudius, a Roman, chosen emperor by the 
senate after the death of Aurelian. He would 
have refused this important and dangerous 
oflice, but the pressing solicitations of the se- 
nate prevailed, and in the 70th year of his age 
he complied with the wishes of his countrymen, 
and accepted the purple. The time of his 
administration was very popular, the good of 



TA 



HISTORY, &G. 



TA 



the people was his care, and as a pattern of 
moderation, economy, temperance, regularit}', 
and impartiality, Tacitus found no equal. He 
abolished the several brothels which, under the 
preceding reigns, had filled Rome with licen- 
tiousness and obscenity ; and by ordering all 
the public baths to be shut at sunset, he pre- 
vented the commission of man)'' irregularities 
which the darkness of the night had hitherto 
sanctioned. The senators under Tacitus seem- 
ed to have recovered their ancient dignity and 
long-lost privileges. They were not only the 
counsellors of the emperor, but they even seem- 
ed to be his masters ; and when Florianus, the 
brother-in-law of Tacitus, was refused the con- 
sulship, the emperor said that the senate, no 
doubt, could fix upon a more deserving object. 
As a warrior, Tacitus is inferior to few of the 
Romans ; and during a short reign of about 
six months, he not only repelled the barbarians 
who had invaded the territories of Rome in 
Asia, but he prepared to make war against the 
Persians and Scythians. He died in Cilicia, as 
he was on his expedition, of a violent distem- 
per, or, according to some, he was destroyed by 
the secret dagger of an assassin, on the l3th of 
April, in 276th year of the Christian era. 
Tacitus has been commended for his love of 
learning ; and it has been observed, that he 
never passed a day without consecrating some 
part of his time to reading or writing. He has 
been accused of superstition ; and authors have 
recorded that he never studied on the second 
day of each month, a day which he deemed 
inauspicious and unlucky. Tacit, vita. — 
Zozim. ' 

Talthybids, a herald in the Grecian camp 
during the Trojan war, the particular minister 
and friend of Agamemnon. He brought away 
Briseis from the tent of Achilles by order of his 
master. Talthy bins died at Egium, in Achaia. 
Hormr. II. 1, v. 320, &c.— Paws. 7. c.23. 

Tamos, a native of Memphis, made governor 
of Ionia by young Cyrus. After the death of 
Cyrus, Tamos fled into Egypt, where he was 
murdered on account of his immense treasures, 
Diod. 14. 

Tanaquil, called also Caia CcBcilia, was the 
wife of Tarquin, the 5th king of Rome. She 
was a native of Tarquinia, where she married 
Lucumon, better known by the name of Tar- 
quin, which he assumed after he had come to 
Rome at the representation of his wife, whose 
knowledge of augury promised him something 
uncommon. Her expectations were not frus- 
trated ; her husband was raised to the throne, 
and she shared with him the honours of royalty. 
After the murder of Tarquin, Tanaquil raised 
her son-in-law Servius Tullius to the throne, 
and insured him the succession. She distin- 
.guished herself by her liberality; and the Ro- 
mans in succeeding ages had such a veneration 
for her character, that the embroidery she had 
made, her girdle, as also the robe of her son-in- 
law, which she had worked with her own hands, 
were preserved with the greatest sanctity. Ju- 
venal bestows the appellation of Tanaquil on 
all such women as were imperious and had the 
command of their husbands. Liv. 1, c. 34, &c. 
—Diovvs. Hal. 3, c. b9.—Flor. 1, c. 5 and 8 — 
llal. 13, V. 818. 

Tantalus. Vid. Part TIL 



Tanusius Germinus, a Latin historian, inti- 
mate with Cicero. Seneca. 93. — Suet. Cces. 9. 

Tarpa, Spurius Msetius, a critic at Rome in 
the age of Augustus. He was appointed with 
four others in the temple of Apollo, to examine 
the merit of every poetical composition which 
was to be deposited in the temple of the Muses. 
In this office he acted with great impartiality, 
though many taxed him with want of candour. 
All the pieces that were represented on the Ro- 
man stage had previously received his appro- 
bation. Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 38. 

Tarpeia, the daughter of Tarpeius, the go- 
vernor of the citadel of Rome, promised to open 
the gates of the city to the Sabines provided 
they gave her their gold bracelets, or, as she ex- 
pressed it, what they carried on their left hands. 
Tatius, the king of the Sabines, consented, and 
as he entered the gates, to punish her perfidy, 
he threw not only his bracelet but his shield 
upon Tarpeia. His followers imitated his ex- 
ample, and Tarpeia was crushed under the 
weight of the bracelets and shields of the Sabine 
army. She was buried in the capitol, which 
from her has been called the Tarpeian rock, 
and there afterwards many of the Roman mal- 
efactors were thrown down a deep precipice. 
Plut. in Rom. — Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 261. Amor. I, 
el. 10, V. 50. — Liv. I, c. 11. — Propert. 4, el. 4. 

Tarpeia Lex, was enacted A. U. C. 269, by 
Sp. Tarpeius, to empower all the magistrates of 
the republic to lay fines on oSenders. This 
power belonged before only to the consuls. The 
fine was not to exceed two sheep and thirty oxen. 

Tarperis, Sp. the governor of the citadel of 
Rome under Romulus. His descendants were 
called Montani and Capitolini. 

Tarquinia, I. a daughter of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus. who married Servius Tullius. When her 
husband was murdered by Tarquinius Super- 
bus, she privately conveyed away his body by 
night, and buried it. This preyed upon her 
mind, and the following night she died. Some 
have attributed her death to excess of grief, or 
suicide; while others, perhaps more justly, 
have suspected Tullia, the wife of young Tar- 
quin, with the murder. II. A vestal virgin, 

who, as some suppose, gave the Roman people 
a large piece of land, which was afterwards 
called the Campus Martius. 

Tarquinius Priscus, I. the 5th king of Rome, 
was son of Demaratus, a native of Greece. His 
first name was Lucumon, but this he changed 
when, by the advice of his wife Tanaquil, he 
had come to Rome, He called himself Lucius, 
and assumed the surname of Tarquinius, be- 
cause born in the town of Tarquinii, in Etruria. 
At Rome he distinguished himself so much by 
his liberality and engaging manners, that Ancus 
Martius, the reigning monarch, nominated him, 
at his death, the guardian of his children. This 
was insufficient to gratify the ambition of Tar- 
quin ; the princes were young, and an artful 
oration delivered to the people, immediately 
transferred the crown of the deceased monarch 
to the head of Lucumon. The people had every 
reason to be satisfied with their choice. Tar- 
quin reigned with moderation and popularity. 
He increased the number of the senate, and 
made himself friends by electing 100 new sena- 
tors from the plebeians, whom he distinguished, 
by the^appellat'on of Patres minorum, gevtium, 
621 



TA 



HISTORY, &c. 



TA 



from those of the patrician body, who were call- 
ed Patres majorum gentium. The glory of the 
Roman arms, which was supported with so 
much dignity by the former monarchs, was not 
neglected in this reign, and Tarquin showed 
that he possessed vigour and military prudence 
in the victories which he obtained over the 
united forces of the Latins and Sabines, and in 
the conquest of the 12 nations of Etruria. He 
repaired, in the time of peace, the walls of the 
capital; the public places were adorned with 
elegant buildings and useful ornaments ; and 
many centuries after, such as were spectators 
of the stately mansions and golden palaces of 
Nero,viewed, wiih more admiration and greater 
pleasure, the more simple, though not less mag- 
nificent, edifices of Tarquin. He laid the 
foundations of the capitol, and to the industry 
and the public spirit of this monarch, the Ro- 
mans were indebted for their aqueducts and 
subterraneous sewers, which supplied the city 
with fresh and wholesome water, and removed 
all the filth and ordure, which in a great capi- 
tal too often breed pestilence and diseases, Tar- 
quin was the first who introduced among the 
Romans, the custom to canvass for oflices of 
trust and honour ; he distinguished the mon- 
arch, the senators, and other inferior magis- 
trates, with particular robes and ornaments, and 
ivory chairs at spectacles ; and the hatchets car- 
ried before the public magistrates were by his 
order surrounded with bundles of sticks, to strike 
more terror, and to be viewed with greater reve- 
rence. Tarquin was assassinated by the two 
sons of his predecessor, in the 80lh year of his 
age, 38 of which he had sat on the throne, 578 
years before Christ. Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 59. — 
Val. Max. 1, c. 4, 1. 3. c. 2.— i^or. 1, c. 5, &c. 

^Liv. 1, c. ^h—Virg. jE%. 6, v. 817. II. 

The second Tarquin, surnamed Superbus from 
his pride and insolence, was grandson of Tar- 
quinius Priscus. He ascended the throne of 
Rome after his father-in-law Servius Tullius, 
and was the seventh and last king of Rome. He 
married Tullia the daughter of Tullius, and it 
was at her instigation that he murdered his fa- 
ther-in-law an d seized the kingdom. The crown 
which he had obtained with violence, he en- 
deavoured to keep by a continuation of tyranny. 
Unlike his royal preciecessors, he paid no regard 
to the decisions of the senate or the approbation 
of the public assemblies. The public treasury 
was soon exhausted by the coniinual extrava- 
gance of Tarquin, and to silence the murmurs 
of his subjects, he resolved to call their attention 
to war. He was successful in his military ope- 
rations ; the neighbouring cities submitted ; but 
while the siege of Ardea was continued, the 
wantonness of the son of Tarquin at Rouie for 
ever stopped the progress of his arms ; and the 
Romans, whom a series of barbarity and oppres- 
sion had hitherto provoked, no sooner saw the 
virtuous Lucretia stab herself, not to survive the 
loss of her honour, ( Vid. I/ucretia,) than the 
whole city and camp arose with indignation 
against the monarch. The gates of Rome were 
shut against him, and Tarquin was for ever ba- 
nished from his throne, in the year of Rome 244. 
Unable to find support from even one of his sub- 
jects, Tarquin retired among the Etrurians, who 
attempted in vain to replace him on his throne. 
The republican government was established at 
€22 



Rome, and all Italy refused any longer to sup- 
port the cause of an exiled monarch against a 
nation, who heard the name of Tarquin, of king, 
and tyrant, mentioned with equal horror and 
indignation. Tarquin died in the 90th year of 
his age, about 14 years after his expulsion from 
Rome. He had reigned about 25 years. Though 
Tarquin appeared so odious among the Ro- 
mans, his reign was not without its share of 
glory ; his conquests were numerous; to beau- 
tify the buildings and porticos at Rome was his 
wish ; and with great magnificence and care 
he finished the capitol which his predecessor of 
the same name had begun. He also bought the 
Sibylline books which the Romans consulted 
with such religious solemnity. Vid. Sibylla. 
Cic. pro Rob. (^ Tus. 2, c. 21.—Liv. 1, c. 46, 
&c. — Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 48, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 7 
and Q.—Plin. 8, c. 4.1.— Pint.— Val. Max. 8, c. 
U.—Ovid. Fast. 2, v. mi.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 

817. — Eufrop. III. Collatinus, one of the 

relations of Tarquin the Proud, who married 

Lucretia. Vid. Collatinus. IV. Sextius, 

the eldest son of Tarquin the Proud, who ren- 
dered himself known by a variety of adventures. 
When his father besieged Gabii, young Tar- 
quin publicly declared that he was" at variance 
with the monarch, and the report was the more 
easily believed when he came before Gabii with 
his body all mangled and bloody with stripes. 
This was an agreement between the father and 
the son, and Tarquin had no sooner declared 
that this proceeded from the tyranny and op- 
pression of his father, than the people of Gabii 
intrusted him with the command of their armies, 
fully convinced that Rome could never have a 
more inveterate enemy. When he had thus 
succeeded, he despatched a private messenger 
to his father, but the monarch gave no answer 
to be returned to his son. Sextius inquired 
more particularly about his father, and when, 
he heard from the messenger that when the 
message was delivered, Tarquin cut off with a 
stick the tallest poppies in his garden, the son 
followed the example by putting to death the 
most noble and powerful citizens of Gabii. The 
town soon fell into the hands of the Romans. 
The violence which some time after Tarquin- 
ius offered to Lucretia, was the cause of his 
father's exile and the total expulsion of his 
family from Rome. Vid. Lnicretia. Sextius 
was at last killed, bravely fighting in a bat- 
tle, during the war which the Latins sustained 
against Rome in the attempt of re-establish- 
ing the Tarquins on their throne. Ovid. Fast. 

— Liv. V. A Roman senator, who was 

accessary to Catiline's conspiracy, 

Tatian, one of the Greek fathers, A. D, 172. 
The best edition of his works is that of Worth, 
8vo. Oxon. 1700. 

Tatienses, a name given to one of the tribes 
of the Roman people by Romulus, in honour of 
Tatius, king of the Sabines. The Tatienses, 
who were partly the ancient subjects of the king 
of the Sabines, lived on mount Capitolinus and 
Gluirinalis. 

TiTius, (Titus,) king of Cures, among the 
Sabines, made war against the Romans after the 
rape of the Sabines. The gates of the city were 
betrayed into his hands by Tarpeia, and the 
army of the Sabines advanced as far as the Ro- 
man forum, where a bloody battle was fought. 



TE 



HISTORY, &Q. 



TE 



The cries of the Sabine virgins at last stopped the 
fury of the combatants, and an agreement was 
made between the two nations. Talius con- 
sented to leave his ancient possessions, and with 
his subjects of Cures to come and live in Rome, 
which, as stipulated, was still permitted to bear 
the name of its founder, whilst the inhabitants 
adopted the name of Gluiriies, in compliment to 
the new citizens. After he had for six years 
shared the royal authority with Romulus, in the 
greatest union, he was murdered ai Lanuvium, 
B.C. 742, for an act of cruelty to the ambassa- 
dors of the Laarentes. This was done by order 
of his royal colleague, according to some au- 
thors. Liv. 1, c. 10, &c. — Plui. in Rom. — Cic. 
pro Balb'.— Ovid. Met. 14, v.80i.—Flor. 1. c. I. 

Taurus, I. (Titus Statilius,) a consul, distin- 
guished by his intimacy with Augustus, as well 
as by a theatre which he built, and the triumph 
he obtained after a prosperous campaign in 
Africa. He was made prefect of Italy by his 

imperial friend. II. A proconsul of Africa, 

accused by Agrippina, who wished him to be 
condemned that she might become mistress of 
his gardens. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 59. Vid. Part III. 

Taxilus, or Taxiles, I. a king of Taxila, in 
the age of Alexander, called also Omphis. He 
submitted to the conqueror, who rewarded him 
with great liberaliiy. Diod. 17. — Plut. in Alex. 

—.Elian. V. H. 5, c. &.— Curt. 8, c. 14. II. 

A general of Mithridates, who assisted Arche- 
laus against the Romans in Greece. He was 
afterwards conquered by Murasna, the lieuten- 
ant of Sylla. 

Techmessa, the daughter of a Phrygian 
prince, called by some Teuthras, and by others 
Teleutas. When her father was killed in war 
by Ajax, son of Telamon, the young princess 
became the property of the conqueror, and by 
him she had a son called Eurysaces. Sophocles, 
in one of his tragedies, represents Techmessa 
as moving her husband to pity by her tears and 
entreaties when he wished lo stab himself 
Horat. 2, Od. 1, v. 6. — Dictya. Crei. — Sophocl, 
in Ajax. 

Tectamus. Vid. Part III. 

Tectosages, or Tectosag^. Vid. Part I. 

Tegula, p. LiciN. a comic poet, who flour- 
ished B. C. 198. 

Telamon, a king of the island of Salamis, 
son of iEacus and Endis, He was a brother to 
Peleus, and father to Teucer and Ajax, who on 
that account is often called Telamonius heros. 
He fled from Megara, his native country, after 
he had accidentally murdered his brother Pho- 
cus, in playing with the quoit, and he sailed to 
the island of Salamis, where he soon after mar- 
ried Glauce, the daughter of Cychreus, the king 
of the place. At the death of his father-in-law, 
who had no male issue, Telamon became king 
of Salamis. He accompanied Jason in his ex- 
pedition to Colchis, and was arm-bearer to Her- 
cules, when that hero took Laomedon prisoner 
and destroyed Troy. Telamon was rewarded 
by Hercules for his services with the hand of 
Hesione, whom the conqueror had obtained 
among the spoils of Troy, and with her he re- 
turned to Greece. He also married Periboea, 
whom some called Eribcea. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 
151. — Sophocl. inAj. — Pindar. Isthm. 6. — Stat. 
Tkeh. 6. — Apollod. 1, 2, &c. — Paus. in Cor, — 
^ygin. fab. 97, «&c. 



' Telchines, a people of Rhodes, said to have 
been originally from Crete. They were the in- 
ventors of many useful arts, and, according to 
Diodorus, passed for the sons of the sea. They 
were the first who raised statues to the gods. 
They had the power of changing themselves 
into whatever shape they pleased, and according 
to Ovid they could poison and fascinate all ob- 
jects with their eyes, and cause rain and hail 
.to fall at pleasure. The Telchinians insulted 
Venus, for which the goddess inspired them 
with a sudden fury, so that they committed the 
grossest crimes, and ofiered violence even to 
their own mothers. Jupiter destroyed them all 
by a deluge. Diod.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 365, «fec. 

Telecles, or Teleglus, I. a Lacedaemonian 
king, of the family of the Agidae, who reigned 
forty years, B. C. 813. Herodot. 7, c. 205.— 

Paus. 3, c. 2. 11. A philosopher, disciple of 

Lacidas, B. C. 214. 

Telecliles, an Athenian comic poet in the 
age of Pericles, one of whose plays, called the 
Amphictyons, is mentioned by ancient authors. 
Plui. in Nicid. — Athen. 8. 

Telegonus, I. a son of Ulysses and Circe, 
born in the island of -^aea, where he was edu- 
cated. When arrived to the years of manhood, 
he went to Ithaca to make himself known to his 
father, but he was shipwrecked on the coast, 
and, being destitute of provisions, he plundered 
some of the inhabitants of the island. Ulysses 
and Telemachus came to defend the property 
of their subjects against this unknown invader ; 
a quarrel arose, and Telegonus killed his father 
without kncAving who he was. He afterwards 
returned to his native country, and, according 
la Hyginus, he carried thither his father's body, 
where it was buried. Telemachus and Pene- 
lope also accompanied him in his return, and 
soon after the nuptials of Telegonus and Pene- 
lope were celebrated by order of Minerva. Pe- 
nelope had by Telegonus a son called Italus, 
who gave his name to Italy. Telegonus found- 
ed Tusculum and Tiber or Praeneste, in Italy, 
and according to some he left one daughter, 
called Mamilia, from whom the patrician fam- 
ily of the Mamilii at Rome were descended. 
Horat. 3, od. 29, v. S.—Ovid. Fast. 3 and 4. 
lyist. 1, el. 1. — Plut. in Par. — Hygin. fab. 

121.— Diod. 7. II. A son of Proteus, killed 

by Hercules. Apollod. III. A king of Egypt, 

who married lo after she had been restored to 
her original form by Jupiter. Id. 

Telemachus, a son of Ulysses and Penelope. 
He was still in the cradle when his father went 
with the rest of the Greeks lo the Trojan war. 
At the end of this celebrated war, Telemachus, 
anxious to see his father, went to seek him, and 
as the place of his residence and the cause of 
his long absence were then unknown, he visited 
the court of Menelaus and Nestor to obtain in- 
formation. He afterwards returned to Ithaca, 
where the suitors of his mother Penelope had 
conspired to murder him, but he avoided their 
snares, and, by means of Minerva, he discover- 
ed his father, who had arrived in the island 
two days before him, and was then in the house 
of Eumaeus. With this faithful servant and 
Ulysses, Telemachus concerted how to deliver 
his mother from the importunities of her suitors, 
and it was effected with success. After the 
death of his father, Telemachus went to the 
623 



TE 



HISTORY, &c. 



TE 



island of ^aea, where he married Circe, or ac- 
cording to others, Cassiphone, the daughter of 
Circe, by whom he had a son called Latinus. 
He some time after Ijiad the misfortune to kill 
his mother-in-law Circe, and fled to Italy, where 
he founded Clusium, Telemachus was accom- 
panied in his visit to Nestor and Menelaus by 
the goddess of wisdom under the form of Men- 
tor. It is said that when a child, Telemachus 
fell into the sea, and that a dolphin brought him 
safe to shore after he had remained some time 
under water. From this circumstance Ulysses 
had the figure of a dolphin engraved on the seal 
which he wore in his ring, Hygin. fab. 95 and 
nb.— Ovid. Heroid. 1, v. 98.—Horat. 1 ep. 7, 
V. 41. — Homer. Od. 2, &c. — Licophr. in Cass. 

Telephus, (L. Verus,) wrote a book on the 
rhetoric of Homer, as also a comparison of that 
poet with Plato, and other treatises, all lost. 
Vid. Part III. 

Telesilla, a lyric poetess of Argos, who 
bravely defended her country against the Lace- 
daemonians, and obliged them to raise the siege. 
A statue was raised to her honour in the temple 
of Venus. Pans. 2, c. 20. 

Telesinus, a general of the Samnites, who 
joined the interest of Marius, and fought against 
the generals of Sylla. He marched towards 
Rome, and defeated Sylla with great loss. He 
was afterwards routed in a bloody battle, and 
left in the number of the slain, after he had given 
repeated proofs of valour and courage. Plut. 
in Mar. &c. 

Tellias, a famous soothsayer of Elis, in the 
age of Xerxes. He was greatly honoured in 
Phocis, where he had settled, and the inhabit- 
ants raised him a statue in the temple of Apollo 
at Delphi. Pans. 10, v. l.— Herodot. 8, c. 27. 

Tellus, a poor man, whom Solon called hap- 
pier than Croesus, the rich and ambitious king 
of Lydia, Tellus had the happiness to see a 
strong and healthy family of children, and at 
last to fall in the defence of his country Hero- 
dot. 1, c. 30. 

Temenus, a son of Aristomachus, was the 
first of the Heraclidse who returned to Pelopon- 
nesus with his brother Ctesiphontes in the reign 
of Tisamenes, king of Argos. Temenus made 
himself master of the throne of Argos, from 
which he expelled the reigning sovereign. Af- 
ter death he was succeeded by his son-in-law 
Deiphon,who had married his daughter Hyrne- 
tho, and his succession was in preference to his 
own son. Apollod, 2, c. 7. — Paus. 2, c. 18 and 19. 
Tenes, a son of Cycnus and Proclea. He 
was exposed on the sea on the coast of Troas, 
by his father, who credulously believed his wife 
Philonome, who had fallen in love with C}'^cnus 
and accused him of attempts upon her virtue, 
when he refused to gratify her passion. Tenes 
arrived safe in Leucophrys, which he called 
Tenedos, and of which he became the sove- 
reign. Some time after, Cycnus discovered the 
guilt of his wife Philonome, and as he wished 
to be reconciled to his son whom he had so 
grossly injured, he went to Tenedos. But when 
he had tied his ship to the shore, Tenes cut off 
the cable with a hatchet, and suffered his father's 
ship to be tossed about by the sea. From this 
circumstance the hatchet of Tenes is become 
proverbial to intimate a resentment that cannot 
De pacified. Some, however, suppose that the 
624 



proverb arose from the severity of a law made 
by a king of Tenedos against adultery, by which 
the guilty were both put to death by a hatchet. 
The hatchet of Tenes was carefully preserved 
at Tenedos, and afterwards deposited by Peri- 
clytus, son of Eutymachus, in the temple of 
Delphi, where it was still seen in the age of 
I Pausanias. Tenes, as some suppose, was killed 
by Achilles, as he defended his country against 
the Greeks, and he received divine honours 
after death. His statue at Tenedos was carried 
away by Verres. Strab. 13. — Pans. 10, c. 14. 
Tennes, a king of Sodon, who, when his 
country was besieged by the Persians, burnt 
j himself and the city together, B. C. 351. 
j Terentia, I. the wife of Cicero. She became 
j mother of M. Cicero, and of a daughter called 
i Tulliola. Cicero repudiated her, because she 
I had been faithless to his bed when he was ba- 
j nisbed in Asia. Terentia married Sallust, Cice- 
ro's enemy, and afterwards Messala Corvinus. 
\ She lived to her 103d, or, accordingto Pliny, to 
her 117th year. Plut. in Cic.— Val. Max. 8, c. 

13.— C'ic. ad Attic. 11, ep. 16, &c. II. The 

wife of Msecenas, with whom it is said that 
Augustus carried on an intrigue. This beau- 
tiful, but capricious woman was the sister of 
Proculeius, so eminent for his fraternal love, as 
also of Licinius Muraena, who conspired against 
Augustus ; and she is supposed by some, though 
we think erroneously, to be the Licymnia whom 
Horace celebrates for her personal charms and 
accomplishments, and for the passion with 
which she had inspired his patron. The extra- 
vagance and bad temper of this fantastical, yet 
lovely woman, were sources of perpetual cha- 
grin and uneasiness to her husband. Though 
his existence was embittered by her folly and 
capriccj he continued during his whole life to 
be the dupe of the passion which he entertained 
for her. He could neither live with nor with- 
out her ; he quarrelled with her, and was recon- 
ciled, almost every day, and put her away one 
moment, and take her back the next, which has 
led Seneca to remark, that he was married a 
thousand times, yet never had but one wife. 
Terentia vied in personal charms with the em- 
peress Livia, and is said to have gained the 
affections of Augustus. She accompanied her 
husband and the emperor on an expedition to 
Gaul, in the year 738, which, at the time, was 
reported to have been undertaken in order that 
Augustus might enjoy her society without 
attracting the notice or animadversions of the 
capital. Msecenas was not courtier enough to 
appear blind to the infidelities of Terentia, or 
to sleep for the accommodation of the emperor, 
as the senator Galba is said to have slumbered 
for the minister. The umbrage Maecenas took 
at the attentions paid by his master to Terentia, 
is assigned by Dio Cassius as the chief cause of 
that decline of imperial favour which Maecenas 
experienced about four years previously to his 
death. Others have supposed, that it was not 
the intrigue of Augustus with Terentia which 
diminished his influence, but a discovery made 
by the emperor, that he had revealed to his wife 
some circumstances concerning the conspiracy 
in which her brother Mursena had been engaged 
Terentia Lex, called also Cassia, frurnen^ 
taria, by M. Terentius Varro Lucullus and C. 
Cassius, A. U. C. 680. It ordered that the same 



TE 



HISTORY, &c. 



TE 



price should be given for all com bought in the 
provinces, to hinder the exactions of the quaes- 
tors. -Another, by Terentius the tribune, A. 

U. C. 291, to elect five persons to define the 
power of the consuls, lest they should abuse the 
public confidence by violence or rapine, 

Terentianus, I. a Roman, to whom Longi- 

nus dedicated his treatise on the sublime. ^11. 

Maurus, a writer who flourished A. D. 240. 
The last edition of his treatise de Uteris, Sylla- 
bis, tf" metris Horatii, is by Mycillus, Francof 
8vo. 1584. Martial. 1, ep, 70. 

Terentius Publius, I. This celebrated dra- 
matist, the delight and ornament of the Roman 
stage, was born at Carthage about the 560th 
year of Rome. In what manner he came or 
was brought hither is uncertain. He was, in 
early youth, the freedman of one Terentius 
Lucanus in that city, whose name has been per- 
petuated only by the glory of his slave. After 
he had obtained his freedom, he became the 
friend of Laelius, and of the younger Scipio 
Africanus. His Andria was not acted till the 
year 587 — two years, according to the Eusebian 
Chronicle, after the death of Csecilius ; which 
unfortunately throws some doubi on the agree- 
able anecdote recorded by Donatus, of his in- 
troduction, in a wretched garb, into the house 
of Cascilius, in order to read his comedy to 
that poet, by whom, as a mean person, he was 
seated on a low stool, till he astonished him 
with the matchless grace and elegance of the 
Andria, when he was placed on the couch, and 
invited to partake the supper of the veteran 
dramatist. After he had given six comedies 
to the stage, Terence left Rome for Greece, 
whence he never returned. The manner of 
his death, however, is altogether uncertain. 
According to one report, he perished at sea, 
while on his voyage from Greece to Italy, 
bringing with him a hundred and eight come- 
dies, which he had translated from Menander ; 
according to other accounts, he died in Ar- 
cadia for grief at the loss of those comedies, 
which he had sent before him by sea to Rome. 
In whatever way it was occasioned, his death 
happened when he was at the early age ofthir- 
ty-four, and in the year 594 from the building 
of the city. Andria, — acted in 587, is the first 
in point of time, and is usually accounted the 
first in merit, of the productions of Terence. 
Like most of his other comedies, it has a double 
plot. It is compounded of the Andrian and 
Perinthian of Menander ; but it does not ap- 
pear that Terence took his principal plot from 
one of those Greek plays, and the under-plot 
from the other. He employed both to form his 
chief fable ; and added the characters, on which 
the under-plot is founded, from his own inven- 
tion, or from some third play now unknown to 
us. The long narrative with which the Andria, 
like several other plays of Terence, commences, 
and which is a component part of the drama 
itself, is beautiful in point of style, and does not 
fail to excite our interest concerning the charac- 
ters. This play has been imitated in the Ati- 
driemve of Baron, the celebrated French actor. 
The Latin names are preserved in the dramatis 
personcE, and the first, second, and fifth acts, have 
been nearly translated from Terence. Steele's 
Conscious Lovers is the best imitation of the An- 
dria. Eumtchus. — Though, in modern times, 

Part II.— 4 K 



the Andria has been the most admired play ol 
Terence, in Rome the Eunuchus was by much 
the most popular of all his performances, and 
he received for it 8000 sesterces, the greatest 
reward which poet had ever yet obtained. In 
the Andria, indeed, there is much grace and 
delicacy, and some tenderness; but the Eunu- 
chus is so full of vivacity and fire, as almost to 
redeem its author from the well-known censure 
of Caesar, that there was no vis comica in his 
dramas. The chief part of the Eunuchus is 
taken from a play of the same title by Menan- 
der; but the characters of the parasite and cap- 
tain have been transferred into it from another 
play of Menander, called Kolax. There was 
an old play, too, by Neevius, founded on the 
Kolax; but Terence, in his prologue, denies 
having been indebted to this performance. 
There is an Italian imitation of the Eunuchus 
in La Talanta, a comedy by Aretine, in which 
the courtesan, who gives the name to the play, 
corresponds with Thais, and her lover Orfinio 
to Phcedria — the characteristic dispositions of 
both the originals being closely followed in the 
copy. There is more Ivhricity in the Ennuchus 
of Terence than in any other of his perform- 
ances ; and hence, perhaps, it has been selected 
by Fontaine as the most suitable drama for his 
imitation. His Euimque, as he very justly re- 
marks in his advertisement prefixed, "n'est 
qu'une mediocre copie d'un excellent original." 
The only English imitation of the Eunuchus is 
Bellamira, or the Mistress, an unsuccessful com- 
edy, by Sir Charles Sedley, first printed in 1687. 
Heautontimorumenos. — The chief plot of this 
play, which we think, on the whole, the least 
happy effort of Terence's imitation, and which, 
of all his plays, is the most foreign from our 
manners, is taken, like the last-mentioned 
drama, from Menander. It derives its Greek 
appellation from the voluntary punishment in- 
flicted on himself by a father, who, having 
driven his son into banishment by excess of 
severity, avenges him, by retiring to the coun- 
try, where he partakes only of the hardest fare, 
and labours the ground with his own hands. 
The deep parental distress, however, of Mene- 
demus, with which the play opens, forms but an 
inconsiderable part of it, as the son, Clinia, re- 
turns in the second act, and other incidents of 
a comic cast are then interwoven with the drama. 
The poet being perhaps aware that the action 
of this comedy was exceptionable, and that the 
dramatic unities were not preserved in the most 
rigid sense of the term, has apparently exerted 
himself to compensate for these deficiencies by 
the introduction of many beautiful moral max- 
ims : and by that purity of style, which distin- 
guishes all his productions, but which shines, 
perhaps, most brightly in the Heautontimoru- 
menos. That part of the plot of this comedy, 
where Clitopho's mistress is introduced as 
Clinia's mistress, into the house of both the old 
men, has given rise to Chapman's comedy, All 
Fooles, which was first printed in 1605, 4to. and 
was a favourite production in its day. Adelphi. 
— The principal subject of this drama is usually 
supposed to have been taken from Menander's 
Adelphoi; but it appears that Alexis, the uncle 
of Menander, also wrote a comedy, entitled 
Adelphoi ; so that perhaps the elegant Latin 
copy may have been as much indebted to the 
625 



TE 



HISTORY, &c. 



TE 



•ancle's as to the nephew's performance, for the 
delicacy of its characters and the charms of 
its dialogue. We are informed, however, in 
the prologue, that the part of the drama in 
which the music girl is carried off from the 
pander, has been taken from the Synapothne^ 
contes of Diphilus. That comedy, though the 
version is now lost, had been translated by Plau- 
tus, under the title of Commorientes. He had 
left out the incidents, however, concerning the 
music girl, and Terence availed himself of this 
omission to interweave them with the principal 
plot of his delightful drama. The Adelphi 
is also the origin of Shadwell's comedy, the 
Squire of Alsatia. Spence, in his Anecdotes, 
says, on the authority of Dennis the critic, that 
the story on which the Squire of Alsatia was 
built, was a true fact. That the whole plot is 
founded on fact, we think very improbable, as it 
coincides most closely with that of the Adelphi. 
In Cumberland's Choleric Man, the chief char- 
acters, though he seems to deny it in his dedi- 
catory epistle to Detraction, have also been 
traced after those of the Adelphi. Hecijra. — 
Several of Terence's plays can hardly be ac- 
counted comedies, if by that term be understood, 
dramas which excite laughter. They are in 
what the French call genre serieux, and are 
perhaps the origin of the comedie larmoyante. 
The events of human life for the most part, are 
neither deeply distressing nor ridiculous ; and, 
in a dramatic representation of such incidents, 
the action must advance by embarrassments and 
perplexities, which, though below tragic pathos, 
are not calculated to excite merriment. Diderot, 
who seems to have been a great student of the 
works of Terence, thinks the Hecyra, or Moth- 
er-in-law, should be classed among the serious 
dramas. It exhibits no buffoonery, or tricks of 
slaves, or ridiculous parasite, or extravagant 
braggart captain ; buL contains a beautiful and 
delightful picture of private life, and those dis- 
tresses which " ruffle the smooth current of do- 
mestic joy." Phormio — like the last-mentioned 
play, was taken from the Greek of Apollodorus, 
who called it Epidicazomenos. Terence named 
it Phormio, from a parasite whose contrivances 
form the groundwork of the comedy, and who 
connects its double plot. It is curious that this 
play, which Donatus says is founded on pas- 
sions almost too high for comedy, should have 
given rise to the most fanciful of all Moliere's 
productions, Les Fourberies dc Scapin, a cele- 
brated, though at first an unsuccessful play, 
where, contrary to his usual practice, he has 
burlesqued rather than added dignity to the in- 
cidents of the original from which he borrowed. 
From the above sketches some idea may have 
been formed of Terence's plots, most of which 
were taken from the Greek stage, on which he 
knew they had already pleased. He has given 
proofs, however, of his taste and judgment, in 
the additions and alterations made on those bor- 
rowed subjects ; and, had he lived an age later, 
when all the arts were in full glory at Rome, 
and the empire at its height of power and 
splendour, he would have found domestic sub- 
jects sufficient to supply his scene with interest 
and variety, and would no longer have account- 
ed it a greater merit — *' Grsecas transferre quam 
proprias scribere." Terence was a more rigid 
observer than his Roman predecessors of the 
626 



unities of time and place. But though he has 
perhaps too rigidly observed the unities of time 
and place, in none of his dramas, with a single 
exception, has that of plot been adhered to. 
The simplicity and exact unity of fable in the 
Greek comedies would have been insipid to a 
people not thoroughly instructed in the genuine 
beauties of the drama. Such plays are of too 
thin contexture to satisfy the somewhat gross 
and lumpish taste of a Roman audience. The 
Latin poets, therefore, bethought themselves of 
combining two stories into one, and this junc- 
tion, which we call the double plot, by affording 
the opportunity of more incidents, and a greater 
variety of action, best contributed to the grati- 
fication of those whom they had to please. 
But of all the Latin comedians, Terence ap- 
pears to have practised this art the most assid- 
uously. Next to the management of the plot, 
the characters and manners represented are the 
most important points in a comedy ; and in 
these Terence was considered by the ancients 
as surpassing all their comic poets. The style 
of wit and humour must of course correspond 
with that of the characters and manners. Ac- 
cordingly the plays of Terence are not much 
calculated to excite ludicrous emotions, and 
have been regarded as deficient in comic force. 
Among all the Latin writers, from Ennius to 
Ausonius, we meet with nothing so simple, so 
full of grace and delicacy — in fine, nothing that 
can be compared to the comedies of Terence 
for elegance of dialogue — presenting a con- 
stant flow of easy, genteel, unaffected discourse, 
which never subsides into vulgarity or gross- 
ness, and never rises higher than the ordinary 
level of polite conversation. After having con- 
sidered the plays of Plautus and of Terence, 
one is naturally led to institute a comparison 
between these two celebrated dramatists. The 
improvement of the times brought the works of 
Terence to perfection and maturity, as much 
as his own genius. It is evident that he was 
chiefly desirous to recommend himself to the 
approbation of a select few, who were possessed 
of true wit and judgment, and the dread of 
whose censure ever kept him within the bounds 
of correct taste ; while the sole object of Plautus, 
on the other hand, was to excite the merri- 
ment of an audience of little refinement. If, 
then, we merely consider the intrinsic merit of 
their productions, without reference to the cir- 
cumstances or situation of the authors, stiU 
Plautus will be accounted superior in that vi- 
vacity of action, and variety of incident, which 
raise curiosity, and hurry on the mind to the 
conclusion. We delight, on the contrary, to 
linger on every scene, almost on every sentence, 
of Terence. Sometimes there are chasms in 
Plautus's fables, and the incidents do not prop- 
erly adhere. — in Terence, all the links of the 
action depend on each other. Plautus has 
more variety in his exhibition of characters and 
manners, but his pictures are often overcharged, 
while those of Terence are never more highly 
coloured than becomes the modesty of nature, 
Plautus's sentences have a peculiar smartness, 
which conveys the thought with clearness, and 
strikes the imagination strongly, so that the 
mind is excited to attention, and retains the 
idea with pleasure ; but they are often forced 
and affected, and of a description little used in 



TE 



HISTORY, &c. 



TE 



the commerce of the world; whereas every 
word of Terence has direct relation to the busi- 
ness of life and the feelings of mankind. The 
language of Plautus is more rich and luxu- 
riant than that of Terence, but is far from be- 
ing so equal, uniform, and chaste. It is often 
stained with vulgarily, and sometimes swells 
beyond the limits of comic dialogue, while that 
of Terence is puro simillimus amni. The 
verses of Plautus are, as he himself calls them, 
numeri innumeri ; and Herman declares, that, 
at least, as now printed omni vitiorum genere 
abundant. Terence attends more to elegance 
and delicacy in the expression of passion — 
Plautus to comic expression. In fact, the 
great object of Plautus seems to have been to 
excite laughter among the audience, and in 
this object he completely succeeded ; but for its 
attainment he has sacrificed many graces and 
beauties of the drama. There are two sorts of 
humour — one consisting in words and action, 
the other in matter. Now Terence abounds 
chiefly in the last species, Plautus in the first ; 
and the pleasantries of the older dramatist, 
which were so often flat, low, or extravagant, 
finally drew down the censure of Horace, 
while his successor was extolled by that poetical 
critic as the most consummate master of dra- 
matic art. " In short," says Crusius, " Plautus 
is more gay, Terence more chaste — the first 
has more genius and fire, the latter more man- 
ners and solidity. Plautus excels in low 
comedy and ridicule, Terence in drawing just 
characters, and maintaining them to the last. 
The plots of both arc useful, but Terence's are 
more apt to languish, whilst Plautus's spirit 
maintains the action with vigour. His inven- 
tion was greatest; Terence's art and manage- 
ment. Plautus gives the stronger, Terence a 
more elegant delight. Plautus appears the bet- 
ter comedian of the two, as Terence the finer 
poet. The former has more compass and va- 
riety, the latter more regularity and truth, in his 
characters, Plautus shone most on the stage ; 
Terence pleases best in the closet. Men of re- 
fined taste would prefer Terence ; Plautus 
diverted both patrician and plebeian." The best 
editions of Terence are those of Westerhovius, 
2 vols. 4to. Amst. 1726 ; of Edin. 12mo, 1758 ; 
of Cambridge, 4to. 1723 ; Hawkey's, 12rao. 
Dublin, 1745; and that of Zeunius, 8vo. Lips. 
1774. Cic. ad Attic. 7, ep. 3. — Paterc. 1, c. 17. 
— Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 59, 



II. Culeo, a Roman senator, taken by the Car- 
thaginians and redeemed'by Africanus. When 
Africanus triumphed, Culeo followed his cha- 
riot with a pileus on his head. He was some 
time after appointed judge between his deliverer 
and the people of Asia, and had the meanness 
to condemn him and his brother Asiaticus, 

though both innocent. Liv. 30, c. 45. III. 

A consul with .^milius Paulus at the battle of 
Cannae. He was the son of a butcher, and 
had followed for some time the profession of 
his father. He placed himself totally in the 
power of Hannibal by making an improper 
distribution of his army. After he had been 
defeated, and his colleague slain, he retired to 
Canusium, with the remains of his slaughtered 
countrymen, and sent word to the Roman sen- 
ate of his defeat. He received the thanks of 
this venerable body, because he had engaged 



the enemy, however improperly, and not 
despaired of the affairs of the republic. He 
was offered the dictatorship, which he declined. 

Pint.— Liv. 22, &c. IV. Marcus, a friend 

of Sejanus, accused before the senate for his 
intimacy with that discarded favourite. He 
made a noble defence, and was acquitted. 
Tacit. Ann. 6. 

Terminalta, annual festivals at Rome, ob- 
'served in honour of the god Terminus, in the 
month of February. It was then usual for peas- 
ants to assemble near the principal landmarks 
which separate their fields, and after they had 
crowned them with garlands and flowers, to 
make libations of milk and wine, and to sacri- 
fice a lamb or a young pig. They were ori- 
ginally established by Numa, and though at 
first it was forbidden to shed the blood of vic- 
tims, yet in process of time landmarks were 
plentifully sprinkled with it. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 
641.— Cic. Phil. 12, c. 10. 

Terpander, a lyric poet and musician of 
Lesbos, 675 B.C. It is said that he appeased a 
tumult at Sparta by the melody and sweetness 
of his notes. He added three strings to the lyre, 
which before his time had only four. jElian. 
V. H. 12, c. 60.— Pint, de Mus. 

Tertia, a sister of Brutus, who married 
Cassius. She was also called Tertulla and 
Jicnia. Tacit. A. 3, c. 76. — Suet, in Cces. 50. — 
Cic. ad B. 5 and 6, ad Att. 15, ep. 11, X. 16, ep. 20. 

Tertullianus, (J. Septimius Florens,) a 
celebrated Christian writer of Carthage, who 
flourished A. D. 196. He was originally a Pa- 
gan, but afterwards embraced Christianity, of 
which he became an able advocate by his wri- 
tings, which showed that he was possessed of a 
lively imagination, impetuous eloquence,elevat- 
ed style, and strength of reasoning. The most 
famous and esteemed of his numerous works 
are, his Apology for the Christians and his Pre- 
scriptions. The best edition of Teriullian is 
that of Semlerus, 4 vols. Bvo. Hal. 1770 ; and 
of his Apology, that of Havercamp, Bvo. L. 
Bat. 1718. 

Tetricus, a Roman senator, saluted emperor 
in the reign of Aurelian. He was led in triumph 
by his successful adversary, who afterwards 
heaped the most unbounded honours upon him 
and his son of the same name. 

Teucer, I. a king of Phrygia, son of the Sca- 
mander by Idea. According to some authors, 
he was the first who introduced among his sub- 
jects the worship of Cybele and the dances of 
the Corybantes. The country where he reigned 
was from him called Teucria, and his subjects 
Teucri. His daughter Batea married Darda- 
nus, a Samothracian prince, who succeeded him 
in the government of Teucria. Apollod. 3, c'. 

\^.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 108. II. A son of 

Telamon, king of Salamis, by Hesione, the 
daughter of Laomedon. He was one of He- 
len's suiters, and accordingly accompanied the 
Greeks to the Trojan war, where he signalized 
himself by his valour and intrepidity. It is said 
that his father refused to receive him into his 
kingdom, because he had left the death of his 
brother Ajax unrevenged. This severity of the 
father did not dishearten the son ; he left Sa- 
lamis, and retired to Cyprus, where, with the 
assistance of Belus, king of Sidon, he built a 
town which he called Salamis, after his native 
627 



TH 



HISTORY, &c. 



TH 



country. He attempted to no purpose to reco- 
ver the island of Salamis after his father's death. 
He built a temple to Jupiter in Cyprus, on 
which a man was annually sacrificed till the 
reign of the Antonines. Some suppose that 
Teucer did not return to Cyprus, but that, ac- 
cording to a less received opinion, he went to 
settle in Spain, where new Carthage was after- 
wards built, and thence into Galatia. Homer. 
11. 1, V. 281.— Fir^. Mn. 1, v. ^'i'i.— Afollod. 
3, c. V^.—Pmis. 2, c. 29. — Jn$tin. 44, c. 3.— 

Pater c. 1, c. 1. III. One of the servants of 

Phalaris of Agrigentum. 

Teuta, a queen of Illyricum, B. C. 231, who 
ordered some Roman ambassadors to be put to 
death. This unprecedented murder was the 
cause of a war, which ended in her disgrace. 
Flor. 2, c. b.-^Plin. 34, c. 6. 

Teuthras. Vid.FaTt III. 

Thais, a famous courtesan of Athens, who 
accompanied Alexander in his Asiatic con- 
quests, and gained such an ascendant over him, 
that she made him burn the royal palace of 
Persepolis. After Alexander's death, she mar- 
ried Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Menander celebra- 
ted her charms, both mental andpersonal,which 
were of a superior nature, and on this account 
ishe is called Menandrea by Propert. 2, el. 6. — 
Ovid, de Art. Am. 3, v. 604, de Rem. Am. v. 
W^.—Pliit. in Alex.—Juv. 3, v. ^'i.—Athen. 13, 
c. 13. 

Thalassius, a beautiful young Roman, in the 
reign of Romulus. At the rape of the Sabines 
one of these virgins appeared remarkable for 
beauty and elegance, and her ravisher, afraid of 
many competitors, exclaimed, as he carried her 
away, that it was for Thalassius. The name 
of Thalassius was no sooner mentioned than 
all were eager to preserve so beautiful a prize 
for him. Their union was attended with so 
much happiness, that it was ever after usual at 
Rome to make use of the word Thalassius at 
nuptials, and to wish those that were married 
the felicity of Thalassius. He is supposed by 
some to be the same as Hymen, as he was made 
a deity. Plut. in Rom. — Martial. 3, ep. 92. — 
Liv. 1, c. 9. 

Thales, I. one of the seven wise men of 
Greece, born at Miletus in Ionia. He was de- 
scended from Cadmus; his father's name was 
Examius, and his mother's Cleobula. Like the 
rest of the ancients, he travelled in quest of 
knowledge, and for some time resided in Crete, 
Phoenicia, and Egypt. Under the priests of 
Memphis he was taught geometry, astronomy, 
and philosophy, and enabled to measure, with 
exactness, the vast height and extent of a pyra- 
mid merely by its shadow. His discoveries in 
astronomy were great and ingenious ; he was 
the first who calculated with accuracy a solar 
eclipse. He discovered the solstices and equi- 
noxes, he divided the heavens into five zones, 
and recommended the division of the year into 
365 days, which was universally adopted by the 
Egyptian philosophy. Like Homer, he looked 
upon water as the principle of every thing. 
He was the founder of the Ionic sect, which 
distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse 
speculations under the successors and pupils 
of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, 
Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the 
master of Socrates. Thales was never mar- 
628 



ried; and when his mother pressed him to 
choose a wife, he said he was too young. The 
same exhortations were afterwards repeated, 
but the philosopher eluded them by observing 
that he was then too old to enter the matrimo- 
nial state. He died in the 96th year of his 
age, about 548 years before the Christian era. 
His compositions on philosophical subjects are 
lost, Herodot. 1, c. 7. — Plato. — Diog. 1. — 

Cic. de Nat. D. &c. II. A lyric poet of 

Crete, intimate with Lycurgus. He prepared, 
by his rhapsodies, the minds of the Spartans to 
receive the rigorous institutions of his friend, 
and inculcated a reverence for the peace of 
civil society. 

Thalestria, or Thalestris, a queen of the 
Amazons, who, accompanied by 300 women, 
came 35 days' journey to meet Alexander in 
his Asiatic conquests, to raise children by a 
man whose fame was so great, and courage so 
uncommon. Curt. 6, c. 5. — Slrab. 11. — Justin. 
2, c. 4. 

Thalyssia, Greek festivals, celebrated by the 
people of the country in honour of Ceres, to 
whom the first fruits were regularly offered. 
Schol. Theocr. 5. 

Thamyras, or Thamyris. Vid. Part III. 

Thargelia, festivals in Greece, in honour of 
Apollo and Diana. They lasted two days, 
and the youngest of both sexes carried olive 
branches, on which were suspended cakes and 
fruits. Athen. 12. 

Thasius, or Thrasius, a famous soothsayer 
of Cyprus, who told Busiris, king of Egypt, 
that to stop a dreadful plague which afflicted 
his country he must ofier a foreigner to Jupiter. 
Upon this the tyrant ordered him to be seized 
and sacrificed to the god, as he was not a native 
of Egypt. Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, v. 549. 

Theagenes, an athlete of Thasos, famous 
for his strength. His father's name was Ti- 
mosthenes, a ^friend of Hercules. He was 
crowned above a thousand times at the public 
games of the Greeks, and became a god after 
death. Paus. 6, c. 6 and 11. — Plut. 

Theages, a Greek philosopher, disciple of 
Socrates. Plato. — Mlian. V. H. 4, &c. 

Theano, I. the wife of Metapontus, son of 
Sisyphus, presented twins to her husband when 
he wished to repudiate her for her barrenness. 
The children were educated with the greatest 
care, and some time afterwards Theano herself 
became mother of twins. When they were 
grown up she encouraged them to murder the 
supposititious children, who were to succeed to 
their father's throne in preference to them. 
They were both killed in the attempt, and the 
father, displeased with the conduct of Theano, 
repudiated her to marry the mother of the chil- 
dren whom he had long considered as his own. 

Hygin. fab. 186. II. A daughter of Cisseus. 

sister to Hecuba, who married Antenor, and 
was supposed to have betrayed the Palladium 
to the Greeks, as she was priestess of Minerva. 
Homer. 11. 6, v. ^98.— Paus. 10, c. 21.—Dictys 
Cret. 5, c. 8. III. The wife of the philoso- 
pher Pythagoras, daughter of Pythanax of 
Crete, or, according to others, of Brontinus of 

Crotona. Diog. 8, c. 42. IV. A priestess 

of Athens, daughter of Menon, who refused to 
pronounce a curse upon Alcibiades when he 
was accused of having mutilated all the statues 



TH 



HISTORY, &c. 



TH 



of Mercury. Plut. V. The mother of Pau- 

sanias. She was the first, as it is reported, who 
brought a stone to the entrance of Minerva's 
temple, to shut up her son when she heard of his 
crimes and perfidy to his country. Polyan. 8. 

Themison, I. a famous physician of Laodi- 
cea, disciple to Asclepiades. He was founder 
of a sect called methodists, because he wished 
to introduce methods to facilitate the learning 
and the practice of physic. He flourished in 
the Augustan age. Plin. 29, c. 1. — Juv. 10. 

II. One of the generals and ministers of 

Antiochus the Great. He was born at Cyprus. 
JElian. V. H. 2, c. 41. 

Themistius, a celebrated philosopher of 
Paphlagonia, in the age of Constantius, greatly 
esteemed by the Roman emperors, and called 
Euphrades, the fine speaker, from his eloquent 
and commanding delivery. He was made a 
Roman senator, and always distinguished for 
his liberality and munificence. His school was 
greatly frequented. He wrote, when young, 
some commentaries on Aristotle, fragments of 
which are still extant, and 33 of his orations. 
The best edition of Themistius is that of Har- 
duin, fol. Paris, 1684. 

Themisto. Vid. Part III. 

TherdstScles, I. a celebrated general, born 
at Athens. His father's name was Neocles, 
and his mother's Euterpe, or Abrotonum, a na- 
tive of Halicarnassus, or of Thrace, or.Acarna- 
nia. The beginning of his youth was marked 
by vices so flagrant, and an inclination so incor- 
rigible, that his father disinherited him. This, 
which might have disheartened others, roused 
the ambition of Themistocles, and the protec- 
tion which he was denied at home, he sought in 
courting the favours of the populace, and in 
sharing the administration of public affairs. 
When Xerxes invaded Greece, Themistocles 
was at the head of the Athenian republic, and 
in this capacity the fleet was entrusted to his 
care. While the Lacedsemonians under Leo- 
nidas were opposing the Persians at Thermo- 
pylae, the naval operations of Themistocles, and 
the combined fleet of the Peloponnesians were 
directed to destroy the armament of Xerxes and 
to ruin his maritime power. The obstinate 
wish of the generals to command the Grecian 
fleet might have proved fatal to the interest of 
the allies, had not Themistocles freely relin- 
quished his pretensions, and, by nominating his 
rival Eurybiades master of the expedition, 
shown the world that his ambition could stoop 
when his country demanded his assistance. 
The Persian fleet was distressed at Artemisium 
by a violent storm, and the feeble attack of the 
Greeks; but a decisive battle had never been 
fought, if Themistocles had not used threats 
and entreaties, and even called religion to his 
aid, and the favourable answers of the oracle to 
second his measures. The Greeks, actuated by 
different views, were unwilling to make head by 
sea against an enemy whom they saw victorious 
by land, plundering their cities, and destroying 
all by fire and sword ; but before they were 
dispersed, Themistocles sent intelligence of 
their intentions to the Persian monarch. Xer- 
xes, by immediately blocking them with his 
fleet in the bay of Salamis, prevented their 
escape; and while he wished to crush them all 
at one blow, he obliged them to fight for their 



safety, as well as for the honour of their coun- 
try. This battle, which was fought near the 
island of Salamis, B. C. 480, was decisive ; the 
Greeks obtained the victory, and Themistocles 
the honour of having destroyed the formidable 
navy of Xerxes. Further to insure the peace 
of his country, Themistocles informed the Asi- 
atic monarch that the Greeks had conspired to 
cut the bridge which he had built across the 
Hellespont, and to prevent his retreat into Asia. 
This met with equal success ; Xerxes hastened 
away from Greece, and while he believed, on 
the words of Themistocles, that his return 
would be disputed, he left his forces without a 
general, and his fleets an easy conquest to the 
victorious Greeks. These signal services to his 
country endeared Themistocles to the Athe- 
nians, and he was universally called the most 
warlike and most courageous of all the Greeks 
who fought against the Persians. He was re- 
ceived with the most distinguished honours, and 
by his prudent administration Athens was soon 
fortified with strong walls, her Piraeus was re- 
built, and her harbours were filled with a nu- 
merous and powerful navy, which rendered her 
the mistress of Greece. Yet in the midst of 
that glory the conqueror of Xerxes incurred the 
displeasure of his countrymen, which had 
proved so fatal to many of his illustrious pre- 
decessors. He was banished from the city, and 
after he had sought in vain a safe retreat among 
the republics of Greece and the barbarians of 
Thrace, he threw himself into the arms of a 
monarch whose fleets he had defeated, and 
whose father he had ruined. Artaxerxes, the 
successor of Xerxes, received the illustrious 
Athenian with kindness ; and though he had 
formerly set a price upon his head, yet he made 
him one of his greatest favourites, and bestow- 
ed three rich cities upon him, to provide him 
with bread, wine, and meat. Such kindness 
from a monarch, from whom he perhaps ex- 
pected the most hostile treatment, did not alter 
the sentiments of Themistocles. He still re- 
membered that Athens gave him birth, and, 
according to some writers, the wish of not in- 
juring his country, and therefore his inability 
of carrying on war against Greece, at the re- 
quest of Artaxerxes, obliged him to destroy 
himself by drinking bull's blood. The manner 
of his death, however, is uncertam ; and while 
some aflirm that he poisoned himself, others 
declare that he fell a prey to a violent distemper 
in the city of Magnesia, where he had fixed 
his residence, while in the dominions of the 
Persian monarch. His bones were conveyed 
to Attica, and honoured with a magnificent 
tomb by the Athenians, who began to repent too 
late of their cruelty to the saviour of his coun- 
try. Themistocles died in the 65th year of his 
age, about 449 years before the Christian era. 
He has been admired as a man naturally cour- 
ageous, of a disposition fond of activity, ambi- 
tious of glory and enterprise. Blessed with a 
provident and discerning mind, he seemed to 
rise superior to misfortunes, and in the midst of 
adversity, possessed of resources which could 
enable him to regain his splendour, and even 
to command fortune. Plut. <^ C. Nep. in vita. 
—Pans. 1, c. 1. 8, c. 52.— JElian. V. H. 2, c. 12, 

1. 9, c. 18, 1. 13, c. 40. II. A writer, some of 

whose letters are extant. 
629 



TH 



HISTORY, &c 



TH 



Themistogenes, a historian of Syracuse, in 
the age of Artaxerxes Mnemon. He wrote on 
the wars of Cyrus the younger, a subject ably 
treated afterwards by Xenophon. 

Theoclymenus, a soothsayer of Argolis, de- 
scended from Melampus. His father's name 
was Thestor, He foretold the speedy return of 
Ulysses to Penelope and Telemachus. Homer. 
Od. 15, V. 225, &c.—Hygin. fab. 128. 

Theocritus, I. a Greek poet, who flourished 
at Syracuse, in Sicily, 282 B. C. His father's 
name was Praxagoras or Simichus, and his mo- 
ther's, Philina. He lived m the age of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, whose praises he sung and whose 
favours he enjoyed. Theocritus distinguished 
himself by his poetical compositions, of which 
30 idyllia and some epigrams are extant, writ- 
ten in the Doric dialect, and admired for their 
beauty, elegance, and simplicity. Virgil, in his 
eclogues, has imitated and often copied him. 
Theocritus has been blamed for the many inde- 
licate and obscene expressions which he uses, 
and while he introduces shepherds and peasants, 
with all the rusticity and ignorance of nature, 
he often disguises their character by making 
them speak on high and exalted subjects. It is 
said he wrote some invectives against Hiero, 
king of Syracuse, who ordered him to be stran- 
gled. He also wrote a ludicrous poem, called 
Syrinx, and placed his verses in such order that 
they represented the pipe of the god Pan. The 
best editions of Theocritus are Warton's, 2 vols. 
4to. Oxon. 1770; that of Heinsius, 8vo. Oxon. 
1699 ; that of Valkenaer, Svo. L.' Bat. 1781 ; 
and that of Reiske, 3 vols. 4to. Lips. 1760. 

Quintil, 10, c. 1. — Laert. 5. II. A Greek 

historian of Chios, who wrote an account of 
Lybia. Plut. 

Theodectes, a Greek orator and poet of 
Phaselis, in Pamphylia, son of Aristander and 
disciple of Isocrates. He wrote 50 tragedies, 
besides other works now lost. He had such a 
happy memory, that he could repeat with ease 
whatever verses were spoken in his presence. 
When Alexander passed through Phaselis, he 
crowned with garlands the statue that had been 
erected to the memory of the deceased poet. 
Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 24, in Oral. 51, &,c.—Plut.— 
Quintil. 

Theodora, L a daughter-in-law of the empe- 
ror Maximian, who married Constantius. 

11. A daughter of Constantine. III. A wo- 
man who, from being a courtesan, became em- 
Eeress to Justinian, and distinguished herself 
y her intrigues and enterprises. The name 

of Theodora is common to the emperesses of 
the East in a later period. 

Theodoretus, one of the Greek fathers, who 
flourished A. D. 425, whose works have been 
edited, 5 vols. fol. Paris, 1642, and 5 vols, Halaj, 
1769 to 1774. 

Theodoritds, a Greek ecclesiastical histo- 
rian, whose works have been best. edited by 
Reading, fol. Cantab. 1720. 

Theodorus, I. a Syracusan, of great authority 
among his countrymen, who severely inveighed 

against the tyranny of Dionysius. II. A 

philosopher, disciple to A ristippus. He denied 
the existence of a god. He was banished from 
Cyrene, and fled to Athens, where the friend- 
ship of Demetrius Phalereus saved him from 
the accusations which were carried to the Are- 
630 



opagus against him. Some suppose that he 
was at last condemned to death for his impiety, 

and that he drank poison. III. A preceptor 

to one of the sons of Antony, whom he betrayed 

to Augustus. IV. A consul in the reign of 

Honorius. Claudian wrote a poem upon him, 
in which he praises him with great liberality. 

V. A secretary of Valens. He conspired 

against the emperor, and was beheaded. 

VI. A man who compiled a history of Rome. 
Of this nothing but his history of the reigns of 

Congtantine and Constantius is extant. VII. 

A Greek poet, in the age of Cleopatra. He 
wrote a book of metamorphosis, which Ovid 

imitated, as some suppose. VIII. An artist 

of Samos, about 700 years B. C. He was the 
first who found out the art of melting iron, with 

which he made statues. IX. A Greek writer, 

called also Prodromus. The time in which he 
lived is unknown. There is a romance of his 
composition extant, called the amours of Rho- 
danthe and Dosicles. The only edition of 
which was by Gaulminus, Svo. Paris, 1625. 

Theodosius Flavius, a Roman emperor, sur- 
named Magnus, from the greatness of his ex- 
ploits. He was invested with the imperial pur- 
ple by Gratian, and appointed over Thrace and 
the eastern provinces, which had been in the 
possession of Valentinian. The first years of 
his reign were marked by different conquests 
over the barbarians. The Goths were defeated 
in Thrace, and 4000 of their chariots, with an 
immense number of prisoners of both sexes, 
were the reward of the victory. This glorious 
campaign intimidated the inveterate enemies 
of Rome; they sued for peace and treaties of 
alliance were made with distant nations, who 
wished to gain the favours and the friendship 
of a prince whose military virtues were so con- 
spicuous. Some conspiracies were formed 
against the emperor, but Theodosius totally 
disregarded them ; and while he punished his 
competitors for the imperial purple, he thought 
himself sufficiently secure in the love and the 
aflfeetion of his subjects. His reception at Rome 
was that of a conqueror ; he triumphed over the 
barbarians, and restored peace in every part of 
the empire. He died of a dropsy, at Milan, in 
the 60th year of his age, after a reign of 16 years, 
the 17th of January, A. D. 395. His body was 
conveyed to Constantinople, and buried by his 
son Arcadius in the tomb of Constantine. 
Theodosius was the last of the emperors who 
was the sole master of the whole Roman em- 
pire. He left three children, Arcadius and 
Honorius, who succeeded him, and Pulcheria. 
Theodosius has been commended by ancient 
writers, as a prince blessed with every virtue, 
and debased by no vicious propensity. Though 
master of the world, he was a stranger to that 
pride and arrogance which too often disgrace 
the monarch ; he was affable in his behaviour, 
benevolent, and compassionate ; and it was his 
wish to treat his subjects as he himself was 
treated when a private man and a dependant. 
Men of merit were promoted to places of trust 
and honour, and the emperor was fond of pa- 
tronising the cause of virtue and learning. 
His zeal as a follower of Christianity has been 
applauded bv all the ecclesiastical writers, and 
it was the wish of Theodosius to support the 
revealed religion, as much by his example, 



TH 



HISTORY, (fee. 



TH 



meekness, and Christian charity, as by his edicts 
and ecclesiastical institutions. His want of 
clemency, however, in one instance, was too 
openly betrayed, and when the people of Thes- 
salonica had, unmeaningly perhaps, killed one 
of his officers, the emperor ordered his soldiers 
to put all the inhabitants to the sword, and no 
less than 6000 persons, without distinction of 
rank, age, or sex, were cruelly butchered in that 
town in the space of three hours. This violence 
irritated the ecclesiastics, and Theodosius was 
compelled by St. Ambrose to do open penance 
in the church, and publicly to make atonement 
for an act of barbarity which had excluded him 
from the bosom of the church and the com- 
munion of the faithful. In his private character 
Theodosius was an example of soberness and 
temperance, his palace displayed becoming 
grandeur, but still with moderation. He never 
indulged luxury or countenanced superfluities. 
He was fond of bodily exercise, and never gave 
himself up to pleasure and enervating enjoy- 
ments. The laws and regulations which he 
introduced in the Roman empire were of the 
most salutary nature. Socrat. 5, &c. — Zosim. 
4, &c. — Ambros. Augustin. Claudian. &c. 



The 2d, succeeded his father Arcadius as em- 
peror of the western Roman empire, though 
only in • the eighth year of his age. He was 
governed by his sister Pulcheria, and by his 
ministers and eunuchs, in whose hands was the 
disposal of the offices of state, and all places of 
trust and honour. He married Eudoxia, the 
daughter of a philosopher called Leontius, a 
woman remarkable for her virtues and piety. 
The territories of Theodosius were invaded by 
the Persians, but the emperor soon appeared at 
the head of a numerous force, and the two 
hostile armies met on the frontiers of the empire. 
The consternation was universal on both sides ; 
without even a battle the Persians fled, and no 
less than 100,000 were lost in the waters of the 
Euphrates. Theodosius raised the siege of 
Nisibis, where his operations failed of success, 
and he averted the fury of the Huns and Van- 
dals by bribes and promises. He died on the 
29th of July, in the 49th year of his age, A. D. 
450, leaving only one daughter, Licinia Eu- 
doxia, whom he had married to the emperor 
Valentinian 3d. The carelessness and inat- 
tention of Theodosius to public affairs are well 
known. He signed all the papers that were 
brought to him, without even opening them or 
reading them, till his sister apprized him of his 
negligence, and rendered him more careful and 
diligent, by making him sign a paper in which 
he delivered into her hands Eudoxia his wife 
as a slave and menial servant. The laws and 
regulations which were promulgated under 
him, and selected from the most useful and sal- 
utary institutions of his imperial Theodosian 
code. Theodosius was a warm advocate for 
the Christian religion, but he has been blamed 
for his partial attachment to those who opposed 

the orthodox faith. Zosim. — Soc. &c. A 

mathematician of Tripoli, who flourished 75 
B. C. His treatise called Sphserica, is best 

edited by Hunt, 8vo. Oxon. 1707. A Roman 

general, father of Theodosius the Great; he 
died A. D. 376. 

Theodotxjs, I. an admiral of the Rhodians, 
sent by his countrymen to make a treaty with 



the Romans. II. A native of Chios, who, as 

preceptor and counsellor of Ptolemy, advised 
the feeble monarch to murder Pompey. He 
carried the head of the unfortunate Roman to 
Caesar, but the resentment of the conquerorwas 
such that the mean assassin fled ; and, after a 
wandering and miserable life in the cities of 
Asia, he was at last put to death by Brutus. 

Plut. in Brut. <^ Pomp. III. A governor of 

Bactriana in the age of Antiochus, who revolted 
and made himself king, B. C. 250. 

Theognis, a Greek poet of Megara, who 
flourished about 549 years before Christ. He 
wrote several poems, of which only a few sen- 
tences are now extant, quoted by Plato and 
other Greek historians and philosophers, and 
intended as precepts for the conduct of human 
life. The morals of the poet have been cen- 
sured as neither decorous nor chaste. The best 
edition of Theognis is that of Blackwall, 12mo. 

London. 1706. There was also a tragic poet 

of the same name, whose compositions were so 
lifeless and inanimated,that they procured him 
the name of Chion or snow. 

Theomnestus, I. a rival of Nieias in the ad- 
ministration of public affairs at Athens. Strab. 

14. II. An Athenian philosopher, among the 

followers of Plato's doctrines. He had Brutus, 
Caesar's murderer, among his pupils. 

Theophanes, I. a Greek historian, born at 
Mitylene. He was very intimate with Pompey, 
and from his friendship with the Roman general 
his countrymen derived many advantages. 
After the battle of Pharsalia he advised Pom- 
pey to retire to the court of Egypt. Cic. pro 

Arch. (^ Paterc. — Plut. in Cic. <^ Pomp. 

II. His son, M. Pompeius Theophanes, was 
made governor of Asia, and enjoyed the inti- 
macy of Tiberius. — The only edition of The- 
ophanes, the Byzantine historian, is at Paris, 
fol. 1649. 

Theophrastus, a native of Eresus, in Lesbos, 
son of a fuller. He studied under Plato, and 
afterwards under Aristotle, whose friendship 
he gained, and whose warmest commendations 
he deserved. His original name was Tyrtamus, 
but this the philosopher made him exchange 
for that of Euphrastus, to imitate his excellence 
in speaking, and afterwards for that of TTie- 
ophrastus, which he deemed still more expres- 
sive of his eloquence, the brilliancy of his 
genius, and the elegance of his language. 
After the death of Socrates, when the malevo- 
lence of the Athenians drove all the philo- 
sopher's friends from the city, Theophrastus 
succeeded Aristotle in the Lyceum, and ren- 
dered himself so conspicuous, that in a short 
time the number of his auditors was increased 
to two thousand. Not only his countrymen 
courted his applause, but kings and princes 
were desirous of his friendship ; and Cassan- 
der and Ptolemy, two of the most powerful of 
the successors of Alexander, regarded him with 
more than usual partiality. Theophrastus com- 
posed many books, and Diogenes has enume- 
rated the titles of above 200 treatises, which he 
wrote with great elegance and copiousness. 
About 20 of these are extant, among which are 
his history of stones, his treatise on plants, on 
the winds, on the signs of fair weather, &c. 
and his Characters, an excellent moral treatise, 
which was begun in the 99th year of his age. 
631 



TH 



HISTORY, &e. 



TH 



He died, loaded with years and infirmities, in 
ihe 107th year of his age, B. C. 288, lamenting 
the shortness of life, and complaining of the 
partiality of nature in granting longevity to the 
crow and to the stag, but not to man. To his care 
we are indebted for the works of Aristotle, 
which the dying philosopher intrusted to him. 
The best edition of Theophrastus is that of 
Heinsius, fol. L. Bat. 1613; and of his Charac- 
ters, that of Needham, 8vo. Cantab. 1712, and 
that of Fischer, 8vo. Coburg. 1763. Cic. Tiisc. 
3, c. 28. in Brut. c. 31. m Orat. 19, &c.—Strab. 
13. — Diog. in vita. — Mlian. V. H.2, c. 8, 1. 34, 
C.20, 1. 8, c. 12.— Quintil. 10, c. l.—Plut. ad- 
colot. 

Theopompus, I. a king of Sparta, of the family 
of the Proclidae, who succeeded his father Ni- 
cander, and distinguished himself by the many 
new regulations he introduced. He created the 
Ephori, and died after a long and peaceful reign, 
B. C. 723. While he sat on the throne the 
Spartans made war against Messenia. Plut. 

in Lye. — Paus. 3, c. 7. II. A famous Greek 

historian, of Chios, disciple of Isocrates, who 
flourished B. C. 354. All his compositions are 
lost, except a few fragments quoted by ancient 
writers. He is compared to Thucydides and 
Herodotus as an historian, yet he is severely 
censured for his satirical remarks and illiberal 
reflections. He obtained a prize in which his 
master was a competitor, and he was liberally 
rewarded for composing the best funeral oration 
in honour of Mausolus. His father's name 
was Damasistratus. Dionys. Hal. I. — Plut. in 
Lys. — C. ISep. 7. — Paus. 6, c. 18. — Quintil. 10, 

c. 1. III. An Athenian, who attempted to 

deliver his countrymen from the tyranny of 

Demetrius. Polyan. 5. IV. A comic poet 

in the age of Menander. He wrote 24 plays, 
all lost. V. A son of Demaratus, who ob- 
tained several crowns at the Olympic games. 

Paus. 6, c. 10. VI. An orator and historian 

of Cnidus, very intimate with J. Ceesar. Strab. 

14. VII. A Spartan general, killed at the 

battle of Tegyra. VIII. A philosopher of 

Cheronsea, in the reign of the emperor Philip. 

Theophylactus, Simocatta, I. a Byzantine 
historian, whose works were edited fol. Paris. 

1647. II. One of the Greek fathers, who 

flourished A. D. 1070. His works were edited 
at Venice, 4 vols. 1754 to 1763. 

Theoxena, a noble lady of Thessaly, who 
threw herself into the sea when unable to es- 
cape from the soldiers of King Philip, who pur- 
sued her. Liv. 40, c. 4. 

Theoxenia, a festival celebrated in honour 
of all the gods in every city of Greece, but es- 
pecially at Athens. Games were then observed, 
and the conqueror who obtained the prize, re- 
ceived a large sum of money, or, according to 
others, a vest beautifully ornamented. — The 
Dioscuri established a festival of the same name, 
in honour of the gods who had visited them at 
one of their entertainments, 

Theramenes, an Athenian philosopher and 
general in the age of Alcibiades. His father's 
name was Agncn. He was one of the 30 
tyrants of Athens, but he had no share in the 
cruelties and oppressions which disgraced their 
administration. He was accused by Critias, 
one of his colleagues, because he opposed their 
views, and he was condemned to drink hemlock, 
632 



though defended by his own innocence and the 
friendly intercession of the philosopher Socra- 
tes. He drank the poison with great compo- 
sure, and poured some of it on the ground with 
the sarcastical exclamation of. This is to the 
health of Critias. This happened about 404 
years before the Christian era. Theramenes, 
on account of the fickleness of his disposition, 
has been called Gothurnus, a part of the dress 
used both by men and women. Cic. de Orat. 
3, c. 16. — Plut. in Alcib. d^c. — C. Nep. 

Theron, a tyrant of Agrigentum, w^ho died 
472 B. C. He was a native of Boeotia, and 
son of iEnesidamus, and he married Demarete, 
the daughter of Gelon of Sicily. Herodot. 7. — 
Pind. Olymp. 2. 

Thersander, a son of Polynices and Argia. 
He accompanied the Greeks to the Trojan war, 
but he was killed in Mysia by Telephus, before 
the confederate army reached the enemy's coun- 
try. Virg. Mn. 2, v. "H&l.—Apollod. 3, c. 7. 

Thersites, the most deformed of the Greeks 
during the Trojan war. He was fond of ridi- 
culing his fellow-soldiers, particularly Aga- 
memnon, Achilles, and Ulysses. Achilles 
killed him with one blow of his fist, because he 
laughed at his mourning the death of Penthe- 
silea. Ovid, ex Pont. 4, el. 13, v. 15. — Apollod. 
1, c. S.— Homer. 11. 2, v. 212, &c. 

Theseis, a poem written by Codrus, contain- 
ing an account of the life and actions of The- 
seus, and now lost. Juv. 1, v. 2. 

Theseus, king of Athens, and son of ^geus, 
by jEthra the daughter of Pittheus, was one of 
the most celebrated of the heroes of antiquity. 
He was educated at Troezene in the house of 
Pittheus, and as he was not publicly acknow- 
ledged to be the son of the king of Athens, he 
passed for the son of Neptune. When he came 
to years of maturity, he was sent by his mother 
to his father, and a sword was given to him, by 
which he might make himself known to -ffigeus 
in a private manner. Vid. yEgeus. His jour- 
ney to Athens was not across the sea, as it was 
usual with travellers, but Theseus determined 
to signalize himself in going by land and en- 
countering difliculties. The road which led 
from TroEzenc to Athens was infested with rob- 
bers and wild beasts, and rendered impassable ; 
but these obstacles were easily removed by the 
courageous son of iEgeus. At Athens, how- 
ever, his reception was not cordial; Medea lived 
there with iEgeus, and as she knew that her 
influence would fall to the ground if Theseus 
was received in his father's house, she attempt- 
ed to destroy him before his arrival was made 
public. JEgeus was himself to give the cup of 
poison to this unknown stranger at a feast, but 
the sight of his sword on the side of Theseus 
reminded him of his amours with JEthra. He 
knew him to be his son, and the people of Athens 
were glad to find that this illustrious stranger, 
who had cleared Attica from robbers and pirates, 
was the son of their monarch. The Pallanti- 
des, who expected to succeed their uncle ^geus 
on the throne, as he apparently had no children, 
attempted to assassinate Theseus, but they fell 
a prey to their own barbarity, and were all put 
to death by the young prince. The bull of 
Marathon next engaged the attention of The- 
seus. The labour seemed arduous, but he 
caught the animal alive, and after he had led it 



TH 



HISTORY, &c. 



TH 



through the streets of Athens, he sacrificed it 
to Minerva, or the god of Delphi. After this, 
Theseus went to Crete, among the seven chosen 
youths whom the Athenians yearly sent to be 
devoured by the Minotaur. The wish to de- 
liver his country from so dreadful a tribute en- 
gaged him to undertake this expedition. He was 
successful by means of Ariadne, the daughter 
of Minos ,who was enamoured of him, and after 
he had escaped from the labyrinth with a clew 
of thread, and killed the Minotaur, ( Vid Mino- 
taurus,) he sailed from Crete, with the six boys 
and seven maidens whom his victory had equal- 
ly redeemed from death. In the island of Naxos, 
where he was driven by the winds, he had the 
meanness to abandon Ariadne, to whom he was 
indebted for his safety. The rejoicings w^hich 
his return might have occasioned at Athens, 
were interrupted by the death of ^geus, who 
threw himself into the sea when he saw his 
son's ship return with black sails, which was 
the signal of ill success. Vid. JEgeus. His 
ascension on his father's throne was univer- 
sally applauded, B. C. 1235. The Athenians 
were governed with mildness, and Theseus 
made new regulations and enacted new laws. 
The number of the inhabitants of Athens was 
increased by the liberality of the monarch, reli- 
gious worship was attended with more than 
usual solemnity, a court was instituted which 
had the care of all civil affairs, and Theseus 
made the government democratical, while he 
reserved for himself only the command of the 
armies. The fame which he had gained by his 
victories and policy, made his alliance courted ; 
butPirifhous, king of the Lapithas, alone wish- 
ed to gain his friendship, by meeting him in the 
field of battle. He invaded the territories of 
Attica, and when Theseus had marched out to 
meet him, the two enemies, struck at the sight 
of each other, rushed between their two armies 
to embrace one another in the most cordial and 
affectionate manner, and from that time began 
the most sincere and admired friendship, which 
has become proverbial. Theseus was present 
at the nuptials of his friend, and was the most 
eager and courageous of the Lapithae in the de- 
fence of Hippodamia and her female aitendants 
against the brutal attempts of the Centaurs. 
When Pirithous hadlostHippodamia,he agreed 
with Theseus, whose wife Phaedra was also 
dead, to carry away some of the daughters of 
the gods. Their first attempt was upon Helen, 
the daughter of Leda, and after they had ob- 
tained this beautiful prize, they cast lots, and 
she became the property of Theseus. The 
Athenian monarch intrusted her to the care of 
his mother -^thra, at Aphidnoe, till she was of 
nubile years ; but the resentment of Castor and 
Pollux soon obliged him to restore her safe into 
their hands. Helen, before she reached Sparta, 
became mother of a daughter by Theseus ; but 
this tradition, confirmed by some ancient my- 
thologists, is confuted by others, who affirm, that 
she was bat nine years old when carried away 
by the two royal friends, and Ovid introduces 
her in one of his epistles, saying, Ezcepto redii 
passa timore nihil. Some time after, Theseus 
assisted his friend in procuring a wife, and 
they both descended into the infernal regions 
to carry away Proserpine. Pluto, apprised of 
their intentions, stopped them. Pirithous was 
Part IT.— 4 L 



placed on his father's wheel, and Theseus was 
tied to a huge stone, on which he had set to lesc 
himself. Virgil represents him in this eternal 
state of punishment, repeating to the shades in 
Tartarus the words of Disciie justitiam moniii, 
et own teinnere divos. Apollodorus, however, 
and others declare, that he was not long detain- 
ed in hell ; when Hercules came to steal the dog 
Cerberus, he tore him away from the stone, but 
. with such violence that his skin was left behind. 
The same assistance was given to Pirithous, 
and the two friends returned upon the earth by 
the favour of Hercules, and the consent of the 
infernal deities, not, however, without suffering 
the most excruciating torments. During the 
captivity of Theseus in the kingdom of Pluto, 
Mnestheus, one of the descendants of Erech- 
theus, ingratiated himself into the favour of the 
people of Athens, and obtained the crown in 
preference to the children of the absent mon- 
arch. At his return, Theseus attempted to eject 
the usurper, but to no purpose. The Athenians 
had forgotten his many services, and he retired 
with great mortification to the court of Lyco- 
medes, king of the island of Scyros, After 
paying him much attention, Lycomedes, either 
jealous of his fame, or bribed by the presents of 
Mnestheus, carried him to a high rock, on pre- 
tence of showing him the extent of his domin- 
ions, and threw him down a deep precipice. 
Some suppose that Theseus inadv^ertently fell 
down this precipice, and that he was crushed 
to death without receiving any violence from 
Lycomedes. The children of Theseus, after 
the death of Mnestheus, recovered the Athenian 
throne, and that the memory of their father 
might not be without the honoiirs due to a hero, 
they brought his remains from Scyros, and gave 
them a magnificent burial. They also raised 
him statues and a temple, and festivals and 
games were publicly instituted to commemorate 
the actions of a hero who had rendered such 
services to the people of Athens. These festi- 
vals were still celebrated, with original solem- 
nity, in the age of Pausanias and Plutarch, 
about 1200 years after the death of Theseus. 
The historians disagree from the poets in their 
accounts about this hero, and they all suppose, 
that, instead of attempting to carry away the 
wife of Pluto, the two friends wished to seduce 
a daughter of Aidoneus, king of the Molossi. — 
This daughter, as they say, bore the name of 
Proserpine, and the dog which kept the gates of 
the palace, was called Cerberus, and hence, per- 
haps, arises the fiction of the poets. Pirithous 
was torn to pieces by the dog, but Theseus was 
confined in prison, from whence he made his 
escape, some- time after, by the assistance of 
Hercules. Some authors place Theseus and 
his friend in the number of the Argonauts, but 
they were both detained, either in the infernal 
regions, or in the country of the Molossi, in the 
time of Jason's expedition to Colchis. PlvL in 
vitd.—Apollod. ^.—Hygin. fab. 14 and 79.— 
Paus. 1. c. 2, &c.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 433. lb. 
412. Fast. 3, v. 473 and 491. Heroid.—Diod. 
1 and \.—LALcan, 2, v. 612. Homer. Od. 21, 
V, '2.93.—Hesiod. in Scut. Herc.—jElian. V. H. 
4, c. b.—Stat. Theb. 5, v. A'^^.—Propert. 3.— 
Ladant. ad Theb. Stat.—Philost. Icon. 1.— 
Flacc. 2.—Apollon. l.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 617.-^ 
Semca. in Hivpol.—Stot. Achill. 1. 
G33 



TH 



HISTORY, &c. 



TH 



Thesmophora, a surname of Ceres, as law- 
giver, in whose honour festivals were instituted 
called Thesmophoria. The Thesmophoria were 
instituted by Triptolemus, or, according to some, 
by Orphus or the daughters of Danaus. The 
greatest part of the Grecian cities, especially 
Athens, observed them with great solemnity. 
The worshippers were freeborn women, whose 
husbands were obliged to defray the expenses 
of the festival. They were assisted by a priest, 
called iTC(pavri(popos, because he carried a crown 
on his head. There were also certain virgins 
who officiated, and were maintained at the 
public expense. The freeborn women were 
dressed in white robes to intimate their spotless 
innocence ; they were charged to observe the 
strictest chastity during three or five days be- 
fore the celebration, and during the four days of 
the solemnity; and on that account it was usual 
for them to strew their bed with agnus castus. 
They were also charged not to eat pomegran- 
ates, or to wear garlands on their heads, as 
the whole was to be observed with the greatest 
signs of seriousness and gravity, without any 
display of wantonness or levity. It was, how- 
ever, usual to jest at one another, as the goddess 
Ceres had been made to smile by a merry ex- 
pression when she was sad and melancholy for 
the recent loss of her daughter Proserpine. 
Three days were required for the preparation, 
and upon the lllh of the month called Pyanep- 
sion, the women went to Eleusis, carrying books 
on their heads, in which the laws which the 
goddess had invented were contained. On the 
14th of the same month the festival began, on 
the 16th day a fast was observed, and the wo- 
men sat on the ground in token of humiliation. 
It was usual during the festival to offer prayers 
to Ceres, Proserpine, Pluto, and Calligenia, 
whom some suppose to be the nurse or favourite 
maid of the goddess of corn, or perhaps one of 
her surnames. There were some sacrifices of 
a mysterious nature, and all persons whose 
offence was small were released from confine- 
ment. Such as were initiated at the festivals 
of Eleusis assisted at the Thesmophoria, The 
place of highpriest was hereditary in the fam- 
ily of Eumolpus. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 43L JP'ast. 
4, V. 619. — Apollod. 1, c. 4. — Virg. Mn. 4, v. 
58. — Sophod. in (Edip. Col. — Clem. Alex. 

Thesmothet^, a name given to the last six 
archons among the Athenians, because they 
took particular care to enforce the laws, and to 
see justice impartially administered. They 
were at that time nine in number. 

Thespis, a Greek poet of Attica, supposed by 
some to be the inventor of tragedy, 536 years 
before Christ. His representations were very 
rustic and imperfect. He went from town to 
town upon a cart, on which was erected a tem- 
porary stage, where two actors, whose faces 
were daubed with the lees of wine, entertained 
the audience with choral songs, <S:c. Solon was 
a great enemy to his dramatic representations. 
Horat. Art. P. ^l&.—Diog. 

Thespius. Fid. Part III. 

Theutis, or Teuthis, a prince of a town of 
the same name in Arcadia, who went to the 
Trojan war. He quarrelled with Agamemnon 
at Aulis, and when Minerva, under the form of 
Melas, son of Ops, attempted to pacify him, he 
struck the goddess and returned home. Some 
634 



say that the goddess afterwards appeared to him 
and showed him the wound which he had given 
her in the thigh, and that he died soon after. 
Paus. 8, c. 28. 

Thimbron, a Lacedaemonian general, chosen 
to conduct a war against Persia. He was re- 
called, and afterwards reappointed. He died 
B. C. 391. Diod. 17. 

Thoas. Vid. Part III. 

Thomyris, called also Tamyris, Tameris, 
Thamyris, and Tomeris, was queen of the Mas- 
sagetas. After her husband's death she marched 
against Cyrus, who wished to invade her terri- 
tories, cut his army to pieces, and killed him 
on the spot. The barbarous queen ordered the 
head of the fallen monarch to be cut off and 
thrown into a vessel full of human blood, with 
the insulting words of satia te sanguine quern 
sitisti. Her son had been conquered by Cyrus 
before she marched herself at the head of her 
armies. Herodot. 1, c. 205. — Justin. 1, c. 8. 
Tibull,ie]. 1, V. 143. 

Thoria Lex, agraria, by Sp. Thorius, the 
tribune. It ordained that no person should pay 
any rent for the land which he possessed. It 
also made some regulations about grazing and 
pastures. Cic. in Brut. 

Thraskas, or Thrasius, (Poetus,) a stoic 
philosopher of Patavium, in the age of Nero, 
famous for his independence and generous sen- 
timents ; he died A. D. 66. Juv. 5, v. 36.— 
Mart. 1. ep. 19.— Tacit. A. 15, c. 16. 

Thrasideus, succeeded his father Theron as 
tyrant of Agrigentum. He was conquered by 
Hiero, and soon after put to death, Diod. 11. 

Thraso, a favourite of Hieronymus, who 
espoused the interest of the Romans. He was 

put to death by the tyrant. The character of 

a captain in Terence. 

Thrasybulus, a famous general of Athens, 
who began the expulsion of the 30 tyrants of 
his country, though he was only assisted by 30 
of his friends. His efforts were attended with 
success, B. C. 401, and the only reward he re- 
ceived for this patriotic aciion, was a crown 
made with two twigs of an olive branch; a 
proof of his own disinterestedness and of the 
virtues of his countrymen. The Athenians 
employed a man whose abilities and humanity 
were so conspicuous, and Thrasybulus was 
sent with a powerful fleet to recover their lost 
power in the JEgean, and on the coast of Asia. 
After he had gained many advantages, this 
great man was killed in his camp by the inhab- 
itants of Aspendus, whom his soldiers had 
plundered without his knowledge, B. C. 391. 
Diod. 14. — C. Nep. in vita.— Cic. Phil. — Val. 
Max. 4, c. 1. 

Thrasyllus, I. a man of Attica, so disorder- 
ed in his mind that he believed all the ships 
which entered the Piraeus to be his own. He 
was cured by means of his brother, whom he 
liberally reproached for depriving him of that 
happy illusion of mind. JElian. V. H. 4, c. 

25. 11. A general of the Athenians in the 

age of Alcibiades, with whom he obtained a 

victory over the Persians. Thucyd. 8. III. 

A Greek Pythagorean philosopher and mathe- 
matician, who enjoyed the favour and the friend- 
ship of Augustus and Tiberius. Suet, in Tib. 

Thrasymachus, a native of Carthage, who 
became the pupil of Isocrates and of Plato. 



TH 



HISTORY, &c. 



TH 



Though he was a public teacher at Athens, he 
suffered for want of bread, and at last hanged 
himself Juv. 7, v. 204. 

Thrasymedes, I. a son of Nestor, king of 
Pylos, by Anaxibia, the daughter of Bias. He 
was one of the Grecian chiefs during the Tro- 
ian war. Hygin. fab. 27. — Paus. 2, c. 26 



II. A son of Philomelus, who carried away a 
daughter of Pisistratus, whom he married. 

Polycen. 5. 

Thucydides, I. a celebrated Greek historian, 
Dorn at Athens. His father's name was Oiorus, 
and among his ancestors he reckoned the great 
Miltiades. His youth was distinguished by an 
eager desire to excel in the vigorous exercises 
and gymnastic amusements, which called the 
attention of his contemporaries, and when he 
had reached the years of manhood, he appeared 
in the Athenian armies. During the Pelopon- 
nesian war he was commissioned by his coun- 
trymen to relieve Amphipolis ; but the quick 
march of Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian general, 
defeated his operations; and Thucydides, un- 
successful in his expedition, was banished from 
Athens. This happened in the eighth year of 
this celebrated war, and in the place of his 
banishment the general began to write an im- 
partial history of the important events which 
had happened during his administration, and 
which still continued to agitate the several states 
of Greece. This famous history is continued 
only to the 21st year of the war, and the re- 
maining part of the time till the demolition of 
the walls of Athens, was described by the pen 
of Theopompus and Xenophon. Thucydides 
wrote in the Attic dialect, as possessed of more 
vigour, purity, elegance, and energy. He spared 
neither time nor money to procure authentic 
materials; and the Athenians, as well as their 
enemies, furnished him with many valuable 
communications, which contributed to throw 
great light on the different transactions of the 
war. His history has been divided into eight 
books, the last of which is imperfect, and sup- 
posed to have been M'ritten by his daughter. 
The character of this interesting history is well 
known, and the noble emulation of the writer 
will ever be admired, who shed tears when he 
heard Herodotus repeat his history of the Per- 
sian wars at the public festivals of Greece, The 
historian of Halicarnassus has been compared 
with the son of Oiorus, but each has his pecu- 
liar excellence. Sweetness of style, grace, and 
elegance of expression, may be called the char- 
acteristics of the former ; while Thucydides 
stands unequalled for the fire of his descriptions, 
the conciseness, and, at the sometime, the strong 
and energetic matter of his narratives. His re- 
lations are authentic, as he himself was inter- 
ested in the events he mentions ; his impartiality 
is indubitable, as he nowhere betrays the least 
resentment against his countrj^men, and the 
factious partisans of Cleon, who had banished 
him from Athens. Many have blamed the his- 
torian for the injudicious distribution of his sub- 
ject, and while, for the sake of accuracy, the 
whole is divided into summers and winters, the 
thread of the history is interrupted, the scene 
continually shifted ; and the reader, unable to 
pursue events to the end, is transported from 
Persia to Peloponnesus, or from the walls of 
Syracuse to the coast of Corcyra. The ani- 



mated harangues of Thucydides have been uni- 
versally admired ; he found a model in Herodo- 
tus, but he greatly surpassed the original; and 
succeeding historians have adopted with suc- 
cess, a peculiar mode of writing which intro- 
duces a general addressing himself to the pas> 
sions and feelings of his armies. The history 
of Thucydides was so admired, that Demos- 
thenes, to perfect himself as an orator, tran- 
"scribed it eight different times, and read it 
with such attention, that he could almost repeat 
it by heart. Tliucydides died at Athens, where 
he had been recalled from his exile, in his 80th 
year, 391 years before Christ. The best edi- 
tions of Thucydides are those of Duker, fol. 
Amst. 1731 ; of Glasgow, 12mo. 8 vols. 1759 ; 
of Hudson, fol. Oxon. 1696 ; and the 8vo. of 
Bipont. 178S. Cic. de Oral. 6ic.—Diod. 12.— 
Dionys. Hal. de Tkuc.—^Elian. V. H. 12, c. 50. 

— Qidniil. II. A son of Milesias, in the age 

of Pericles. He was banished for his opposi- 
tion to the measures of Pericles, &c. 

Thyestes, a son of Pelops and Hippodamia, 
and grandson of Tantalus, offered violence to 
jErope, the wife of his brother Atreus, because 
he refused to take him as his colleague on the 
throne of Argos. This was no sooner known 
than Atreus divorced ^rope, and banished 
Thyestes from his kingdom ; but soon after, the 
more effectually to punish his infidelity, he ex- 
pressed a wish to be reconciled to him, and re- 
called him to Argos. Thyestes was received by 
his brother at an elegant entertainment, but he 
was soon informed that he had been feeding 
upon the flesh of one of his own children. This 
Atreus took care to communicate to him by 
showing him the remains of his son's body. 
This action appeared so barbarous, that, accord- 
ing to the ancient mylhologists, the sun changed 
his usual course not to be spectator of so bloody 
a scene. Thyestes escaped from his brother, 
and fled to Epirus. Some time after, he met 
his daughter Pelopeia in a grove sacred to Mi- 
nerva, and he offered her violence without 
knowing who she was. This incest, however, 
according to some, was intentionally committed 
by the father, as he had been told by an oracle 
that the injuries he had received from Atreus 
would be avenged by a son born from himself 
and Pelopeia. The daughter, pregnant by her 
father, was seen by her uncle Atreus and mar- 
ried., and some time after she brought into the 
world a son, whom she exposed in the woods. 
The life of the child was preserved by goats; 
he Avas called ^gysthus, and presented in his 
mother, and educated in the family of Atreus. 
When grown to years of maturity, the mother 
gave her son iEgysthus a sword, which she had 
taken from her unknown ravisher in the grove 
of Minerva, with hopes of discovering who he 
was. Meantime, Atreus, intent to punish his 
brother, sent Agamemnon and Menelaus to pur- 
sue him, and when at last they found him, he 
was dragged to Argos, and thrown into a close 
prison. >Egysthus was sent to murder Thve.^- 
tes, but the father recollected thp swoid which 
was raised to stab him, and a few questions con- 
vinced him that his assassin was his ovm son. 
Pelopeia was present at this discovery, and 
when she found that she had committed incest 
with her father, she asked JEgysthus to let her 
examine the sword, and immediate! v plunged 
635 



TI 



HISTORY, &c. 



TI 



It into her own breast. JEgysthus rushed from 
the prison to Atreus, with the bloody weapon, 
and murdered him near an altar, as he wished 
to offer thanks to the gods on the supposed death 
of Thyestes. At the death of Atreus, Thyestes 
was placed on his brother's throne by ^gysthus, 
from which he was soon after driven by 
Agamemnon and Menelaus. He retired from 
Argos, and was banished into the island of 
Cythera by Agamemnon, where he died. Apol- 
lod. 2, c. 4. Sofhocl. in Ajax. — Hygin. fab. 86, 
&c.— Ovid. in lb. Sb9.—LMcan. 1, v. 544, 1. 7, 
V. 451. — Senec. in Thijest. 

Thymqetes, I. a king of Athens, son of 
Oxinthas, the last of the descendants of Theseus 
who reigned at Athens, He was deposed be- 
cause he refused to accept a challenge sent by 
Xanthus, king of Boeotia, and was succeeded 
by a Messenian, B. C. 1128, who repaired the 
honour of Athens by fighting the BcEotian king. 

Pans. 2, c. 18. II. A Trojan prince, v/hose 

wife and son were put to death by order of 
Priam. It was to revenge the king's cruelty 
that he persuaded his countrymen to bring the 
Avooden horse within their city. He was son of 
Laomedon, according to some. Virg. jEri. 2, 
v. 32. — Dictys Cret. 4, c. 4. 

Tiberius, I. (Claudius Drusus Nero,) a Ro- 
man emperor after the death of Augustus, de- 
scended from the family of the Claudii. In his 
early years he commanded popularity by enter- 
taining the populace with magnificent shows 
and fights of gladiators, and he gained some 
applause in the funeral oration which he pro- 
nounced over his father, though only nine years 
old. His first appearance in the Roman armies 
was under Augustus, in the war against the 
Cantabri, and afterwards, in the capacity of 
general, he obtained victories in different parts 
of the empire, and was rewarded with a tri- 
umph. Yet, in the midst of his glory, Tiberius 
fell under the displeasure of Augustus, and re- 
tired to Rhodes, where he continued for seven 
years as an exile, till by the influence of his 
mother Livia with the emperor, he was recalled. 
His return to Rome was the most glorious ; he 
had the command of the Roman armies in 
Illyricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and seem- 
ed to divide the sovereign power with Augustus. 
At the death of the celebrated emperor, Tibe- 
rius, who had been adopted, assumed the reins 
of government; and while with dissimulation 
and affected modesty he wished to decline the 
dangerous office, he found time to try the 
fidelity of his friends, and to make the greatest 
part of the Romans believe that he was invested 
with the purple, not from his own choice, but 
by the recommendation of Augustus and the 
urgent entreaties of the Roman senate. The 
beginning of his reign seemed to promise tran- 
quillity to the world ; Tiberius was a watchful 
guardian of the public peace, he was the friend 
of justice, and never assumed the sounding 
titles which must disgust a free nation ; but he 
was satisfied to say of himself that he was the 
master of his slaves, the general of his soldiers, 
and the father of the citizens of Rome. That 
seeming moderation, however, which was but 
the fruit of the deepest policy, soon disappeared, 
and Tiberius was viewed in his real character. 
His ingratitude to his mother Livia, to whose 
intrigues he was indebted for the purple, his 
63G 



cruelty to his wife Julia, and his tyrannical 
oppression and murder of many noble senators, 
rendered him odious to the people, and sus- 
pected even by his most intimate favourites. 
The armies mutinied in Pannonia and Ger- 
many, but the tumults were silenced by the 
prudence of the generals and the fidelity of the 
officers, and the factious demagogues were 
abandoned to punishment. This acted as a 
check upon Tiberius in Rome ; he knew from 
thence, as his successors experienced, that his 
power was precarious, and his very existence 
in perpetual danger. He continued, as he had 
begun, to pay the greatest deference to the sen- 
ate ; all libels against him he disregarded, and 
observed, that in a free city the thoughts and 
the tongue of every man should be free. The 
taxes were gradually lessened, and luxury re- 
strained by the salutary regulations, as well as 
by the prevailing example and frugality of the 
emperor. While Rome exhibited a scene of 
peace and public tranquillity, the barbarians 
were severally defeated on the borders of the 
empire, and Tiberius gained new honours by 
the activity and valour of Germanicus and his 
other faithful lieutenants. Yet the triumphs of 
Germanicus were beheld with jealousy. Tibe- 
rius dreaded his power, he was envious of his 
popularity, and the death of that celebrated 
general in Antioch was, as some suppose, ac- 
celerated by poison and the secret resentment 
of the emperor. Not only his relations and 
friends, but the great and opulent were sacri- 
ficed to his ambition, cruelty, and avarice ; and 
there was scarce in Rome one single family 
that did not reproach Tiberius for the loss of a 
brother, a father, or a husband. He at last 
retired to the island of Capreas, on the coast of 
Campania, where he buried himself in unlaw- 
ful pleasures. The care of the empire was in- 
trusted to favourites, among whom Sejanas for 
a while shone with uncommon splendour. In 
his solitary retreat the emperor proposed re- 
wards to such a,> invented new pleasures, or 
could produce fresh luxuries. He forgot his 
age as well as his dignity, and disgraced him- 
self by the most unnatural vices and enor- 
mous indulgences which can draw a blush, 
even on the countenance of the most debauched 
and abandoned. While the emperor was lost 
to himself and the world, the provinces were 
harassed on every side by the barbarians, 
and Tiberius found himself insulted by those 
enemies whom hitherto he had seen fall pros- 
trate at his feet with every mark of submis- 
sive adulation. At last, grown weak and 
helpless through infirmities, he thought of his 
approaching dissolution ; and as he well knew 
that Rome could not exist without a head, 
he nominated as his successor Caius Cali- 
gula. Many might inquire why a youth na- 
turally so vicious and abandoned as Caius 
was chosen to be the master of an extensive 
empire ; but Tiberius wished his own cruelties 
to be forgotten in the barbarities which might 
be displayed in the reign of his successor, whose 
natural propensities he had well defined, in say- 
ing of Caligula, that he bred a serpent for the 
Roman people, and a Phaeton for the rest of the 
empire. Tiberius died at Misenum, the Ifith of 
March, A. D, 37, in the 78th year of his age, 
after a reign of 22 years, 6 months, and 26 days. 



TI 



HISTORY, &c. 



TI 



Caligula was accused of having hastened his 
end by suffocating him. The joy was universal 
when his death was known ; and the people of 
Rome, in the midst of sorrow, had a moment 
to rejoice, heedless of the calamities which 
awaited them in the succeeding reigns. The 
body of Tiberius was conveyed to Rome, and 
burnt with great solemnity. A funeral oration 
was pronounced by Caligula, who seemed to 
forget his benefactor while he expatiated on the 
praises of Augustus, Germanicus, and his own. 
The character of Tiberius has been examined 
with particular attention by historians, and his 
reign is the subject of the most perfect and ele- 
gant of all the compositions of Tacitus. When 
a private man, Tiberius was universally esteem- 
ed ; when he had no superior, he was proud, 
arrogant, jealous, and revengeful. If he found 
his military operations conducted by a warlike 
general, he affected moderation and virtue ; but 
when he got rid of the powerful influence of a 
favourite, he was tyrannical and dissolute. If, 
as some observed, he had lived in the times of 
the R.oman republic, he might have been as 
conspicuous as his great ancestors; but the 
sovereign power lodged in his hand rendered 
him vicious and oppressive. Yet, though he 
encouraged informers and favoured flattery, he 
blushed" at the mean servilities of the senate, 
and derided the adulation of his courtiers, who 
approached him, he said, as if they approached 
a savage elephant. He was a patron of learning, 
he was an eloquent and ready speaker, and 
dedicated some part of his time to study. He 
Avrote a lyric poem, entitled, A Complaint on 
the Death of Lucius Cassar, as also some Greek 
pieces, in imitation of some of his favourite 
authors. He avoided all improper expressions, 
and all foreign words he totally wished to 
banish from the Latin tongue. As instances of 
his humanity, it has been recorded that he was 
uncommonly liberal to the people of Asia Mi- 
nor, whose habitations had been destroyed by 
a violent earthquake, A. D. 17. One of hib- 
officers wished him to increase the taxes, Ao, 
said Tiberius, a good shepherd must shear, not 
flay his sheep. The senators wished to call the 
month of November, in which he was born, by 
his name, in imitation of J. Cassar and Augus- 
tus, in the months of July and August; but this 
he refused, saying, What will you do, conscript 
fathers, if you have thirteen Ccesars? Like the 
rest of the emperors, he received divine hon- 
ours after death, and even during his life. It 
has been wittily observed by Seneca, that he 
never was intoxicated but once all his life, for 
he continued in a perpetual state of intoxication 
from the time he gave himself to drinking till 
the last moment of his life. Sv^ton. invita, &c. 

— Tacit. Ann. 6, &c. — Dion. Cass. II. A 

friend of Julius Caesar, whom he accompanied 
in the war of Alexandria. Tiberius forgot 
the favours he had received from his friend ; 
and when he was assassinated, he wished all 
his murderers to be publicly rewarded. 

III. One of the Gracchi. Vid. Gracchus. 

IV. Sempronius, a son of Drusus and Li- 
via, the sister of Germanicus, put to death 

by Caligula. V. A son of Brutus, put to 

death by his father because he had conspired 
with other young noblemen to restore Tar- 
quin to his throne. — —VI. A Thracian, made 



emperor of Rome in the latter ages of the em- 
pire. 

TiBULLUs, Aulus Albius, is the earliest and 
most admired of the Roman elegiac poets. 
His birth may be conjectured to have occurred 
between the years 695 and 700. It has often 
been remarked, that few of the great Latin 
poets, orators, or historians, were born at Rome, 
and that, if the capital had always confined 
'the distinction of Romans to the ancient fami- 
lies within the walls, her name would have 
been deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. 
Tibullus, however, is one of the exceptions, as 
his birth, in whatever year it may have hap- 
pened, unquestionably took place in the capital, 
He was descended of an equestrian family, of 
considerable wealth and possessions, though 
little known or mentioned in the history of their 
country. His father had been engaged en the 
side of Pompey in the civil wars, and died soon 
after Caesar had finally triumphed over the 
liberties of Rome. It is said, but without any 
sufficient authority, that Tibullus himself was 
present at Philippi along with his friend Mes- 
sala, in the ranks of the republican army. He 
retired in early life to his paternal villa near 
Pedum, (now Zagarola,) a town in the ancient 
Latian territory, and only a few miles distant 
from Praeneste. In his youth he had tasted the 
sweets of affluence and fortune, but the ample 
patrimony which he inherited from "his ances- 
tors, was greatly diminished by the partitions of 
land made to the soldiers of the triumvirs. 
Dacier and other French critics have alleged, 
that he was ruined by his own dissipation and 
extravagance, which has been -denied by Vul- 
pius and Broukhusius, the learned editors and 
commentators of Tibullus, with the same eager- 
ness as if their own fame and fortune had de- 
pended on the question. The partition of the 
lands in Italy was probably the chief cause of 
his indigence ; but we think it not unlikely, that 
his own extravagance may have contributed to 
his early difficulties. He utters his complaints 
of the venality of his mistresses and favourites 
in terms which show that he had already suf- 
fered from their rapacity. Nevertheless, he 
expresses himself as if prepared to part with 
every thing to gratify their cupidity. It seems 
probable, that no part of the land, of which Ti- 
bullus had been deprived, was restored to him, 
as we find not in his elegies a single expression 
of gratitude or compliment, from which it might 
be conjectured that Augustus had atoned to him 
for the wrongs of Octavius. It is evident, how- 
ever, that he was not reduced to extreme want. 
Tibullus himself complains indeed of poverty, 
but the poverty of the Latin poets is pretty well 
defined byBroukhusius, "Fortunamediocris cui 
nihil deest," and nearly the same notion of it is 
communicated to us by Tibullus in his first ele- 
gy. It might even be inferred from a distich in 
a subsequent elegy, that his chief paternal seat 
had been preserved to him ; and Horace, in a 
complimentary epistle, written long after the 
partition of the lands, says, that the gods had 
bestowed on him wealth, and the art of enjoy- 
ing it. Ilis friendship for Messala, and per- 
haps some hope of improving his moderate and 
diminished fortune, induced him to attend that 
celebrated commander in various military ex 
peditions. It would appear that he had acconj 
637 



TI 



HISTORY, &c. 



TI 



panied him in not less than three. Messala, 
being intrusted by the emperor with an extra- 
ordinary command in the East, requested Ti- 
buUus to accompany him, and to this proposal 
our poet, though it would appear with some re- 
luctance, at length consented. He had not, 
however, been long at sea, when his health suf- 
fered so severely, that he was obliged to be put 
on shore at an island, which Tibullus names by 
its poetical appellation of Phseacia, but which 
was then commonly called Corcyra, (now Cor- 
fu.) He recovered from this dangerous sick- 
ness, and as soon as he was able to renew his 
voyage, he joined Messala, and travelled with 
him through Syria, Cilicia, and Egypt. Hav- 
ing returned to Italy, he again retired to his 
farm at Pedum, where, though he occasionally 
visited the capital, he chiefly resided during the 
remainder of his life. Tibullus was endued 
with elegant manners, and a handsome person, 
which often procured him the love, though they 
could not always secure the constancy, of the 
fair. With Delia, he seems to have been at 
one time successful, but she forsook him for a 
husband or a more favoured lover ; and his for- 
tune does not appear to have been sufficient to 
obtain for him the good graces of the rapacious 
Nemesis. While he thus bowed at the shrine 
of beauty, he at the same time drew closer his 
connexion with the most learned and polite of 
his countrymen, as Valgius, Macer, and Hor- 
ace. Tibullus' enjoyment of this sort of life 
was considerably impaired by the state of his 
health, which had continued to be delicate ever 
since the illness with which he was attacked at 
Corcyra. His existence was protracted till 734, 
and his death, which happened in that year, 
v/as deplored by Ovid in a long elegiac poem. 
The events and circumstances of the life of Ti- 
bullus have exercised a remarkable influence 
on his writings. Those occurrences to which 
he v/as exposed tended to give a peculiar turn 
to his thoughts, and a peculiar colouring to his 
language. He fell on the evil days of his coun- 
try. The Roman fair of the highest rank had 
become alike licentious and venal; and the 
property of those ancient possessors of the 
Italian soil, who had adhered to the republican 
party, was divided by unprincipled usurpers 
among their rapacious soldiery. Unhappy in 
love, and less prosperous in fortune, than in 
early youth he had reason to anticipate, all 
that he utters on these topics is stamped with 
such reality, that no reader can suspect for a 
moment, either that his complaints were bor- 
rowed from Greek sources, or were the mere 
creations of fancy. His inability to procure 
either the advantages of fortune or delights of 
contentment, is the source of constant struggle 
and disappointment. Hence the irritability, 
melancholy, and change ableness of his temper. 
Such circumstances in the life, and such fea- 
tures in the character, of Tibullus, will, we 
think, be found explanatory and illustrative of 
much which we find in his elegies. These 
elegies have been divided by German writers 
into Erotic, Rural, Devotional, and Panegyri- 
cal. The compositions evidently most adapted 
to the genius of Tibullus, are poems not merely 
written in ele?:iac verse, but which answer to 
our understanding of the word Elegy, in the 
subject and sentiments. The tone of complaint 
638 



best accords with his soul. Like the nightin- 
gale, his most mournful notes are his sweetest, 
and melancholy feelings are those which he 
expresses most frequently, as well as with most 
truth and beauty. His first composition was 
to celebrate the virtues of his friend Messala, 
but his more favourite study was writing love 
verses in praise of his mistresses Delia and 
Plautia, of Nemesis and Neaera ; and in these 
elegant eifusions he showed himself the most 
correct of the Roman poets. As he had es- 
poused the cause of Brutus, he lost his posses- 
sions when the soldiers of the triumvirate were 
rewarded with lands ; but he might have re- 
covered them if he had condescended, like Vir- 
gil, to make his court to Augustus. Four books 
of elegies are the only remaining pieces of his 
composition. They are uncommonly elegant 
and beautiful, and possessed with so much 
grace and purity of sentiment, that the writer is 
deservedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 
Tibullus was intimate with the literary men of 
his age, and he for some time had a poetical 
contest with Horace, in gaining the favours of 
an admired courtesan. Ovid has written a 
beautiful elegy on the death of his friend. The 
poems of Tibullus are generally published 
with those of Propertius and Catullus, of which 
the best editions are, that of Vulpius, Petavii, 
1737, 1749, 1755 ; that of Barbou, 12mo..Paris, 
1754; and that by Heyne, 8vo. Lips. 1776. 
Ovid. 3, Am. el. 9, T^rist. 2, v. AiL—Horat. 1, 
ep. 4, 1. 1, od. 33, v. 1. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. 

TicinA, a Roman poet a few years before the 
age of Cicero, who wrote epigrams, and praised 
his mistress Metella under the fictitious name 
of Perilla. Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 433. 

TiGELLiNus, a Roman celebrated for his in- 
trigues and perfidy in the court of Nero, He 
was appointed judge at the trial of the conspir- 
ators who had leagued against Nero, for which 
he was liberally rewarded with triumphal hon- 
ours. He afterwards betrayed the emperor, 
and was ordered to destroy himself, 68 A. D. 
Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 12.—Plut.—Juv. 1. 

TiGRANEs, I. a king of Armenia, who made 
himself master of Assyria and Cappadocia. 
He married Cleopatra, the daughter of Mith- 
ridates, and by the advice of his father-in-law, 
he declared war against the Romans. He de- 
spised these distant enemies, and even ordered 
the head of the messenger to be cut off who 
first told him that the Roman general was bold- 
ly advancing towards his capital. His pride, 
however, was soon abated, and though he or- 
dered the Roman consul LucuUus to be brought 
alive into his presence, he fled with precipitation 
from his capital, and was soon after defeated 
near mount Taurus. This totally disheartened 
him, he refused to receive Mithridates into his 
palace, and even set a price upon his head. His 
mean submission to Pompey, the successor of 
Lucullus in Asia, and a bribe of 60,000 talents, 
insured him on his throne, and he received a 
garrison in his capital, and continued at peace 
with the Romans. His second son of the same 
name revolted against him, and attempted to 
dethrone him with the assistance of the king of 
Parthia, whose daughter he had married. This 
did not succeed, and the son had recourse to the 
Romans, bv whom he was put in possession of 
Sophene, while the father remained quiet on 



Tl 



HISTORY, &c. 



Tl 



the throne of Armenia. The son was after- 
wards sent in chains to Rome for his insolence 
to Pompey. Cic. pro Man. — Val. Max. 5, c. 
5. — Paterc. 2, c. 33 and 37. — Justin. 40, c. 1 

and 2. — Plut. in Luc. Povip. &c. II. A king 

of Armenia in the reign of Tiberius. He was 

put to death. Tacit. 6, Ann. c. 40. III. One 

of the royal family of the Cappadocians, chosen 
by Tiberius to ascend the throne of Armenia. 

TiM^A, the wife of Agis, king of Sparta, 
was debauched by Alcibiades, by whom she had 
a son. This child was rejected in the succes- 
sion to the throne, though Agis on his death- 
bed, declared him to be legitimate. Plut. in Ag. 

TiM^us, I, a friend of Alexander, who came 
to his assistance when he was alone surrounded 
by the Oxydracee. He w^as killed in the en- 
counter. Curt. 9, c. 5. II. An historian of 

Sicily, who flourished about 262 B.C. and died 
in the 96th year of his age. His father's name 
was Andromachus. He w-as banished from 
Sicily by Agathocles. His general liislory of 
Sicily, and that of the wars of Pyrrhus, were 
in general esteem, and his authority was great, 
except when he treated of Agathocles. All his 
compositions are lost. Plut. in, Nic. — Cic. de 

Or at. — Diod. 5. — C. Nep. III. A writer who 

published some treatises concerning ancient 
philosophers. Diog. in Emp. IV. A Py- 
thagorean philosopher, born at Locris. He 
followed the doctrines of the founder of the 
metempsychosis, but in some parts of his sys- 
tem of the world he differed from him. He 
wrote a treatise on the nature and the soul of 
the world, in the Doric dialect, still extant. 
Plato in' Tim.— Plut. 

TiMAGORAS, an Athenian, capitally punished 
for paying homage to Darius, according to the 
Persian manner of kneeling on the ground, 
when he was sent to Persia as ambassador. 
Val. Max. 6, c. 3. — Suidas. 

TiMANTHEs, a painter of Sicy on, in the reign 
of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great. 
In his celebrated painting of Iphigenia going to 
be immolated, he represented all the attendants 
overwhelmed with grief; but his superior 
genius, by covering the face of Agamemnon, 
left to the conception of the imagination the deep 
sorrows of the father. He obtained a prize, for 
which the celebrated Parrhasius was a compet- 
itor. This was in painting an Ajax with all 
the fury which his disappointments could occa- 
sion when deprived of the arms of Achilles. 
Cic. de Orat. — Val. Max. 8, c. 11. — jElian. V. 
H. 9, c. 11. 

TiMARCHUs, I. a philosopher of Alexandria, 
intimate with Lamprocles, the disciple of So- 
crates. Diog. II. A rhetorician, who hung 

himself when accused of licentiousness by 

^schines. III. An officer in ^tolia, who 

burnt his ships to prevent the flight of his com- 
panions, and to insure himself the victor)'. 
Polyccn. 5. 

TiMASiTHEUs, a prince of Lipara, who obliged 
a number of pirates to spare some Romans, who 
were going to make an offering of the spoils of 
Veii to the god of Delphi. The Roman senate 
lewarded him very liberally, and 137 years 
after, when the Carthaginians were dispos- 
sessed of Lipari, the same generosity was nobly 
extended to his descendants in the island. 
Diod, 14. — Plut. in Cam. 



TiMESius, a native of Clazomense, who began 
to build Abdera. He was prevented by the 
Thracians, but honoured as a hero at Abdera. 
Hcrodot. 1, c. 168. 

TiMocLEA, a Theban lady, sister to Theage- 
nes, who was killed at Cheronsea. One of Alex- 
ander's soldiers offered her violence, after which 
she led her ravisherto a well, and while he be- 
lieved that immense treasures were concealed 
'there, Timoclea threw him into it. Alexander 
commended her virtue, and forbade his soldiers 
to hurt the Theban females. Plut. in Alex. 

TiMocLES, was one of the earlier poets of the 
new comedy. He weis the contemporary of 
Demosthenes, whom he attacks in a fragment 
of the "H,ow£f, for a disinclination to peace; 
and in another, the A/jAoj, he accuses him of 
receiving bribes from Harpalus, the unfaithful 
treasurer of Alexander. 

TiMocRATEs, I. a Greek philosopher of un- 
common austerity. II. A Syracusan, who 

married Arete when Dion had been banished 
into Greece, by Dionysius. He commanded 
the forces of the t)'rant. 

TiMocREON, a comic poet of Rhodes, who 
obtained poetical, as w'ell as gymnastic prizes 
at Olympia. He lived about 476 years before 
Christ, distinguished for his voracity, and also 
for his resentment against Simonides and The- 
mistocles. The following epitaph was written 
on his grave : — ■* 

Multa bibens, et multa varans, mala dinique 

dicens 
Multis, hicjaceo Timocreon Rhodius. 

TiMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian, son of 
Timodemus and Demariste. He was such an 
enemy to tyranny, that he did not hesitate to 
murder his own brother Timophanes when he 
attempted, against his representations, to make 
himself absolute in Corinth. This was viewed 
with pleasure by the friends of liberty; but the 
mother of Timoleon conceived the most invete- 
rate aversion for her son, and for ever banished 
him from her sight. This proved painful to 
Timoleon ; a settled melancholy dwelt upon his 
mind, and he refused to accept of any offices in 
the state. When the Syracusans, oppressed 
with the tyranny of Dionysius the younger, and 
of the Carthaginians, had solicited the assist- 
ance of the Corinthians, all looked upon Timo- 
leon as a proper deliverer ; but all applications 
would have been disregarded, if one of the 
magistrates had not awakened in him the sense 
of natural liberty. Timoleon, says he, if yon, 
accept of the command of this expedition, we rcill 
believe that you have killed a tyrant ; but if not, 
we cannot but call you your brother^s murderer. 
This had due effect, and Timoleon sailed for 
Syracuse with ten ships, accompanied by about 
1000 men. The Carthaginians attempted to 
oppose him, but Timoleon eluded their vigi- 
lance, loetas, who had the possession of the 
city, was defeated, and Dionysius, who despair- 
ed of success, gave himelf up into the hands of 
the Corinthian general. This success gained 
Timoleon adherents in Sicily, many cities, 
which hitherto had looked upon him as an im- 
postor, claimed his protection, and when he was 
at last master of Syracuse by the total over- 
throw of Icetas and of the Carthaginians, he 
razed the citadel which had been the seat of 
G39 



Tl 



HISTORY, &c. 



TI 



tyranny, and erected on the spot a common 
hall, Syracuse was almost destitute of inhab- 
itants, and at the solicitation of Timoleon, a 
Corinthian colony was sent to Sicily ; the lands 
were equally divided among the citizens, and 
the houses were sold for a thousand talents, 
which were appropriated to the use of the state, 
and deposited m the treasury. When Syracuse 
was thus delivered from tyranny, the conqueror 
extended his benevolence to the other states of 
Sicily, and all the petty tyrants were reduced 
and banished from the island. A code of sal- 
utary laws ,was framed for the Syracusans ; 
and the armies of Carthage, which had at- 
tempted again to raise commotions in Sicily, 
were defeated, and peace was at last re-estab- 
lished. The gratitude of the Sicilians was 
shown every where to their deliverer. Timo- 
leon was received with repeated applause in the 
public assemblies, and though a private man, 
unconnected with the government, he continued 
to enjoy his former influence at Syracuse : his 
advice was consulted on matters of importance, 
and his authority respected. He ridiculed the 
accusations of malevolence, and when some 
informers had charged him with oppression he 
rebuked the Syracusans who were going to put 
the accusers to immediate death. A remarkable 
instance of his providential escape from the 
dagger of an assassin has been recorded by one 
of his biographers. As he was going to offer 
a sacrifice to the gods after a victory, two as- 
sassins, sent by the enemies, approached his 
person in disguise. The arm of one of the 
assassins was already lifted up, when he was 
suddenly stabbed by an unknown person, who 
made his escape from the camp. The other 
assassin, struck at the fall of his companion,, 
fell before Timoleon, and confessed, in the 
presence of the army, the conspiracy that had 
been formed against his life. The unknown 
assassin was meantime pursued, and when he 
was found, he declared that he had committed 
no crime in avenging the death of a beloved 
father, whom the man he had stabbed had mur- 
dered in the town of Leontini. Inquiries were 
made, and his confessions were found to be 
true. Timoleon died at Syracuse, about 337 
years before the Christian era. His body re- 
ceived an honourable burial in a public place 
called from him Timoleonteum ; but the tears 
of a grateful nation were more convincing 
proofs of the public regret, than the institution 
of festivals, and games yearly to be observed 
on the day of his death. C. Nep. & Plut. in 
vita. — PolijcBn. 5, c. 3. — Diod. 16. 

TiMOMACHus, a painter of Byzantium in the 
age of Sylla and Marius. His paintings of 
Medea murdering her children, and his Ajax, 
were purchased for 80 talents by J. Caesar, and 
deposited in the temple of Venus at Rome. 
Plin. 35, c. n. 

TiMON, I. anal ive of Athens, called Misan- 
thrope, for his unconquerable aversion to man- 
kind and all society. He was fond of Apeman- 
tus, another Athenian, whose character was 
similar to his own, and he said that he had 
some partiality for Alcibiades, because he was 
one day to be his country's ruin. Once he went 
into the public assembly, and told his country- 
men, that he had a fig-tree on which many had 
ended their life with a halter, and that as he was 
640 



going to cut it down to raise a building on the 
spot, he advised all such as were inclined to 
destroy themselves, to hasten and go and hang 
themselves in his garden. Plut. in Ale. &c. — 

Lucian. in Tim. — Pans. 6, c. 13. II. A 

Greek poet, son of Timachus, in the age of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. He wrote several dra- 
matic pieces, all now lost, and died in the 90th 
year of his age. Diog. — Athen. 6 and 13. 

TiMOPHANES, a Corinthian, brother to Timo- 
leon. He attempted to make himself tyrant of 
his country by means of the mercenary soldiers 
with whom he had fought against the Argives 
and Cleomenes. Timoleon wished to convince 
him of the impropriety of his measures, and 
when he found him unmoved, he caused him 
to be assassinated. Plut. & C. Nep. in Tim. 

TiMOTHEUS, I. a poet and musician of Miletus, 
son of Thersander or Philopolis, He was re- 
ceived with hisses the first time he exhibited as 
musician in the assembly of the people, and 
further applications would have totally been 
abandoned, had not Euripides discovered his 
abilities, and encouraged him to follow a pro- 
fession in which he afterwards gained so much 
applause. He received the immense sum of 1000 
pieces of gold from the Ephesians, because he 
had composed a poem in honour of Diana. He 
died about the 90th year of his age, two years 
before the birth of Alexander the Great. There 
was also another musician of Boeotia in the age 
of Alexander, often confounded with the mu- 
sician of Miletus, He was a great favourite 
of the conqueror of Darius. Cic. de Leg. 2, c. 
15. — Pans. 3, c. 12.- — Plut. de music, de fort. 

&c. II. An Athenian general, son of Conon. 

He signalized himself by his valour and mag- 
nanimity, and showed that he was not inferior 
to his great father in military prudence. He 
seized Corcyra, and obtained several victo- 
ries over the Thebans, but his ill success in one 
of his expeditions disgusted the Athenians, and 
Timotheus, like the rest of his noble predeces- 
sors, was fined a large sum of money. He re- 
tired to Chalcis, where he died. He was so 
disinterested, that he never appropriated any of 
the plunder to his own use, but after one of his 
expeditions he filled the treasury of Athens 
with 1200 talents. Some of the ancients, to in- 
timate his continual successes, have represented 
him sleeping by the side of Fortune, while the 
goddess drove cities into his net. He was inti- 
mate with Plato, at whose table he learned tem- 
perance and moderation, Athen. 10, c. 3. — 
Pans. 1, c. 29.— Plut. in Syll. &c.—yElian. V. 

H. 2, c, 10 and 18, 1. 3, c, 16.— C. Nep. III. 

A Greek statuary. Pans. 1, c. 32. IV. A 

tyrant of Heraclea, who murdered his father. 
JDiod. 16, V. A king of the Sapsei. 

TiRiDATEs, I. a king of Parthia after the ex- 
pulsion ofPhraates by his subjects. He was 
soon after deposed, and fled to Augustus in 

Spain, Horat. 1, Od. 26. II. A man made 

king of Parthia by Tiberius, after the death of 
Phraates, m opposition to Artabanus. Tacit. 
Ann. 6, &c. III. A keeper of the royal trea- 
sures at Persepolis, who offered to surrender to 

Alexander the Great, Curt. 5, c, 5, &c. 

IV, A king of Armenia in the reign of Nero. 

Tiro, (Tullius,) afreedman of Cicero, great- 
ly esteemed by his master for his learning and 
good qualities. It is said that he invented short- 



TI 



HISTORY, &c. 



TI 



hand writing among the Romans. He wrote 
the life of Cicero, and other treatises now lost. 
Cic. ad Att. &c. 

TisAMENEs, or TisAMENUs, I. a son of Orestes 
and Hermione, thedaughter of Mene]aus,who 
succeeded on the throne of Argos and Lacedae- 
mon. The Heraclidse entered his kingdom in 
the third year of his reign, and obliged him to 
retire with his family into Achaia. He was 
some time after killed in a battle against the 
lonians, near Helice. Apollod. 2, c. 7. — Pans. 

3, c. 1, 1. 7, c. 1. II. A king of Thebes, son 

of Thersander and grandson of Polynices. The 
furies, who continually persecuted the house of 
CEdipus, permitted him to live in tranquillity, 
but they tormented his son and successor Aute- 
sion, and obliged him to retire to Doris. Paus. 
3, c. 5, 1. 9, c. 6. 

TisARCHUs, a friend of Agathocles, by whom 
he was murdered, &c. Polycen. 5. 

TisiAs, an ancient philosopher of Sicily, con- 
sidered by some as the inventor of rhetoric, &c. 
Cic. de inv. 2, c. 2. Orat. 1, c. 18. 

TissAPHERNES, a satrap of Persia, commander 
of the forces of Artaxerxes at the battle of Cu- 
naxa against Cyrus. It was by his valour and 
intrepidity that the king's forces gained the 
victory, and for this he obtained the daughter of 
Artaxerxes in marriage, and all the provinces 
of which Cyrus was governor. His popularity 
did not long continue, and the king ordered him 
to be put to death, when he had been conquered 
by Agesilaus, 395 B. C. C. Nep. 

TiTHENiDiA, a festival of Sparta in which 
nurses, nQnvat, conveyed male infants, intrusted 
to their charge, to the temple of Diana, where 
they sacrificed young pigs. 

TiTHRADSTEs, a Persian satrap, B. C. 395, 
ordered to murder Tissaphernes by Artaxerxes. 
He succeeded to the offices which the slaugh- 
tered favourite enjoyed. He was defeated by 

the Athenians under Cimon. The name 

was common to some of the superior officers of 
state in the court of Artaxerxes. Plut. — C. 
Nep. in Dot. i^ Conon. 

TiTiA Lex de magistratihus, by P. Titius, 
the tribune, A. U. C. 710. It ordained that a 
triumvirate of magistrates should be invested 
with consular power to preside over the repub- 
lic for five years. The persons chosen were 

Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. Another, 

deprovinciis, which required that the provincial 
quaestors, like the consuls and praetors, should 
receive their provinces by lot. 

TiTiANA Flavia, the wife of the emperor 
Pertinax, disgraced herself by her debaucheries 
and incontinence. After the murder of her 
husband she was reduced to poverty, and spent 
the rest of her life in an obscure retreat. 

TiTiANUs, (Attil.) a noble Roman, put to 
death A. D. 156, by the senate, for aspiring to 
the purple. He was the only one proscribed 
during the reign of Antoninus Pius. 

TiTH, priests of Apollo at Rome, who observ- 
ed the flight of doves, and drew omens from it. 
Varro de L. L. 4, c. 15. — Lmcan. 1, v. 602. 

TiTros Proculus, (Septimius,) a poet in the 
Augustan age, who distinguished himself by 
his lyric and tragic compositions, now lost. 
Horat. 1, ep. 3, v. 9. 

TiTORMUS, a shepherd of iElolia, called an- 
other Hercules on account of his prodigious 

Part IL— 4 M 



strength. He was stronger than his contempo- 
rary, Milo of Crotona, as he could lift on his 
shoulders a stone which the Crotonian moved 
but with difficulty. jElia7i,. V. H. 12, c. 22.— 
Herodot. 6, c. 127. 

Titus Vespasianus, son of "Vespasian and 
Flavia Domitilla, because known by his valour 
in the Roman armies, particularly at the siege 
of Jerusalem. In the 79th year of the Christian 
-era he was invested with the imperial purple, 
and the Roman people had every reason to ex- 
pect in him the barbarities of a Tiberius and 
the debaucheries of a Nero. While in the house 
of Vespasian, Titus had been distinguished for 
his extravagance and incontinence, his attend- 
ants were the most abandoned and dissolute, 
and it seemed that he wished to be superior to 
the rest of the world in the gratification of every 
impure desire, and in every unnatural vice. Yet 
he became a model of virtue, and abandoned his 
usual profligacy ; and Berenice, whom he had 
loved with uncommon ardour, even to render 
himself despised by the Roman people, was dis- 
missed from his presence. When raised to the 
throne he thought himself bound to be the fa- 
ther of his people, the guardian of virtue, and 
thepatron of liberty. All informers were banish- 
ed from his presence, and even severely punish- 
ed. A reform was made in the judicial proceed- 
ings, and trials were no longer permitted to be 
postponed for years. To do good to his subjects 
was the ambition of Titus, and it was at the re- 
collection that he had done no service, or grant- 
ed no favour one day, that he exclaimed in the 
memorable words of My friends, I have lost a 
day! Two of the senators conspired against 
his life, but the emperor disregarded their at- 
tempts, he made them his friends by kindness, 
and, like another Nerva, presented them with a 
sword to destroy him. During his reign Rome 
was three days on fire, the towns of Campania 
were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, and 
the empire was visited by a pestilence which 
carried away an infinite number of inhabitants. 
In this time of public calamity the emperor's 
benevolence and philanthropy were conspicu- 
ous. Titus comforted the afflicted as a father ; 
he alleviated their distresses by his liberal boun- 
ties ; and, as if they were but one family, he 
exerted himself for the good and preservation 
of the whole. The Romans, however, had not 
long to enjoy the favours of a magnificent prince. 
Titus was taken ill, and as he retired into the 
country of the Sabines to his father's house, his 
indisposition was increased by a burning fever. 
He lifted his eyes to heaven, and with modest 
submission, complained of the severity of fate, 
which removed him from the world when young, 
where he had been employed in making a grate- 
ful people happy. He died the 13th of Septem- 
ber, A. D. 81, in the 41st year of his age, after 
a reign of two years, two months, and twenty 
days. After him Domitian ascended the throne, 
not without incurring the suspicion of having 
hastened his brother's end by ordering him to 
be placed, during his agony, in a tub full of 
snow, where he expired. Domitian has also 
been accused of raising commotions, and of 
making attempts to dethrone his brother ; but 
Titus disregarded them, and forgave the of- 
fender. Some authors have reflected with 
severity upon the cruelties which Titus exer- 
641 



TR 



HISTORY, &C. 



TR 



sised against the Jews, but thougli certainly a 
disgrace to the benevolent features of his char- 
acter, we must consider him as an instrument 
in the hands of Providence, exerted for the 
punishment of a wicked and infatuated people. 
Joseph. B. J. 7, c. 16, &c — Suetonius. — Dio. 
&c. 

Titus Tatius, 1. a king of the Sabines. 
Vid. Tatius. II. Livius, a celebrated his- 
torian. Vid. Livius. III. A son of Junius 

Brutus, put to death by order of his father, for 
conspiring to restore the Tarquins. 

Tlepolemus, one of Alexander's generals, 
who obtained Carmania at the general division 
of the Macedonian empire. Diod. 18. 

ToLus, a man whose head was found in dig- 
ging for the foundation of the capitol, in the 
reign of Tarquin, whence the Romans con- 
cluded that their city should become the head 
or mistress of the world. 

ToNEA, a solemnity observed at Samos. It 
was usual to carry Juno's statue to the sea- 
shore, and to offer cakes before it, and after- 
wards to replace it again in the temple. This 
was in commemoration of the theft of the Tyr- 
rhenians, who attempted to carry away the 
statue of the goddess, but were detained in the 
harbour by an invisible force. 

Trabea. The plays of GLuintus Trabea, sup- 
posed to belong chiefly to the class called Toga- 
tcB, are frequently cited by the grammarians, 
and are mentioned with approbation by Cicero. 
The name of Trabea was made use of in a well- 
known deception practised on Joseph Scaliger 
by Muretus. Scaliger piqued himself on his 
faculty of distinguishing the characteristic 
styles of ancient writers. In order to entrap 
him, Muretus showed him some verses, pre- 
tending that he had received them from Ger- 
many, where they had been transcribed from an 
ancient MS. attributed to CI. Trabea. Scaliger 
was so completely deceived, that he afterwards 
cited these verses, as lines from the play of 
Harpace^ by Q,. Trabea, in the first edition of 
his Commentary on Varro's Dialogues De Re 
Rustica, in order to illustrate some obscure ex- 
pression of his author — " Cluis enim," says he, 
" tam aversus a Musis, tamque humanitatis ex- 
pers, qui horum publicatione offendatur." Mu- 
retus, not content with this malicious trick, 
afterwards sent him some other verses, to which 
he affixed the name of Atlius, expressing, but 
more diffusely, the same idea. Scaliger, in his 
next edition of Varro, published them, along 
with the former lines, as fragments from the 
CEnomaus, a tragedy by Attius, and a plagia- 
rism from Trabea — observing at the end of his 
note, " Fortasse de hoc nimis," Muretus said 
nothing for two years ; but, at the end of that 
period, he published a volume of his own Latin 
poems, and, along with them, under the title 
Afficta TrabecB, both sets of verses which he 
had thus palmed on Scaliger for undoubted 
remnants of antiquity. The whole history of 
the imposture was fully disclosed in a note: both 
poems, it was acknowledged, were versions of a 
fragment, attributed by some to Menander,and 
by others to Philemon, beginning — Ei ra 6aKpva 
hiiiv, K. T. X. They have been also translated 
into Latin by Naugerius. 

Trachalus, M. Galerius, a consul in the 
reign of Nero, celebrated for his eloquf nee as 
642 



an orator, and for a majestic and com'manding 
aspect. Quintil. — Tacit. 

Trajanus, I. (M. Ulpius Crinitus,) a Roman 
emperor, born at Iialica in Spain. Nerva 
adopted him as his son, invested him during his 
lifetime with the imperial purple, and gave him 
the name of Caesar and of Germanicus. A 
little time after Nerva died, and the election of 
Trajan to the vacant throne was confirmed by 
the unanimous rejoicings of the people, and the 
free concurrence of the armies on the confines 
of Germany and the banks of the Danube. 
All the actions of Trajan showed a good and 
benevolent prince, whose virtues truly merited 
the encomiums which the pen of an elegant and 
courteous panegyrist has paid. The barbarians 
continued quiet, and the hostilities which they 
generally displayed at the election of a new 
emperor, whose military abilities they distrust- 
ed, were not few. Trajan, however, could not 
behold with satisfaction and unconcern the in- 
solence of the Dacians, who claimed from the 
Roman people a tribute which the cowardice of 
Domitian had offered. The sudden appearance 
of the emperor on the frontiers awed the bar- 
barians to peace, but Decebalus, their warlike 
monarch, soon began hostilities by violating 
the treaty. The emperor entered the enemy's 
country by throwing a bridge across the rapid 
streams of the Danube, and a battle was fought, 
in which the slaughter was so great, that in the 
Roman camp linen was wanted to dress the 
wounds of the soldiers. Trajan obtained the 
victory, and Decebalus, despairing of success 
destroyed himself, and Dacia became a prov- 
ince of Rome. That the ardour of the Roman 
soldiers in defeating their enemies might not 
cool, an expedition was undertaken into the 
East, and Parthia threatened with immediate 
war. Trajan passed through the submissive 
kingdom of Armenia, and by his well-directed 
operations made himself master of the provinces 
of Assyria and Mesopotamia. The return of 
the emperor towards Rome was hastened by in- 
disposition, he stopped at Cilicia, and in the 
town of vSelinus, which afterwards was called 
Trajanopolis, and a few days afterwards ex- 
pired, in the beginning of August, A. D. 117, 
after a reign of 19 years, 6 months, and 15 days, 
in the 64th year of his age. He was succeeded 
on the throne by Adrian, whom the emperess 
Plotina introduced to the Roman armies as the 
adopted son of her husband, Trajan was fond 
of popularity, and he merited it. The sound- 
ing titles of Optimus, and the father of his 
country, were not unworthily bestowed upon a 
prince who was equal to the greatest generals 
of antiquity, and who, to indicate his affability, 
and his wish to listen to the just complaints of 
his subjects, distinguished his palace by the 
inscription of the public palace. Like other 
emperors, he did not receive with an air of un- 
concern the homage of his friends ; but rose 
from his seat and went cordially to salute them. 
He refused the statues which the flattery of fa- 
vourites wished to erect to him, and he ridiculed 
the follies of an enlightened nation, that could 
pay adoration to cold inanimate pieces of 
marble. His public entry into Rome gained 
him the hearts of the people ; he appeared on 
foot, and showed himself an enemy to parade 
and an ostentatious equipage. When in his 



TR 



HISTORY, &c. 



TR 



Camp, he exposed himself to the fatigues of 
war like the meanest soldier, and crossed the 
most barren deserts and extensive plains on 
foot, and in his dress and food displayed all the 
simplicity which once gained the approbation 
of the Romans in their countryman Fabricius, 
He had a select number of intimates, whom he 
visited with freedom and openness, and at 
whose tables he partook many a moderate re- 
past, without form or ceremony. His confi- 
dence, however, in the good intentions of others, 
was, perhaps, carried to excess. His favourite 
Sura had once been accused of attempts upon 
his life, but Trajan disregarded the informer, 
and as he was that same day invited to the 
house of the supposed conspirator, he went 
thither early. To try farther the sincerity of 
Sura, he ordered himself to be shaved by his 
barber, to have a medicinal application made 
to his eyes by the hand of his surgeon, and to 
bathe together with him. The public works of 
Trajan are also celebrated, he opened free and 
easy communications between the cities of his 
provinces, he planted many colonies, and fur- 
nished Rome with all the corn and provisions 
which could prevent a famine in the time of 
calamity. It was by his directions that the ar- 
chitect Apollodorus built that celebrated column 
which is still to be seen at Rome under the name 
of Trajan's column. The area on which it 
stands was made by the labours of men, and 
the height of the pillar proves that a large hill 
144 feet high was removed at a great expense, 
A. D. 114, to commemorate the victories of the 
reigning.prince. His persecutions of the Chris- 
tians were stopped by the interference of the 
humane Pliny; but he was unusually severe 
upon the Jews, who had barbarously murdered 
200.000 of his subjects, and even fed upon the 
flesh of the dead. His vices have been obscure- 
ly seen, through a reign of continued splendour 
and popularity, yet he is accused of inconti- 
nence and many unnatural indulgences. He 
was too much addicted to drinking, and his 
wish to be styled lord has been censured by 
those who admired the dissimulated moderation 
and the modest claims of an Augustus. Plin. 
Paneg. &c. — Dio. Cass. — Eutrop. — Ammian. 

— Spariian. — Joseph. Bell. J. — Victor. II. 

The father of the emperor, who likewise bore 
the name of Trajan, was honoured with the 
consulship and a triumph, and the rank of a 
patrician by the emperor Vespasian. 

Trebatius Testas, (C.) a man banished by 
Julius Caesar for following the interests of Pom- 
pey, and recalled by the eloquence of Cicero. 
He was afterwards reconciled to Csesar. Tre- 
batius was not less distinguished for his learn- 
ing than for his integrity, his military experi- 
ence and knowledge of law. He wrote nine 
books on religious ceremonies, and treatises on 
civil law ; and the verses that he composed 
proved him a poet of no inferior consequence. 
Horat.% Sat. 1, v. 4. 

Trebelltanus, C. Annius, a pirate who pro- 
claimed himself emperor of Rome A. D. 264. 
He was defeated and slain in Isauria by the 
lieutenants of Gallienus. 

Trebellienus Rufus, a praetor appointed 
governor of the children of King Cotys by Ti- 
berius. 

TREBELLros PoLLio, a Latin historian who 



wrote an account of the lives of the emperors. 
The beginning of this history islost; part of the 
reign of Valerian, and the life of the two Gal- 
lieni, with the 30 tyrants, are the only frag- 
ments remaining. He flourished A. D. 305. 

Trebonia Lex, de provinciis, by L. Trebo- 
nius the tribune, A. U. C. 698. It gave Casar 
the chief command in Gaul for five years longer 
than was enacted by the Vatinian law, and in 
'this manner prevented the senators from recal- 
ling or superseding him. Another, by the 

same, on the same year, conferred the command 
of the provinces of Syria and Spain on Cassius 

and Pompey for five years. Dio. Cass. 39. 

Another, by L. Trebonius the tribune, A. U. C. 
305, which confirmed the election of the tri- 
bunes, in the hands of the Roman people. Liv. 
3 and 5. 

Trebonius, Caius, one of Csesar's friends, 
made, through his interest, praetor and consul. 
He was afterwards one of his benefactor's mur- 
derers. He was killed by Dolabella at Smyrna. 
Cces. Bell. 5, c. ll.—Cic. in Phil. 11, c. 2.— 
Paterc. 56 and &d.—Liv. W^.— Dio. 4.1.— Ho- 
rat. 1, Sat.i, v. 114. 

Triarius, (C.) a friend of Pompey. He had 
for some time the care of the war in Asia 
against Milhridates, whom he defeated, and by 
whom he was afterwards beaten. He was 
killed in the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar. 
Cccsar. Bell. Civ. 3, c. 5. * 

Tribuni Plebis, magistrates at Rome, cre- 
ated in the year U. C. 261, when the people 
after a quarrel with the senators had retired to 
mons Sacer. The two first were C. Licinius 
and L. Albinus, but their number was soon, 
after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, 
which remained fixed; Their oflice was annual, 
and as the first had been created on the 4th of 
the ides of December, that day was ever after 
chosen for the election. Their power, though 
at first small, and granted by the patricians to 
appease the momentary seditions of the popu- 
lace, soon became formidable, and the senators 
repented too late of having consented to elect 
magistrates, who not only preserved the rights 
of the people, but could summon assemblies, 
propose laws, stop the consultations of the sen- 
ate, and even abolish their decrees by the word 
Veto. Their approbation was also necessary to 
confirm the senatus consulta, and this was done 
by affixing the letter T. under it. If any irreg- 
ularity happened in the state, their power was 
almost absolute ; they criticised the conduct of 
all the public magistrates, and even dragged a 
consul to prison if the measures he pursued 
were hostile to the peace of Rome. The dicta- 
tor alone was "their superior, but when that ma- 
gistrate was elected, the office of tribune was 
not, like that of all other inferior magistrates, 
abolished while he continued at the head of the 
state. The people paid them so much defer- 
ence, that their person was held sacred, and 
thence they were always called Sacrosancli. 
To strike them was a capital crime, and to in- 
terrupt them while they spoke in the assemblies, 
called for the immediate interference of power. 
The marks by which they were distinguished 
from other magistrates were not very conspi- 
cuous. They wore no particular dress, only a 
beadle, called viator, marched before them. 
They never sat in the senate, though, some time 
643 



TR 



HISTORY, &c. 



TR 



after, their office entitled them to the rank of 
senators. Yet great as their power might ap- 
pear, they received a heavy wound from their 
number, and as their consultations and reso- 
lutions were of no effect if they were not all 
"unanimous, the senate often took advantage of 
their avarice, and by gaining one of them by 
bribes, they, as it were, suspended the authority 
of the rest. The office of tribune of the people, 
though at first deemed mean and servile, was 
afterwards one of the first steps that led to more 
honourable employments, and as no patrician 
was permitted to canvass for the tribuneship, 
we find many that descended among the plebe- 
ians to exercise that important office. From the 
power with which they were at last invested by 
the activity, the intrigues, and continual appli- 
cations of those who were in office, they became 
almost absolute in the state ; and it has been 
properly observed, that they caused far greater 
troubles than those which they were at first 
created to silence. Sylla, when raised to the 
dictatorship, gave a fatal blow to the authority 
of the tribunes, and by one of his decrees they 
were no longer permitted to harangue and 
inflame the people ; they could make no laws ; 
no appeal lay to their tribunal, and such as 
had been tribunes, were not permitted to solicit 
for the other offices of the state. This disgrace, 
however, was but momentary ; at the death of 
the tyrant, the tribunes recovered their privi- 
leges by means of Cotta and Pompey the Great. 
The office of tribune remained in full force till 
the age of Augustus, who, to make himself 
more absolute, and his person sacred, conferred 
the power and office upon himself, whence he 
was called tribunitid potestate donatus. His suc- 
cessors on the throne imitated his example, and 
as the emperor was the real and official tribune, 
such as were appointed to the office were mere- 
ly nominal, without power or privilege. Under 
Constantine the tribuneship was totally abolish- 
ed. The tribunes were never permitted to sleep 
out of the city, except at the Feria Latin^E, 
when they went with other magistrates to offer 
sacrifices upon a mountain near Alba. Their 
houses were always open, and they received 
every complaint, and were ever ready to redress 
the wrongs of their constituents. Their au- 
thority was not extended beyond the walls of 

the city. There were also other officers who 

bore the name of tribunes, such as the tribuni 
militum or militares, who commanded a divi- 
sion of the legions. They were empowered to 
decide all quarrels that might arise in the army, 
they took care of the camp, and gave the watch- 
word. There were only three at first chosen by 
Romulus, but the number was at last increased 
to six in every legion. After the expulsion of 
the Tarquins, they were chosen by the consuls, 
but afterwards the right of electing them was 
divided between the people and the consul. 
They were generally of senatorian and eques- 
trian families, and the former were called 
laticlavii, and the latter angusticlavii, from 
their peculiar dress. Those that were chosen 
by the consuls were called Rutuli, because the 
right of the consuls to elect them was confirmed 
by Rutulus; and those elected by the people 
were called Comitiati, because chosen in the 
Comitia. They wore a golden ring, and were 
in office no longer than six months. When the 
644 



consuls were elected, it was usual to choose 14 
tribunes from the knights, who had served five 
years in the array, and who were called juniores, 
and ten from the people who had been in ten 

campaigns, who were called seniores. There 

were also some officers called tribuni militum 
consulari potestate elected instead of consuls, A. 
U. C. 310. They were only three originally, but 
the number was afterwards increased to six, 
or more, according to the will and pleasure 
of the people and the emergencies of the 
state. Part of them were plebeians, and the 
rest of patrician families. When they had sub- 
sisted for about 70 years, not without some in-, 
terruption, the office was totally abolished, as the 
plebeians were admitted to share the consulship, 
and the consuls continued at the head of the 

state till the end of the commonwealth. 

The tribuni cohortium prcetorianarum were in- 
trusted with the person of the emperor, which 

they guarded and protected. The tribiini 

cerarii were officers chosen from among the 
people, who kept the money which was to be 
applied to defray the expenses of the army. 
The richest persons were always chosen, as 
much money was requisite for the pay of the 
soldiers. They were greatly distinguished in 
the state, and they shared with the senators and 
Roman knights the privileges of judging. They 
were abolished by Julius Caesar, but Augustus 
re-established them, and created 200 more, to 

decide causes of smaller importance. The 

tribuni celerum had the command of the guard 
which Romulus chose for the safety of his per- 
son. They were 100 in number, distinguished 
for their probity, their opulence, and their no- 
bility. The tribuni voluptatum were com- 
missioned to take care of the amusements which 
were prepared for the people, and that nothing 
might be wanting in the exhibitions. This 
office was also honourable. 

Triclaria, a yearly festival celebrated by the 
inhabitants of three cities in Ionia, to appease 
the anger of Diana TrtcZana, whose temple had 
been defiled by Menalippus and Cometho. It 
was usual to sacrifice a boy and a girl, but this 
barbarous custom was abolished by Eurypilus. 
The three cities were Aroe, Messatis, and 
Anthea. whose united labours had erected the 
temple of the goddess. Paus. 7, 19. 

Triumviri reipublica constituendce, were three 
magistrates, appointed equally to govern the 
Roman state with absolute power. These 
officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
pendence of the Roman people, and became 
celebrated for their different pursuits, their am- 
bition, and their various fortunes. The first 
triumvirate, B. C. 60, was in the hands of Julius 
Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who, at the ex- 
piration of their office, kindled a civil war. 
The second and last triumvirate, B. C. 43, was 
under Augustus, M. Antony, and Lepidus, and 
through them the Romans totally lost their 
liberty. The triumvirate was in full force at 
Rome for the space of about 12 years. — There 
were also officers who were called triumvirii 
capitales, created A. U. C. 464. They took 
cognizance of murders and robberies, and every 
thing in which slaves were concerned. Crimi- 
nals under sentence of death were intrusted to 
their care, and they had them executed accord- 
ing to the commands of the praetors. The 



TR 



HISTORY, &c. 



TR 



triumviri noclurni watched over the safety of 
Rome in the night time, and in case of fire were 
ever ready lo give orders, and to take the most 

efifeciual measures to extinguish it. The 

triumviri agrarii had the care of colonies that 
were sent to settle in different parts of the em- 
pire. They made a fair division of the lands 
among the citizens, and exercised over the new 
colony all the power which was placed in the 
hands of the consuls at Rome. The trium- 
viri monetales were masters of the mint, and 
had the care of the coin, hence their office was 
generally intimated by the following letters of- 
ten seen on ancient coins and medals : IIIVIR. 
A. A. A. F. F. i. e. triumviri auro, argento, 
cBre Jiando^ feriendo. Some suppose that they 
were created only in the age of Cicero, as those 
who were employed before them were called 
Denariorum fiandorum curatorcs. The tri- 
umviri senatus legendi were appointed to name 
those that were most worthy to be made sena- 
tors from among the plebeians. They were first 
chosen in the age of Augustus, as before this 
privilege belonged to the kings, and afterwards 
devolved upon the consuls, and the censors, A. 

U. C. 310. The triumviri mensarii were 

chosen in the second Punic war, to take care 
of the coin and prices of exchange. 

Trogus Pompeius, was bom in the country 
of the Vocontii in Gaul, now Dauphiny. He 
derived his second name from the great Pom- 
pey, who had bestowed on his grandfather the 
rights of Roman citizenship, in the time of the 
war with Sertorius, His father, however, de- 
serted the fortunes of the patron of his family, 
and became a secretary of Julius Caesar. His 
work consisted of forty-four books, and was 
entitled Historice Philippicce, et Totius Mundi 
Origines, et Terra. Situs. It was called His- 
toria Philippica, because the greater part re- 
lated to the history of the Macedonian empire, 
founded by Philip, father of Alexander. But, 
though this was the principal subject, the author 
contrived, in the form of episodes or introduc- 
tions, to connect with it the history of most 
other nations, from the first king of Assyria to 
his own time. The book itself has perished, 
but we possess an abridgment of it by Justin, 
who lived in the time of the Antonines, and 
whose epitome was probably the cause of the 
original work having been neglected and lost. 
The abbreviator has selected the facts which 
he conceived would prove most interesting, and 
had passed over those which he thought could 
affi^rd neither entertainment nor instruction in 
the way of example. He has unfortunately 
omitted a great deal of topographical informa- 
tion, which probably appeared to him little 
amusing or useful, but which would have been 
of much interest in modem times, on account 
of our present imperfect knowledge of ancient 
geography. Several dissertations have lately 
been written conceming the sources whence 
Trogus Pompeius derived the facts of this uni- 
versal history. Its first six books, which are 
introductory, and relate to the Assyrians, Per- 
sians, and ancient Greeks, previous to the time 
of Philip, were in a great measure compiled 
from Herodotus, and Ctesiasthe Cnidian. The 
four following books, which contained the life 
of Philip, were translated from Theopompus of 
Chios, who wrote a complete history of that 



monarch. The account of the reign of Alexan- 
der has been so much mutilated in the epitome 
of Justin, that the critics find it almost impossi- 
ble to discover what authorities have been prin- 
cipally followed. For the wars of Alexander's 
successors, Trogus chiefly consulted Jerome of 
Cardia, and Phylarchus. The six books, from 
the 30th to the 36th, which comprehended the 
campaigns of the Romans in Greece, against 
the Achaians and Macedonians, and in Syria 
against Antiochus, have been extracted from 
Polybius. From a comparison of the epitome 
of Justin with some fragments of Posidonius of 
Rhodes, preserved by Athenaeus, it appears that 
he had been the chief guide of Trogus, for the 
histories of Mithridates, the Ptolemies of Egypt, 
the Parthians and Jews, which were related in 
the six following books. The digression con- 
cerning the Jews is full of mistakes and con- 
fusion. Every one is aware of the erroneous 
notions entertained with regard to this race in 
the days of Augustus, and even in the age of 
Tacitus ; and Justin, at whatever period he may 
have lived, has been at no pains to correct the 
errors of the work which he abridges. That 
part of the last two books which relates the an- 
cient history of Rome, has been copied from 
Diodes the Peparethian, who was also the 
tainted authority to which Fabius Pictor un- 
fortunately trusted, and from which have flow- 
ed all the fables conceming Mars, 'the Vestal 
Virgin, the Wolf, and Romulus and Remus. 

Trojani Ludi, games instituted by .^neas, 
or his son Ascanius, to commemorate the death 
of Anchises, and celebrated in the circus of 
Rome. Boys of the best families, dressed in a 
neat manner, and accoutred with suitable arms 
and weapons, were permitted to enter the list. 
Sylla exhibited them in his dictatorship, and 
under Augustus they were observed with un- 
usual pomp and solemnity. A mock fight on 
horseback, or sometimes on foot, was exhibited. 
The leader of the party was called princeps jji- 
ventutis, and was generally the son of a senator, 
or the heir apparent to the empire. Virg. JEn. 
5, V. 602. — Sueton. in Cces. and in Aug. — Plut. 
in Syll. 

Troilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba, killed 
by Achilles during the Trojan war. Apollod. 
3, c. \'2.—Horat. 2, ed. 9, v. \Q.— Virg. Mn. 1, 
V. 474. 

Trophonius, a celebrated architect, son of 
Erginus, king of Orchomenos in Boeotia. He 
built Apollo's temple at Delphi, with the assist- 
ance of his brother Agamedes, and when he 
demanded of the god a reward for his trouble, 
he was told by the priestess to wait eight days, 
and to live during that time with all cheerful- 
ness and pleasure. When the days were pass- 
ed, Trophonius and his brother were found 
dead in their bed. According to Pausanias, 
however, he was swallowed up alive in the 
earth; and when afterwards the country was 
visited by a great drought, the Boeotians were 
directed to apply to Trophonius for relief, and 
to seek him at Lebadea, where he gave oracles 
in a cave. They discovered this cave by 
means of a swarm of bees, and Trophonius told 
them how to ease their misfortunes. The cave 
of Trophonius became one of the most celebra- 
ted oracles of Greece. Many ceremonies were 
required, and the suppliant was obliged to make 
645 



1'U 



HISTORY, &c. 



TU 



particular sacrifices, to anoint his body with 
oil, and to bathe in the waters of certain rivers. 
He was to be clothed in a linen robe, and with 
a cake of honey in his hand, he was directed to 
descend into the cave by a narrow entrance, 
from whence he returned backwards, after he 
had received an answer. He was always pale 
and dejected at his return, and thence it became 
proverbial to say of a melancholy man, that he 
had consulted the oracle of Trophonius. There 
were annually exhibited games in honour of 
Trophonius at Lebadea. Paus. 9, c. 37, &c. — 
Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 41.—PluL—Plin. 34, c. 7.— 
JElian. V. H. 3, c. 45. 

Tros, a son of Ericthonius, king of Troy, 
who married Calirrhoe, the daughter of the 
Schamander, by whom he had Ilus, Assaracus, 
and Ganymedes. He made war against Tan- 
talus, king of Phrygia, whom he accused of 
having stolen away the youngest of his sons. 
The capital of Phrygia was called Troja from 
him, and the country itself Troas. Virg. 3, G. 
V. ZQ.— Homer. 11. 20, v. ^\d.—Apollod. 3, c. 12. 

TRYPmoDoRUs, a Greek poet and gramma- 
rian of Egypt, in the 6th century, who wrote a 
poem in 24 books on the destruction of Troy, 
from which he excluded the a in the -first book, 
the /? in the second, and the y in the third, &c. 

TuBERO, Q.. ^Lius, a Roman consul, son-in- 
law to Paulusthe conqueror of Perseus. He is 
celebrated for his poverty, in which he seemed 
to glory, as well as the rest of his family. Six- 
teen of the Tuberos, with their wives and chil- 
dren, lived in a small house, and maintained 
themselves with the produce of a little field, 
which they cultivated with their own hands. 
The first piece of silver plate that entered the 
house of Tubero, was a small cup, which his 
father-in-law presented to him after he had con- 
quered the king of Macedonia. 

TuccA, Plautius, a friend of Horace and 
Virgil. He was, with Varus and Plotius, order- 
ed by Augustus, as some report, to revise the 
^neid of Virgil, which remained uncorrected 
on account of the premature death of the poet, 
Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v, 40. Sat. 19, v. 84. 

TuLLiA, I. a daughter of Servius Tullius, king 
of Rome. She married Tarquin the Proud, 
after she had murdered her first husband Aruns, 
and consented to see Tullius assassinated that 
Tarquin might be raised to the throne. It is 
said that she ordered her chariot to be driven 
over the body of her aged father, which had 
been thrown, all mangled and bloody, in one of 
the streets of Rome. She was afterwards ban- 
ished from Rome with her husband. Ovid, in 

Ih. 363. II. Another daughter of Servius 

Tullius, who married Tarquin the Proud. She 
was murdered by her own husband, that he 
might marry her ambitious sister of the same 
name. 

TuLLiA Lex, desenatu, byM. Tullius Cicero, 
A. U. C. 689, enacted that those who had a li- 
hero. legatio granted them by the senate should 
hold it no more than one year. Such senators 
as had a libera legatio travelled through the 
provinces of the empire without any expense, 
as if they were employed in the affairs of the 

state. Another, de ainbitu, by the same, the 

same year. It forbade any person, two years 

before he canvassed for an office, to exhibit a 

show of gladiators, unless that case had de- 

64G 



volved upon him by will. Senators guilty of 
the crime of amMius, were punished with the 
aqua et ignis interdictio for ten years, and the 
penalty inflicted on the commons was more se- 
vere than that of the Calpurnian law. 

TuLLioLA, or TuLLiA, a daughter of Cicero 
by Terentia. She married Caius Piso, and af- 
terwards Furius Crassipes, and lastly P. Corn. 
Dolabella. With this last husband she had 
every reason to be dissatisfied. Dolabella was 
turbulent, and consequently the cause of much 
grief, to Tullia and her father. Tullia died in 
childbed, about 44 years before Christ. Cicero 
was so inconsolable on this occasion, that some 
have accused him of an unnatural partiality for 
his daughter. According to a ridiculous story 
which some of the moderns report, in the age 
of Pope Paul 3d, a monument was discovered 
on the Appian road, with the superscription of 
TulliolcB jilice mece. The body of a woman was 
found in it, which was reduced to ashes as soon 
as touched; there was also a lamp burning, 
which was extinguished as soon as the air 
gained admission there, and which was sup- 
posed to have been" lighted above 1500 years. 
Cic. — Pint, in Cic. 

TuLLUs, I. (Hostilius.) the third king of Rome 
after the death of Numa. He was of a war- 
like and active disposition, and signalized him- 
self by his expedition against the people of Alba, 
whom he conquered, and whose city he de- 
stroyed after the famous battle of the Horatii 
and Curiatii. He afterwards carried his arms 
against the Latins and the neighbouring states 
with success, and enforced reverence for ma- 
jesty among his subjects. He died with all his 
faniily about 640 years before the Christian era, 
after a reign of 32 years. The manner of his 
death is not precisely known. According to ihe 
most probable accounts he was murdered by 
Ancus Martins. Flor. 1, c. 3. — Dionys. Hal. 3, 
c. \.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. SU.—Liv. 1, c. 22.— 

Plut. II. Lucius Volcatius, stood in the same 

relation to Propertius, of a patron and friend, as 
Messala to Tibullusand Ovid. He was nephew 
of that Lucius Volcatius Tullus who was con- 
sul in the year 687, and who is mentioned by- 
Cicero, in his orations against Catiline, and his 
letters to Atticus. At the commencement of 
the civil wars, the elder Tullus espoused the 
cause of Julius Ceesar. His nephew, who was 
then a youth, followed the same party; and 
having steadfastly adhered to the fortunes of the 
adopted son, he became consul along with Au- 
gustus in 720, the year preceding the consulship 
of Messala and the battle of Actium. After 
that victory, he was employed in various for- 
eign expeditions, and spent much of his time 
in Greece and Asia Minor. He possessed, 
however, a delightful villa in Italy, surrounded 
with woods, and situated on the banks of the 
Tiberf betwixt Rome and Ostia, at which he 
occasionally resided, in great splendour and 
luxury. If we may believe a flattering poet, 
he had never yielded, even in youth, to the 
fascinations of love, but had devoted his whole 
existence to the service of his country. Tullus 
lived to an advanced age, having survived Mae- 
cenas, whom he had long rivalled as a patron 
of literature, and, after his death, almost sup- 
plied his place. He is now chiefly known as 
the friend of Propertius, who has addressed to 



VA 



HISTORY, &c 



VA 



him many of his elegies, expressing devoted 
attachment, and confiding to him the story of 
his unfortunate loves. 

TuRNus, a king of the Rutuli, son of Daunus 
and Venilia. He made war against iEneas, and 
attempted to drive him away from Italy, that 
he might not marry the daughter of Latinus, 
who had been previously engaged to him. His 
eflforts were attended with no success, though 
supported with great courage and a numerous 
army. He was conquered, and at last killed in 
a single combat by uEneas. He is represented 
as a man of uncommon strength. Virg. Mn. 
7, V. 56, &LC.— Tibull. 2. el. 5, v. 49.— Ovid. 
Fast.. A, V. 879. Met. 14, v. 451. 

TuRULLius, one of Caesar's murderers. 

TuTiA, a vestal virgin, accused of inconti- 
nence. She proved herself to be innocent by 
carrying water from the Tiber to the temple of 
Vesta in a sieve, after a solemn invocation to 
the goddess, Lw. 20. 

T-y CUIUS, a celebrated artist of Hyle in Boeo- 
lia, who made Hector's shield, which was cov- 
ered with the hides of seven oxen. Ovid. Fast. 
3, V. 823.— >S'^ra^'. 9.— Homer. 11. 7, v. 220. 

Tydeus. Vid. Part III. 

Tyrannion, I. a grammarian of Pontus, in- 
timate with Cicero. His original name was 
Theopbrastus, and he received that of Tyran- 
nion from his austerity to his pupils. He was 
taken by Lucullus, and restored to his liberty 
by Mursena. He opened a school in the house 
of his friend Cicero, and enjoyed his friendship. 
He was extremely fond of books, and collected 
a iibrary.of about 30,000 volumes. To his care 
and industry the world is indebted for the pre- 
servation of Aristotle's works. II. There 

was also one of his disciples called Diodes, who 
bore his name. He was a native of Phoenicia, 
and was made prisoner in the war of Augustus 
and Antony. He was bought by Dymes, one 
of the emperor's favourites, and afterwards by 
Terentia, who gave him his liberty. He wrote 
68 different volumes, in one of which he proved 
that the Latin tongue was derived from the 
Greek, and another in which Homer's poems 
were corrected, &c. 

Tyrt^us, a Greek elegiac poet, born in At- 
tica, son of Archimbrotus. In the second Mes- 
senian war the Lacedaemonians were directed 
by the oracle to apply to the Athenians for a 
general, if they wished to finish their expedition 
with success, and they were contemptuously 
presented with Tyrtseus. The poet animated 
the Lacedaemonians with martial songs, just as 
they wished to raise the siege of Ithome, and 
inspired them with so much courage that they 
defeated the Messenians. For his services he 
was made a citizen of Lacedaemon, and treated 
with great attention. Of the compositions of 
Tyrtaeus nothing is extant but the fragments of 
four or five elegies. He flourished about 684 
B. C. Justin. 2, c. 5. — Strab. 8. — Aristot. Polit. 
5, c. l.—Horat. de Art. p. i(y2.—jElian. V. H. 
12, c. 50. — PaiJ^. 4, c. 6, &c. 

V. 

Vacatione {lex de), was enacted concerning 
the exemption from military service, and con- 
tained this very remarkable clause, nisi bellum 
Gallicum ezoriat^Lr, in which case the priests 



themselves were not exempted from service. 
This can intimate how apprehensive the Ro- 
mans were of the Gauls, by whom their city had 
once been taken. 

Valens, I, (Flavins,) a son of Gratian, born 
in Pannonia. His brother Valentinian took him 
as his colleague on the throne, and appointed 
him over the eastern parts of the Roman em- 
pire. The bold measures, and the threats of the 
rebel Procopius, frightened the new emperor ; 
and, if his friends had not intervened, he would 
have willingly resigned all his pretensions to the 
empire, which his brother had intrusted to his 
care. By permitting some of the Goths to settle 
in the provinces of Thrace, and to have free 
access to every part of the country, Valens en- 
couraged them to make depredations on his 
subjects, and to disturb their tranquillity. His 
eyes were opened too late ; he attempted to re- 
pel them, but he failed in the attempt. A bloody 
battle was fought, in which the barbarians ob- 
tained some advantage, and Valens was hurried 
away by the obscurity of the night, and the' 
affection of his soldiers for his person, into a 
lonely house which the Goths set on fire. Va- 
lens, unable to make his escape, was burnt alive, 
in the 50th year of his age, after a reign of 15 
years, A. D. 378. He put to death all such of 
his subjects whose name began by Theod, be- 
cause he had been informed, by hi^s favourite 
astrologers, that his crown would devolve upon 
the head of an officer whose name began with 
these letters. Valens did not possess any of the 
qualities which distinguish a great and power- 
ful monarch. He was illiterate, and of a dis- 
position naturally indolent and' inactive. Yet, 
though fond of ease, he was acquainted with 
the character of his officers, and preferred none 
but such as possessed merit. He was a great 
friend of discipline, a pattern of chastity and 
temperance, and he showed himself always 
ready to listen to the just complaints of his sub- 
jects, though he gave an attentive ear to flattery 
and malevolent informations. Ammian. &c. 
II. Valerius, a pro-consul of Achaia, who 



proclaimed himself emperor of Rome, when 
Marcian, who had been invested with the pur- 
ple in the East, attempted to assassinate him. 
He reigned only six months, and was murdered 

by his soldiers, A. D. 261. III. Fabius, a 

friend of Vitellius, whom he saluted emperor 
in opposition to Otho. He was greatly honour- 
ed by Vitellius, &c. 

Valentinianus I. a son of Gratian, raised 
to the imperial throne by his merit and valour. 
He kept the western part of the empire for him- 
self, and appointed over the East his brother Va- 
lens. He gave the most convincing proof of 
his military valour in the victories which he 
obtained over the barbarians in the provinces 
of Gaul, the deserts of Africa, or on the banks 
of the Rhine and the Danube. The insolence 
of the Cluadi he punished with great severity: 
While he spoke to them in warmth, he broke a 
blood-vessel and fell lifeless on the ground. 
He was conveyed into his palace by his attend- 
ants, and soon" after died, suffering the greatest 
agonies, violent fits, and contortions of his limbs, 
on the 17th of November, A. D. 375. He was 
then in the 55th year of his age, and had reign- 
ed 12 years. He was naturally of an irascible 
disposition, and he gratified his pride in ex- 
647 



V^A 



HISTORY, &c. 



VA 



pressing a contempt for those who were his 
equals in military abilities, or who shone for 
gracefulness or elegance of address. Amviian. 

About six days after the death of Valen- 

tinian, his second son, Valentinian the second, 
was proclaimed emperor, though only five years 
old. He succeeded his brother Gratian, A. D. 
383, but his youth seemed to favour dissension, 
and the attempts and the usurpations of rebels. 
He was robbed of his throne by Maximus, four 
years after the death of Gratian ; and in this 
helpless situation he had recourse to Theodo- 
sius, who was then emperor of the East. He 
was successful in his applications ; Maximus 
was conquered by Theodosius, and Valentinian 
entered Rome in triumph, accompanied by his 
benefactor. He was some time after strangled 
by one of his officers, a native of Gaul, called 
Arbogastes, in whom he had placed too much 
confidence. Valentinian reigned nine years. 
This happened the 15th of May, A. D. 292, at 
Vienne, one of the modern towns of France. 
He has been commended for his many virtues, 
and the applause which the populace bestowed 
upon him was bestowed upon real merit. He 
was fond of imitating the virtues and exemplary 
life of his friend and patron Theodosius, and if 
he had lived longer, the Romans might have 

enjoyed peace and security. Valentinian the 

third, was son of Constantius and Placidia, the 
daughter of Theodosius the Great, and there- 
fore, as related to the imperial family, he was 
saluted emperor in his youth, and publicly ac- 
knowledged as such in Rome, the 3d of Octo- 
ber, A. D. 423, about the 6th year of his age. 
He was at first governed by his mother and 
the intrigues of his generals and courtiers ; and 
when he came to years of discretion, he dis- 
graced himself by violence, oppression, and in- 
continence. He was murdered in the midst of 
Rome, A. D. 454, in the 36th year of his age 
and 31st of his reign, by Petronius Maximus, 
to whose life he had offered violence. The 
vices of Valentinian the third were conspic- 
uous; every passion he wished to gratify at 
the expense of his honour, his health, and 
character; and as he lived without one single 
act of benevolence or kindness, he died lament- 
ed by none. He was the last of the family of 
Theodosius. 

Valeria, I. a sister of Publicola, who advised 
the Roman matrons to go and deprecate the re- 
sentment of Coriolanus. Plut. in Cor. II. 

A daughter of Publicola, given as a hostage to 
Porsenna by the Romans. She fled from the 
enemy's country with Cloelia, and swam across 

the Tiber. Plut. de Virt. Mul. III. A 

daughter of Messala, sister of Hortensius, who 

married Sylla. IV. The wife of the emperor 

Valentinian. V. The wife of the emperor 

Galerius, &c. 

Valeria Lex, de provocatione, by P. Vale- 
rius Poplicola, the sole consul, A. U. C. 243. 
It permitted the appeal from a magistrate to the 
people, and forbade the magistrates to punish a 
citizen for making the appeal. It further made 
it a capital crime for a citizen to aspire to the 
sovereigrnty of Rome, or to exercise any office 
without the choice and approbation of the peo- 
ple. Val. Max. 4, c. 1. — Liv. 2, c. 8. — Dion. 
Hal. 4. Another, de debitoribus, by Vale- 
rius Flaccus. It required that all creditors 
648 



should discharge their debtors on receiving a 

fourth part of the whole sum. Another, by 

M, Valerius Corvinus, A. U. C. 453, which 
confirmed the first Valerian law, enacted by 

Poplicola. Another called also Horatia, by 

L. Valerius and M. Horalius the consuls, A. 
U. C. 304. It revived the first Valerian law, 
which under the triumvirate had lost its force. 

Another, de magistratibus, by P. Valerius 

Poplicola, sole consul, A. U. C. 243. It created 
two quaestors to take care of the public treasure, 
which was for the future to be kept in the tem- 
ple of Saturn. Plut. in Pop. — Liv. 2. 

Valebianus, Publius Licinius, a Roman, 
proclaimed emperor by the armies in Rhsetia, 
A. D. 254. The virtues which shone in him 
when a private man, were lost when he ascend- 
ed the throne. He was cowardly in his opera- 
tions, and, though acquainted with war and the 
patron of science, he seldom acted with pru- 
dence, or favoured men of true genius and me- 
rit. He took his son Gallienus as his colleague 
in the empire, and showed the malevolence of 
his heart by persecuting the Christians whom 
he had for a while" tolerated. He also made 
war against the Goths and Scythians ; -but in an 
expedition which he undertook against Sapor, 
king of Persia, his arms were attended with ill 
success. He was conquered in Mesopotamia, 
and when he wished to have a private confer- 
ence with Sapor, the conqueror seized his per- 
son, and carried him in triumph to his capital, 
where he exposed him, and in all the cities of 
his empire, to the ridicule and insolence of his 
subjects. When the Persian monarch mounted 
on horseback, Valerian served as a footstool, 
and the many other insults which he suffered 
excited indignation even among the courtiers of 
Sapor. The monarch at last ordered him to be 
flayed alive, and salt to be thrown over his 
mangled body, so that he died in the greatest 
torments. His skin was tanned, and painted 
in red ; and that the ignominy of the Roman 
people might be lasting, it was nailed in one of 
the temples of Persia. Valerian died in the 
71st year of his age, A. D. 260, after a reign of 
seven years. 

Valerius Publius, I. a celebrated Roman, 
surnamed Poplicola for his popularity. He was 
very active in assisting Brutus to expel the 
Tarquins, and he was the first that took an 
oath to support the liberty and independence of 
his country. Though he had been refused the 
consulship, and had retired with great dissatis- 
faction from the direction of affairs, yet he re- 
gard ed the public opinion, and when the jea- 
lousy of the Romans inveighed against the 
towering appearance of his house, he acknow- 
ledged the reproof, and in making it lower, the 
showed his wish to be on a level with his fellow- 
citizens, and not to erect what might be con- 
sidered as a citadel for the oppression of his 
country. He was afterwards honoured with 
the consulship, on the expulsion of Collatinus, 
and he triumphed over the Etrurians after he 
had gained the victory in the battle in which 
Brutus and the sons of Tarquin had fallen. 
Valerius died after he had been four times con- 
sul, and enjoyed the popularity, and received the 
thanks and gratitude, which people redeemed 
from slavery and oppression usually pay to their 
I patrons and deliverers. He was so poor that 



VA 



HISTORY, &c 



VA 



his body was buried at the public expense. The 
Roman matrons mourned his death a whole 
year. Pint, in vita. — Flor. 1, c. 9. — Liv. 3, c. 
8, &c. II. Corvinus, a tribune of the sol- 
diers under Camillus. When the Roman army 
were challenged by one of the Senones remark- 
able for his strength and stature, Valerius un- 
dertook to engage him, and obtained an easy 
victory, by means of a crow that assisted him, 
and attacked the face of the Gaul ; whence 
his surname of Corvinus. Valerius triumphed 
over the Etrurians, and the neighbouring states 
that made war against Rome, and was six 
times honoured with the consulship. He died 
in the 100th year of his age, admired and re- 
gretted for many private and public virtues. 
Val. Max. 8, c. \^.—Liv. 7, c.27, &c.—Plnt. in 
Mar. — Cic. in Cat. III. Antias, an excel- 
lent Roman historian often quoted, and particu- 
larly by Livy. IV. Flaccus, a consul with 

Cato, whose friendship he honourably shared. 
He made war against the Insubres and Boii, 

and killed 10,000 of the enemy. V. Marcus 

Corvinus Messala, a Roman made consul with 
Augustus. He distinguished himself by his 
learning as well as military virtues. He lost 
his memory about two years before his death, 
and, according to some, he was even ignorant 
of his "own name. Sueton. in Aug. — Cic. in 

Brut. VI. Soranas, a Latin poet in the age 

of Julius Caesar, put to death for betraying a 
secret. He acknowledged no god but the soul 

of the universe. VII. Maximus, a brother of 

Poplicola. VIII. A Latin historian, who 

carried arms under the sons of Pompey. He 
dedicated his time to study, and wrote an ac- 
count of all the most celebrated sayings and 
actions of the Romans, and other illustrious 
persons, which is still extant, and divided into 
nine books. It is dedicated to Tiberius. Some 
have supposed that he lived after the age of 
Tiberius, from the want of purity and elegance 
which so conspicuously appear in his writings, 
unworthy of the correctness of the golden age 
of the Roman literature. The best editions of 
Valerius are those of Torrenius, 4to. L. Bat. 
1726, and of Vorstius, 8vo. Berolin, 1672.- — 
IX. Marcus, a brother of Poplicola, who de- 
feated the army of the Sabines m two battles. 
He was honoured with a triumph, and the Ro- 
mans, to show their sense of his great merit, 
built him a house on mount Palatine at the 

public expense. X. Potitus, a general who 

stirred up the people and army against the de- 
cemvirs, and Appius Claudius in particular. 
He was chosen consul, and conquered the Volsci 
and jEqui. XI. Flaccus, a Roman, inti- 
mate with Cato the censor. He was consul 
with him, and cut off an army of 10,000 Gauls 
in one battle. He was also chosen censor, and 

prince of the senate, &c. XII. A Latin 

poet who floiirished under Vespasian. He 
wrote a poem in eight books on the Argonautic 
expedition, but it remained unfinished on ac- 
count of his premature death. The Argonauts 
were there left on the sea in their return home. 
Some critics have been lavish in their praises 
upon Flaccus, and have called him the second 
poet of Rome after Virgil. His poetry, how- 
ever, is deemed by some frigid and languishing, 
and his style uncouth and inelegant. The best 
editions of Flaccus are those of Burman, L- 
Part II.— 4 N 



Bat. 1724, and 12mo. Utr. 1702. XIII. 

Asiaticus, a celebrated Roman, accused of 
having murdered one of the relations of the 
emperor Claudius. He was condemned by the 
intrigues of Messalina, though innocent, and he 
opened his veins and bled to death. Tacit. Ann. 

Valgids, Rufus, a Roman poet in the Au- 
gustan age, celebrated for his writings. He 
was very intimate with Horace. Tibull. 3, 1. 
4, V. 180.— Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 82. 

Vannius, a king of the Suevi, banished un- 
der Claudius, &c. Tacit. Ann. 22, c. 29. 

Varia Lex, de Civitate, by Cl. Varius Hy- 
brida. It punished all such as were suspected 
of having assisted or supported the people of 
Italy in their petition to become free citizens of 
Rome. Cic. pro Mil. 36, in Brut. 56, 88, &c. 

Varius, or Varus, Lucius, was one of the 
most eminent poets of the Augustan age. He 
had been present in his youth at the battle of 
Philippi, and had afterwards joined Sextus 
Pompey in Sicily. Nevertheless, he was pa- 
tronised by Maecenas, to whose notice he first 
introduced Horace ; and he accompanied that 
minister on his celebrated journey to Brundi- 
sium. Previous, indeed, to the appearance of 
the jEneid, he was considered as ihe first epic 
poet of Rome, or at least equal to Valgius. At 
the time when Virgil was chiefly known as a 
pastoral poet, Horace says of him : — 

-Forte epos acer, 



Ut nemo, Varius ducit — 

and he also considered him as the writer who 
was most worthy to celebrate in heroic verse the 
exploits of Agrippa, At a subsequent period, 
when Virgil had become more distinguished, he 
mentions Varius along with him as representa- 
tive of the best class of poets in the Augustan 
age. His eminence as an epic poet, and bis 
friendship with Virgil procured him the dis- 
tinction of being appointed by Augustus along 
with Tucca to revise the JEneid, and bring it 
before the public. Varius was the author of a 
panegyric on Augustus; but it was probably 
some longer work which procured him such 
celebrity as an epic poet, though it is not known 
what was the name or subject of this produc- 
tion. It is somewhat remarkable, however, that 
Gluintilian, in his review of the Latin poets, in 
the tenth book of his Institutes, does not men- 
tion Varius as an epic writer, and only alludes 
to him as the author of the tragedy called Thy- 
estes, which he says was equal to any composi- 
tion of the Greek poets. Horat. 4, sat. 5, v, 40. 
Varro, I. (M. Terentius,) a Roman consul, 
defeated at Cannae by Annibal. Vid. Teren- 
tius. II. Was born in the 637ih year of 

Rome, and was descended of an ancient sena- 
torial family. It is probable that his youth, and 
even the greater part of his manhood, were 
spent in literary pursuits, and in the acquisition 
of that stupendous knowledge, which has pro- 
cured to him the appellation of the most learn- 
ed of the Romans, since his name does not ap- 
pear in the civil or military history of his coun- 
try, till the year 680, when he was consul along 
with Cassius Varus, In 686, he served under 
Pompey, in his war against the pirates, in 
which he commanded the Greek ships. To 
the fortunes of that chief he continued firmlv 
attached, and was appointed one of his lieuten- 
649 



VA 



HISTORY, &c. 



VA 



ants m Spain, along with Afranius and Petreius, 
at the commencement of the war with Caesar. 
Hispania Ulterior was specially confided to his 
protection, and two legions were placed under 
his command. Afier the surrender of his col- 
leagues in Hither Spain, Caesar proceeded in 
person against him. Varro appears to have 
been little qualified to cope with such an adver- 
sary. One of the legions deserted in his own 
sight, and his retreat to Cadiz, where he had 
meant to retire, having been cut off, he surren- 
dered at discretion, with the other, in the vicin- 
ity of Cordova. From that period he despaired 
of the salvation of the republic, or found, at 
least, that he was not capable of saving it ; for 
although, after receiving his freedom from 
Csesar, he proceeded to Dyrrachium, to give 
Pompey a detail of the disasters which had oc- 
curred, he left it almost immediately for Rome. 
On his return to Italy he withdrew from all 
political concerns, and indulged himself during 
the remainder of his life in the enjoyment of 
literary leisure. The only service he performed 
for Csesar, was that of arranging the books 
which the dictator had himself procured, or 
which had been acquired by those who preced- 
ed him in the management of public affairs. 
He lived during the reign of Csesar in habits 
of the closest intimacy with Cicero ; and his 
feelings, as well as conduct, at this period, re- 
sembled those of his illustrious friend, who, in 
all his letters to Varro, bewails, with great 
freedom, the utter ruin of the state, and proposes 
that they should live together, engaged only in 
those studies which were formerly their amuse- 
ment, but were then their chief support. The 
site of Varro's villa was visited by Sir R. C, 
Hoare, who says, that it stood close to Casinum, 
now St. Germano : some trifling remains still 
indicate its site ; but its memory, he adds, will 
shortly survive only in the page of the historia,n. 
After the assassination of Caesar, this residence, 
along with almost all the wealth of Varro,which 
was immense, was forcibly seized by Marc 
Antony. Its lawless occupation by that profli- 
gate and blood-thirsty triumvir, on his re- 
turn from his dissolute expedition to Capua, 
is introduced by Cicero into one of his philip- 
ics, and forms a topic of the most eloquent 
and bitter invective. Antony was not a person 
to be satisfied with robbing Varro of his prop- 
erty. At the formation of the memorable tri- 
umvirate, the name of Varro appeared in the 
list of the proscribed, among those other friends 
of Pompev whom the clemency of Csesar had 
spared. This illustrious and blameless indi- 
vidual had now passed the age of seventy ; 
and nothing can afford a more strikins: proof 
of the sanguinary spirit which guided the 
councils of the triumvirs, than their devoting 
to the dagger of the hired assassin a man 
equally venerable by his years and charac- 
ter, and who ought to have been protected, 
if not by his learned labours, at least by his re- 
tirement, from such inhuman persecution. But, 
though doomed to death as a friend of law and 
liberty, his friends contended with each other 
for the dangerous honour of saving him. Cale- 
nus having obtained the preference, carried him 
to his country-house, were Antony frequently 
came, without suspecting that it contained a 
proscribed inmate. Here Varro remained con- 
650 



cealed till a special edict was issued by the con- 
sul, M. Plancus, under the triumviral seal, ex- 
cepting him and Messala Corvinus from the 
general slaughter. But though Varro thus 
passed in security the hour of danger, he was 
unable to save his library, which was placed in 
the garden of one of his villas, and fell into the 
hands of an illiterate soldiery. After the battle 
of Actium, Varro resided in tranquillity at 
Rome till his decease, which happened in 7*27, 
when he was ninety years of age. The tragical 
deaths, however, of Pompey and Cicero, with 
the loss of others of his friends, — the ruin of his 
country — the expulsion from his villas — and 
the loss of those literary treasures which he had 
stored up as the solace of his old age, and the 
want of which would be doubly felt by one who 
wished to devote all his time to study, — cast a 
deep shade over the concluding days of this il- 
lustrious scholar. His wealth was restored by 
Augustus, but his books could not be supplied. 
It is not improbable, that the dispersion of this 
library, which impeded the prosecution of his 
studies, and prevented the composition of such 
works as required reference and consultation, 
ma)'' have induced Varro to employ the remain- 
ing hours of his life in delivering those precepts 
of agriculture, which had been the result of 
long experience, and which needed only remin- 
iscence to inculcate. It was some time after 
the loss of his books, and when he had nearly 
reached the age of eighty, that Varro composed 
the work on husbandry, as he himself testifies 
in the introduction. The first of the three books, 
which this agricultural treatise comprehends, 
is addressed to Fundanius, and is devoted to 
rules for the cultivation of land, whether for 
the production of grain, pulse, olives, or vines, 
and the establishment necessary for a well- 
managed and lucrative farm; excluding from 
consideration what is strictly the business of 
the grazier and shepherd, rather than of the 
farmer. The subject of agriculture, strictly 
so called, having been discussed in the first 
book, Varro proceeds in the second, addressed 
to Niger Turranus, to treat of the care of flocks 
and cattle, (De Rs Pecuaria). The knowledge 
which he here communicates is the result of 
his own observations, blended with the inform- 
ation he had received from the great pasturers 
of Epirus, at the time when he commanded the 
Grecian ships on its coast, in Pompey 's naval 
war with the pirates. As in the former book 
the instruction is delivered in the shape of dia- 
logfue. This book concludes with what forms 
the most profitable part of pasturage — the diary 
and sheep-shearing. The third book, which is 
by far the most interesting and best written in 
the work, treats de villicis paslionibus, which 
means the provisions, or moderate luxuries, 
which a plain farmer may procure, independent 
of tillage or pasturage, — as the poultry of his 
barn-yard — the trouts in the stream, by which 
his farm is bounded — and the game, which he 
may enclose in parks, or chance to take on days 
of recreation. If others of the agricultural wri- 
ters have been more minute with regard to the 
construction of the villa itself, it is to Varro we 
are chiefly indebted for what lights we have 
received concerning: its appertenances, as war- 
rens, aviaries, and fish-ponds. The work De 
Lingua Latina, though it has descended to us 



VA 



HISTORY, &c. 



VA 



incomplete, is by much the most entire of Var- 
ro's writings, except the Treatise on Agricul- 
ture. It is on account of this philological pro- 
duction, that Aulus Gellius ranks him among 
the grammarians, who form a numerous and 
important class in the history of Latin litera- 
ture. They were called grammatici by the 
Romans — a word which would be better ren- 
dered philologers than grammarians. We find 
in the work De Lingua Latina, which was 
written during the winter preceding Caesar's 
death, the same methodical arrangement ihat 
marks the treatise De Re Rustica. It is not cer- 
tain whether the Libri De Similitudine Verbo- 
rum, and those De Utilitate Sermonis, cited by 
Priscian and Charisius as philological works 
of Varro, were parts of his great production, 
De Lingua Latina^ or separate compositions. 
There was a distinct treatise, however, De 
Sermone Latino, addressed to Marcellus, of 
which a very few fragments are preserved by 
Aalus Gellius. The critical works of this 
universal scholar, were entitled, De Proprietate 
Scriptorum — De Poeiis — De Poematis — Thea- 
treales, sive de Actionibus Scenicis — De Scenicis 
Originibus — De Plautinis Comadiis — De Plau- 
tinis QucEstionibus — De CompositioneSatirarum 
— Rhetoricorum Libri. These works are prais- 
ed or mentioned by Gellius, Nonius Marcellus, 
and Diomedes ; but almost nothing is known 
of their contents. Somewhat more may be 
gathered concerning. Varro's mythological or 
theological works, as they were much studied, 
and very frequently cited by the early fathers, 
particularly St. Augustine and Lactantius. Of 
these the chief is the treatise De Cultu Deorum, 
noticed by St. Augustine in his seventh book, 
De Civitate Dei, where he says that Varro con- 
siders God to be not only the soul of the world, 
but the world itself. In this work he also treat- 
ed of the origin of hydromancy, and other 
superstitious divinations. Sixteen books of the 
treatise De Rerum Humanarum et Divinarum 
Antiquitatibus, addressed to Julius Csesar, as 
Pontifex Maximus, related to theological, or 
at least what we might call ecclesiastical sub- 
jects. This work, which is said to have 
chiefly contributed to the splendid reputation 
of Varro, was extant as late as the beginning 
of the fourteenth century. Plutarch, in his 
life of Romulus, speaks of Varro as a man 
of all the Romans most versed in history. The 
historical and political works are the Annates 
Libri — Belli Punici Secundi Liber — De Ini- 
tiis Urhis Roma/na. — De Gente Populi Roma- 
ni — Libri de Familiis Trojanis, which last 
treated of the families that followed -^enas into 
Italy. With this class we may rank the Heb- 
domadwm, sive de Jmuginibus Libri, containing 
the panegyrics of 700 illustrious men. There 
was a picture of each, with a legend or verse 
under it, like those in the children's histories 
of the kinsfs of England. That annexed to the 
portrait of Demetrius Phalereus, who had up- 
wards of 300 brazen statues erected to him by 
the Athenians, is still preserved: — 

" Hie Demetrius csneis tot aptus est 
Quot luces habet annus absolutus." 

There were seven pictures and panegyrics in 
each book, whence the whole work has been 
called Hebdomades. Varro has adopted the 



superstitious notions of the ancients concerning 
particular numbers, and the number seven 
seems speically to have commanded his vene- 
ration. Th^re were in the world seven won- 
ders — there were seven wise men among the 
Greeks — there were seven chariots in the Cir- 
censian games — and seven chiefs were chosen 
to make war on Thebes: all which he sums up 
with remarking, that he himself had then en- 
,tered his twelfth period of seven years, on 
which day he had written seventy times seven 
books, many of which, in consequence of his 
proscription, had been lost in the plunder of 
his library. The treatise entitled Sisenna, sive 
de Historia, was a tract on the composition of 
history, inscribed to Sisenna, the Roman histo- 
rian, who wrote an account of the civil wars of 
Marius and Sylla. It contained, it is said, 
many excellent precepts with regard to the ap- 
propriate style of history, and the accurate 
investigation of facts. But the greatest service 
rendered by Varro to history was his attempt to 
fix the chronology of the world. Censorinus 
informs us that he was the first who regulated 
chronology by eclipses. The philosophical 
writings of Varro are not numerous ; but his 
chief work of that description, entitled De Phi- 
losophia Liber, appears to have been very com- 
prehensive. St. Augustine informs us that 
Varro examined in it all the various sects of 
philosophers, of which he enumerated upwards 
of 280. The sect of the old academy was that 
which he himself followed, and its tenets he 
maintained in opposition to all others. It is 
not certain under what class Varro's Novem- 
libri Diciplinarum should be ranked, as it 
probably comprehended instructive lessons in 
the whole range of arts and sciences. One of 
the chapters, according to Vitruvius, was on 
the subject of architecture. Varro derived 
much notoriet}^ from his satirical compositions. 
His Tricarenus or Tricipitina, was a satiric 
history of the triumvirate of Csesar, Pompey, 
and Crassus. Much pleasantry and sarcasm 
were also interspersed in his books entitled 
Logistorici; but his most celebrated production 
in that line was the satire which he himself en- 
titled Menippean. It was so called from the 
c3micMenippus of Gadara, a city in Syria, who, 
like his countr}Tman Meleager, was in the habit 
of expressing himself jocularly on the most 
grave and important subjects. He was the 
author of a Symposium, in the manner of Xe- 
nophon. His writings were interspersed with 
verses, parodied from Homer and the tragic 
poets, or ludicrously applied for the purpose of 
burlesque. It is not knovpii, however, that he 
wrote any professed satire. Besides the works 
of Varro abovementioned, there is a miscella- 
neous collection of sentences or maxims which 
have been attributed to him, though it is not 
known in what part of his numerous writings 
they were originally introduced. Barthius 
found seventeen of these sentences in a MS. of 
the middle age, and printed them in hi.? Adver- 
saria. Schneider afterwards discovered, in the 
Speculum Historiale of Vincent de Beauvais, 
a monk of the thirteenth century, a much more 
ample collection of them, which he has insert- 
ed in his edition of the Scriptores rei Rusticce. 
They consist of moral maxims in the style of 
those preserved from the Mimes of Publius Sy- 
G51 



VA 



HISTORY, &c. 



VE 



ras, and had doubtless been culled as flowers 
from the works of Varro, at a time when the 
immense garden of taste and learning, which 
he planted, had not yet been laid waste by the 
hand of time, or the spoiler. The best edition 
of Varro is that of Dordrac, 8vo. 1619. Cic. in 

Acad. &c. — Quintil. III. Attacinus, a native 

of Gaul in the age of J. Caesar. He translated 
into Latin verse the Argonautica of Apollonius 
Rhodius, with great correctness and elegance. 
He also wrote a poem entitled de Bello Sequa- 
nico, besides epigrams and elegies. Some frag- 
ments of his poetry are still extant. He failed 
in his attempt to write satire. Horat. 1, sat. 10, 
V. 46. — Ovid. Ann. 1, v. 15. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. 

Varus, CtuiNTiLicrs, I. a Roman proconsul, 
descended from an illustrious family. He was 
appointed governor of Syria, and afterwards 
made commander of the armies in Germany. 
He was surprised by the enemy, under Armi- 
nius, a crafty and dissimulating chief, and his 
army was cut to pieces. When he saw that 
every thing was lost, he killed himself, A. D. 10, 
and his example was followed by some of his 
officers. His head was afterwards sent to Au- 
gustus at Rome by one of the barbarian chiefs, 
as also his body; and so great was the influ- 
ence of his defeat upon the emperor, that he 
continued for whole months to show all the 
marks of dejection and of deep sorrow, often 
exclaiming, " O Varus, restore me my legions. ^^ 
The bodies of the slain were left in the field of 
battle, where they were found six years after 
by Germanicus, and buried with great pomp. 
His avarice was conspicuous ; he went poor to 
Syria, whence he returned loaded with riches. 
Horat. 1, od. '2,i.— Pater c. 2, c. Wl.—Flor. 4, 

c. 12. — Virg. Ed. 6. II. A son of Varus, 

who married a daughter of Germanicus. Ta- 
cit. Ann. 4, c. 6. III. The father and grand- 
father of Varus, wht) was killed in Germany, 
slew themselves with their own swords, the 
one after the battle of Philippi, and the other 

in the plains of Pharsalia. IV. duintinius, 

a friend of Horace and other great men in the 
Augustan age. He was a good judge of poetry, 
and a great critic, as Horace, Art. P. 438, seems 
to insinuate. The poet has addressed the 18th 
ode of his first book to him, and in the 24th he 
mourns pathetically his death. Some suppose 
this Varus to be the person killed in Germany, 
while others believe him to be a man who de- 
voted his time more to the muses than to war. 
Vid. Varius. V. Lucius, an Epicurean phi- 
losopher, intimate with J. Caesar. Some sup- 
pose that it was to him that Virgil inscribed his 
sixth eclogue. He is commended by Quintil. 

6, c. 3, 78. VI. Alfrenus, a Roman, who, 

though originally a shoemaker, became consul, 
and distinguished himself by his abilities as an 
orator. He was buried at the public expense, 
an honour granted to few, and only to persons 
of merit. Horat. 1, sat. 3. 

Vantinids, I. an intimate friend of Cicero, 
once distinguished for his enmity to the orator. 
He hated the people of Rome for their great 
vices and corruption, whence excessive hatred 
became proverbial in the words Vatinianum 

Odium. Catull. 14, v. 3. II. A shoemaker, 

ridiculed for his deformities and the oddity of 
his character. He was one of Nero's favourites, 
and he surpassed the rest of the courtiers in 
652 



flattery, and in the commission of every impious 
deed. Large cups, of no value, are called Vati- 
niani from him, because he used one which was 
both ill-shaped and uncouth. Tacit. Ann. 13, 
c. M.—Juv.—Mart. 14, ep. 96. 

Vedius Pollio. Vid. Pollio. 

Vegetius, a Latin writer, who flourished B. 
C. 386. The best edition of his treatise de Re 
Militari, together with Modestus, is that of 
Paris, 4to. 1607. 

Velleius, I. (Paterculus,) a Roman histo- 
rian, descended from an equestrian family of 
Campania. He was at first a military tribune 
in the Roman armies, and for nine years served 
under Tiberius in the various expeditions which 
he undertook in Gaul and Germany. Velleius 
wrote an epitome of the history of Greece and 
of Rome, and of other nations of the most re- 
mote antiquity ; but of this authentic composi- 
tion there remain only fragments of the history 
of Greece and Rome from the conquest of Per- 
seus, by Paulus, to the 17th year of the reign 
of Tiberius, in two books. It is a judicious 
account of celebrated men and illustrious cities ; 
the historian is happy in his descriptions and 
accurate in his dates ; his pictures are true, and 
his narrative lively and interesting. The whole 
is candid and impartial till the reign of the Cae- 
sars, when the writer began to be influenced by 
the presence of the emperor, or the power of his 
favourites. Paterculus is deservedly censured 
for his invectives against Cicero and Pompey, 
and his encomiums on the cruel Tiberius and 
the unfortunate Sejanus. Some suppose that 
he was involved in the ruin of this disappointed 
courtier, whom he had extolled as a pattern of 
virtue and morality. The best editions of Pa- 
terculus are those of Ruhnkenius, 8vo. 2 vols, 
L. Bat. 1779; of Barbou, Paris, 12mo. 1777; 

and of Burman, 8vo. L. Bat. 1719. II. 

Caius, the grandfather of the historian of that 
name, was one of the friends of Livia. He 
killed himself when old and unable to accom- 
pany Livia in her flight. 

Veneti. Vid. Part I. 

Ventidius, Bassus, a native of Picenum, 
born of an obscure family. When Asculum 
was taken, he was carried before the triumphal 
chariot of Pompeius Strabo, hanging on his 
mother's breast. A bold, aspiring soul, aided 
by the patronage of the family of Caesar, raised 
him from the mean occupation of a chairman 
and muleteer to dignity in the state. He dis- 
played valour in the Roman armies, and grad- 
ually arose to the offices of tribune, praetor, high- 
priest, and consul. He made war against the 
Parthians, and conquered them in three great 
battles, B. C. 39. He was the first Roman ever 
honoured with a triumph over Parthia, He 
died greatly lamented by the all Roman people, 
and was buried at the public expense. Plut. 
in Anton. — Juv. 7, v, 199. 

Veranius, a governor of Britain under Nero. 
He succeeded Didius Gallus. Tacit. 14, Ann. 

Vercingetorix, a chief of the Gauls in the 
time of Caesar. He was conquered and led in 
triumph, &c. Ccssar. Bell G. 7. c. 4.—Flor. 
3, c. 10. 

Verginius, one of the officers of the Roman 
troops in Germany, who refused the absolute 
power which his soldiers offered to him. Tacit. 
1, Hist. c. a 



VE 



HISTORY, &c. 



VE 



Verres, C. a Roman, who governed the 
province of Sicily as praetor. The oppression 
and rapine of which he was guilty while in of- 
fice, so ofiended the Sicilians, that they brought 
an accusation against him before the Roman 
senate. Cicero undertook the cause of the 
Sicilians, and pronounced those celebrated ora- 
tions which are still extant. Verres was de- 
fended by Hortensius, but as he despaired of the 
success of his defence, he left Rome without 
waiting for his sentence, and lived in great afflu- 
ence in one of the provmces. He was at last 
killed by one of the soldiers of Antony the tri- 
umvir, about 26 years after his voluntary exile 
from the capital. Cic. in Ver. — Plin. 34, c, 2. 
Lactant. 2, c. 4. 

Verrics Flaccus, a freedman and gram- 
marian, famous for his powers in instructing. 
He was appointed over the grandchildren of 
Augustus, and also distinguished himself by 
his writings. Gell. 4, c. 5. — Suet, in Gram. 

Verrids Flaccus, a Latin critic, B, C. 4, 
whose works have been edited with Dacier 
and Clerk's notes, 4to. Amst. 1699. 

Verulanus, a lieutenant under Corbulo, who 
drove away Tiridates from Media, &c. Tacit. 
Aim. 14, c. 26. 

Verus, I. (Lucius Ceionius Commodus,) a 
Roman- emperor, son of .^lius and Domitia 
Lucilla. He was adopted in the 7th year of his 
age, by M. Aurelius, at the request of. Adrian, 
and he married Lucilia, the daughter of his 
adopted father, who also took him as his col- 
league on the throne. He was sent by M. Au- 
relius to oppose the barbarians in the East. His 
arms were attended with success, and he obtain- 
ed a victory over the Parthians. He was hon- 
oured with a triumph at his return home, and 
soon after he marched with his imperial col- 
league against the Marcomanni in Germany. 
He died in this expedition of an apoplexy, in the 
39th year of his age, after a reign of eight years 
and some months. His body was brought back 
to Rome, and buried by M. Aurelius with great 
pomp and solemnity. Verus has been greatly 
censured for his debaucheries. At one enter- 
tainment alone, where there were no more than 
12 guests, the emperor spent no less than six 
millions of sestersces, or about 32,200Z. sterling. 
In his Parthian expedition Verus did not check 
his vicious propensities ; for four years he left 
the care of the war to his officers, while he re- 
tired to the voluptuous retreats of Daphne, and 
the luxurious banquets ofAntioch. His fond- 
ness for a horse has been faithfully recorded. 
The animal had a statue of gold, and when 
dead, the emperor to express his sorrow, raised 
him a magnificent monument on mount Vati- 
can. II. L. Annseus, a son of the emperor 

Aurelius, who died in Palestine. III. The 

father of the emperor Verus. He was adopted 
by the emperor Adrian, but, like his son, he 
disgraced himself by his debaucheries and ex- 
travagance. He died before Adrian. 

Vespasianus, (Titus Flavins,) a Roman em- 
peror, descended from an obscure family at 
Reate. He was honoured with the consulship 
as a reward for his private merit and his public 
services. He accompanied Nero into Greece, 
but he offended the prince by falling asleep 
while he repeated one of his poetical composi- 
tions. This momentary resentment of the em- 



peror did not prevent Vespasian from being sent 
to carry on a war against the Jews. His opera- 
tions were cro\\Tied wiih success j many oi the 
cities of Palestine surrendered, and Vespasian 
began the siege of Jerusalem, This was, how- 
ever, achieved by the hands of his son Titus, 
Eind the death of Vitellius and the affection of 
his soldiers hastened his rise, and he was pro- 
claimed emperor at Alexandria. The choice of 
the army was approved by every province of the 
empire ; but Vespasian did not betray any signs 
of pride at so sudden and so unexpected an ex- 
altation, and though once employed in the mean 
office of a horse doctor, he behaved, when in- 
vested with the imperial purple, with all the 
dignity which became a successor of Augustus. 
In the beginning of his reign Vespasian attempt- 
ed to reform the manners of the Romans. He 
repaired the public buildings, embellished the 
city, and made the great roads more spacious 
and convenient. After he had reigned with 
great popularity for 10 years, Vespasian died, 
A. D. 79, in the 70th year of his age. He was 
the first Roman emperor who was succeeded by 
his own son on the throne. Vespasian has been 
admired for hisgreat virtues. When the king of 
Parthia addressed him with the superscription of 
Arsaces, king of kings, to Flavins Vespasianus, 
the emperor, no way dissatisfied, answered him 
again in his own words, Flavins Vespasianus, 
to Arsaces, king of kings. To men oi learning 
and merit Vespasian was very liberal ; one 
hundred thousand sesterces were annually ex- 
pended to encourage and promote the arts and 
sciences. Sueton. in vita. — Tacit. Hist. 4. 

Vestales, priestesses among the Romans, 
consecrated to the service of Vesta, as their 
name indicates. This office was very ancient, 
as the mother of Romulus was one of the ves- 
tals, ^neas is supposed to have first chosen 
the vestals, Numa first appointed four, to which 
Tarquin added two. They were always chosen 
by the monarchs, but after the expulsion of the 
Tarquins, the highpriest was intrusted with the 
care of them. As they were to be virgins, they 
were chosen yoimg, from the age of six to ten; 
and if there was not a sufficient number that 
presented themselves as candidates for the office, 
twenty virgins were selected, and they upon 
whom the lot fell were obliged to become priest- 
esses. Plebeians as well as patricians were 
permitted to propose themselves, but it was re- 
quired that they should be without blemish or 
deformity. For thirty years they were to re- 
main in the greatest continence ; the ten first 
years were spent in learning the duties of the 
order, the ten following were employed in dis- 
charging them with fidelity and sanctity, and 
the ten last in instructing such as had entered 
the noviciate. When the thirty years were 
elapsed they were permitted to marry, or, if they 
still preferred celibacy, they waited upon the 
rest of the vestals. The employment of the 
vestals was to take care that the sacred fire of 
Vesta was not extinguished, for if it ever hap- 
pened, it was deemed the prognostic of great 
calamities to the state. In such a case all was 
consternation at Rome, and the fire was again 
kindled by glasses with the rays of the sun. 
Another equally particular charge of the vestals 
was to keep a sacred pledge, on which depended 
the very existence of Rome, which, according 
653 



YE 



HISTORY, &c. 



VI 



to some, was the palladium of Troy. The 
privileges of the vestals were great, they had 
the most honourable seats at public games and 
festivals, a lictor with the fasces always pre- 
ceded them when they walked in public, they 
were carried in chariots when they pleased, and 
they had the power of pardoning criminals 
when led to execution if they declared that their 
meeting was accidental. Their declarations in 
trials were received without the formality of an 
oath, they were chosen as arbiters in causes of 
moment, and in the execution of wills ; and so 
great was the deference paid them by the ma- 
gistrates, as well as by the people, that the con- 
suls themselves made way for them, and bowed 
their fasces when they passed before them. To 
insult them was a capital crime, and whoever 
attempted to violate their chastity was beaten to 
death with scourges. If any of them died while 
in office, their body was buried within the walls 
of the city, an honour granted to few. Such of 
the vestals as proved incontinent were punished 
in the most rigorous manner. Numa ordered 
them to be stoned, but Tarquin the elder dug a 
hole under the earth, where a bed was placed 
with a little bread, wine, water, and oil, and a 
lighted lamp, and the guilty vestal was stripped 
of the habit of her order, and compelled to de- 
scend into the subterraneous cavity, which was 
immediately shut, and she was left to die through 
hunger. For the space of one thousand years, 
during which the order continued established, 
from the reign of Numa, only eighteen were 
punished for the violation of their vow. The 
vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, 
and the fire of Yesta extinguished. The dress 
of the vestals was peculiai* ; they wore a white 
vest with purple borders, a white linen surplice 
called linteum superum, above which was a 
great purple mantle which flowed to the ground, 
and which was tucked up when they offered 
sacrifices. They had a close covering on their 
head, called insula, from which hung ribands, 
or vitt(Z. Their manner of living was sump- 
tuous, as they were maintained at the public 
expense. Liv. 2, &c. — Plut. in Num. &c. — 
Val. Max. 1, c. l.—Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 30.— 
Flor. 1. — Propert. 4, el. 11. — Tacit. 4, c. 10. 

Yestalta, festivals in honour of Yesta. ob- 
served at Rome on the 9th of June. Banquets 
were then prepared before the houses, and meat 
was sent to the vestals to be offered to the gods, 
millstones were decked with garlands, and 
the asses that turned them were led round the 
city covered with garlands. The ladies walked 
in the procession barefooted, to the temple of 
the goddess, and an altar was erected to Jupiter 
surnamed Pistor. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 305. 

Yettius, (Sp.) I. a Roman senator, who was 
made interrex at the death of Romulus till the 
election of another king. He nominated Nu- 
ma, and resigned his office. Plut. in Num. 

II. Cato, one of the officers of the allies 

in the Marsian war. He defeated the Romans, 

and was at last betrayed and murdered. HI. 

A Roman knight who became enamoured of a 
young female at Capua, and raised a tumult 
amongst the slaves who proclaimed him king. 
He was betrayed by one of his adherents, upon 
which he laid violent hands on himself. 

Yeturia, the mother of Coriolanus. She was 
solicited bv all the Roman njatrons to go to her 
654 



son with lier daughter-in-law, and entreat him 
not to make war against his country. She went 
and prevailed over Coriolanus, and for her ser- 
vices to the state, the Roman senate ofiered to 
reward her as she pleased. She only asked to 
raise a temple to the goddess of female fortune, 
which was done on the very spot where she had 
pacified her son. Liv. 2, c. 40. — Dionys. Hal, 
7, &c. 

Yeturius, Vid. Mamurius, a consul defeated 
by the Samnites, and obliged to pass under the 
yoke with great ignominy. 

YjfiTUs, L. a Roman, who proposed to open a 
communication between the Mediterranean and 
the German ocean, by means of a canal. He 
was put to death by order of Nero. 

YiBius, a Roman who refused to pay any at- 
tention to Cicero when banished, though he had 
received from him the most unbounded fa- 
vours. 

YicTOR, Sext. AuRELros, a writer in the age 
of Constantius. He gave the world a concise 
history of the Roman emperors, from the age of 
Augustus to his own time, or A. D. 360. He 
also wrote an abridgment of the Roman history 
before the age of Julius Caesar, which is now 
extant, and ascribed by different authors to C. 
Nepos, to Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny, &c. Yic- 
tor was greatly esteemed by the emperors, and 
honoured with the consulship. The best edi- 
tions of Yictor are that of Pitiscus, 8vo. Utr. 
1696, and that of Artuzenius^ 4to. Amst. 1733. 

YiCTORiNA, a celebrated matron who placed 
herself at the head of the Roman armies, and 
made war against the emperor Gallienus. Her 
son Yictorinus, and her grandson of the same 
name, were declared emperors ; but when they 
were assassinated, Yictorina invested with the 
imperial purple one of her favourites called 
Tetricus. She was some time after poisoned, 
A. D. 269, and, according to some, by Tetricus 
himself. 

Yictorinus, a Christian writer, who com- 
posed a worthless epic poem on the death of the 
seven children mentioned in the Maccabees, and 
distinguished himself more by the active part 
he took in his writings against the Arians, 

YiLLiA Lex, annalis or annaria, by L. Yil- 
lius the tribune, A, U. C. 574, defined the 
proper age required for exercising the office of 
a magistrate, 25 years for the queestorship, 27 
or 28 for the edileship or tribuneship, for the 
office of prastor 30, and for that of consul 43. 
Liv. 11, c. 44. 

YiNCENTius, one of the Christian fathers, A. 
D. 434, whose works are best edited by Balu- 
zius, Paris, 1669. 

YiNDEx Julius, a governor of Gaul, who re- 
volted against Nero, and determined to deliver 
the Roman empire from his tyranny. He was 
followed by a numerous army, but at last de- 
feated by one of the emperor's generals. When 
he perceived that all was lost, he laid violent 
hands upon himself, 68. A. D. Sueton. in Gall. 
— Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 61.— Plin. 9, ep. 19. 

YiNDicius, a slave, who discovered the con- 
spiracy which some of the most noble of the 
Roman citizens had formed to restore Tarquin 
to his throne. He was amply rewarded, and 
made a citizen of Rome. Liv. 2, c. 5. — Plut. 
in Popl. 

YiNNius, Asella, a servant of Horace, to whom 



VI 



HISTORY, «&c. 



VI 



ep. 13 is addressed as injunctions how to deliver 
to Augustus some poems from his master. 

ViPSANiA, a daughter of M. Agrippa, mother 
of Drusus. She was the only one of Agrippa's 
daughters who died a natural death. She was 
married to Tiberius when a private man, and 
when she had been repudiated, she married 
Asinius Gallus. Tacit. A. 1, c. 12, 1. 3, c. 19. 

ViRGiLius Maro, Publ. There exist but few 
authentic materials from which we can col- 
lect any circumstances concerning the life of 
this poet. We possess only some scattered re- 
marks of ancient commentators or gramma- 
rians, and a Life by Donatus, of very dubious 
authority. It appears that Virgil's father was a 
man of low birth, and that, at one period of his 
life, he was engaged in the meanest employ- 
ments. According to some authorities, he was 
a potter or brick-maker ; and according to 
others, the hireling of a travelling merchant, 
called Magus or Mains. He so ingratiated him- 
self, however, with his master, that he received 
his daughter Maia in marriage, and was in- 
trusted with the charge of a farm, which his 
father-in-law had acquired in the vicinity of 
Mantua, Our poet was the offspring of these 
humble parents ; and was born in the year of 
Rome 684, at the village of Andes (now Pietola), 
which lies at a few miles' distance from Man- 
tua. The cradle of illustrious men, like the 
origin of celebrated nations, has been frequently 
surrounded with the marvellous. Hence, the 
dream of his mother Maia, that she had 
brought forth a branch of laurel, and the pro- 
digy of the swarm of bees which lighted on the 
lips of the infant. The studies of Virgil com- 
menced at Cremona, where he remained till 
he assumed the toga virilis ; and to this day 
the inhabitants of Cremona pretend to show a 
house, in the street of St. Bartholomew, in 
which Virgil resided when a youth. At the age 
of sixteen, he removed to Milan, and shortly 
afterwards to Naples, where he laid the foun- 
dation of that multifarious learning which 
shines so conspicuously in the jEneid, and 
which he employed with such judgment, as 
richly to merit the eulogy of Macrobius — 
"Virgilius quern nullius unquam disciplinae 
error involvit." During his residence in this 
city, he perused the most celebrated Greek 
"writers, being instructed in their language and 
literature by Parthenius Nicenus, well known 
as the author of a collection of amatory tales, 
which he wrote for the use of Cornelius Gallus, 
in order to furnish him with materials for ele- 
gies and other poems. Virgil likewise carefully 
read the Greek historians, particularly Thucy- 
dides, and he studied the Epicurean system of 
philosophy under Syro, a celebrated teacher of 
that sect. But medicine and mathematics were 
the sciences to which he was chiefly addicted; 
and to this early tincture of geometrical know- 
ledge may, perhaps, in some degree, be ascribed 
his ideas of luminous order and masterly ar- 
rangement, and that regularity of thought, as 
well as exactness of expression, by which all 
his writings are distinguished. The battle of 
Modena was fought in 711, and the triumvi- 
rate, having been shortly afterwards formed, 
Vedius Pollio was appointed, on the part of 
Antony, to the command of the district in which 
the farm of Virgil lay, Pollio, who was a noted 



extortioner, levied enormous contributions from 
the inhabitants of the territory intrusted to his 
care ; and in some instances, when the pecu- 
niary supplies failed, he drove the ancient colo- 
nists from their lands, and settled his veterans 
in their place. He was fond, however, of po- 
etry, and was a generous protector of literary 
men. The rising genius of Virgil had now 
begun to manifest itself His poetic talents, 
■and amiable manners, recommended him to the 
favour of Pollio ; and so long as that chief con- 
tinued in the command of the Mantuan district, 
he was relieved from all exaction, and protect- 
ed in the peaceable possession of his property. 
But the tranquillity which he enjoyed under the 
protection of Pollio was of short duration. Pre- 
viously to the battle of Philippi, the triumvirs 
had promised to their soldiers the land belong- 
ing to some of the richest towns in the empire. 
Cremona had unfortunately espoused the cause 
of Brutus, and thus peculiarly incurred the ven- 
geance of the victorious party. But as lis ter- 
ritory was not found adequate to contain the 
veteran soldiers ofthetriumvirs,amongstwhom 
it had been divided, the deficiency was supplied 
from the neighbouring district of Mantua, in 
which the farm of Virgil lay. Pollio, being a 
zealous partisan of Antony, and supporting the 
party of his brother and Fulvia, who unsuc- 
cessfully opposed the division of the lands, had 
it probably no longer in his power to protect 
Virgil from the aggressions of the soldiery. He 
was dispossessed under circumstances of pecu- 
liar violence, and which even threatened danger 
to his personal safety ; being compelled on one 
occasion, to escape from the fury of the centu- 
rion Arrius, by swimming the Mincius. He 
had the good fortune, however, to obtain the 
favour of Alphenus Varus, with whom he had 
studied philosophy at Naples, under Syro the 
Epicurean, and who now either succeeded 
Pollio in the command of the district, or was 
appointed by Augustus to superintend in that 
quarter the division of the lands. Under his 
protection Virgil twice repaired to Rome, where 
he was favourably received not only by Msece- 
nas, but Augustus himself, from whom he pro- 
cured the restoration of the patrimony of which 
he had been deprived. This happened in the 
commencement of the year 714 ; and during the 
course of that season, in gratitude for the fa- 
vours he had received, he composed his eclogue 
entitled TitAjrus, in which he introduces two 
shepherds, one of whom laments the distraction 
of the times, and complains of the aggressions 
of the soldiery, while the other rejoices for the 
recovery of his farm, and promises ever to 
honour as a god the youth who had restored it. 
The situation of Virgil's residence was low and 
humid, and the climate chill at certain seasons 
of the year. His delicate constitution, and the 
pulmonary complaints with which he was af- 
fected, induced him, about the year 714 or 715, 
when he had reached the age of thirty, to seek 
a warmer sky. To this change, it may be 
conjectured, he \vas farther instigated b,y his 
increasing celebrity, and the extension of his 
poetic fame. His countrymen were captivated 
by the perfect novelty of pastoral composition, 
and by the successful boldness with which Vir- 
gil had transferred the sweet Sicilian strains to 
a language which, before his attempt, must 
C55 



VI 



HISTORY, &c. 



VI 



have appeared, from its harshness and severity, 
but little adapted to be a vehicle for the softness 
of rural description, or the delicacy of amorous 
sentiment, and which had scarcely yet been 
polished or refined to the susceptibility of such 
smooth numbers as the pastoral muse demand- 
ed. The bucolics, accordingly, were relished 
and admired by all classes of his contempora- 
ries. So universal was their popularity, that 
the philosophic eclogue of Siknus, soon after 
its composition, was publicly recited in the the- 
atre by Cytheris, a celebrated mi ma, who was 
then the mistress of Aniony and Cornelius Gal- 
lus, and who, in her earlier years, had touched 
the heart of Brutus. On quitting his paternal 
fields, Virgil first proceeded to the capital. 
Here his private fortune was considerably aug- 
mented by the liberality of Maecenas ; and such 
was the favour he possessed with his patron, 
that we find him, soon after his arrival at Rome, 
mtrodiicing Horace to the notice of the minister, 
and attending him, alone with that poet, on a 
political mission to Brundisium. At the period 
when Virgil enjoyed so much honour and pop- 
ularity in the capital, Naples was a favourite 
retreat of illustrious and literary men — the 
" studio florentes ignobilis oti," who longed to 
jjrosecute in repose light and agreeable studies. 
There Virgil retired, about 717, when in the 
33d year of his age ; and he continued during 
the remainer of his life, to dwell chiefly in that 
city, or at a delightful villa which he possessed 
in the Campania Felix, in the neighbourhood 
of Nola, ten miles east from Naples, — leading 
a life which may be considered as happy, when 
compared with the fate of the other great epic 
poets. Homer, Tasso, and Milton, in whom the 
mind or the vision was darkened. About the 
time when he first went to reside at Naples, he 
commenced his Georgics, by order of Maecenas, 
and continued, for the seven following years, 
closely occupied with the composition of that 
inimitable poem. During this long period, he 
was accustomed to dictate a number of verses 
in the morning, and to spend the rest of the 
day in revising and correcting them, or reducing 
them to a smaller number — comparing himself 
in this respect, to a she bear, which licks her 
misshapen offspring into proper form and pro- 
portion. It was not till he had finished this 
subject with unrivalled success that he presum- 
ed to write the iEneid. This poem, which oc- 
cupied him till his death, was commenced in 
724, the same year in which he had completed 
the Georgics, After he had been engaged for 
some time in its composition, the greatest curi- 
osity and interest concerning it began to be felt 
at Rome. A work, it was generally believed, 
was in progress which would eclipse the fame 
of the Iliad; and the passage which describes 
the shield of .^neas, appears to have been seen 
by Propertius. Augustus himself at length 
became desirous to read the poem, so far as it 
had been carried ; and, in the year 729, while 
absent from Rome on a military expedition 
against the Cantabrians, he wrote to the author 
from the extremity of his empire, intreating to 
be allowed a perusal of it. Macrobius had pre- 
served one of Virgil's answers to Augustus: — 
" I have of late received from you frequent let- 
ters. With regard to my iEneas, if, by Her- 
cules, it were worth your listening to, I should 



willingly send it. But so vast is the undertak- 
ing, that I almost appear to myself to have com- 
menced such a work from some defect in judg- 
ment or understanding ; especially since, as you 
know, other and far higher studies are required 
for such a performance." Having brought the 
^Eneid to a conclusion, but not to the perfection 
which he wished to bestow on it, Virgil, con- 
trary to the advice and wish of his friends, re- 
solved to travel into Greece, that he might cor- 
rect and polish this great production at leisure, 
in that land of poetic imagination. Virgil pro- 
ceeded directly to Athens, where he commenced 
the revisal of his epic poem, and added the 
magnificent introduction to the third book ot 
the Georgics. — He had been thus engaged for 
some months at Athens, when Augustus arrived 
in that city, on his return to Italy, from a pro- 
gress through his eastern dominions. The 
arrival of Augustus, however, induced him to 
shorten his stay, and to embrace the opportu- 
nity of returning to Italy in the retinue of the 
emperor. But the hand of death was already 
upon him. From his youth he had been of a 
delicate constitution ; and as age advanced, he 
was afflicted with frequent headaches, asthma, 
and spitting of blood. Even the climate of 
Naples could not preserve him from frequent 
attacks of these maladies, and their worst symp- 
toms had increased during his residence in 
Greece. The vessel in which he embarked 
with the emperor, touched at Megara, where 
he was seized with great debility, and languor. 
When he again went on board, his distemper 
was so increased by the motion and agitation of 
the vessel, that he expired a few days after he 
had landed at Brundisium, on the southeastern 
coast of Italy. His death happened in the year 
734, when he was in the fifty-first year of his 
age. When he felt its near approach, he order- 
ed his friends, Varius and Ploiius Tucca, who 
were then with him, to burn ihe ^neid, as an 
imperfect poem. Augustus, however, inter- 
posed to save a work, which he no doubt fore- 
saw would at once confer immortality on the 
poet, and on the prince who patronised him. It 
was accordingly intrusted to Varius and Tucca, 
with a power to revise and retrench, but with 
a charge that they should make no additions ; 
a command which they so strictly observed, as 
not to complete even the hemistichs, which had 
been left imperfect. Virgil bequeathed the 
greater part of his wealth, which was consider- 
able, to a brother. The remainder was divided 
among his patrons, Maecenas and his friends 
Varius and Tucca, Before his death he had 
also commanded that his bones should be car- 
ried to Naples, where he had lived so long and 
so happily. This order was fulfilled under 
charge of Augustus himself. The excellence 
of Virgil's eclogues appears to have been re- 
garded by his countrymen as precluding all at- 
tempts of a similar description, for no swains 
were taught, by any subsequent poet, to touch 
the rustic pipe till Calpurnius ventured his 
feeble efforts in the latest ages of Roman lite- 
rature. The poem, entitled the Georgics, which, 
in succession of time, was the next work of 
Virgil, is as remarkable for majesty and mag- 
nificence of diction, as the eclogues are for 
sweetness and harmony of versification. It is 
the most complete, elaborate, and finished poem, 



VI 



HISTORY, &c. 



VI 



in the Latin, or perhaps any other language ; 
and though the choice of subject, and the sit- 
uations, afforded less expectation of success 
than the pastorals, so much has been achieved 
by art and genius, that the author has chiefly 
exhibited himself as a poet on topics where it 
was most difficult to appear as such. Rome, 
from its local situation, was not well adapted for 
commerce ; and from the time of Romulus to 
that of C^sar, agriculture had been the chief 
care of the Romans. Its operations were con- 
ducted by the greatest statesmen, and its pre- 
cepts inculcated by the profoundest scholars. 
The long continuance, however, and cruel rav- 
ages of the civil wars, had now occasioned an 
almost general desolation. Italy was, in a great 
measure, depopulated of its husbandmen. The 
soldiers by whom the lands were newly occu- 
pied, had too long ravaged the fields to think of 
cultivating them ; and, in consequence of the 
farms lying waste, a famine and insurrection 
had nearly ensued. In these circumstances 
Maecenas resolved, if possible, to revive the 
decayed spirit of agriculture, to recall the lost 
habits of peaceful industry, and to make rural 
improvement, as it had been in former times, 
the prevailing amusement among the great: 
and he wisely judged, that no method was so 
likely to contribute to these important objects, 
as a recommendation of agriculture by all the 
insinuating charms of poetry. At his sugges- 
tion, accordingly, Virgil commenced his Geor- 
gics, which was thus in some degree under- 
taken from a political motive, and with a view 
to promote the welfare of his country. But 
though written with a patriotic object — by order 
of a Roman statesman — and on a subject pecu- 
liarly Roman, the imitative spirit of Latin poetry 
still prevailed, and the author could not avoid 
recurring even in his Georgics to a Grecian 
model. A few verses on the signs and prognos- 
tics of weather have been translated from the 
PhcBnomena of Aratus. But the WorJcs and 
Days of Hesiod is the pattern which he has 
chiefly held in view. In reference to his imi- 
tation of this model, he himself stiles his Geor- 
gics an Ascreisan poem ; and he appears, indeed, 
to have been a sincere admirer of the ancient 
bard. We come now to the jEneid, a work 
■which belongs to a nobler class of poetry than 
the Georgics, and is perhaps equally perfect in 
its kind. It ranks, indeed, in the very highest 
order, and it was in this exalted species that 
Virgil was most fitted to excel. No one who 
has read the Mneid, and studied the historical 
character of Augustus, or the early events of 
his reign, can doubt that iEneas is an allegorical 
representation of that emperor. Warburton 
has attempted to prove, in his Divine Legation 
of Moses, that the descent of ^neas to the in- 
fernal regions is a figurative description of an 
initiation into' the Eleusinian mysteries. The 
author has, no doubt, pursued the allegory too 
far, and has wrought up some fanciful coinci- 
dences. But in many steps of the hero's prog- 
ress through the three estates of the dead, he 
has successfully shown the exact conformity of 
his adventures with the trials undergone by the 
initiated. Now, it is matter of historical record, 
that, during a residence at Athens, Augustus 
passed through all the mysteries and ceremonies 
"which the Grecian priesthood had instituted, to 
Part II.— 4 O 



confirm the doctrine of a future state of rewards 
and punishments ; but he highly respected the 
secrecy of these rites, and hence Virgil was 
obliged to cover the whole with a thick veil of 
allegory. Turnus is Antony. It is remarkable, 
that during the most abject age of court flattery, 
a certain tenderness was shown by the Latin 
poets towards the character of this implacable 
but Roman enemy of Augustus. This feeling 
is observable in the writings of Horace, who, 
in his political odes, casts all the odium on 
Cleopatra, but spares her infatuated lover. In 
like manner, none of the darker shades of dis- 
position are thrown into the character of Tur- 
nus. He is represented as a bold though some- 
what rude warrior, and an ardent lover ; and 
his defects are concealed, as those of Antony in 
some degree were, by frankness, generosity, and 
the lustre of a daring courage. Evander, the 
ancient friend of Anchises, and ally of ^neas, 
typifies the old Caesar cans who joined the party 
of Augustus against Antony ; Achates is Agrip- 
pa; Lavinia — Livia; Latinus — Lepidus ; and 
the furious Amata is Fulvia, who, by her tur- 
bulent spirit, incensed the people against Caesar, 
and excited the Perugian war. We should be 
sorry to think that Virgil meant to represent 
Cicero by the wretched declaimer Drances ; 
but his enmity to Turnus, who is Antony, gives 
plausibility to the conjecture. The features of 
his character may not correspond with those of 
Cicero's, but they have some analogy to those 
which the calumnies of the age attributed to 
him. Besides the well-known and authentic 
works of Virgil, several poems still exist, which 
are very generally ascribed to him, but which, 
from their inferiority, are supposed to be the 
productions of his early youth. Of these the 
longest is the Culex, which has been translated 
by Spenser, under the title of Virgil's Gnat. 
There can be no doubt, from two epigrams of 
Martial, that there was a poem called Culex, 
which had been written by Virgil. But it may 
be questioned if the Culex, to which Martial 
alludes, be the same with the poem under that 
name which we now possess. The Culex, which 
still appears in some of the editions of Virgil, 
is not without passages of considerable merit, 
but it exhibits few marks of the taste and judg- 
ment of Virgil. The subject of the Culex may 
be considered as partly pastoral and partly mock 
heroic ; but the mockery is of a gentle and del- 
icate description, and much real beauty and 
tenderness break out amid the assumed so- 
lemnity. By far the finest, and probably the 
most genuine, passage of the poem, is that near 
the beginning, in which the author describes 
the goatherd leading out his flocks to their pas- 
ture, and in which he descants on the pleasures 
of a country life. As amended by Heyne, and 
cleared from the interpolations of the scholiasts, 
we may find in it the germe of those flowers of 
song, which afterwards expanded to such ma- 
turity and perfection in the Georgics. The Ciris, 
a poem of the same doubtful authenticity with 
the Culex, and which some commentators have 
attributed to Cornelius Gallus, records the well- 
known mythological fable of Scylla, daughter 
of Nisus; who, having become enamoured of 
Minos, the enemy of her father, cut off from 
her parent's head the fatal lock which preserved 
his kingdom. In detestation of the act, Minos, 
C57 



VI 



HISTORY, &c. 



VI 



on his voyage home from Crete to Megara, 
fastened her to the side of his vessel, and thus 
dragged her along through the sea, to the utter 
amazement of Tethys and the seanymphs, who 
betray much curiosity on the occasion. She is 
at length relieved by her transformation into 
the bird called Ciris, from which the poem de- 
rives its title. From the Ciris, Spenser, who had 
translated the Culex, imitated a long passage, 
which constitutes part of the Legend of Brito- 
mart, in the third book of the Fairy Queen. The 
conversations between Britomart and her nurse 
Glauce, who presses her to reveal the object 
of her passion, as also the incantations em- 
ployed by the beldam, correspond closely with 
the discourse between Scylla and Carme, and 
the enchantments of the latter. The Moretum 
would certainly be a curious and interesting 
production, could it be authenticated as the 
work of Virgil, or even of Septimius Serenus, 
to whom Wernsdorff has ascribed it, and who 
flourished at Rome during the reigns of the 
Flavian family. Its subject is one concerning 
which few relics have descended to us from an- 
tiquity. It gives an account of the occupations 
and everyday life of an Italian peasant, and, 
so far as it goes, every thing is related with the 
greatest minuteness ; but the employments only 
of the morning are recorded. The Copa merely 
contains an invitation from a hostess, who was 
a native of Syria, to pass the hours merrily in 
a place of entertainment which she kept beyond 
the gates of Rome : but a good-humoured drink- 
ing song, by the majestic author of the Georgics 
and jE7ieid, is in itself a curiosity. A few of 
the lines, though some barbarisms of expressions 
occur, are also written with considerable spirit, 
and present not an uninteresting picture of the 
manners that prevailed in those hostels which 
stood beyond the walls of the city, on the banks 
of the Tiber or shore of Ostia. We here learn 
what were the usual preparations of a Syrian 
hostess two thousand years ago on the banks 
of the Tiber; and it is said, that, at this day, 
the bread and the wine, the mulberries, grapes, 
vine leaves, and chestnuts, are the ordinary 
luxuries and enjoyments of similar places of 
entertainment now existing in Italy. Among 
the very numerous and excellent editions of 
Virgil, these few may be collected as the best ; 
that of Masvicius, 2 vols, 4to. Leovardiae, 1717; 
Baskerville, 4to. Birmingham, 1757; of the 
Variorum, in 8vo. L. Bat. 1661 ; of Heyne, 
4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1767; of Edinburgh, 2 vols. 
12mo. 1755 ; and of Glasgow, 12mo. 1758. 



II. Caius, a praetor of Sicily, who, when Cicero 
was banished, refused to receive the exiled 
orator, though his friend, for fear of the resent- 
ment of Clodius. Cic. ad Q. Frater. 

Virginia, a daughter of the centurion L. Vir- 
ginius. Appius Claudius, the decemvir, became 
enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her 
from the place where she resided. She was 
claimed by one of his favourites as the daughter 
of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with 
the authority of judge, had pronounced the sen- 
tence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent 
proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father 
demanded to see his daughter, and when this 
request was granted, he snatched a knife and 
plunged it into Virginia's breast, exclaiming, 
658 



This is all, my dearest daughter, lean give thee, 
to preserve thy chastity f ram, the lust and violence 
of a tyrant. No sooner was the blow given, 
than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody 
knife in his hand. The soldiers were astonish- 
ed and incensed, not against the murderer, but 
the tyrant that was the cause of Virginia's 
death, and they immediately marched to Rome. 
Appius was seized, but he destroyed himself in 
prison, and prevented the execution of the law. 
Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs, who 
had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed him- 
self also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favourite 
of Appius, was put to death, and the decem viral 
power abolished, about 449 years before Christ. 
Liv. 3, c. 44, &C.—JUV. 10, v. 294. 
Virginius, I. the father of Virginia, made 

tribune of the people. Vid. Virginia. II. 

A tribune of the people, who accused Q,. Cseso, 
the son of Cincinnatus. He increased the num- 
ber of the tribunes to ten, and distinguished 
himself by his seditions against the patricians. 
Ill, Another tribune, in the age of Camil- 



lus, fined for his opposition to a law which pro- 
posed going to Veil." IV. Caius, a praetor of 

Sicily, who opposed the entrance of Cicero into 
his province, though under many obligations to 

the orator. Some read Virgilius. V. One 

of the generals of Nero in Germany. He made 
war against Vindex, and conquered him. He 
was treated with great coldness by Galba, whose 
interest he had supported with so much success. 
He refused ail dangerous stations,, and, though 
twice offered the imperial purple, he rejected it 
with disdain. Plut. 

ViRiATHus, a mean shepherd of Lusitania, 
who gradually rose to power, and by first head- 
ing a gang of robbers, saw himself at last fol- 
lowed by a numerous army. He made war 
against the Romans with uncommon success, 
and for 14 years enjoyed the envied title of pro- 
tector of public liberty in the provinces of Spain. 
Many generals were defeated, and Pompey him- 
self was ashamed to find himself beaten. Csepio 
was at last sent against him. But his despair 
of conquering him by force of arms, obliged him 
to have recourse to artifice, and he had the 
meanness to bribe the servants of Viriathus to 
murder their master, B. C. 40. Flor. 2, c. 17. 
— Val. Max. 6, c. 4. — Liv. 52 and 54. 

ViRiDOMARUs, a young man of great power 
among the Mdim. Csesar greatly honoured 
him, but he fought at last against the Romans. 
Cas. Bell. G. 7, c. 39, &c. 

ViTELLius AuLUs, I. a Roman, raised by his 
vices to the throne. He was descended from 
one of the most illustrious families of Rome, 
and as such he gained an easy admission to the 
palace of the emperors. The greatest part of his 
youth was spent at Capreas, where his willing- 
ness and compliance to gratify the most vicious 
propensities of Tiberius, raised his father to the 
dignity of consul and governor of Syria. The 
applause he gained in this school of debauchery 
was too flattering to allow Vitelliusto alter his 
conduct, and no longer to be one of the votaries 
of vice. Caligula was pleased with his skill in 
driving a chariot. Claudius loved him because 
he was a great gamester, and he recommended 
himself to the favours of Nero by wishing him 
10 sing publicly in the crowded theatre. He 
[ did not fall with his patrons, like the other fa- 



VI 



HISTORY, &c. 



UL 



vourites, but the death of an emperor seemed to 
raise him to greater honours. He passed through 
all the honours of the state, and gained the sol- 
diery by donations and liberal promises. He 
was at the head of the Roman legions in Ger- 
many when Otho was proclaimed emperor, and 
the exaltation of his rival was no sooner heard 
in the camp, than he was likewise invested 
with the purple by his soldiers. He accepted 
with pleasure the dangerous office, and instant- 
ly marched against Otho. Three battles were 
fought, and in all Vitellius was conquered. A 
fourth, however, in the plains between Mantua 
and Cremona left him master of the field and 
of the Roman empire. Vitellius feasted four 
or five times a day. The most celebrated of his 
feasts was that with which he was treated by 
his brother Lucius. The table, among other 
meats, was covered with two thousand different 
dishes of fish, and seven thousand of fowls ; 
and so expeusive was he in every thing, that 
above seven millions sterling were spent in 
maintaining his table in the space of four 
months : and Josephus has properly observed, 
that if Vitellius had reigned long, the great 
opulence of all the Roman empire would have 
been found insufficient to defray the expenses 
of his banquets. This extravagance, which 
delighted the favourites, soon raised the indig- 
nation of the people. Vespasian was proclaim- 
ed emperor by the army, and his minister Pri- 
mus was sent to destroy the imperial glutton. 
Vitellius concealed himself under the bed of 
the porter of his palace, but this obscure retreat 
betrayed him ; he was dragged naked through 
the streets, his hands were tied behind his back, 
and a drawn sword was placed under his chin 
to make him lift his head. After suffi;ring the 
greatest insults from the populace, he was at 
last carried to the place of execution, and put 
to death with repeated blows. His head was 
cut off and fixed to a pole, and his mutilated 
body dragged with a hook and thrown into the 
Tiber, A. D. 69, after a reign of one year, ex- 
cept 12 days. Siiet. — Tacit. Hist. 2. — Eutrop. 

— Dio. — Plut. II. Lucius, the father of the 

emperor, obtained great honours by his flattery 
to the emperors. He was made governor of 
Syria, and in. this distant province he obliged 
the Parthians to sue for peace. His adulation 
to Messalina, is well known, and he obtained, 
as a particular favour, the honourable office of 
pulling off the shoes of the emperess. Suet. 

III. Publius, an uncle of the emperor of 

that name. He was accused under Nero of at- 
tempts to bribe the people with money from the 
treasury against the emperor. He killed him- 
self before his trial. IV. A son of the em- 
peror Vitellius, put to death by one of his 

father's friends. Some of the family of the 

Vitellii conspired with the Aquilii and other 
illustrious Romans, to restore Tarquin to his 
throne. Their conspiracy was discovered by 
the consuls, and they were severely punished. 
Plut. 

ViTRUvsus, M. PoLLio, a celebrated architect 
in the age of Augustus, born at Formiae. He is 
known only by his writings, and nothing is re- 
corded in history of his life or private charac- 
ter. He wrote a treatise on bis profession, 
which he dedicated to Augustus, and it is the 
only book on architecture, now extant, written 



by the ancients. In this work he shows that 
he was master of his profession. The best edi- 
tion of Vitruvius is that of De Laet, Amst. 1649. 

Ulpianus Domitius, a lawyer in the reign of 
Alexander Severus, of whom he became the 
secretary and principal minister. He raised a 
persecution against the Christians, and was at 
last murdered by the praitorian guards, of which 
he had the command, A. D. 226. There are 
some fragments of his compositions on civil 
law still extant. The Greek commentaries of 
Ulpian on Demosthenes were printed in fol. 
1527, apud Aldum. 

Ulysses, a king of the islands of Ithaca and 
Dulichium, son of Anticlea and Laertes, or, 
according to some, of Sisyphus. Vid. Sisyphus 
and Anticlea. He became, like the other prin- 
ces of Greece, one of the suiters of Helen ; but 
as he despaired of success in his applications, 
on account of the great number of his compet- 
itors, he solicited the hand of Penelope, the 
daughter of Icarius. The rape of Helen, 
however, by Paris, did not long permit him to 
remain in his kingdom, and as he was bound to 
defend her against every intruder, he was sum- 
moned to the war with the other princes of 
Greece. Pretending to be insane, not to leave 
his beloved Penelope, he yoked a horse and a 
bull together, and ploughed the seashore, Avhere 
he sowed salt instead of corn. This dissimula- 
tion was soon discovered, and Pdamedes, by 
placing before the plough of Ulysses, his infant 
son Telemachus, convinced the world that the 
father was not mad who had the providence to 
turn away the plough from the furrow not to 
hurt his child. Ulysses was therefore obliged 
to go to the war, but he did not forget him who 
had discovered his pretended insanity. Vid. 
Palamedes. During the Trojan war, the king 
of Ithaca was courted for his superior prudence 
and sagacity. By his means Achilles was dis- 
covered among the daughters of Lycomedes, 
king of Scja'os, ( Vid. Achilles,^ and Philoctetes 
was induced to abandon Lemnos, and to fight 
the Trojans with the arrows of Hercules. Vid. 
Philoctetes. He was not less distinguished for 
his activity and valour. With the assistance 
of Diomedes, he murdered Rhesus, and slaugh- 
tered the sleeping Thracians in the midst of 
their camp, {Vid. Rhesus and Dolon,) and h-e 
introduced himself into the city of Priam, and 
carried away the Palladium of the Trojans. 
Vid. Palladium. For these eminent services 
he was universally applauded by the Greeks, 
and he was rewarded with the arms of Achilles, 
which Ajax had disputed with him. After the 
Trojan war, Ulysses embarked on board his 
ships to return to Greece, but he was exposed to 
a number of misfortunes before he reached 
his native country. He was thrown by the 
winds upon the coasts of Africa, and visited 
the country of the Lotophagi, and of the Cy- 
clops in Sicily. Polyphemus, who was the king 
of the Cyclops, seized Ulysses with his com- 
panions, five of whom he devoured, ( Vid. Poly- 
phemus,^ but the prince of Ithaca intoxicated 
him and put out his eye, and at last escaped from 
the dangerous cave where he was confined, by 
tying himself under the belly of the sheep of the 
Cyclops when led to pasture. In JEolia he met 
with a friendly reception, and iEolus gave him, 
confined in bags, all the winds which could ob- 
659 



UL 



HISTORY, &c. 



VU 



struct his return to Ithaca, but the curiosity of 
his companions to know what the bags contain- 
ed, proved nearly fatal. The winds rushed 
with impetuosity, and all the fleet was destroyed 
except the ship which carried Ulysses. From 
thence he was thrown upon the coasts of the 
Laestrigones, and of the island Mdea., where the 
magician Circe changed all his companions 
into pigs for their voluptuousness. He escaped 
their fate by means of an herb which he had re- 
ceived from Mercury, and after he had obliged 
the magician by force of arms to restore his 
compaiiiions to their original shape, he yielded 
to her charms, and made her mother of Telego- 
nus. He visited the infernal regions, and con- 
sulted Tiresius how to regain his country in 
safety ; and, after he had received every neces- 
sary information, he returned on earth. He 
passed along the coasts of the Sirens unhurt, 
by the directions of Circe, (Vid. Sirenes,) and 
escaped the whirlpools and shoals of Scylla and 
Charybdis. On the coasts of Sicily, his compan- 
ions stole and killed some oxen that were sacred 
to Apollo, for which the god destroyed the ships, 
and all were drowned except Ulysses, who saved 
himself on a plank, and swam to the island of 
Calypso, in Ogygia. There, for seven years, he 
forgot Ithaca, in the arms of the goddess, by 
whom he had two children. The gods at last 
interfered, and Calypso, by order of Mercury, 
suifered him to depart after she had furnished 
him with a ship, and every thing requisite for a 
voyage. He had almost reached the island of 
Corcyra, when Neptune, still mindful that his 
son Polyphemus had been robbed of his sight 
by the perfidy of Ulysses, raised a storm and 
sunk his ship. Ulysses swam with difficulty to 
the island of the Phseacians, where the kindness 
of Nausica, and the humanity of her father. 
King Alcinous, entertained him for a while. 
He related the series of his misfortunes to the 
monarch, and at last, by his benevolence, he 
was conducted in a ship to Ithaca. The Phaea- 
cians laid him on the seashore as he was asleep, 
and Ulysses found himself safely restored to 
his country, after a long absence of 20 years. 
He was well informed that his palace was be- 
sieged by a number of suiters, who continually 
disturbed the peace of Penelope, and therefore 
he assumed the habit of a beggar, by the advice 
of Minerva, and made himself known to his 
son, and his faithful shepherd Eumaeus. With 
them he took measures to re-establish himself 
on his throne ; he went to the palace, and was 
personally convinced of the virtues and of the 
fidelity of Penelope. Before his arrival was 
publicly known, all the importuning suiters were 
put to death, and Ulysses restored to the peace 
and bosom of his family. Vid. Laertes, Pene- 
lope, Telemachus, Eumaus. He lived about 
sixteen years after his return, and was at last 
killed by his son Telegonus, who had landed 
in Ithaca with the hopes of making himself 
known to his father. This unfortunate event 
had been foretold to him by Tiresias, who 
assured him that he should die by the violence 
of something that was to issue from the bosom 
of the sea. Vid. Telegonus. According to 
some authors, Ulysses went to consult the oracle 
of Apollo, after his return to Ithaca, and he had 
the meanness to seduce Erippe, the daughter of 
a king of Epirus, who had treated him with 
6G0 



great kindness, Erippe had a son by him whom 
she called Euryalus. When come to years of 
puberty, Euryalus was sent to Ithaca by his 
mother ; but when Ulysses returned, he put to 
immediate death his unknown son, on the crim- 
ination of Penelope, his wife, who accused him 
of attempts upon her virtue. The adventures 
of Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca from the 
Trojan war, are the subject of Homer's Odys- 
sey. Homer. II. <f Od.— Virg. JEn. 2, 3, &c. 
—Dictys Cret. 1, &c.— Ovid. Met. 13.— He- 
roid. 1. — Hygin. fab. 201, &c. — Apollod. 3, c. 
IQ.—Paus. 1, c. 17 and 22, 1. 3, c. 12, 1. 7, c. 4. 
—jElian. V. H. 13, c. 12.— Horat. 3, Od. 29, 
V. 8.—Parthen. Erot. 3.—Plut.—Plin. 35.— 
Tzetz. ad Lye. 

Undecemviri, magistrates at Athens, to 
whom such as were publicly condemned were 
delivered to be executed. C. Nep. in Phoc. 

VocoNiA Lex, de testamentis, by Q,. Voconius 
Saxa, the tribune, A. U. C. 584, enacted that 
no woman should be left heiress to an estate, 
and that no rich person should leave by his will 
more than the fourth part of his fortune to a 
woman. This step. was taken to prevent the 
decay of the noblest and most illustrious of the 
families of Rome. This law was abrogated by 
Augustus. 

VoLOGESES, a name common to many of the 
kings of Parthia, who made war against the 
Roman emperors. Tacit. 12, Ann. 14. 

VoLsci. Vid. Part I. 

VoLUMNius, (T.) I. a Roman, famous for his 
friendship towards M. Lucullus, whom M. 
Antony had put to death. His great lamenta- 
tions were the cause that he was dragged to the 
triumvir, of whom he demanded to be conducted 
to the body of his friend, and there to be put to 
death. His request was easily granted. Liv. 
124, c. 20. II. An Etrurian, who wrote tra- 
gedies in his native language. III. a consul, 

who defeated the Samnites and the Etrurians. 

Liv. 9. IV. A friend of M. Brutus. He 

wrote an account of his death and of his actions, 
from which Plutarch selected some remarks. 

VoLusius, I. a poet of Patavia, who wrote, 
like Ennius, the annals of Rome in verse. 

Seneca, ep. 93. — Catull. 96, v. 7. II. Satur- 

ninus, a governor of Rome, who died in the 
93d year of his age, beloved and respected un- 
der Nero. Tacit. Ann. 13. 

VoLUX, a son of Bacchus, whom the Romans 
defeated. Sylla suspected his fidelity. Sallust. 
Jug. 105. 

VoNoNEs, I. a king of Parthia, expelled by 
his subjects, and afterwards placed on the 
throne of Armenia. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 14. 
II. Another, king of Armenia. III. A 



man made king of Parthia by Augustus. 

Vopiscus, a native of Syracuse, 303 A. D. 
who wrote the life of Aurelian, Tacitus, Flo- 
rianus, Probus, Firmus, Carus, &c. He is one 
of the six authors who are called Historic 
AugustcB scriptores, but he excels all others in 
his style, although we look in vain for the 
purity of the Augustan age. 

VoTiENus MoNTANUS, a man of learning, 
banished to one of the Baleares for his malevo- 
lent reflections upon Tiberius. Ovid has cele- 
brated him as an excellent poet. Tacit. Ann. 
4, c. 42. 

VuLCANALiA, festivals in honour of Vulcan 



XA 



HISTORY, &c. 



XE 



brought to Rome from Praeneste, and observed 
in the month of August. The streets were illu- 
minated, fires kindled every where, and animals 
thrown into the flames, as a sacrifice to the deity. 

Varro. de L. L. 5. Dion. Ual. 1. — Columell. 

IQ.—Plin. 18, c. 13. 

VuLCAMus, Tarentianus, a Latin historian, 
who wrote an account of the life of the three 
Gordiaus, &c. 

VuLCATius, I. a Roman knight, who con- 
spired with Piso against Nero, &c. Tacit. 

II. a senator in the reign of Diocletian, who at- 
tempted to write a history of all such as had 
reigned at Rome. Of his works nothing is ex- 
tant but an account of Avidius Cassius, who 
revolted in the East during the reign of M. Au- 
relius, which some ascribe to Spartianus. 

VuLso, I. a Roman consul who invaded Af- 
rica with Regulus. II. Another consul. He 

had the provinces of Asia while in oflice, and 
triumohed over the Galaiians. 



Xanthica, a festival observed by the Mace- 
donians in the month called Xanthicus, the same 
as April. It was then usual to make a lustration 
of the army with great solemnity. 

Xant&us, a Greek historian of Lydia, who 
wrote an account of his country, of which some 
fragments remain. Dionys. Hal. 

Xantippe, the w^ife of Socrates, remarkable 
for her ill humour and peevish disposition, 
which are become proverbial. Some suppose 
that the philosopher was acquainted with her 
moroseness and insolence before he married 
her, and that he took her for his wife to try his 
patience, and inure himself to the malevolent 
reflections of mankind. She continually tor- 
mented him with her impertinence; and one 
day, not satisfied with using the most bitter in- 
vectives, she emptied a vessel of dirty water on 
his head, upon which the philosopher coolly ob- 
served, after thunder there generaUy falls rain. 
uElian. V. H. 7, c. 10, 1. 9, c. 7, 1. 11, c. 12.— 
Diog. in Socrat. 

Xantippus, I. a Lacedaemonian general, who 
assisted the Carthagmians in the first Punic 
war. He defeated the Romans, 256 B, C. and 
took the celebrated Regulus prisoner. Such 
signal services deserved to be rewarded, but the 
Carthaginians looked with envious jealousy 
upon Xantippus, and he retired to Corinth after 
he had saved them from destruction. Some au- 
thors support that the Carthaginians ordered him 
to be assassinated, and his body to be thro-uii 
into the sea, as he was returning home ; while 
others say that they had prepared a leaky ship 
to convey him to Corinth, which he artfully 
avoided. Liv. 18 and 28, c. 43. — Appian. de 
Pun. II. An Athenian general, who defeat- 
ed the Persian fleet at Mycale with Leotychides. 
A statue was erected to his honour in the citadel 
of Athens. He made some conquests in Thrace, 
and increased the power of Athens. He was 
father to the celebrated Pericles by Agariste the 
niece of Clisthenes, who expelled the Pisistra- 
tidae from Athens. Paus. 3, c. 7, 1. 8, c. 52. 

III. A son of Pericles, who disgraced his 

father by his disobedience, his ingratitude, and 
his extravagance. He died of the plague in 
the Peloponnesian war. Pint. 



Xenarchus, I. a peripatetic philosopher of 
Seleucia, who taught at Alexandria and at 
Rome, and was intimate with Augustus, Strab. 

14. II. A praetor of the Achsean league, 

who wished to favour the interest of Perseus, 
king of Macedonia, against the Romans. 

Xeniades, a Corinthian, who went to buy 
Diogenes the cynic when sold as a slave. He 
asked him what he could do "? upon which the 
"Cynic answered, Command freem&n. This no- 
ble answer so pleased Xeniades, that he gave 
the cjTiic his liberty, and intrusted him with 
the care and education of his children. Diog. 
— Gell.% c. 18. 

Xenocles, a tragic writer, who obtained four 
times a poetical prize, in a contention in which 
Euripides was competitor, either through the 
ignorance or by the bribery of his judges. The 
names of his tragedies which obtained the vic- 
tory, were (Edipus, Lycaon,Bacchae, Athamas 
Satyricus, against the Alexander, Palamedes, 
Trojani, and Sisyphus Satyricus, of Euripides. 
His grandson bore also the name of Xenocles, 
and excelled in tragical compositions. uElian. 
V. H. 2, c. 8. 

Xenocrates, I. an ancient philosopher, bom 
at Chalcedon, and educated in the school of Pla- 
to, whose friendship he gained and whose ap- 
probation he merited. Though of a dull and 
sluggish disposition, he supplied the defects of 
nature by unwearied attention and industry, and 
was at last found capable of succeeding in the 
school of Plato after Speusippus, about 339 years 
before Christ. He was remarkable as a disci- 
plinarian, and he required that his pupils should 
be acquainted with mathematics before they 
came under his care, and he even rejected some 
who had not the necessary qualification, saying 
that they had not yet found the key of philoso- 
phy. He did not only recommend himself to his 
pupils by precepts, but more powerfully by ex- 
ample ; and since the wonderful change he had 
made upon the conduct of one of his auditors, 
(Vid. Polemon,) his company was as much 
shunned by the dissolute and extravagant, as it 
was courted by the virtuous and the benevolent. 
Philip of Macedon attempted to gain his con- 
fidence with money, but with no success. Alex- 
ander in this imitated his father, and sent some 
of his friends with 50 talents for the philoso- 
pher. They were introduced, and supped with 
Xenocrates. The repast was small, frugal, and 
elegant without ostentation. On the morrow, the 
officers of Alexander wished to pay down the 
50 talents, but the philosopher asked them whe- 
ther they had not perceived from the entertain- 
ment of the preceding day, that he was not in 
want of money : Tell your master, said he, to 
keep his money, he has more people to maintain 
than 1 have. Yet, not to offend the monarch, 
he accepted a small sum, about the 200th part 
of one talent. His character was not less con- 
spicuous in every other particular, and he has 
been cited as an instance of virtue from the fol- 
lowins: circumstance : Lais had pledged herself 
to forfeit an immense sum of money if she did 
not triumph over the virtue of Xenocrates. She 
tried everv art, but in vain ; and she declared at 
last that she had not lost her money, as she had 
pledged herself to conquer a human being, not a 
lifeless stone; Though so respected and admir- 
ed, yet Xenocrates was poor, and he was drag- 
€61 



XE 



HISTORY, &a 



XE 



ged to prison because he was unable to pay a 
small tribute to the state. He was delivered 
from confinement by one of his friends. His 
integrity was so well known, that when he ap- 
peared in the court as a witness, the judges dis- 
pensed with his oath. He died B. C. 314, in 
his 82d year, after he had presided in the acad- 
emy for above 25 years. It is said that he fell 
in the night with his head into a basin of water, 
and that he was suffocated. He had written 
above 60 treatises on different subjects, all now 
lost. He acknowledged no other deity but hea- 
ven and the seven planets. — Diog. — Cic. ad 
Attic. 10, ep. 1, &c. Tusc. 5, c. Z%—Val. Max. 

2, c. 10. — L/iician. II. A physician in the 

age of Nero, not in great esteem. His Greek 
treatise, de alimento ex aquatilibus, is best edit- 
ed by Franzius, Lips. 8vo. 1774. 

Xenophanes, I. a Greek philosopher of Colo- 
phon, disciple of Archelaus, B. C. 535. He 
wrote several poems and treatises, and founded 
a sect which was called the Eleatic, in Sicily. 
Wild in his opinions about astronomy, he sup- 
posed that the siars were extinguished every 
morning and rekindled at night ; that eclipses 
were occasit)ned by the temporary extinction of 
the sun; that the moon was inhabited, and 18 
times bigger than the earth ; and that there were 
several suns and moons for the convenience of 
the different climates of the earth. He further 
imagined that God and the world were the same, 
and he credited the eternity of the universe ; 
but his incoherent opinion about the divinity 
raised the indignation of his countrymen, and 
he was banished. He died very poor when 
about 100 years old, Cic. quasi. 4, c. 37, de Div. 
1, c. 3, de Nat. D. 1, c. 11. — Lactant. Div. Inst. 

3, c. 23. II. One of the ministers of Philip, 

who went to Annibal's camp, and made a treaty 
of alliance between Macedonia and Carthage. 

Xenophilus, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
who lived to his 170th year, and enjoyed all his 
faculties to the last. He wrote upon music, and 
thence he was called the musician. L/ucian. de 
Macrob.—PUn. 7, c. bO.— Val. Max. 8, c. 13. 

Xenophon, I. an Athenian, son of Gryllus, 
celebrated as a general, an historian, and a phi- 
losopher. In the school of Socrates he received 
those instructions and precepts which after- 
wards so eminently distinguished him at the 
head of an army, in literary solitude, and as 
the father of a family. He was invited by 
Proxenus, one of his intimate friends, to accom- 
pany Cyrus the younger in an expedition against 
his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia ; but he 
refused to comply without previously consult- 
ing his venerable master, and inquiring into 
the propriety of such a measure. Socrates 
strongly opposed it, and observed, that it might 
raise the resentment of his countrymen, as 
Sparta had made an alliance with the Persian 
monarch; but, however, before he proceeded 
further, he advised him to consult the oracle of 
Apollo. Xenophon paid due deference to the 
injunctions of Socrates, but as he was ambi- 
tious of glory, and eager to engage in a distant 
expedition, he hastened with precipitation to 
Sardis, where he was introduced to the young 
prince, and treated with great attention. In the 
army of Cyrus, Xenophon showed that he was 
a true disciple of Socrates, and that he had 
been educated in the warlike city of Athens. 
662 



After the decisive battle in the plains of Ca- 
naxa, and the fall of young Cyrus, the prudence 
and vigour of his mind were called into action. 
The ten thousand Greeks who had followed 
the standard of an ambitious prince, were now 
at the distance of above 600 leagues from their 
native home, in a country surrounded on every 
side by a victorious enemy, without money, 
without provisions, and without a leader. Xe- 
nophon was selected from among the officers 
to superintend the retreat of his countrymen, 
and though he was often opposed by malevo- 
lence and envy, yet his persuasive eloquence 
and his activity convinced the Greeks, that no 
general could extricate them from every diffi- 
culty better than the disciple of Socrates. This 
celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; 
the Greeks returned home after a march of 
1155parasangs, or leagues, which was perform- 
ed in 215 days, after an absence of 15 months. 
Tho whole perhaps might now be forgotten, 
or at least but obscurely known, if the great 
philosopher who planned it, had not employed 
his pen in describing the dangers which he 
escaped, and the difficulties which he surmount- 
ed. He was no sooner returned froni Cunaxa, 
than he sought new honours in following the 
fortune of Agesilaus in Asia. He enjoyed his 
confidence, he fought under his standard, and 
conquered with him in the Asiatic provinces, 
as well as at the battle of Coronas a. His fame, 
however, did not escape the aspersions of jea- 
lousy ; he was publicly banished from Athens 
for accompanying Cyrus against his brother, 
and being now without a home, he retired to 
Scillus, a small town of the Lacedaemonians, in 
the neighbourhood of Olympia, In this soli- 
tary retreat he dedicated his, time to literary 
pursuits, and as he had acquired riches in his 
Asiatic expeditions, he began to adorn and va- 
riegate by the hand of art, for his pleasure and 
enjoyment, the country which surrounded Scil- 
lus. He built a magnificent temple to Diana, 
in imitation of that of Ephesus, and spent part 
of his time in rural employments, or in hunt- 
ing in the woods and mountains. His peace- 
ful occupations, however, were soon disturbed: 
a war arose between the Lacedaemonians and 
Elis ; the sanctity of Diana's temple, and the 
venerable age of the philosopher, who lived in 
the delightful retreats of Scillus, were disre- 
garded ; and Xenophon, driven by the ^Elians 
from his favourite spot, where he had com- 
posed and written for the information of pos- 
terity and honour of his country, retired to the 
city of Corinth. In this place he died, in the 
90th year of his age, 359 years before the Chris- 
tian era. The works of Xenophon are nume- 
rous; he wrote an account of the expedition of 
Cyrus, called the Anabasis, and as he had no 
inconsiderable share in the enterprise, his de- 
scriptions must be authentic, as he was himself 
an eyewitness. Many, however, have accused 
him of partiality. His Cyropcedia, divided into 
eight books, has given rise to much criticism ; 
and while some warmly maintain that it is a 
faithful account of the "life and the actions of 
Cyrus the Great, and declare that it is supported 
by the authority of scripture, others as vehe- 
mently deny its authenticity. According to the 
opinions of Plato and of Cicero, the Cyropsedia 
of Xenophon was a moral romance, and they 



XE 



HISTORY, &c 



XB 



support, that the historian did not so much write 
what Cyrus had been, as what every good and 
virtuous monarch ought to be. His Hellenica 
were written as a continuation of the history of 
Thucydides; and in his Memorabilia of So- 
crates, and in his Apology^ he has shown him- 
self, as Valerius Maximus observes, a perfect 
master of the philosophy of that great man. 
These are the most famous of his compositions, 
besides which there are other small tracts ; his 
eulogium given on Agesilaus, his oeconomics on 
the duties of domestic life, the dialogue entitled 
Hiero, in which he happily describes and com- 
pares the misery which attended the tyrant 
with the felicity of a virtuous prince ; a treatise 
on hunting, the symposium of the philosophers, 
on the government of Athens and Sparta, a 
treatise on the revenues of Attica, &c. The 
simplicity and the elegance of Xenophon's dic- 
tion have procured him the name of the Athe- 
nian muse and the bee of Greece ; and they have 
induced Gluintilian to say, that the graces dic- 
tated his language, and that the goddess of per- 
suasion dwelt upon his lips. His sentiments, 
as to the divinity and religion, were the same as 
those of the venerable Socrates ; he supported 
the immortality of the soul, and exhorted his 
friends to cultivate those virtues which insure 
the happiness of mankind with all the zeal and 
fervour of a Christian. He has been quoted as 
an instance of tenderness and resignation to 
providence. As he was offering a sacrifice, he 
was informed that Grjdlus, his eldest son, had 
been killed at the battle of Mantinea. Upon 
this he tore the garland from his head ; but when 
he was told that his son had died like a Greek, 
and had given a mortal wound to Epaminondas, 
the enemy's general, he replaced the flowers on 
his head, and continued the sacrifice, exclaim- 
ing that the pleasure he derived from the valour 
of his son was greater than the grief which his 
unfortunate death occasioned. The best edi- 
tions of Xenophon are those of Leunclavius, 
fol. Francof 1596 ; of Ernesti, 4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
1763 ; and the Glasgow edition, 12Dao. of the 
Cyropasdia, 1767 ; the expedition of Cyrus, 
1764 ; the Memorabilia, 1761 ; and the histoiy 
of Greece, 1762 ; and likewise the edition of 
Zeunius, published at Leipsic, in 8vo. in 6 vols. 
between the years 1778 and 1791. Cic. in Orat. 
19.— FaZ. Max. 5, c. 10.— Quintil. 10, c. 2.— 
JElian. V. H. 3, c. 13, 1. 4, c. b.—Diog. in 
Xenoph. — Seneca. II. a writer in the begin- 
ning of the fourth century, known by his Greek 
romance in five books, De Amoribus Anthice 
AbrocomcB, published in 8vo. and 4to. by Coc- 

ceius, Lond. 1726. III. A physician of the 

emperor Claudius, born in the island of Cos, 
and said to be descended from the Asclepiades. 
He enjoyed the emperor's favours, and through 
him the people of Cos were exempt from all 
taxes. He had the meanness to poison his ben- 
efactor at the instigation of Agrippina. Tacit. 
12, Ann. c. 61 and 67. 

Xerxes, I. succeeded his father Darius on 
the throne of Persia, and though but the second 
son of the monarch, he was preferred to his elder 
brother, Artabazanes. The causes alleged for 
this preference were, that Artabazanes was the 
son of Darius when a private man, and that 
Xerxes was bom after his father had been rais- 
ed on the Persian throne, of Atossa, the daughter 



of Cyrus. Xerxes continued the warlike pre- 
paraiions of his father, and added the revolted 
kingdom of Egypt to his extensive possessions. 
He afterwards invaded Europe, and entered 
Greece with an army, which, together with the 
numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and wo- 
men, that aUended it, amounted to no less than 
5,283,220 souls. This multitude was stopj)ed 
at Thermopylae, by the valour of 300 Spartans 
'under King Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that 
such a handful of men should dare to oppose his 
progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring 
them alive into his presence ; but for three suc- 
cessive days the most valiant of the Persian 
troops were repeatedly defeated in attempting 
to execute the monarch's injunctions, and the 
courage of the Spartans might perhaps have 
triumphed longer, if a Trachinian had not led a 
detachment to the top of the mormtain, and sud- 
denly fallen upon the devoted Leonidas. The 
king himself nearly perished upon this occa- 
sion ; and it has been reported, that in the night, 
the desperate Spartans sought, for a while, the 
royal tent, which they found deserted, and wan- 
dered through the Persian army, slaughtering 
thousands before them. The battle of Ther- 
mopylee was the beginning of the disgrace of 
Xerxes ; the more he advanced, it was to ex- 
perience new disappointments, his fleet was de- 
feated at Artemisium and Salamis, and though 
he burnt the deserted city of Athens, and trusted 
to the artful insinuations of Themistocles, yet 
he found his millions unable to conquer a na- 
tion that was superior to him in the knowledge 
of war and maritime affairs. Mortified with 
the ill success of his expedition; and apprehen- 
sive of imminent danger in the enemy's coun- 
try, Xerxes hastened to Persia, and in 30 days 
he marched over all that territory which before 
he had passed, with much pomp and parade, in 
the space of six months. Mardonius, the best 
of his generals, was left behind with an army of 
300,000 men, and the rest that had survived the 
ravages of war, of famine, and pestilence, fol- 
lowed their timid monarch into Thrace. When 
he reached the Hellespont, Xerxes found the 
bridge of boats which he had erected there 
totally destroyed by the storms, and he crossed 
the straits in a small fishing vessel. Restored 
to his kingdom and safety, he forgot his dan- 
gers, his losses, and his defeats, and gave him- 
self up to riot and debauchery. His indolence 
and luxurious voluptuousness offended his 
subjects, and Artabanus, the captain of his 
guards, conspired against him and murdered 
him in his bed, in the 21st year of his reign, 
about 464 years before the Christian era. 
The personal accomplishments of Xerxes have 
been commended by ancient authors; and 
Herodotus observes, that there was not one 
man, among the millions of his army, that 
was equal to the monarch in comeliness or 
stature, or that was as worthy to preside over a 
great and extensive empire. The picture is 
finished, and the character of Xerxes completely 
known, when we hear Justin exclaim, that the 
vast armament which invaded Greece was with- 
out a head. Xerxes has been cited as an in- 
stance of humanity. When he reviewed his 
millions from a stately throne in the plains of 
Asia, he suddenly shed a torrent of tears on the 
recollection that the multitude of men he sa^jr 
663 



ZA 



HISTORY, &c. 



ZE 



before his eyes, in one hundred years should be 
no more. His pride and insolence have been 
deservedly censured ; he ordered chains to be 
thrown into the sea, and the waves to be whip- 
ped, because the first bridge he had laid across 
the Hellespont had been destroyed by a storm. 
He cut a channel through mount Athos, and 
saw his fleet sail in a place which before was 
dry ground. The very rivers were dried up 
by his army as he advanced towards Greece, 
and the cities which he entered reduced to 
want and poverty. Herodot. 1, c. 183, 1. 7, c. 2, 
&,c.—Diod. 11.— Strab. d.—jElian. 3, V. H. 25. 
— Justin. 2, c. 10, &c. — Pans. 3, c. 4, 1. 8, c. 46. 
— iMcan. 2. V. 672. — Plut. in Them. &c. — Vol. 
Max. — Isocrat. in Panath. — Seneca, de Const. 

Sap. 4. The II. succeeded his father Arta- 

xerxes Longimanus on the throne of Persia, 425 
B. C. and was assassinated in the first year of 
his reign by his brother Sogdianus. 



Zacynthus, a native of Boeotia, who accom- 
panied Hercules when he went into Spain to 
destroy Geryon. At the end of the expedition 
he was intrusted with the care of Geryon's 
flocks by the hero, and ordered to conduct them 
to Thebes. As he went on his journey, he was 
bit by a serpent, and some time after died. His 
companions carried his body away, and buried 
it in an island of the Ionian sea, which from 
that time was called Zacynthus. The island of 
Zacynthus, now called Zante, is situated at the 
south of Cephallenia, and at the west of the Pe- 
loponnesus. It is about 60 miles in circumfe- 
rence. Liv. 26, c. 2i.—Plin. 4, c. 12.— Strab. 
2 and S.—Mela. 2, c. l.— Homer. Od. 1, v. 246, 
1. 9, V. 2^.— Ovid, de Art. Am. 2, v. 432.— Pans. 
4, c. 23.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 270. 

Zaleucus, a lawgiver of the Locrians, in Ita- 
ly, and one of the disciples of Pythagoras, 550 
B. C. He was very humane, and at the same 
time very austere, and he attempted to enforce 
the laws more by inspiring shame than dread. 
He had decreed that a person guilty of adultery 
should lose both his eyes. His philosophy was 
called to a trial when he was informed that his 
son was an adulterer. He ordered the law to 
be executed; the people interfered, but Zaleu- 
cus resisted, and rather than violate his own 
institutions, he commanded one of his own 
eyes, and one of those of his son, to be put out. 
This made such an impression upon the people, 
that while Zaleucus presided over the Locrians, 
no person was again found guilty of adultery. 
Val. Max. 1, c. 2, 1. 6, c. 5, — Cic. de Leg. 2, c, 
6, ad Attic, 6, ep. l.—Mlian. V. H. 2, c. 37, 1. 3, 
c. 17, I. 13, c. 24.— Strab. 6. 

Zamolxis, or Zalmoxis, a slave and disciple 
of Pythagoras. He accompanied his master in 
Egypt, and afterwards retired into the country 
of the Getge, which had given him birth. He 
began to civilize his countrymen ; and the more 
easily to gain reputation, he concealed himself 
for three years in a subterraneous cave, and af- 
terwards made them believe that he was just 
raised from the dead. Some place him before 
the age of Pythagoras. After death he received 
divine honours. Died. — Herodot. 4, c. 19, &c. 

Zarbienus, a petty monarch of Asia, who 

was gained to the interest of the Romans by one 

664 



of the officers of Lucullus. Tigranes put him 
to death for his desertion, and his funeral was 
celebrated with great magnificence by the Ro- 
man general. Plut. in Lmc. 

Zebina, Alexander, an imposter, who usurp- 
: ed the throne of Syria at the instigation of Pto- 
! lemy Physcon, 

i Zeno, I. a philosopher of Elia or Velia, in Ita- 
! ly, the disciple, or according to some, the adopt- 
j ed son of Parmenides, and the supposed inventor 
of dialectic. His opinions about the universe, 
the unity, incomprehensibility, and immutabi- 
lity of all things, were the same with those of 
Xenophanes and the rest of the Eleatic philoso- 
phers. It is said that he attempted to deliver 
his country from the tyranny of Nearchus. His 
plot was discovered, and he was exposed to the 
most excruciating torments to reveal the names 
of his accomplices ; but this he bore with un- 
paralleled fortitude, and, not to be at last con- 
quered by tortures, he cut off" his tongue with his 
teeth, and spit it into the face of the tyrant. 
Some say that he was pounded alive in a mor- 
tar, and that in the midst of his torments he 
called to Nearchus, "as if to reveal something of 
importance; the tyrant approached, him, and 
Zeno, as if willing to whisper to him, caught 
his ear with his teeth, and bit it off". Cic. Tusc. 
2, c. 22, de Nat. D. 3, c. 2,3.—Diod. in Frag.— 

Val. Max. 3, c. Z.—Diog. 9. II. The founder 

of the sect of the stoics, born at Ctium, in the 
island of Cyprus. The first part of his life was 
spent in commercial pursuits, but he was soon 
called to more elevated employments. As he 
was returning from Phoenicia, a storm drove his 
ship on the coast of Attica, and he was ship- 
wrecked near the Piraeus. He entered the house 
of a bookseller, and, to dissipate his melancholy 
reflections he began to read. The book was 
written by Xenophon, and the merchant was so 
captivated by the eloquence and beauties of the 
philosopher, that from that time he renounced 
the pursuits of a busy life, and applied himself to 
the study of philosophy. Ten years were spent 
in frequenting the school of Crates, and the same 
number under Stilpo,Xenocrates, and Polemon. 
Perfect in every branch of knowledge, and im- 
proved from experience as well as observation, 
Zeno opened a school at Athens, and soon saw 
himself attended by the great, the learned, and 
the powerful. His followers were called Stoics, 
because they received the instruction of the 
philosopher in the portico called sroa. He was 
so respected during his lifetime, that the Athe- 
nians publicly decreed him a brazen statue, and 
a crown of gold, and engraved their decree, to 
give it more publicity, on two columns in the 
academy, and in the Lyceum. His life v/as an 
example of soberness and moderation, his man- 
ners were austere, and to his temperance and 
regularity he was indebted for the continual 
flow of health which he always enjoyed. After 
he had taught publicly for 48 years, he died in 
the 96th year of his age, B. C. 264, He was 
buried in that part of the city called Ceramicus, 
where the Athenians raised him a monument. 
The founder of the stoic philosophy shone be- 
fore his followers as a pure example of imitation. 
He wished to live in the world asif nothing was 
properly his own ; he loved others, and his af- 
fections were extended even to his enemies. He 
felt a pleasure in being kind, benevolent, and 



ZE 



HISTORY, &c. 



ZE 



attentive ; and he found that these sentiments of i 
pleasure were reciprocal. He saw a connexion 
and dependance in the universe, and perceived i 
that from thence arose the harmony of civil so- i 
ciety. the tenderness of parents, and filial grat- 1 
itude. In the attainment of virtue the goods | 
of the mind were to be preferred to those of the j 
body, and when that point was once gained, ! 
nothing could equal our happiness and perfec- ' 
tion ; and the stoic would view with indifference-' 
health or sickness, riches or poverty, pain and 
pleasure, which could neither move nor influ- 
ence the serenity of his mind. Zeno recom- ; 
mended resignation ; he knew that the laws of j 
the universe cannot be changed by man, and 
therefore he wished that his disciples should 
not in prayer deprecate impending calamities, i 
but rather beseech Providence to grant them | 
fortitude to bear the severest trials with pleas- 
ure and due resignation to the will of Heaven. ' 
An arbitrary command over the passions was 1 
one of the rules of stoicism, to assist our friends 
in the hour of calamity was our duty, but to 
give way to childish sensations was unbecoming ; 
our nature. Pity, therefore, and anger were [ 
to be banished from the heart, propriety and 
decorum were to be the guides in every thing, 
and the external actions of men were the best 
indications of their inward feelings, their secret 
inclinations, and their character. It was the 
duty of the stoic to study himself; in the evening 
he was enjoined to review with critical accuracy 
the events of the day, and to regulate his fu- 
ture conduct with more care, and always to find 
an impartial witness within his own breast. 
Such were the leading characters of the stoic 
philosophy, whose followers were so illustrious, 
so perfect, and so numerous, and whose effects 
were productive of such exemplary virtues in 
the annals of the human mind. Zeno in his 
maxims used to say, that with virtue men could 
live happy under the most pressing calamities. 
He said that nature had given us two ears, 
and only one mouth, to tell us that we ought to 
listen more than speak. He compared those 
whose actions were dissonant with their pro- 
fessions to the coin of Alexandria, which ap- 
peared beautiful to the eye though made of the 
iDasest metals. He acknowledged only one God, 
the soul of the universe, which he conceived to 
be the body, and therefore believed that those 
two together united, the soul and the body, 
formed one perfect animal, v/hich was the god 
of the stoics. Amongst the mo3t illustrious 
followers of his doctrine, and as the most re- 
spectable writers, may be mentioned Epictetus, 
Seneca, the emperor Antoninus, &c. Cic. Acad. 
1, c. 12, de Nat. D. 1, c. 14, 1. 2, c. 8 and 24, 1. 
3, c. 24, pro. Mur. de Orat. 32, &LC.—Finib.— 
Seweca. — Epictetus. — Arrian. — Mlian. V. H. 9, 
c. 26. — Diog. III. An Epicurean philoso- 
pher of Sidon, who numbered among his pupils 
Cicero, Pomponius Atticus, Cotta, Pompev, &c. 

Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 21 and 34. IV. A 

rhetorician, father to Polemon, who was made 
king of Pontus. The son of Polemon, who was 
king of Armenia, was also called Zeno. StraJb. 

12. — Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 56. V, A native of 

Lepreos, son of Calliteles, crowned at the 
Olympic games and honoured with a statue in 
the grove of Jupiter and at Olympia. Paiis. 6, 
c. 15. The name of Zeno was common to 



Part II.— 4 P 



some of the Roman emperors on the throne of 
Constantinople, in ihe 5th and 6th centuries. 

ZenobiA; I. a queen of Iberia, wife of Rha- 
damistus. She accompanied her husband when 
he was banished from his kingdom by the Ar- 
menians, but as she was unable to follow him 
on account of her pregnancy, she entreated him 
to murder her. Rhadamistus long hesitated, 
but fearful of her falling into the hands of his 
enemy, he obeyed, and threw her body into the 
Araxes. Her clothes kept her upon the surface 
of the water, where she was found by some 
shepherds, and as the wound was not mortal, 
her life was preserved, and she was carried to 
Tiridates, who acknowledged her as queen. 
Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 51. II. Septimia, a cele- 
brated princess of Palmyra, who married Ode- 
natus, whom Gallienus acknowledged as his 
partner on the Roman throne. After the death 
of her husband, which, according to some au- 
thors, she is said to have hastened, Zenobia 
reigned in the East as regent of her infant chil- 
dren, who were honoured with the title of Cee- 
sars. She assumed the name of Augusta, and 
she appeared in imperial robes, and ordered 
herself to be styled the queen of the East. The 
troubles w^hich at that time agitated the western 
parts of the empire prevented the emperor from 
checking the insolence and ambition of this 
princess, w^ho boasted to be sprung from the 
Ptolemies of Egypt, Aurelian was no sooner 
invested with the imperial purple than he march- 
ed into the East, determined to punish the pride 
of Zenobia. He well knew her valour, and he 
was not ignorant that, in her wars against the 
Persians, she had distinguished herself no less 
than Odenatus. She was the mistress of the 
East, Egypt acknowledged her power, and all 
the provinces of Asia Minor were subject to her 
command. "When Aurelian approached the 
plains of Syria, the Palmyrean queen appeared 
at the head of 700,000 men. She bore the la- 
bours of the field like the meanest of her soldiers, 
and walked on foot fearless of danger. Two 
battles were fought ; the courage of the queen 
gained the superiority, but an imprudent evolu- 
tion of the Palmyrean cavalry ruined her cause; 
and while they pursued with spirit the flying 
enemy, the Roman infantry suddenly fell upon 
the main body of Zenobia's army, and the de- 
feat was inevitable. The queen fled to Palmyra, 
determined to support a siege. Aurelian fol- 
lowed her, and after he had almost exhausted 
his stores, he proposed terms of accommodation, 
which were rejected with disdain by the war- 
like princess. Her hopes of victory, however, 
soon vanished, and though she harassed the Ro- 
mans night and day by continual sallies from 
her walls, and the working of her military en- 
gines, she despaired of success when she heard 
that ihe armies which were marching to her 
relief from Armenia, Persia, and the East, had 
partly been defeated and partlybribed from her 
allegiance. She fled from Palmyra in the night ; 
but Aurelian, who was apprized of her escape, 
pursued her, and she was caught as she was 
crossing the river Euphrates. She was brought 
into the presence of Aurelian, and though the 
soldiers were clamorous for her death, she was 
reserved to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. 
She was treated with great humanity, and Au- 
relian gave her large possessions near Tibur, 
665 



Z£ 



HISTORY, &c. 



ZO 



where she was permitted to live the rest of her 
days in peace, with all the grandeur and majesty 
which became a queen of the East and a warlike 
princess. Her children were patronised by the 
emperor, and married to persons of the first dis- 
tinction at Rome. Zenobia has been admired 
not only for her military abilities, but also for 
her literary talents. She was acquainted with 
every branch of useful learning, and spoke with 
fluency the language of the Egyptians, the 
Greeks, and the Latins. She composed an 
abridgment of the history of the oriental nations, 
and of Egypt, which was greatly commended 
by the ancients. She received no less honour 
from the patronage she afforded to the cele- 
brated Longinus, who was one of her favourites, 
and who taught her the Greek tongue. She 
has also been praised for her great chastity and 
her constancy, though she betrayed too often 
her propensities to cruelty and intoxication 
when in the midst of her officers. She fell into 
the hands of Aurelian about the 273d year of 
the Christian era. Aur. Vict. — Zos., &c. 

Xenocles, was the shortest of the dwarfish 
sons of Carcinus. With Philocles andTheog- 
nis he is thus introduced, in an exemplification 
of Mnesilochus : — 

h 6l Sevo^fXtjjf ojv KUKos KaKus TToicT. — Thesmoph. 
169. 

He is mentioned with still more disrespect in 
the Bancs, (v. 86.) 

'UpaK'Xjjs. h Se ^evoK\eTis ; 

At6vv(TOs. £^6\oiTO vfi Aia. 

Yet this contemptible poet carried off" from Eu- 
ripides the tragic garland, Olymp. 91st, 2, B. C. 
415. In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term 
[jiri^avoSicpag to the family. From the Scholiast 
it appears that Xenocles was celebrated for 
introducing machinery and stage shows, espe- 
cially in the ascent or descent of his gods. 
From the two lines in the Nubes, quoted above, 
we may infer that the father, Carcinus, was, 
like his son, fond of introducing the deities. 

Zenodorus, a sculptor in the age of Nero. 
He made a statue of Mercury, as also a colos- 
sus for the emperor, which was 110 or 120 feet 
high, and which was consecrated to the sun. 
The head of this colossus was some time after 
broken by Vespasian, who placed there the 
head of an Apollo surrounded with seven beams, 
each of which was seven feet and a half long. 
From this famous colossus, the modern coli- 
seum, whose ruins are now so much admired 
at Rome, took its name. Plin. 34, c. 7. 

Zenopotus, I. a native of TrcEzene, who 
wrote a history of Umbria. Dion. Hal. 2 



II. A grammarian of Alexandria, in the age of 
Ptolemy Soter, by whom he was appointed to 
take care of the celebrated library of Alexan- 
dria. He died B. C. 245. 

Zeuxidamus, a king of Sparta, of the family 
of the Proclidae. He was father of Archidamus, 
and grandson of Theopompus, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Archidamus. Pans. 3, c. 7. 

Zeuxidas, a praetor of the Achsean league, 
deposed because he had proposed to his coun- 
trymen an alliance with the Romans. 

Zedxis, a celebrated painter, born at Hera- 
clea, which some suppose to be the Heraclea 
of Sicily. He flourished about 468 years before 
G6G 



the Christian era, and was the disciple of Apol- 
lodorus, and contemporary with Parrhasius. 
In the art of painting, he not only surpassed all 
his contemporaries, but also his master, and be- 
came so sensible, and at the same time so proud, 
of the value of his pieces, that he refused to 
sell them, observing that no sum of money, 
however great, was sufficient to buy them. His 
most celebrated paintings were his Jupiter, sit- 
ting on a throne surrounded by the gods ; his 
Hercules, strangling the serpents in the presence 
of his affrighted parents ; his modest Penelope; 
and his Helen, which was afterwards placed in 
the temple of Juno Lacinia, in Italy. This last 
piece he had painted at the request of the peo- 
ple of Crotona, and thai he might not be with- 
out a model, they sent him the most beautiful 
of their virgins. Zeuxis examined their naked 
beauties, and retained five, from whose elegance 
and graces united, he conceived in his mind 
the form of the most perfect woman in the 
universe, which his pencil at last executed with 
wonderful success. His contest with Parrha- 
sius is well known ; ( Vid. Parrhasius,) but 
though he represented nature in such perfection, 
and copied all her beauties with such exactness, 
he often found himself deceived. He painted 
grapes, and formed an idea of the goodness of 
his piece from the birds which came to eat the 
fruit on the canvass. But he soon acknowledged 
that the whole was an ill-executed piece, as the 
figure of the man who carried the grapes was 
not done with sufficient expression to terrify the 
birds. According to some, Zeuxis died from 
laughing at a comical picture he had made of 
an old woman. Cic. de Inv. 2, c. 1. — Plut. in 
Par. &c. — Quintil. 

ZoiLUs, a sophist and grammarian of Amphi- 
polis, B. C. 259. He rendered himself known 
by his severe criticisms on the works of Isocrates 
and Plato, and the poems of Homer, for which 
he received the name of Homer omastix, or the 
chastiser of Homer. He presented his criticisms 
to Ptolemy Philadelphus, but they were rejected 
with mdignation, though the author declared 
that he starved for want of bread. Some say 
that Zoilus was cruelly stoned to death, or ex- 
posed on a cross, by order of Ptolemy ; while 
others support that he was burnt alive at Smyr- 
na. The name of Zoilus, is generally applied 
to austere critics. The works of this unfortu- 
nate grammarian are lost. JElian. V. H. 11, 
c. 10. — Dionys. Hal.— Ovid, de Rem. Am. 266. 

ZoPYRUs, I. a Persian, son of Megabyzus, 
who, to show his attachment to Darius, the son 
of Hystaspes, while he besieged Babylon, cut 
off his ears and nose, and fled to the enemy, 
telling them that he had received such a treat- 
ment from his royal master because he had 
advised him to raise the siege, as the city was 
impregnable. This was credited by the Baby- 
lonians, and Zopyrus was appointed com- 
mander of all their forces. When he had totally 
gained their confidence, he betrayed the city 
into the hands of Darius, for which he was 
liberally rewarded. The regard of Darius for 
Zopyrus could never be more strongly express- 
ed than what he used often to say, that he had 
rather have Zopyrus not mutilated than twenty 
Babylons. Herodot. 3, c. 154, &c.—Plut. in 
Apoph. re^. 3.— Justin. 1, c. 10. H. A physi- 
cian, in the age of Mithridates. He gave the 



zo 



HISTORY, &c. 



ZO 



monarch a descriptioD of an antidote which 
would prevail against all sorts of poisons. The 
experiment was tried upon criminals, and suc- 
ceeded. 

Zoroaster, a king of Bactria, supposed to 
have lived in the age of Ninus, king of Assyria, 
some time before the Trojan war. According 
to Justin, he first invented magic, or the doc- 
trines of the Magi, and rendered himself known 
by his deep and acute researches in philosophy, 
the origin of the world, and the study of astron- 
omy. He was respected by his subjects and 
contemporaries for his abilities as a monarch, a 
lawgiver, and a philosopher ; and though many 
of his doctrines are puerile and ridiculous, yet 
his followers are still found in numbers in the 
wilds of Persia and the extensive provinces of 
India, Like Pythagoras, Zoroaster admitted 
no visible object of devotion, except fire, which 
he considered as the most proper emblem of a 
supreme being ; which doctrines seem to have 
been preserved by Numa in the worship and 
ceremonies he instituted in honour of Vesta. 
According to some of the moderns, the doc- 
trines, the laws, and regulations of this cele- 
brated Bactrian are still extant, and they have 
been lately introduced in Europe, in a French 
translation, by M. Anquetil. The age of Zo- 



roaster is so little known, ihat some speak of 
two, three, four, and even six lawgivers of that 
name. Some authors, who support that two 
persons only of this name flourished, described 
the first as an astronomer, living in Babylon, 
2459 years B. C, whilst the era of the other, 
who is supposed to have been a native of Per- 
sia, and the restorer of the religion of the 
Magi, is fixed 589, and by some 519 years B. 
C. Justin. 1, c. 1. — August, de Civ. 21, c. 14. 
—Oros. l.—Plin. 7, c. 10, 1. 30, c. 1. 

ZosiMus, an officer in the reign of Theodo- 
sius the younger, about the year 410 of the 
Christian era. He wrote the history of the 
Roman emperors in Greek, from the age of 
Augustus to the beginning of the fifth century, 
of which only the five first books, and the be- 
ginning of the sixth, are extant. In the first of 
these he is very succinct in his account from the 
time of Augustus to the reign of Diocletian, but 
in the succeeding he becomes more diffuse and 
interesting. His composition is written with 
elegance, but not much fidelity ; and the author 
showed his malevolence against the Christians 
in his history of Constantine and some of his 
successors. The best editions of Zosimus are 
that of Cellarius, 8vo. Jense, 1728, and that of 
Reitemier, Svo. Lips. 1784. 
667 



PART in. 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AG 

Abaris, a Scythian, son of Seuthes, in the 
age of Croesus or the Trojan war, who receiv- 
ed a flying arrow from Apollo, with which he 
gave oracles, and transported himself wherever 
he pleased. He is said to have returned to the 
Hyperborean countries from Athens without 
eating, and to have made the Trojan Palladium 
with the bones of Pelops, Some suppose that 
he wrote treatises in Greek ; and it is reported, 
that there is a Greek manuscript of his epistles 
to Phalaris in the library of Augsburg. But 
there were probably two persons of that name. 
Herodot. 4, c. ZQ.—Strab. l.—Paus. 3, c. 13. 

Abas, I. a son of Metanira, or Melaninia, 
changed into a lizard for laughing at Ceres. 

Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 7. 11. The 11th king of 

Argos, son of Belus, some say of Lynceus and 
Hypermnestra, was famous for his genius and 
valour. He was father to Proetus and Acrisius, 
by Ocalea, and built Abae. He reigned 23 
years, B. C. 1384. Pans. 2, c. 16, 1. 10, c. 35.— 
Hygin. 170, &.c.—Apollod. 2, c. 2. Vid. Parts 
I. and II. 

Abderus, a man of Opus in Locris, armour- 
bearer to Hercules, torn to pieces by the mares 
of Diomedes, which the hero had intrusted to 
his care when going to war against the Bis- 
tones. Hercules built a city, which, in honour 
of his friend, he called Abdera. Apollod. 2, c. 
5. — Philostrat. 2, c. 25. 

Abrota, the wife of Nisus, the youngest of 
the sons of ^geus. As a monument to her 
chastity, Nisus, after her death, ordered the gar- 
ment which she wore to become the models of 
fashion in Megara. Plut. Qucest. Grac. 

Abseus, a giant, son of Tartarus and Terra, 
Hygin. Prcef. fab. 

Arsvrtus, a son of iEetes, king of Colchis, 
and Hypsea. His sister Medea, as she fled 
away with Jason, tore his body to pieces, and 
strewed his limbs in her father's way to stop 
his pursuit. Some say that she murdered him 
in Colchis ; others, near Istria. It is said by 
others that he was not murdered, but that he 
arrived safe in Illyricum. The place where he 
was killed has been called Tomos, and the river 
adjoining to it Absyrtos. Lucan. 3, v. 190. — 
Strab. 7. — Hygin. fab. 23. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — 
Flacc. 8, v. 261.— Ovid. Trist. 3 el. 9.—Cic. de 
Nat. D. 3, c. 19.— Plin. 3, c. 21 and 26. 

Agagallis, I. a nymph, mother of Philander 

and Phylacis by Apollo. These children were 

exposed to the wild b'easts in Crete ; but a goat 

gave them her milk, and preserved their life. 

668 



AC 

Pans. 10, c. 16. II. A daughter of Minos, 

mother of Cydon, by Mercury, and of Am- 
phithemis by Apollo. Pans. 8, c. b3.—Apollon. 
4, V. 1493. 

AcADEMus, an Athenian, who discovered to 
Castor and Pollux where Theseus had conceal-r 
ed their sister Helen, for which they amply re- 
warded him. Plut. in Thes. 

AcALLE, a daughter of Minos andPasiphae. 
Apollod. 3, c. 1. 

AcAMAs, son of Theseus and Phaedra, went 
with Diomedes to demand Helen from the Tro- 
jans after her elopement from Menelaus. In 
his embassy he had a son, called Munitus, by 
Laodice, the daughter of Priam. He was con- 
cerned in the Trojan war, and afterwards built 
the town of Acamentum, in Phrygia, and on 
his return to Greece called a tribe after his own 
name at Athens. Paus. 10, c. 26. — Q. Calab. 
m— Hygin. 108. 

AcANTHA, a nymph loved by Apollo, and 
changed into the flower Acanthus. 

AcASTus, son of Pelias, king of Thessaly, by 
Anaxibia, married Astydamia or Hippolyte, 
who fell in love with Peleus, son of iEacus, 
when in banishment at her husband's court. 
Peleus, rejecting the addresses of Hippolyte, 
was accused before Acastus of attempts upon 
her virtue, and soon after, at a chase, exposed 
to wild beasts. Vulcan, by order of Jupiter, 
delivered Peleus, who returned to Thessaly, 
and put to death Acastus and his wife. Vid. 
Peleus and Astydamia. — Ovid. Met. 8, v. 306. 
—Heroid. 13, v." 'ih.— Apollod. 1, c. 9, &c. 

AccA Laurentia, the wife of Faustulus, 
shepherd of king Numitor's flocks, who brought 
up Romulus and Remus, who had been exposed 
on the banks of the Tiber. Diomjs. Hal. 1, 
c. \S.—Liv. 1, c. 4:.—Aul. Gell. 6, c. 7. Vid. 
Part II. 

AcEsius, a surname of Apollo, in Elis and 
Attica, as god of medicine. Paus. 6, c. 24. 

Achel6ides, a patronymic given to the Si- 
rens as daughters of Achelous. Ovid. Met. 5, 
fab. 15. 

Achel6us, the son of Oceanus or Sol, by 
Terra or Tethys, god of the river of the same 
name in Epiras. As one of the numerous 
suiters of Dejanira, daughter of (Eneus, he 
entered the lists against Hercules, and being 
inferior, changed himself into a serpent, and 
afterwards into an ox. Hercules broke oflf one 
of his horns, and Achelous being defeated, re- 
tired in disgrace into his bed of waters. The 



AC 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AD 



broken horn was taken up by the nymphs, and 
filled with fruits and flowers ; and after it had 
for some time adorned the hand of the con- 
queror, it was presented to the goddess of 
Plenty. Some say that he was changed into a 
river after the victory of Hercules. This river 
is said by some to have sprung from the earth 
after the deluge, Herodot. 2, c. 10.— Strab. 10. 
Vid. Part I. 
Achilles. Vid. Part II. 
AciDALiA, a surname of Venus, from a foun- 
tain of the same name in Bceotia, sacred to her. 
The Graces bathed in the fountain. Virg. JEn. 
1, v. 12Q.— 0vid. Fast. 4, v. 468. 

Acis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of Faunus 
and the nymph Simaethis. Galataea passionate- 
ly loved him ; upon which his rival, Polyphe- 
mus, through jealousy, crushed him to "death 
with a piece of a broken rock. The gods chang- 
ed Acis into a stream which rises from mount 
^tna. Ovid. Met. 13. fab. 8. 

AcMONiDEs, one of the Cyclops. Ovid. Fast. 
4, V. 288. 

AccETES, the pilot of the ship whose crew 
found Bacchus asleep, and carried him away. 
As they ridiculed the god, they were changed 
into sea monsters, but Acoetes was preserved. 
Ovid. Met. 3, fab. 8, &c. 

AcoNTEUs, a famous hunter, changed into a 
stone by the head of Medusa, at the nuptials of 
Perseus and Andromeda. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 201. 
AcoNTiDs, a youth of Cea, who, when he 
went to Delos to see the sacrifices of Diana, fell 
in love with Cydippe, a beautiful virgin, and 
being unable to obtain her, on account of the 
obscurity of his origin, wrote these verses on 
an apple, which he threw into her bosom : — 

Juro tibi sanctce per mystica sacra Diana 

Me tibi venturam comitem, sponsamque futuram. 

Cydippe read the verses, and being compelled 
by the oath she had inadvertently made, mar- 
ried Acontius. Ovid. Her. ep. 20. 

AcR.Ei, a surname of Diana, from a temple 
built to her by Melampus, on a mountain near 
Argos. A surname of Juno. Paus. 2, c. 17. 

AcRisius, son of Abas, king of Argos, by 
Ocalea, daughter of Mantineus. He was born 
at the same birth as Proetus, with whom it is 
said that he quarrelled even in his mother's 
womb. After many dissensions Proetus was 
driven from Argos. Acrisius had Danae by 
Eurydice, daughter of Lacedsemon ; and being 
told by an oracle that his daughter's son would 
put him to death, he confined Danae in a 
brazen tower, to prevent her becoming a 
mother. She, however, became pregnant, by 
Jupiter, changed into a golden shower; and 
though Acrisius ordered her, and her infant 
called Perseus, to be exposed on the sea, yet 
they were saved ; and Perseus soon after be- 
came so famous for his actions, that Acrisius, 
anxious to see so renowned a grandson, went 
to Larissa. Here Perseus, wishing to show his 
skill in throwing a quoit, killed an old man, who 
proved to be his grandfather, whom he knew 
not, and thus the oracle was unhappily fulfilled. 
Acrisius reigned about 31 years. Hys;in. fab. 
^.—Ovid. Met. 4, fab. \&.—Horat. 3, od. 16.— 
Apollod. 2, c. 2, &c.—Paus. 2, c. 16, Sic.— Vid. 
Danae, Perseus, Polydectes. 

ActjI^on, a famous huntsman, son of Aris- 



tajus and Autonoe daughter of Cadmus, whence 
he is called Autoneius keros. He saw Diana and 
her attendants bathing near Gargaphia, for 
which he was changed into a stag, and devour- 
ed by his own dogs. Paus. 9, c. 2.— Ovid. 
Met. 3, fab. 3. 

ACT.EUS, a powerful person, who made him- 
self master of a part of Greece, which he called 
Attica. His daughter Agraulos married Ce- 
erops, whom the Athenians called their first 
king, though Actaeus reigned before him. Paus. 
1, c. 2 and 14. 

AcTis, son of Sol, went from Greece into 
Egypt, where he taught astrology, and founded 
Heliopolis. Diod. 5. 

Actor, I. a companion of Hercules in his 

expedition against the Amazons. II. The 

father of Menoetius by iEgina, whence Patro- 
clus is called Actorides. Ovid. Trist. 1, el. 8. 

III. The father of Eurytus, and brother of 

Augeas. Apollod. 2, c. 7. 

Actorides, two brothers, so fond of each 
other, that, in driving a chariot, one generally 
held the reins and the other the whip ; whence 
they are represented with two heads, four feet, 
and one body. Hercules conquered them. Pin- 
dar. 

Adad, a deity among the Assyrians, supposed 
to be the sun. 

Adamant^a, Jupiter's nurse in Crete, who 
suspended him in his cradle to a tree, that he 
might be found neither in the earth, tlie sea, nor 
in heaven. To drown the infant's cries, she 
had drums beat, and cymbals sounded, around 
the tree. Hygin. fab. 139. 

Addephagia, a goddess of the Sicilians. 
JElian. 1, V. H. c. 27. 

Ades. Vid. Hades. 

Admeta, daughter of Eurystheus, was priest- 
ess of Juno's temple at Argos. 

Admetds, son of Pheres and Clymene, king 
of Pheree, in Thessaly. Apollo, banished from 
heaven, is said to have tended his flocks for 
nine years, and to have obtained from the 
Parcae, that Admetus should never die if 
another person laid down his life for him, 
which his wife Alceste did, devoting herself 
voluntarily to death. Admetus was one of the 
Argonauts, and was at the hunt of the Calydo- 
nian boar. Pelias promised his daughter in 
marriage only to him who could bring him a 
chariot drawn by a lion and a wild boar ; and 
Admetus effected this by the aid of Apollo, and 
obtained Alceste's hand. Senec. in Medea. — 
Hy^in. fab. 50, 51 & 2^^.— Ovid, de Art. Am. 
^.—Apollod. 1, c. 8 & 9, &c. Vid. Part II. 

Adonis, son of Cinyras, by Myrrha, {vid. 
Myrrha,) was .the favourite of Venus. He was 
fond of hunting, and at last received a mortal 
bite from a wild boar which he had wounded, 
and Venus changed him into a flower called 
anemony. Proserpine is said to have restored 
him to life, on condition that he should spend 
six months with her and the rest of the year 
with Venus. This implies the alternate return 
of summer and winter. Adonis is often taken 
for Osiris, because the festivals of both were 
often begun with mournful lamentations, and 
finished with a revival of joy, as they were re- 
turning to life again. Adonis had temples raised 
to his memory, and is said by some to have been 
beloved by Apollo and Bacchus. Apollod. 3, c. 
669 



^a 



MYTHOLOGY. 



MQ 



U.—Propert. 2, el. 13, v. b3.— Virg. Eel. 10, v. 
IS— Bion. in Adon.—Hygin. 58, 164, 248, &c. 
— Ovid. Met. 10, fab, \Q.—Musa\is de Her.— 
Pans. 2, c. 20, 1. 9, c. 41. 

Adrastia, I. a daughter of Jupiter and Ne- 
cessity. She IS called by some Nemesis, and is 
the punisher of injustice. The Egyptians placed 
her above the moon, whence she looked down 

upon the actions of men. Strab. 13. II. A 

daughter of Melisseus, to whom some attribute 
the nursing of Jupiter. She is the same as 
Adrasta. Apol. 1, c. 1. 
Adrastus. Vid. Part II. 
tEa, a huntress, changed into an island of the 
same name by the gods, to rescue her from 
the pursuit of her lover, the river Phasis. It 
had a town called ^a, which was the capital 
of Colchis. Flacc. 5, v. 420. 

jEacds, son of Jupiter by iEgina, daughter 
of Asopus, was king of the island of CEnopia, 
which he called by his mother's name. A pes- 
tilence having destroyed all his subjects, he en- 
treated Jupiter to re-people his kingdom ; and 
according to his desire, all the ants which were 
in an old oak were changed into men, and called 
by jEacus myrmidons, from nvpun^., an ant. — 
iEacus married Endeis, by whom he had Tela- 
mon and Peleus. He afterwards had Phocus 
by Psamathe, one of the Nereids. He was a 
man of such integrity that the ancients have 
made him one of the judges of hell, with Minos 
and Rhadamanthus. Horat. 2, od. 13, 1. 4. od. 
S.—Paus. 1, c. 44, 1. 2, c. 29.— Ovid. Met. 7, 
fab. 25, 1. 13, V. 2b.—Propert. 4, el. 12.— Pint, 
de consol. ad Apoll. — ApoUod. 3, c. 12. — Diod. 4. 
Mm, or Mea.. Vid. JEa. 
JEcHMACORAS, a son of Hercules and Phyl- 
lone, daughter of Alcimedon, by whom he was 
exposed with his mother, to wild beasts, and 
miraculously saved by Hercules. Pans. 8, 12. 
JEdon, daughter of Pandarus, married Ze- 
thus, brother to Amphion, by whom she had a 
son called Itylus. — She was so jealous of her 
sister Niobe, because she bad more children 
than herself, that she resolved to murder the 
elder, who was educated with Itylus. She by 
mistake killed her own son, and was changed 
into a goldfinch as she attempted to kill herself. 
Homer. Od. 19, v. 518. 

jEeta, or ^ETES, king of Colchis, son of 
Sol and Perseis, daughter of Oceanus, was 
father of Medea, Absyrtus, and Chalciope by 
Idya, one of the Oceanides. He killed Phryxus, 
son of Athamas, who had fled to his court on a 
golden ram. This murder he committed to 
obtain the fleece of the golden ram. The Ar- 
gonauts came against Colchis, and recovered 
the golden fleece by means of Medea, though 
it was guarded by bulls that breathed fire, and 
by a venemous dragon. Their expedition has 
been celebrated by all the ancient poets. Vid. 
Jason, Medea, and Phryxus. ApoUod. 1, c. 9. 
— Ovid. Met. 7, fab. 1, &c.—Paus. 2 c. 3. — 
Justin. 43, c. 2. — Flacc. and Orpheus in Ar- 
gon. 
Mgjeon, I. one of Lycaon's fifty sons. Apol- 

lod. 3, c. 8. II. The son of Coelus, or of 

Pontus and Terra, the same as Briareus. It is 
supposed that he was a notorious pirate, chiefly 
residing at ^ga, whence his name ; and that 
the fable about his one hundred hands arises 
from his having one hundred men to manage 
670 



his oars in his piratical excursions. Virg. j:En. 
10, V. bQb.—Hesiod. Th: Wd.— Homer. IL. 10, v. 
AQA.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 10. 

^geria. Vid. Egeria. 

jEgesta, the daughter of Hippotes, and mo- 
ther of ^gestus, called Acestes. Virg. jEn. 
1, V. 554. Vid. Part I. 

^Egeus, king of Athens, son of Pandion, 
being desirous of having children, went to con- 
sult the oracle, and in his return, stopped at 
the court of Pittheus, king of Troezene, who 
gave him his daughter ^thra in marriage. 
He left her pregnant, and told her, that if she 
had a son, to send him to Athens as soon as he 
could lift a stone under w^hich he had concealed 
his sword. By this sword he was to be known 
to -Egeus, who did not wish to make any public 
discovery of a son, for fear of his nephews, the 
Pallantides, who expected his crown. jEthra 
became mother of Theseus, whom she accord- 
ingly sent to Athens with his father's sword. 
At that time iEgeus lived with Medea, the di- 
vorced wife of Jason. When Theseus came to 
Athens, Medea attempted to poison him ; but he 
escaped, and upon showing ^geus the sword 
he wore, discovered himself to be his son. 
When Theseus returned from Crete, after the 
death of the Minotaur, he forgot, agreeable to 
the engagement made with his father, to hoist 
up white sails as a signal of his success; 
and iEgeus, at the sight of black sails, con- 
cluding that his son was dead, threw himself 
from a high rock into the sea ; which from him, 
as some suppose, has been called the iEgean. 
JEgeus reigned forty-eight years, and died B. C. 
1235. He is supposed to have first introduced 
into Greece the worship of Venus Urania, to 
render the goddess propitious to his wishes in 
having a son. Vid. Theseus, Minotaurus, and 
Medea. ApoUod. 1, c. 8, 9, 1. 3, c. 15. — Paus. 
1, c. 5, 22, 38, 1. 4, c. 2.—Plut. in Thes.— 
Hygin. fab. 37, 43, 79, and 173. 

JEgiale, one of Phaeton's sisters, changed 
into poplars, and their tears into amber. They 
are called Heliades. 

tEgialeus, I. son of Adrastus by Amphitea 
or Demoanassa, was one of the Epigoni. They 
all returned home safe, except ^gialeus, who 
was killed. Paus. 1, c. 43, 44, 1. 2, c. 20, 1. 9, c. 
5. — ApoUod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 7. — -II. The same 
as Absyrtus, brother to Medea. Justin. 42, c. 
3. Cic. de Nat. D. 2.— Diod. 4. 

.-Egina, daughter of Asopus, had .^acus by 
Jupiter, changed into a flame of fire. Some say 
that she was changed by Jupiter into the island 
which bears her name. Plm. 4, c. 12. — Strab. 
8.— Mela, 2, c. 1.— ApoUod. 1, c. 9, L 3, c. 12.— 
Paus. 2, c. 5 and 29. Vid. Part I. 

iEoiScHus, a surname of Jupiter, from his 
being brought up by the goat Amalthaea, and 
using her skin, instead of a shield, in the war 
of the Titans. Diod. 5. 

iEciPAN, a name of Pan, because he had 
goat's feet, 

^gis, the shield of Jupiter, ai:o rrn atyos, a 
goafs skin. Jupiter gave this shield to Pallas, 
who placed upon it Medusa's head, which turn- 
ed into stones all those who fixed their eyes 
upon it. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 352 and 435. 

^GisTHUs. Vid. Part II. 

.^GLEjthe youngest daughter of -ffisculapius 
and Lampetia. 



MS 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AG 



.^GOBOLUSj a surname of Bacchus at Potnia, 
in. Boeotia. 

jEgoceros, or Capricornus, an animal into 
which Pan transformed himself when flying 
before Typhon, in the war with the giants. Ju- 
piter made him a constellation. Lucret. 1, v. 613. 

^Egypanes, a fabulous country in the middle 
of Africa, said to be inhabited by monsters. 
Mda, 1, c. 4 and 8. 

jEgyptus, son of Belus, and brother to Da- 
naus, gave his 50 sons in marriage to the 50 
daughters of his brother. He was killed by his 
niece Polyxena. Vid. Danaus, Danaides, Lijn- 
ceus. ^gyptus was king, after his father, of 
a part of Africa, which from him has been 
called iEgyptus. Hygin. fab. 168, 170. — Apol- 
lod. 2, c. 1. — Ovid. Beroid. 14. — Pans. 7, c. 21, 
Vid. Part I. 

-Ello, one of the Harpies (from atXXa tem- 
pestas.) Fiac. 4, v. A50.—Hesiod. Th. 267.— 
Ovid. Met. 13, v. 710. 

iELTjRus, (<z cat,) a deity worshipped by the 
Egyptians; and, after death, embalmed, and 
buried in the city of Bubastis. Herodot. 2, c. 
m, &c.—Diod. l.—Cic. de Nat.D. \.—A. Gell. 
20, c. l.—Plut. in Pr. 

.^NEAS. Vid. Part II. 

.^OLUs, the king of storms and winds, was 
the son of Hippotas. He reigned over ^olia; 
and because he was the inventor of sails, and 
a great astronomer, the poets have called him 
the god of the wind. The name seems to be 
derived from aio\os, various, because the winds 
over which he presided are ever varying — 
There were tM'^o others, a king of Etruria, father 
to Macareus and Canace, and a son of Helle- 
nus, often confounded with the god of the winds. 
The last married Enaretta, by whom he had 
seven sons and five daughters. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 
—Homer. Od. 10, v. I.— Ovid. Met. II, v. 478, 
1. 14, V. 224. — Apollon. 4, Argon. — Flacc. 1, v, 
bm.—Diod. 4 and b.— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 56, &c. 

^PYTUs. Vid. Part II. 

iEscuLAPiiJs, son of Apollo, by Coronis, or, 
as some say, by Larissa, daughter of Phlegias, 
was god of medicine. The god, in a fit of anger, 
destroyed Coronis with lightning, but saved the 
infant from her womb, and gave him to be 
educated to Chiron, who taught him the art of 
medicine. Some authors say that Coronis 
exposed her child near Epidaurus. A goat of 
the flocks of Aresthanas gave him her milk, 
and the dog who kept the flock stood by him to 
shelter him from injury. He was found by the 
master of the flock, who went in search of his 
stray goat, and saw his head surrounded with 
resplendent rays of light. JEsculapius was 
physician to the Argonauts, and considered so 
skilled in the medicinal power of plants, that 
he was called the inventor, as well as the god of 
medicine. He restored many to life, of which 
Pluto complained to Jupiter, who struck jEscu- 
lapius with thunder. He received divine hon- 
ours after death, chiefly at Epidaurus, Perga- 
mus, Athens, Smyrna, &c. Goats, bulls, lambs, 
and pigs were sacrificed on his altars; and the 
cock and the serpent were sacred to him. ^s- 
culapius was represented with a large beard, 
holding in his hand a stafi", round which was 
wreathed a serpent; his other hand was sup- 
ported on the head of a serpent. He married 
Epione, by whom he had two sons, famous for 



their skill in medicine, Machaon and Podalirus; 
and four daughters, of whom Hygiea, goddess 
of health, is the most celebrated. Some have 
supposed that he lived a short time after the 
Trojan war. Hesiod makes no mention of him. 
Homer. H. 4, v. 193. Hymn, in JEscul. — Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 10. — Apollon. 4. Argon. — Hygm. fab. 
49.— Ovid. Met. 2, fab. 8.— Pans. 2, c. 11 and 
27, 1. 7, c. 23, &c.—Diod. 4.— Pindar, Pyth. 3. 
■^Lmcan. Dial, de Saltat. — Val. Max. 1, c. 8. 
— Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 22, says there were three 
of this name : the 1st, a son of Apollo, wor- 
shipped in Arcadia ; 2d, a brother of Mercury ; 
3d, a man who first taught medicine. 

jEson, son of Cretheus, was born at the same 
birth as Pelias. He succeeded his father in 
the kingdom of lolchos, but was soon exiled by 
his brother. He married Alcimeda, by whom 
he had Jason, whose education he intrusted to 
Chiron, being afraid of Pelias. When Jason 
was grown up, he demanded his father's king- 
dom from his uncle, who gave him evasive an- 
swers, and persuaded him lo go in quest of the 
golden fleece. At his return, Jason found his 
father very infirm ; and Medea, at his request, 
drew the blood from ^son's veins, and refilled 
them with the juice of certain herbs which she 
had gathered, and immediately the old man re- 
covered the vigor and bloom of youth. Some 
say that iEson killed himself by drinking bull's 
blood, to avoid the persecution of PeMas. Diod. 
A.— Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 285.— 
Hygin. fab. 12. 

^THALiDES, a herald, son of Mercury, to 
whom it was granted to be amongst the dead 
and the living at stated times. Apollon. Argon. 

1, V. 641. 

^THLius, a son of Jupiter by Protogenia, was 
father of Endymion. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 

^THON, a horse of the sun. Ovid. Met. 2, 
fab. 1. of Pallas. Virg. ^n. 11, v. 89. 

Mtbha, daughter of Pitheus, king of Troe- 
zene, and mother of Theseus. She was carried 
away by Castor and Pollux, when they recov- 
ered their sister Helen, w^hom Theseus had 
stolen and intrusted to her care. She went with 
Helen to Troy. Homer. 11. 3, v. 144. — Paus. 

2, c. 31, 1. 5, c. 19.— Hygin. fab. 37 and 79. 
PMt. in Thes.— Ovid. Her. 10. v. 131. 

^THusA, a daughter of Neptune by Amphi- 
trite, or Alcyone, mother by Apollo of Eleu- 
there and two sons. Paus. 9, c. 20. 

^TOLUs. Vid. Part II. 

Agamemnon. Vid. Part II. 

Aganippe. Vid. Part I. 

Agave, daughter of Cadmus and Herraione, 
married Echion, by whom she had Pentheus. 
She is said to have killed her husband in cele- 
brating the orgies of Bacchus. She received di- 
vine honours after death, because she had con- 
tributed to the education of Bacchus. Theocrit. 
26.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 1'25.—Lucan. 1, v. 574. 
—Stat. Theb. 11, v. Z\8.— Apollod. 3, c. 4. 

Agelaus, a son of Hercules and Omphale, 
from which Croesus was descended. — Apollod. 
2, c. 7. 

Agenor, king of Phoenicia, son of Neptune 
and Libya, and brother to Belus. He married 
Telephassa, by whom he had Cadmus, Phoenix, 
Cilix, and Europa. Hygin. fab. 6. Ital. 1, v. 
15, 1. 17, V. bS.— Apollod. 2, c. 1, 1. 3, c. 1. 

Aglaia. Vid. Charites. 
(371 



AL 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AL 



Aglauros, or Agraulos, daughter of Erech- 
theus, the oldest king of Athens, was changed 
into a stone by Mercury. Some make her a 
daughter of Cecrops. Vid. Herse. Ovid. Met. 
2, fab. 13. 

Agno, one of the nymphs who nursed Ju- 
piter. She gave her name to a fountain on 
mount Lycseus. When the priest of Jupiter, 
after a prayer, stirred the waters of this foun- 
tain with a bough, a thick vapour arose, which 
was soon dissolved into a plentiful shower. 
Pans. 8, c. 31, &c. 

Agonius, a Roman deity, who presided over 
the actions of men. Vid. Agonalia, Part 11. 

Agor5;a, a name of Minerva at Sparta. 
Poms. 3, c. 11. 

Agoreus, a surname of Mercury among the 
Athenians, from his presiding over the markets. 
Paus. 1, c. 15. 

Agre, one of Actaeon's dogs. Ovid. Met. 3, 
V. 213. 

Agrius, son of Parthaon, drove his brother 
CEneus from the throne. He was afterwards 
expelled by Diomedes, the grandson of CEneus, 
upon which he killed himself Hysin. fab. 175 
and ^\2.— Apollod. 1, c. 1.— Homer. 11. 14, v. 117. 

Agyleus, and Agyieus, from ayvia, a street, 
a surname of Apollo, because sacrifices were 
offered to him in the public streets of Athens. 
Horat. 4, od. 6. 

Ajax. Vid. Part II. 

Aius LocuTius, a deity to whom the Romans 
erected an altar from the following circum- 
stance : one of the common people, called Cedi- 
tius, informed the tribunes, that as he passed 
one night through one of the streets of the city, 
a voice more than human, issuing from above 
Vesta's temple, told him that Rome would soon 
be attacked by the Gauls. His information was 
neglected, but his veracity was proved by the 
event ; and Camillus, after the conquest of the 
Gauls, bull a temple to that supernatural voice 
which had given Rome warning of the ap- 
proaching calamity, under the name of Aius 
Locutius. 

Aljea, a surname of Minerva in Pelopon- 
nesus. Her festivals are also called Alaea, 
Paus. 8, c. 4, 7. 

Ala LA, the goddess of war, sister to Mars. 
Plut. de glor. Athen. 

Alastor, one of Pluto's horses when he car- 
ried away Proserpine. Claud. d£ Rapt. Pros. 
1, V. 286. 

Albion, son of Neptune by Amphitrite, came 
into Britain, where he established a kingdom, 
and first introduced astrology and the art of 
building ships. He was killed at the mouth of 
the Rhone with stones thrown by Jupiter, be- 
cause he opposed the passage of Hercules. 
Mela, 2, c. 5. Vid. Part I. 

Algous, I. a son of Androgens, who went 
with Hercules into Thrace, and was made king 

of part of the country. Apollod. 2, c. 5. II. 

A son of Perseus, father of Amphitryon and 
Anaxo. Apol. 2, c. 4. — Paus. 8, c. 14. Vid. 
Part II. 

Alcathous, I. a son of Pelops, who being 
suspected of murdering his brother Chrysippus, 
came to Megara, where he killed a lion, which 
had destroyed the king's son. He succeeded to 
the kingdom of Megara, and, in commemora- 
tion of his services, festivals, called Alcathoia, 
672 



were instituted at Megara. Paus. 1, c. 4, &c, 

II. A Trojan, who married Hippodamia, 

daughter of Anchises. He was killed in the 
Trojan war by Idomeneus. Homer. 11. 12, v. 93. 

Alceste, or Alcestis, daughter of Pelias and 
Anaxibia, married Admetus. She, with her 
sisters, put to death her father, that he might 
be restored to youth and vigour by Medea, who, 
however, refused to perform her promise. Upon 
this, the sisters fled to Admetus, who married 
Alceste. They were soon pursued by an army, 
headed by their brother Acastus; and Ad- 
metus being taken prisoner was redeemed from 
death by the generous ofier of his wife, who 
was sacrificed in his stead to appease the shades 
of her father. Some say that Alceste lay down 
her life for her husband, when she had been told 
by an oracle that he could never recover from a 
disease except some one of his friends died in 
his stead. According to some authors, Hercu- 
les brought her back from hell. Vid. Admetus. 
Juv. 6, V. 651. — Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Paus. 5, c. 17. 
— Hygin. fab. 251. — Eurip. in Alcest. 

Algides, a name of Hercules, from his 
strength, aXKOi, or from his grandfather Alcaeus. 

AlcidJce, the mother of Tyro, by Salmo> 
neus. Apollod. 2, c. 9. 

ALCiMEnE, the mother of Jason, by ^son. 
Place. 1, V. 296. 

Alcinoe, a daughter of Sthenelus son of 
Perseus. Apollod. 2, c. 4. 

Alcinous. Vid. Part II, 

Alcippe, I. a daughter of the god Mars 

and Agraulos. Apollod. 3, c. 14. II. The 

wife of Metion, and mother to Eupalamus. Id. 
3, c. 16.- — III. The daughter of CEnomaus, 
and wife of Evenus, by whom she had Marpes- 
sa. Virg. Eel. 7. 

Alcithoe, a Theban woman, who ridiculed 
the orgies of Bacchus. She was changed into 
a bat, and the spindle and yarn with which she 
worked, into a vine and ivy. Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 1. 

Alcm^on, I. was son of the prophet Amphia- 
raus and Eriphyle. His father going to the 
Theban war, where, according to an oracle, he 
was to perish, charged him to revenge his death 
upon Eriphyle, who had betrayed him. Vid. 
Eriphyle. As soon as he heard of his father's 
death, he murdered his mother, for which crime 
the furies persecuted him till Phlegeus purified 
him, and gave him his daughter Alphesiboea in 
marriage. Acmaeon gave her the fatal collar 
which his mother had received to betray his fa- 
ther, and afterwards divorced her, and married 
Callirhoe, the daughter of Achelous, to whom 
he promised the necklace he had given to Al- 
phesiboea. When he attempted to recover it, 
Alphesibcea's brothers murdered him on ac- 
count of the treatment he had shown their sis- 
ter, and left his body a prey to dogs and wild 
beasts. AlcmaBon's children by Callirhoe re- 
venged their father's death by killing his mur- 
derers. Vid. Alphesiboea, Amphiaraus. Paus. 
5, c. 17, 1. 6, c. 18, 1. 8, c. 2i.—PIut. de Exil.— 
Apollod. 3, c. l.—Hvgin. fab. 73 and 245.— 
Stat. Theb. 2 and "i.—Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 44. 

Met. 9, fab. 10. II. A son of JSgyptus, the 

husband of Hippomedusa. Apollod. 

Algmena, was daughter of Electryon, king 
of Argos, by Anaxo, whom Plut. de Reb. Grac. 
calls Lysidice, and Diod. 1. 2, Eurymede. Her 
father promised his crown and his daughter to 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



AL 



Amphitryon, if he would revenge the death of 
his sons, who had been all killed, except Licym- 
nius, by the Teleboans, a people of jEtolia. 
While Amphitryon was gone against the ^Eto- 
lians, Jupiter introduced himself to Alcmena as 
her husband. When the time of her delivery 
was at hand, Juno, influenced by jealousy, em- 
ployed Lucina to prolong her travails, until Ni- 
cippe, the wife of Sthenelus, should bring forth ; 
that her son Eurystheus, enjoying the privilege 
which Jupiter had in this case conferred on 
priority of birth, might control the destiny of 
his rival. At length, Alcmena brought forth 
twins, Hercules, son of Jupiter, and Iphiclus, 
son of Amphitryon. After Amphitryon's death, 
Alcmena married Rhadamanthus, and retired 
to Ocalea in BcEotia. This marriage, accord- 
ing to some authors, was celebrated in the 
island of Leuce. The people of Megara said 
that she died in her way from Argos to Thebes, 
and that she was buried in the temple of Jupi- 
ter Olympius, Pans. 1, c. 41, 1. 5, c. 18, 1. 9, c. 16. 
— Plut.in Thes. tf« RoTmU. — Homer. Od. 11, IL 
19. — Pindar. Pyth. 9. — Lnician. Dial. Deor. — 
Diod. 4. — Hygin. fab. 29. — Apollod. 2, c. 4, 7, 1. 
3, c. 1. — Plant, in Amphit. — Herodot. 2, c. 43 
and 45.- Vid. Amphitryon^ Hercules^ Eurys- 
theus. 

Alcon, L a famous archer, who one day saw 
his son attacked by a serpent, and aimed at him 
so dexterously that he killed the reptile without 

hurting his son. II. A son of Mars. III. 

A son of Amycus. These two last were at the 
chase of the Calydonian boar. Hygin. fab. 173. 

Alcyone, or Halcyone, I. daughter of ^Eo- 
lus, married Ceyx, who was drowned as he was 
going to Claros to consult the oracle. On the 
death of her husband Ceyx, who was drowned, 
she threw herself into the sea, and was chang- 
ed into the bird which bears her name, and 
which the ancient poets feigned brooded over 
its young upon the waters and kept them calm. 
Virg. G. 1, V. ^9^.— Apollod. 1, c. l.— Ovid. 

Met. 11, fab. 10.— Hygin. fab. 65. II. One 

of the Pleiades, daughter of Atlas. She had 
Arethusaby Neptune, and Eleutheraby Apollo. 
She, with her sisters, was changed into a con- 
stellation. Vid. Pleiades. Paus. 2, c. 30, 1. 3, 

c. 18. — Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Hygin. fab. 157. 

III. The daughter of Evenus, carried away by 
Apollo after her marriage. Her husband pur- 
sued the ravisher with bows and arrows, but 
was not able to recover her. Upon this her pa- 
rents called her Alcyone, and compared her fate 
to that of the wife of Ceyx, Homer. 11. 9, v. 558. 

Alcyoneus, a giant, killed by Hercules. His 
daughters, mourning his death, threw them- 
selves into the sea, and were changed into al- 
cyons by Amphitrite. Claudian. de Bap. Pros. 
— Apollod. 1, c. 6. 

Alea, a surname of Minerva, from lier tem- 
ple, built by Aleus, son of Aphidas, at Tegaea, 
in Arcadia. The statue of the goddess, made 
of ivory, was carried by Augustus to Rome. 
Paus. 8, c. 4 and 46. 

Alecto. Vid. Eumenides. 

Alector, succeeded his father Anaxagoras 
in the kingdom of Argos, and was father to 
Iphis and Capaneus. Paus. 2, c. 18. — Apollod. 
3, c. 6. 

Alectryon, a vouth by whose neglect the 
favours which Venus accorded to Mars were 

Part III.— 4 a 



discovered by the gods. Mars was so incensed 
that he changed Alectryon into a cock, which, 
still mindful of his neglect, early announces 
the approach of the sun. Lucian. in Alect. 

Aletes, a son of iEgisthus, murdered by 
Orestes. Hygin. fab. 122. 

Alexanor, a son of Machaon, who built in 
Sicyon a temple to his grandfather jEsculapius, 
and received divine honours after death. Paus. 
2, c. 11. 

Alexicacus, a surname given to Apollo by 
the Athenians, because he delivered them from 
the plague during the Peloponnesian war. 

Alirrothius, a son of Neptune. Hearing 
that his father had been defeated by Minerva, 
in his dispute about giving a name to Athens, 
he went to the citadel, and endeavoured to cut 
down the olive which had sprung from the 
ground, and given the victory to Minerva; but 
in the attempt he missed his aim, and cut his 
own legs so severely that he instantly expired. 

Aloeus, a giant, son of Titan and Terra. 
He married Iphimedia, by whom Neptune had 
the twins Othus and Ephiallus. Aloeus edu- 
cated them as his own, and from that circum- 
stance they have been called Aloides. They 
made war against the gods, and were killed by 
Apollo and Diana. They grew up nine inches 
ever}"- month, and were only nine years oldAvhen 
they undertook their war. They built the town 
of Ascra, at the foot of mount Heljcon. Pau^. 
9, c. 29.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. bQ2.— Homer. 11. 5, 
Od. 11. 

Aloides and Aloid.e, Vid. Aloeus. 

Alpheia, a surname of Diana in Elis. 

A surname of the nymph Arethusa, because 
loved by the Alpheus, Ovid. Met. 5, v. 487. 

Alphesibcea, daughter of the river Phlegeus, 
married Alcmseon, son of Amphiaraus. Vid, 
Alcmcson. 

Alpheus. Vid. Part I. 

Alth.ea, daughter of Thestius and Eury- 
themis, married CEneus, king of Calydon, by 
whom she had many children, among whom 
was Meleager. She killed herself in her grief 
for his death, which in a moment of passion 
she had occasioned. 

Alth5:menes, a son of Creteus, king of 
Crete. Hearing that either he or his brothers 
were to be their father's murderers, he fled to 
Rhodes, where he made a settlement to avoid 
becoming a parricide. After the death of all 
his other sons, Creteus went after his son Al- 
thasmenes ; when he landed in Rhodes, the 
inhabitants attacked him, supposing him to be 
an enemy, and he was killed by the hand of 
his own son. When Althaemenes knew that he 
had killed his father, he entreated the gods to 
remove him, and the earth immediately opened 
and swallowed him up. Apollod. 3, c. 2. 

Alyceus, son of Sciron, was killed by The- 
seus. A place in Megara received its name 
from him. Plut. in TJws. 

Amalth^ea, I. daughter of Melissus, king of 
Crete, fed Jupiter with goat's milk. Hence 
some authors have called her a goat, and have 
maintained that Jupiter, to reward her kind- 
nesses, placed her in heaven as a constellation, 
and gave one of her horns to the nymphs who 
had taken care of his infant years. This horn 
was called the horn of plentj^, and had the power 
to give the nymphs whatever they desired. 
673 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



AM 



Diod. 3, 4 and 5.— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 113.— Strab. 

10.— Hygin. fab. V39.—Paus. 7, c. 26. II. 

A Sibyl of Cumae, called also Hierophile and 
Demophile. She is supposed to be the same 
who brought nine books of prophecies to Tar- 
quin, king of Rome, «&c.. Varro. — Tibul. 2, el. 

5, V. 67. Vid. Sibylla. 

Amanus, or Omanus, a Persian deity, in 
honour of whom a yearly festival (the Saca) 
was celebrated at Zela, in Cappadocia ; or, ac- 
cording to others, in Pontus. The rites of his 
worship were performed daily, with the singing 
of hymns, &c., by the Magi before his altar, 
which was erected on a hill called Pyraethea, 
and which, protected by an enclosure, bore the 
eternal fire. He was considered as the emblem 
of Mythras or the Sun. Strab. 11. — Millin. 

Amaracus, an officer of Cinyras, changed 
into marjoram. 

Amastrus, one of the auxiliaries of Perses, 
against ^etes, king of Colchis, killed by Ar- 
gus, son of Phryxus. Flacc. 6, v. 544. 

Amata. Vid. Part II. 

Amaz5nes, or Amazonides, a community of 
women, according to an old tradition, who per- 
mitted no men to reside among them, fought 
under the conduct of a queen, and long consti- 
tuted a formidable state. They had intercourse 
with the men of the neighbouring nations mere- 
ly for the sake of perpetuating their community. 
The male children they sent back to their fa- 
thers, but they brought up the females to war, 
and burned off the right breast, that this part 
of the body might not impede them in the use 
of the bow. From this circumstance they were 
called Amazons^ (a non^ et [xa^a, mamma,) i. e., 
wanting a breast. The ancients enumerate 
three nations of Amazons: — 1. The African, 
who made great conquests under their queen 
Myrena, but were afterwards extirpated by 
Hercules. — 2. The Asiatic, the most famous of 
all, who dwelt in Pontus, on the river Ther- 
modon. Themiscyra was their capital. These 
once made war on all Asia, and built Ephesus. 
Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by 
Hercules. They attacked Attica in the time of 
Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy 
under their queen Penthesilea, who was killed, 
as some writers declare, by Achilles. About 
330 B. C. their queen, Thalestris, made a visit 
to Alexander of Macedon, soon after which 
they disappear from history. — 3. The Scythian, 
a branch of the Asiatic. They attacked the 
neighbouring Scythians, but afterwards con- 
tracted marriages with them, and went further 
into Sarmatia, where they hunted and made 
war in company with their husbands. As 
regards the existence of the Amazons, Vid. 
Justin, and, above all, Cesarotti, who has ex- 
pressly treated of this subject in a dissertation 
which accompanies his first translation of the 
Iliad ; respecting their use in fable, Vid Ariosto 
ril furioso, Canto XIX. — Encyclopedia Amer. — 
Millin. — Justin. 2, c. 4. — Curt. 6, c. 5. — Plin. 

6, c. 7, 1. 14, c. S.—Herodot. 4, c. WQ.— Strab. 
W.—Paus. 7, c. 2.—Plut. in Thes. 

Amazonius, a surname of Apollo at Lacedse- 
mon. 

Ambulli, a surname of Castor and Pollux in 
Sparta. 

Ameles, a river of hell, whose waters no 
vessel could contain. Plut. 10, de Rep. 
674 



Amimone, or Amymone, a daughter of Da- 
naus, changed into a fountain which is near 
Argos, and flows into the lake Lerna. Ovid. 
Met. 2, V. 240. 

Amithaon, or Amythaon, was father to Me- 
lampus, the famous prophet. Stat. Theb. 3,v. 451. 

Ammon. Vid. Hammon. 

Ammonia, a name of Juno in Elis, as being 
the wife of Jupiter Ammon. Paus. 5, c. 15. 

Amphiaraus, son of Oicleus, or, according to 
others, of Apollo, by Hypermnestra, was at the 
chase of the Calydonian boar, and accompanied 
the Argonauts in their expedition. He was fa- 
mous for his knowledge of futurity, and thence 
he is called by some son of Apollo. He married 
Eriphyle, the sister of Adrastus, king of Argos, 
by whom he had two sons, Alcmseon and Am- 
philochus. When Adrastus, at the request of 
Polynices, declared war against Thebes, Am- 
phiaraus secreted himself, not to accompany his 
brother-in-law in an expedition in which he 
knew he was to perish. But Eriphyle, who knew 
where he had concealed himself, was prevailed 
upon to bertay him by Polynices, who gave her, 
as a reward for her perfidy, a golden necklace 
set with diamonds. Amphiaraus being thus dis- 
covered, went to the war, but previously charged 
his son Alcmseon, to put to death his mother 
Eriphyle, as soon as he was informed that he 
was killed. The Theban war was fatal to the 
Argives, and Amphiaraus was swallowed up 
in his chariot by the earth, as he attempted to 
retire from the battle. The news of his death 
was brought to Alcmseon, who immediately 
executed his father's command, and murdered 
Eriphyle. Amphiaraus received divine honours 
after death, and had a celebrated temple and 
oracle at Oropos in Attica. His statue was made 
of white marble, and near his temple was a 
fountain, whose waters were ever held sacred. 
They only who had consulted his oracle, or had 
been delivered from a disease, were permitted 
to bathe in it, after which they threw pieces of 
gold and silver into the stream. Those who 
consulted the oracle of Amphiaraus first puri- 
fied themselves, and abstained from meat for 
24 hours, and three days from wine, after which 
they sacrificed a ram to the prophet, and spread 
the skin upon the ground, upon which they slept 
in expectation of receiving in a dream the an- 
swer of the oracle. Plutarch de orat. defect. 
mentions, that the oracle of Amphiaraus was 
once consulted in the time of Xerxes, by one of 
the servants of Mardonius, for his master, who 
was then with an army in Greece ; and that the 
servant, when asleep, saw in a dream the priest 
of the temple,who upbraided him, and drove him 
away, and even threw stones at his head when 
he refused to comply. This oracle was verified 
in the death of Mardonius, who was actually 
killed by the blow of a stone he received on the 
head. Cic. de Div. 1, c, 40. — Philostr. in vit. 
Apollon. 2, c. II.— Hom£r. Od. 15, v. 243, &c. 
—Hygin. fab. 70, 73, 128 and IbO.—Diod. 4.— 
Ovid. 9, fab. 10.— Pans. 1, c, 34, 1. 2, c. 37, 1. 
9, c. 8 and 19.— ^schyl. Sept. ante TVieb. 
Apollod. 1, c. 8 and 9, 1, 3, c. 6, Slc— Strab. 8. 

AMPmARAiDEs, a patronymic of Alcmaeon, as 
being son of Amphiaraus, Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 43. 

Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
reigned at Atherts after Cranaus, and first at- 
tempted to give the interpretation of dreams 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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and lo draw omens. Some say that the deluge 
happened in his age. Justin. 2, c. 6. Vid. 
Pan II. 

AMPmDAMUs, I. one of the Argonauts. Flac. 

1, V. 376. II. A s on of Busiris, killed by 

Hercules. Apollod. 2, c. 5. 

Amphilochus, a son of Amphiaraus and Eri- 
phyle. After the Trojan war he left Argos, 
his native country, and built Amphilochus, a 
town of Epirus. Strab. 7. — Paiis. 2, c. 18, 

Amphinomus, and Anapius. Vid. Part II. 

Amphion, I. was son of Jupiter, by Antiope, 
daughter of Nycteus. Amphion was born at 
the same birth as Zethus, on mount Citheron, 
where Antiope had fled to avoid the resentment 
of Dirce ; and the two children were exposed in 
the woods, but preserved by a shepherd. Vid. 
Antiope. When Amphion grew up, he culti- 
vated poetry, and made such an uncommon pro- 
gress in music, that he is said to have been the 
inventor of it, and to have built the walls of 
Thebes at the sound of his lyre. Mercury 
taught him music, and gave him the lyre. He 
was the first who raised an altar to this god. 
Zethus and Amphion united to avenge the 
wrongs which their mother had suffered from 
the cruelties of Dirce. Horner. Od. 11. — Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 5 and 10.— Pans. 6, c. 6, 1. 6, c. 20, 1. 
9, c. 5 and 17. — Propert. 3, el. 15. — Ovid, de 
Art. Am. 3, v. 323.— Horat. 3, od. 11. Art. 

Poet. r.39i.—Stat. Theb. 1, v. 10. II. A son 

of Jasus, king of Orchomenos, by Persephone, 
daughter of Mius. He married Niobe, daughter 
of Tantalus, by whom he had many children, 
among whom was Chloris, the wife of Neleus, 
He has been confounded by mythologists with 
the son of Antiope, though Homer in his Odys- 
sey speaks of them both, and distinguishes them 
beyond contradiction. Upon the death of his 
wife and children, Amphion destroyed himself 
Homer. Od. 11, v. 261 and 282.— jElian. V. H. 

12, V. 36.— Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 5. III. One of 

the Argonauts. Hygin. fab. 14. 

Amphipyros, a surname of Diana, because 
she carries a torch in both her hands. Sophocles, 
in Trach. 

AMpmsB^NA, a two-headed serpent in the 
deserts of Libya, whose bite was venomous and 
deadly. Lnican. 9, v. 719. 

Amphissa, or Tssa, a daughter of Macareus, 
beloved by Apollo. She gave her name to a 
city of the Locri Ozolse, in which was a temple 
of Minerva. Liv. 37, c. 5. — Ovid. Met. 15, v. 
703. — Lmcom. 3, V. 172. 

Amphitrite, I. daughter of Oceanus and Te- 
thys, married Neptune, though she had made a 
vow of perpetual celibacy. She had by him 
Triton, one of the sea deities. She had a statue 
at Corinth in the temple of Neptune. She is 
sometimes called Salatia, and is often taken for 
the sea itself Varro. de. L. L. 4. — Hesiod. 
Theog. 930. — Apollod. 3. — Claudian. de Rapt. 

Pros. 1, V. lOi.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 14. II. 

One of the Nereides. 

Amphitryon, a Theban prince, son of Alcaeus 
and Hipponome. His sister Anaxo had mar- 
ried Electryon, king of Mycenae, whose sons 
were killed in battle by the Teleboans. Elect- 
tryon had promised his crown, and daughter 
Aicmena, to him who could revenge the death 
of his sons upon the Teleboans ; and Amphi- 
tryon offered himself, and was received, on con- 



dition that he should not approach Aicmena be- 
fore he had obtained a victory. Jupiter, who 
was captivated with the charms of Aicmena, 
borrowed the features of Amphitryon, when he 
was gone to the war, and introduced himself to 
Electryon's daughter, as her husband returned 
victorious. Alemena became pregnant of Her- 
cules, by Jupiter, and of Iphiclus by Amphitryon 
after his return. Vid. Aicmena. When Am- 
'phitryon returned from the war, he brought 
back to Electryon, the herds which the Tele- 
boans had taken from him. One of the cows 
having strayed from the rest, Amphitryon, to 
bring them together, threw a stick, which struck 
the horns of the cow, and rebounded with such 
violence upon Electryon, that he died on the 
spot. After this accidental murder, Sthenelus, 
Electryon's brother, seized the kingdom of My- 
cenae, and obliged Amphitryon to leave Argolis, 
and retire to Thebes with Aicmena. Creon, 
king of Thebes, purified him of the murder. 
Apollod. 2, c. 4.— Virg. ^n. 8, v. 213.— Pro- 
pert. 4, el. 10, v. 1. — Hesiod. in Soiot. Hercul, — 
Hygin. fab. 29. — Pans. 8, c. 14. 

Amulius. Vid. Part II. 

Amyous, I. a son of Neptune by Melia, or 
Bithynis according to others, king of the Be- 
bryces. He was famous for his skill in the 
management of the cestus, and he challenged 
all strangers to a trial of strength. When the 
Argonauts, in their expedition, stopped on his 
coasts, he treated them with great kindness, 
and Pollux accepted his challenge, and killed 
him when he attempted to overcome him by 
fraud. Apollon. 2. Argon. — Theocrit. Id. 22. 

— Apollon. 1, c. 9. II. A son of Ixion, and 

the cloud. Ovid. Met. 12, v. 245. 

Amymone, daughter of Danaus and Europa, 
married Enceladus, son of Egyptus, whom she 
murdered the first night of her nuptials. It was 
said that she was the only one of the fifty sis- 
ters who was not condemned to fill a leaky tub 
with water in hell. Neptune carried her away, 
and in the place where she stood, he raised a 
fountain, by striking a rock. The fountain has 
been called Amymone. Propert. 2, el. 26, v. 
56. — Apollod. 2. — Strai. 8. — Ovid. Amor. 1, v. 
415.— Hygin. fab. 169. 

Amyntor, a king of Argos, son of Phras- 
tor. He deprived his son Phoenix of his eyes, 
to punish him for the violence he had offered 
to Clytia, his concubine. Hygin. fab. 173. — 
Ovid. Met. 8, v. 301.— Apollod. 3.— Homer. 
11.9. 

Amythaon, son of Cretheus, king of lol- 
chos, by Tyro. He married Idomene, by whom 
he had Bias and Melampus. After his father's 
death, he established himself in Messenia, with 
his brother Neleus, and re-established or regu- 
lated the Olympic games. Apollod. 1. — Homer. 
Od. 11. 

Anaitis, a goddess of Armenia. The fes- 
tivals of the deity were called Sacarum Festa , 
and when they were celebrated, both sexes as- 
sisted at the ceremony, and inebriated them- 
selves to such a degree that the whole was con- 
cluded by a scene of the greatest lasciviousness 
and intemperance. They were first instituted 
by Cyrus, when he marched against the Sacae, 
that he might detain the enemy by the novelty 
and sweetness of food to which they were 
unaccustomed, and thus easily destroy them 
675 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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Sir ah. 11. Diana is also worshipped under 

this name by the Lydians. Plin. 33, c. 4. 

Anaphe. V'id. Part I. 

Anausis, one of Medea's suiters, killed by 
Styrus. Val. Mace. 6, v. 43. 

Anax, a son of Coelus and Terra, father to 
A sterius, from whom Miletus has been called 
Anactoria. Pans. 1, c. 36, 1. 7, c. 2. 

Anaxarete, a girl of Salamis, whose lover, 
Iphis, hung himself at her door. She saw this 
sad spectacle without emotion or pity, and was 
changed into a stone. Ovid. Met. 14, v, 748, 

Anaxibia, L a sister of Agamemnon, mother 
of seven sons and two daughters by Nestor, 
Paiii. 2,c. 29. II. A daughter of Bia, broth- 
er to the physician Melampus. She married 
Pelias, king of lolchos, by whom she had Acas- 
tus, and four daughters, Pisidice, Pelopea. 
Hippothoe, and Alceste, Apollod. 1, c, 9. — She 
is called daughter of Dymas by Hygin. fab. 14. 

Anceus, I. the son of Lycurgus and Antinoe, 
was in the expedition of the Argonauts. He 
was at the chase of the Calydonian boar, in 
which he perished. Hygin. fab. 173 and 248. — 

Ovid. Met. 8. II, The son of Neptune and 

Astypalaea. He went with the Argonauts, and 
succeeded Typhis as pilot of the ship Argo, 
He reigned in Ionia, where he married Samia, 
daughter of the Maeander, by whom he had 
four sons, Perilas, Enudas, Samus, Alithersus, 
and one daughter called Parthenope. Orpheus. 
Argon. He was once told by one of his ser- 
vants, whom he pressed with hard labour in his 
vineyard, that he never would taste of the pro- 
duce of his vines. He had already the cup in 
his hand, and called the prophet to convince him 
of his falsehood ; when the servant, yet firm in 
his prediction, uttered this well-known proverb : 

HoXXa jxera^v TreXei KvXiKog Kai ■^ei'KEog aKpov. 

Multa cadunt inter calicem supremaque labra. 

And that very moment Anceus was told that a 
wild boar had entered his vineyard ; upon which 
he threw down the cup, and ran to drive away 
the wild beast. He was killed in the attempt. 

Anchemolus. Vid. Part II, 

Anchialus, a god of the Jews, as some sup- 
pose, in Martial's epigrams, 11 ep. 95. 

Anchises. Vid. Part II. 

Anchurus, a son of Midas, king of Phrygia. 
When the earth had opened and swallowed up 
many buildings, the oracle declared that it 
would never close if Midas did not throw into it 
whatever he had most precious. Anchurus, 
thinking himself the most precious of his fa- 
ther's possessions, leaped into the earth, which 
closed immediately over his head, Midas 
erected there an altar of stones to Jupiter, and 
that altar was the first object which he turned 
into gold when he had received his fatal gift from 
the gods. This unpolished lump of gold exist- 
ed still in the age of Plutarch, Plut. in Parall. 

Ancile, and Ancyle, a sacred shield, which, 
according to the Roman authors, fell from 
heaven in the reign of Numa, when the Roman 
people laboured under a pestilence. Upon the 
preservation of this shield depended the fate of 
the Roman empire, and therefore Numa ordered 
eleven of the same size and form to be made, 
that if ever any attempt was made to carry 
them away, the plunderer might find it difficult 
♦o distinguish the true one. They were made 
676 



with such exactness, that the king promised 
Veterius Mamurius, the artist, whatever re- 
ward he desired. Vid. Mamurius. They were 
kept in the temple of Vesta, and an order of 
priests was chosen to watch over their safety. 
These priests were called Salii, and were 
twelve in number ; they carried every year, on 
the first of March, the shields in a solemn pro ■ 
cession round the walls of Rome, dancing and 
singing praises to the god Mars. This sacred 
festival continued three days, during which iT 
was deemed unfortunate to undertake any ex- 
pedition ; and Tacitus in 1 Hist, has attrilDuted 
the unsuccessful campaign of the emperor Otho 
against Vitellius to his leaving Rome during 
the celebration of the Ancyliorum festum. 
These two verses of Ovid explain the origin 
of the word Ancyle, which is applied to these 
shields : — 

Idqiie ancyle vocat^ quod ah omni parte red- 
sum est, 

Quemque notes oculis, angulus omnis abest. 
Fast. 3, V, 377, &c. 

Varro. de L. L. 5, c,-6. — Val. Max. 1, c. 1, — 
Juv. 2, V. 124. — Plut. in Num. — Virg, JEn. 8, 
V. 664. — Dionys. Hal. 2. — Liv. 1, c. 20, 

ANDRiEMON, I. the father of Thoas, Hygin. 

fab. 97. II. The son-in-law and successor of 

QEneus. Apollod. 1, 

Androclea, a daughter of Antipcenus of 
Thebes, She, with her sister Alcida, sacrificed 
herself in the service of her country, when the 
oracle had promised the victory to her country- 
men, who were engaged in a war against Or- 
chomenos, if any one of noble birth devoted 
himself for the glory of his nation. Hercules, 
who fought on the side of Thebes, dedicated to 
them the image of a lion in the temple of Diana. 
Paus. 9, c. 17. 

Androgeus, son of Minos and Pasiphae, was 
famous for his skill in wrestling. He over- 
came every antagonist at Athens, and became 
such a favourite of the people, that iEgeus, king 
of the country, grew jealous of his popularity, 
and caused him to be assassinated as he was 
going to Thebes. Some say that he was killed 
by the wild bull of Marathon. The Athenians 
established festivals, by order of Minos, in hon- 
our of his son, and called them Androgeia. 
Hygin. fab, 41. — Diod. 4, — Virg. JEn. 6, v, 20. 
— Paus. 1, c. 1 and 27. — Apollod. 2, c 5, 1, 3, c. 
1 and 15. — Plut. m Thes. 

Androc4Yn^, a fabulous nation of Africa, 
beyond the Nasamones. iMcret. 5, v, 837. — 
Plin. 7, c. 2. 

Andromache. Vid. Part II. 

Andromeda, a daughter of Cepheus, king of 
^Ethiopia, by Cassiope. Neptune drowned the 
kingdom, and sent a sea-monster to ravage the 
country, because Cassiope had boasted herself 
fairer than Juno and the Nereides, and nothing 
could stop his resentment if Andromeda was not 
exposed to the sea-monster. She was accord- 
ingly tied naked on a rock, and at the moment 
that the monster was going to devour her, Per- 
seus, who returned through the air from the 
conquest of the Gorgons, saw her, and was cap- 
tivated with her beauty. He changed the sea- 
monster into a rock, by showing him Medusa's 
head, and untied Andromeda and married her. 
He had by her many children, among whom 



AN 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AN 



were Sthenelus, Ancseus, and Electryon, The 
marriage of Andromeda with Perseus was op- 
posed by Phineus, who, after a bloody battle, 
was changed into a stone by Perseus, Some 
say that Minerva made Andromeda a constella- 
tion in heaven after her death, Vid. Medusa, 
Perseus. Hygin. fab. 64. — Cic. de Nat. D. 2. c, 
A2.—Apollod. % c. 4.— M«mZ. 5, v. 533.— Pro- 
per^. 3, el. 21. — According to Pliny, 1, 5, c. 31, 
it was at Joppa,, in Judsea, that Andromeda was 
tied on a rock. He mentions that the skeleton 
of the huge sea monster, to which she had been 
exposed, was brought to Rome by Scaurus, and 
carefully preserved. 

Anguitia, a wood in the country of the 
Marc*, between the lake Fucinus and Alba. 
Serpents, it is said, could not injure the inhabi- 
tants, because they were descended from Circe, 
whose power over these venemous creatures 
has been much celebrated. Sil. 8. — Virg.^Tln. 
7, V. 759. 

Anigrus. Vid. Part I, 

Anna, a goddess, in whose honour the Ro- 
mans instituted festivals. She was, according 
to some, the daughter of Belus and sister of 
Dido, who, after her sister's death, fled from 
Carthage, which Jarbas had besieged, and came 
to Italy, where vEneas met her and gave her an 
honourable reception. But Lavinia, the wife of 
.ffineas, was jealous of the tender treatment 
which was shown to Anna, and meditated her 
rain. Anna was apprized of this by her sister 
in a dream, and fled to the river Numicus, of 
which she became a deity, and ordered the in- 
habitants of the country to call her Anna Pe- 
renna, because she would remain for ever under 
the waters. Her festivals were performed with 
many rejoicings, and the females often, in the 
midst of their cheerfulness, forgot their natural 
decency. They were introduced into Rome, 
and celebrated the 15th of March. The Ro- 
mans generally sacrificed to her, to obtain a long 
and happy life : and hence the words Annate 
and Perennare. Some have supposed Anna to 
be the moon, quia mensibus impleat annum ; 
others call her Themis, or lo, the daughter of 
Inachus, and sometimes Maia. Another more 
received opinion maintains that Anna was a 
woman of Bovillse, who, when the Roman pop- 
ulace had fled from the city to mount Sacer, 
brought them cakes every day : for which the 
Romans, when peace was re-established,decreed 
immortal honours to her whom they called Pe- 
renna, ab perennitate cuUiis, and who, as they 
supposed, was become one of their deities. 
Ovid. Fast. 3, V. 653, &c.—Sil.S, v, 19.— Virg. 
jEn. 4, V. 9, 20, 421 and 500. 

ANT.EA, the wife of Proteus, called also Ste- 
noba?a. Homer. 11. 

Ant5;us, a giant of Libya, son of Terra and 
Neptune. He was so strong in wrestling, that 
he boasted that he would erect a temple to his 
father with the sculls of his conquered antago- 
nists, Hercules attacked him, and as he re- 
ceived new strength from his mother as often as 
he touched the ground, the hero lifted him up 
in the air, and squeezed him to death in his 
arms, Lucan. 4, v, b^S.—Stat 6. Theb. v, 893, 
—Juv. 3, V. 88. 
Antenor, Vid. Part II, 
Antjeros, {avTi epoi, against love,) a son of 
Mars and Venus. He was not, as the deriva- 



tion of his name implies, a deity that presided 
over an opposition to love, but he was the god 
of mutual love and of mutual tenderness. Ve- 
nus had complained to Themis, that her son 
Cupid always continued a child, and was told, 
that if he had another brother, he would grow 
up in a short space of time. As soon as Ante- 
rosAvasborn, Cupid felt his strength increase 
and his wings enlarge ; but if ever his brother 
was at a distance from him, he found himself 
reduced to his ancient shape. From this cir- 
cumstance it is seen that return of passion gives 
vigour to love. The altar, however, which was 
erected to this deity at Elis, was dedicated to 
him, not as the god of mutual love, but as the 
avenger of love unrequited. The Athenians 
also ascribed to him similar attributes, as did 
probably all the other Grecian states on the 
first introduction of his worship, Cic. de Nat. — 
Paits. Alt. 30, and jElian. 23. Anteros had a 
temple at Athens raised to his honour, when 
Meles had experienced the coldness and disdain 
of Timagoras, whom he passionately esteemed, 
and for whom he had killed himself Vid. 
Meles. Cupid and Anteros are often repre- 
sented striving to seize a palm-tree from one 
another. They were always painted in the 
Greek academies, to inform the scholars that it 
is their immediate duty to be grateful to their 
teachers, and to reward their trouble with love 
and reverence. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c, 23. — Paus. 
1, c. 30, 1. 6, c, 23. Vid. Part II, 

Antheas, a son of Eumelus, killed in at- 
tempting to sow corn from the chariot of Trip- 
tolemus, drawn by dragons, Paus. 7, c. 18, 

ANxmus, {flowery^ a name of Bacchus wor- 
shipped at Athens. He had also a statue at 
Patrae, 

Anthores, a companion of Hercules, who 
followed Evander and settled in Italy, He was 
killed in the war of Turnus against iEneas. 
Virg. Mn. 10, v, 778, 

ANTmiopoPHAGi, a people of Scythia, that fed 
on human flesh. They lived near the country 
of the Messagetas, Plin. 4, c, 12, 1, 6, c. 30. — 
Mela, 2, c. 1. 

Anticlea, a daughter of Diodes, who mar- 
ried Machaon, the son of jEsculapius, by whom 
she had Nicomachus and Gorgasus, Pans. 4, 
c. 30, Vid. Part II, 

Antigone, a daughter of Laomedon, She 
was the sister of Priam, and was changed into 
a stork for comparing herself to Juno. Ovid. 
Met. 6, V. 93. Vid. Part II. 

ANTiLocmjg, I, a king of Messenia, II. 

The eldest son of Nestor by Eurydice. He 
went to the Trojan war with his father, and was 
killed by Memnon, the son of Aurora, Homer. 
Od. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. says he was killed by 
Hector, Vid. Part II, 

ANTiMAcmjs, Vid. Part II 

Antinoe, a daughter of Pelius, Apollod. \. 
— Paiis. 8, c, 11. 

Antinous, a native of Ithaca, son of Eupei- 
thes, and one of Penelope's suiters. He was 
brutal and cruel in his manners, and excited 
his companions to destroy Telemachus, whose 
advice comforted his mother Penelope. When 
Ulysses returned home he came to the palace 
in a beggar's dress, and begged for bread, which 
Antinous refused, and even struck him. After 
Ulysses had discovered himself to Telemachus 
677 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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and Eumaeus, he attacked the suiters, who were 
ignorant who he was, and killed Antinous 
among the first. Homier. Od. 1, 16, 17, and 22. 
Vid. Part II. 

Antiope, I. daughter of Nycteus, king of 
Thebes, by Polyxo, was beloved by Jupiter, 
who, to deceive her, changed himself into a 
satyr. She fled to mount Githaeron, where she 
brought forth twins, Amphion and Zethus. 
After this she fled to Epopeus, king of Sicyon, 
who married her. Some say that Epopeus car- 
ried her away. Lycus killed Epopeus, and re- 
covered Antiope, whom he loved, and married, 
though his niece. His first wife, Dirce, was 
jealous of his new connexion ; and Antiope 
was delivered into her hands, and confined in a 
prison, where she was daily tormented. After 
many years' imprisonment she escaped, and 
went after her sons, who undertook to avenge 
her wrongs upon Lycus and his wife. They 
took Thebes, put the king to death, and tied 
Dirce to the tail of a wild bull, who dragged her 
till she died. Bacchus changed her into a foun- 
tain, and deprived Aniiope of the use of her 
senses. In this forlorn situation she wandered 
all over Greece, and at last found relief from 
Phocus, son of Ornytion, who cured her of her 
disorder, and married her. Hyginus, fab. 7, 
says that Antiope was divorced by Lycus, and 
that after her repudiation she became pregnant 
by Jupiter. Meanwhile Lycus married Dirce, 
who suspected Antiope and imprisoned her. 
Antiope, however, escaped from her confine- 
ment, and brought forth on mount Githaeron. 
Some authors have called her daughter of Aso- 
pus, because she was born on the banks of that 
river. The Scholiast on Apollon. 1, v. 735, main- 
tains that there were two persons of the name, 
one the daughter of Nycteus, and the other ol 
Asopus, and mother of Amphion and Zethus. 
Pans. 2, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 11.— Ovid. 6. Met. v. 110. 
— ApoUod. 3, c. 5. — Propert. 3, el. 15. — Ham. 
O^, 11, V. 2b9.—Hygin. fab. 7, 8, and 155. 



II. A daughter of Mars, queen of the Amazons, 
taken prisoner by Hercules, and given in mar- 
riage to Theseus. She is also called Hippolyte. 

Vid. Hippolyte. III. A daughter of ^olus, 

mother of BoBotus and Hellen, by Neptune. Hy- 
gin. fab. 157. 

Antiphates, I. a king of the Lsestrygones, 
descended from Lamus, who founded Formiae. 
Ulysses, returning from Troy, came upon his 
coasts, and sent three men to examine the coun- 
try. Antiphates devoured one of them and 
pursued the others, and sunk the fleet of Ulysses 
with stones, except the stiip in which Ulysses 

was. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 232. II. A son of 

Sarpedon. Virg. Mn. 9, v. 696. III. The 

grandfather of Amphiaraus. Homer. Od. 

Anubis, an Egyptian deity, represented un- 
der the form of a man with the head of a dog. 
His worship was introduced from Egypt into 
Greece and Italy. He is supposed by some to 
be Mercury, because he is sometimes represent- 
ed wath a cad^iceus. Some make him brother of 
Osiris, some his son by Nephthys, the wife of 
Typhon, Diod. 1. — iMcan. 8, v. 331. — Ovid. 
Met. 9, V. 686. — Plut. de Bid. and Osirid. — 
Herodot. 4.— Virg. Mn. 8, v. 698. The worship 
ot Anubis, however, was not confined to Egypt ; 
and even in the latter periods of the Roman 
empire, not much more than a century before 
678 



the official recognition of Ghristianity, and at 
least 180 years after the preaching of St. Paul 
at Rome, the emperor performed in public the 
offices of highpriest of Anubis. 

Aon, a son of Neptune, who came to Euboea 
and Bceotia, from Apulia, when he collected 
the inhabitants into cities and reigned over them. 
They were called Acnes, and the country Aonia, 
from him. 

AoRis, I. a famous hunter, son of Aras, king 
of Gorinth. He was so fond of his sister Ara- 
thyrgea, that he called part of the country by 

her name. Pans. 2, c. 12. II. The wife of 

Neleus, called more commonly Chloris. Id. 9, 
c. 36. 

Apharetus, fell in love with Marpessa, 
daughter of (Enomaus, and carried her away. 

Aphareus, a king of Messenia, son of Pe- 
rieres and Gorgophone, who married Arene 
daughter of CEbalus, by whom he had three 
sons. Paus. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part II. 

Aphrodite, the Graecian name of Venus, 
from a(Ppos, froth, because Venus is said to have 
been born from the froth of the ocean. Hesiod. 
Th. Idb.—Plin. 36, c. 5. 

Apis, I. one of the ancient kings of Pelopon- 
nesus, son of Phoroneus and Laodice. Some 
say that Apollo was his father, and that he was 
king of Argos, while others call him king of 
Sicyon, and fix the time of his reign above 200 
years earlier. He was a native of Naupactum, 
and descended from Inachus. He received 
divine honours after death, as he had been mu- 
nificent and humane to his subjects ; and the 
country where he reigned was called Apia. 
Some, among whom is Varro and St. Augus- 
tine, have imagined that Apis went to Egypt 
with a colony of Greeks, and that he civilized 
the inhabitants and polished their manners, for . 
w^hich they made him a god after death, and 
paid divine honours to him under the name of 
Serapis. JEschyl. in Suppl. — August, de Civ. 
Dei, 18, c. 5. — Paus. 2, c. 5. — ApoUod. 2, c. 1. 

II. A son of Jason, born in Arcadia ; he was 

killed by the horses of iEtolus. Poms. 5, c. 1. 

Vid. Part I. III. A god of the Egyptians, 

worohipped under the form of an ox. Some 
say that Isis and Osiris are the deities worship- 
ped under this name, because during their 
reign they taught the Egyptians agriculture. 
The Egyptians believed that the soul of Osiris 
was really departed into the ox, because that 
animal had been of the most essential service 
in the cultivation of the ground, which Osiris 
had introduced into Egypt. The ox that was 
chosen was always distinguished by particular 
marks ; his body was black ; he had a square 
white spot upon the forehead, the figure of an 
eagle upon the back, a knot under the tongue 
like a beetle, the hairs of his tail were double, 
and his right side was marked with a whitish 
spot, resembling the crescent of the moon. 
The festival of Apis lasted seven days. The 
ox was conducted to the banks of the Nile with 
much ceremony, and if he had lived to the 
time when their sacred books allowed, they 
drowned him in the river, and embalmed his 
body, and buried it in solemn state in the city 
of Memphis. After his death, which sometimes 
was natural, the greatest cries and lamentations 
were heard in Egypt, as if Osiris was just dead; 
the priests shaved their heads, which was a sign 



AP 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AP 



of the deepest mourning. This continued till 
another ox appeared with the proper character- 
istics to succeed as the deity, which was follow- 
ed with the greatest acclamations, as if Osiris 
was returned to life. This ox, which was found 
to represent Apis, was left 40 days in the city 
of the Nile before he was carried lo Memphis, 
during which time none but women were per- 
mitted to appear before him, and this they per- 
formed, according to their super.stitious notions, 
in a wanton and indecent manner. There 
was also an ox worshipped atHeliopolis, under 
the name of Mnevis ; some supposed that he 
was Osiris, but others maintain that the Apis 
of Memphis was sacred to Osiris, and Mnevis 
to Isis. When Cambyses came into Egypt, the 
people were celebrating the festivals of Apis with 
every mark of joy and triumph, which the con- 
queror interpreted as an insult upon himself. 
He called the priests of Apis, and ordered the 
deity himself to come before him. When he 
saw that an ox was the object of their venera- 
tion, and the cause of such rejoicings, he 
wounded it on the thigh, ordered the priests to 
be chastised, and commanded his soldiers to 
slaughter such as were found celebrating such 
riotous festivals. The god Apis had generally 
two stables, or rather temples. If he eat from 
the hand, it was a favourable omen ; but if he 
refused the food that was offered him, it was 
interpreted as unlucky. From this,. Germani- 
cus, when he visited Egypt, drew the omens of 
his approaching death. When his oracle was 
consulted, incense was burnt on an altar, and 
a piece of money placed upon it, after which 
the people that wished to know futurity applied 
their ear to the mouth of the god and immedi- 
ately retired, stopping their ears till they had 
departed from the temple. The first sounds that 
were heard were taken as the answer of the 
oracle to their questions. Paus. 7, c. 22. — 
Herodot. 2 and 3.—Plin. 8, c. 38, &,c.—Strab. 
l.—Plut. in Isid. and Osir. — Apollod. 1, c. 7. 1. 
2, c. l.~Mela, 1, c. 9.—Plin. 8, c. 39, &c.— 
Strab. l.—Mlian. V. H. 4 and 6.—Diod. 1. 
Apis is universally allowed to have been a 
symbol of the Nile and its fertilizing influence 
upon the soil ; and because it was believed that 
the inundations of that river were greatly af- 
fected by the operation of the moon, it was 
required that her emblem, the crescent, should 
designate the ox who was to be invested with 
the title and honours of Apis. For the same 
reason, according to ^lian, the rejoicings that 
attended the celebration of his rites commenced 
with the commencing increase of the river. 
This always occurred when the sun was in a 
particular sign ; whence the inhabitants attrib- 
uted, also, in part to his influence the fertility 
that succeeded. Apis was, therefore, likewise 
a symbol of the sun, and of consequence, no less 
sacred to Osiris than to Isis his wife. When 
the worship of Serapis superseded that of Osiris, 
the ox Apis became, in like manner, conse- 
crated to him. 

Apisaon. Vid. Part II, 

Apollo son of Jupiter, and Latona, called 
also Phcebus, is often confounded with the sun. 
According to Cicero, 3, de Nat. Deor. there 
Were four persons of this name. The first was 
son of Vulcan, and the tutelary god of the 
Athenians. The second wasson of Corybas, 



and was born in Crete, for the dominion of 
which he disputed even Avith Jupiter himself. 
The third was son of Jupiter and Latona, and 
came from the nations of the Hyperboreans 
to Delphi. The fourth was born in Arcadia, 
and called Nomion, because he gave laws to the 
inhabitants. To the son of Jupiter and Latona 
all the actions of the others seem to have been 
attributed. The Apollo, son of Vulcan, was the 
same as the Orus of the Egyptians, and was the 
most ancient, from whom the actions of the 
others have been copied. The three others 
seem to be of Grecian origin. The tradition 
that the son' of Latona was born in the floating 
island of Delos, is taken from the Egyptian 
mythology, which asserts that the son of Vul- 
can, which is supposed to be Orus, was saved 
by his mother Isis from the persecution of Ty- 
phon, and intrusted to the care of Latona, who 
concealed him in the island of Chemmis. When 
Latona was pregnant by Jupiter, Juno, who 
was ever jealous of her husband's amours, raised 
the serpent Python to torment Latona, who was 
refused a place to give birth to her children, 
till Neptune, moved at the severity of her fate, 
raised the island of Delos from the bottom of 
the sea, where Latona brought forth Apollo 
and Diana. Apollo was the god of the fine 
arts, ofmedicine, music, poetry, and eloquence ; 
of all which he was deemed the inventor. He 
was the only one of the gods whose* oracles were 
in general repute over the world. When his 
son jEsculapius had been killed with the thun- 
ders of Jupiter, for raising the dead to life, 
Apollo, in his resentment, killed the Cyclops 
who had fabricated the thunderbolts. Jupiter 
was incensed at this act of violence, and he 
banished Apollo from heaven. The exiled 
deity came to Admetus, king of Thessaly, and 
hired himself to be one of his shepherds, in 
which ignoble employmeat he remained nine 
years ; from which circumstance he was called 
the god of shepherds, and at his sacrifices a wolf 
was generally offered, as the enemy of the sheep- 
fold. During his residence at Thessaly, he re- 
warded the tender treatment of Admetus. He 
gave him a chariot, drawn by a lion and a bull, 
with which he was able to okain in marriage 
Alceste the daughter of Pel ias; and, soon after, 
the Parcae granted, at Apollo's request, that 
Admetus might be redeemed from death if 
another person laid down his life for him. He 
assisted Neptune in building the walls of Troy ; 
and when he was refused the promised reward 
from Laomedon, the king of the country, he 
destroyed the inhabitants by a pestilence. As 
soon as he was born, Apollo destroyed with 
arrows the serpent Python, whom Juno had 
sent to persecute Latona ; hence he was called 
Pythius. He was not the inventor of the lyre, 
as some have imagined, but Mercury gave it 
him, and received as a reward the famous ca- 
duceus with which Apollo was wont to drive the 
flocks of Admetus. He received the surnames 
of Phoebus, Delius, Cynthius, Pasan, Delphi- 
cus, Nomius, Lycius, Clarius, Ismenius, Vul- 
turius, Smintheus, &c., for reasons which are 
explained under those words. Apollo is gene- 
rally represented with long hair, and the Ro- 
mans were fond of imitating his figure; and 
therefore in their youth they were remarkable 
for their fine head of hair, which they cut short 
679 



AP 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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at the age of seventeen or eighteen ; he is al- 
ways represented as a tall beardless young man, 
with a handsome shape, holding in his hand a 
bow, and sometimes a lyre; his head is gene- 
rally surrounded with beams of light. He was 
the deity who, according to the notions of the 
ancients, inflicted plagues, and in that moment 
he appeared surrounded with clouds His wor- 
ship and power were universally acknowledged: 
he had temples and statues in every country, 
particularly in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His 
statue, which stood upon mount Actium, as a 
mark to mariners to avoid the dangerous coasts, 
was particularly famous, and it appeared a great 
distance at sea. Augustus, before the battle of 
Actium, addressed himself to it for victory. 
The griffin, the cock, the grasshopper, the wolf, 
the crow, the swan, the hawk, the olive, the 
laurel, the palm-tree, &c., were sacred to him ; 
and in his sacrifices, wolves, hawks, bullocks, 
and lambs were immolated to him. As he 
presided over poetry he was often seen on mount 
Parnassus with the nine muses. His most fa- 
mous oracles were at Delphi, Delos, Claros, 
Tenedos, Cyrrha, and Patara. His most splen- 
did temple was at Delphi, where every na- 
tion and individual made considerable presents 
when they consulted the oracle. Augustus, 
after the battle of Actium, built him a temple 
on mount Palatine, which he enriched with a 
valuable library. He had a famous Colossus in 
Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of 
the world. Apolla has been taken for the sun ; 
but it may be proved by different passages in 
the ancient writers, that Apollo, the Sun, Phoe- 
bus, and Hyperion, were all diflferent characters 
and deities, though confounded together. Ovid. 
Met. 1, fab. 9 and 10, 1. 4. fab. 3, &.Q..—Pa%s. 
2, c. 7, 1. 5, c. 7, 1. 7, c. 20, 1. 9, c. 30, &c.—Hy- 
gin. fab. 9, 14, 50, 93, 140, 161, 202, 203, &c.— 
Stat. 1. Theb. d60.— Tibull. 2, cl. S.—Plut. de 
Amor. — Horn. 11. cf* Hymn, in Apoll. — Virg. 
^En. 2, 3, &c. G. 4, v. 323.— Horat. 1, od. 10. 
— Lucian. Dial. Mer. tf Vulc. — Propert. 2, el. 
28. — Callimach. in Apoll. — Apollod. 1, c. 3, 4 
and 9, 1. 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 5, 10 and \2.— Virg. Mn. 

10, V, 171. Also a temple of Apollo upon 

mount Leucas, which appeared at a great dis- 
tance at sea, and served as a guide to mariners, 
and reminded them to avoid the dangerous 
rocks that were along the coast. Virg. JEn. 3, 
V. 275. Vid. Leucothoe, Daphne, Issa, Coronis, 
Clym^ne, Niobe, Hyacinthus, Marsyas, <^c. 

Apomyios. Vid. Jupiter. 

AposTROPmA, a surname of Venus in Boeotia, 
who was distinguished under these names, 
Venus, Urania, Vulgaria, and Apostrophia. 
The former was the patroness of a pure and 
chaste love ; the second of carnal and sensual 
desires : and the last incited men to illicit and 
unnatural gratifications, to incests and rapes. 
Venus Apostrophia was invoked by the The- 
bans, that they might be saved from such un- 
lawful desires. She is the same as the Verti- 
cordia of the Romans. Pans. 9, c. 16. — Vol. 
Max. 8, c. 15. 

Appiades, a name given to these five deities, 
Venus, Pallas, Vesta, Concord, and Peace, be- 
cause a temple was erected to them near the 
Appian roads. The name was also applied to 
ttiose courtesans at Rome who lived near the 
temple of Venus by the Appiae, Aquae, and 
680 



the forum of J. Cassar. Ovid, de Art. Am. 3, 
V. 452. 

AauARius, one of the signs of the zodiac, 
rising in January, and setting in February. 
Some suppose that Ganymede was changed into 
this sign. Virg. G. 3, v. 304. 

Arabs, and Arabus, a son of Apollo and 
Babylone, who first invented medicine, and 
taught it in Arabia, which is called after his 
name. Plin. 7, c. 56. 

Arachne, a woman of Colophon, daughter 
to Idmon, a dier. She challenged Minerva to 
a trial of skill with the needle, and represented 
on her work the amours of Jupiter with Euro- 
pa, Antiope, Leda, Asteria, Danae, Alcmene, 
s&c. ; but though her piece was perfect and mas- 
terly, she was defeated by Minerva, and hang- 
ed herself in despair, and was changed into a 
spider by the goddess. Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 1, &c. 

Arcesius, son of Jupiter, was grandfather to 
Ulysses. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 144. 

Arghander, father-in-law to Danaus. He- 
rodot. 2, c. 98. 

Arche, one of the muses, according to Cicero. 

Archelaus, a son of Electryon and Anaxo. 
Apollod. 2. Vid. Part II. 

Archemorus, or Opheltes, son of- Lycurgus, 
king of Nemse, in Thrace, by Eurydice. Ac- 
cording to Statins, the Nemaean games were in- 
stituted in honour of Archemorus. Vid. Hyp- 
sipyle. 

Argheptolemus. Vid: Part II. 

ARcmA, one of the Oceanides, wife to Ina- 
chus. Hygin. fab. 143, 

Architts, a name of Venus, worshipped on 
mount Libanus. 

Ardalus, a son of Vulcan, said to have 
been the first who invented the pipe. He gave 
ii to the muses, who on that account have been 
called Ardalides and Ardaliotides. Paus. 2, c. 31. 

Arduine, the goddess of hunting among the 
Gauls ; represented with the same attributes as 
the Diana of the Romans. 

Areta, a daughter of Rhexenor, descended 
from Neptune, who married her uncle Alci- 
I nous, by whom she had Nausicaa. Hoyner. Od. 
7 and S.— Apollod. 1. 

Arethijsa, a nymph of Elis, daughter of 
Oceanus, and one of Diana's attendants. As 
she returned one day from hunting, she sat 
near the Alpheus, and bathed in the stream. 
The god of the river was enamoured of her, 
and he pursued her over the mountains and all 
the country, when Arethusa implored Diana, 
who changed her into a fountain. The Alpheus 
immediately mingled his streams with hers, and 
Diana opened a secret passage under the earih 
and under the sea, where the waters of Arethu- 
sa disappeared, and rose in the island of Orty- 
gia, near Syracuse, in Sicily. The river Al- 
pheus followed her also under the sea, and rose 
also in Ortygia ; so that, as mythologists relate, 
whatever is thrown into the Alpheus, in Elis, 
rises again, after some time, in the fountain 
Arethusa, near Syracuse. Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 
\0.—Athen. l.—Paus. Vid. Part I. 

Argathona, a huntress of Cios in Biihynia, 
whom Rhesus married before he went to the 
Trojan war. When she heard of his death she 
died in despair. — Parthen. Erotic, c. 36. 

Argia. Vid. Part II. 

Argiope, a nymph of mount Parnassus, 



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mother of Thamyris, by Philammon, the son of 
Apollo. Pans. 4, c. 38. 

Argiphontes, a surname given to Mercury, 
because he killed the hundred-eyed Argus by 
order of Jupiter. 

Argiva, a surname of Juno, worshipped at 
Argos. She had also a temple at Sparta, con- 
secrated to her by Eurydice, the daughter of 
Lacedaemon. Paus. 4, c. 13. — Virg. Mn. 3, v. 
547. 

Argo, the name of the ship which carried 
Jason and his 54 companions to Colchis, when 
they resolved to recover the golden fleece. The 
derivation of the word Argo has been often dis- 
puted. Some derive it from Argos, ihe person 
who first proposed the expedition, and who built 
the ship. Others maintain that it was built at 
Argos, whence its name. Cicero, Tusc. 1, c. 
c. 20, calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, 
commonly called Argives. Diod. 4, derives the 
word from apyoi, which signifies swift. Ptole- 
my says, but falsely, that Hercules built the 
ship, and called it Argo, after a son of Jason, 
v.'ho bore the same name. The ship Argo had 
50 oars. According to many authors, she had 
a beam on her prow, cut in the forest of Dodona 
by Minerva, which had the power of giving 
oracles to the Argonauts. This ship was the 
first that ever sailed on the sea, as some report. 
After the expediiion was finished, Jason order- 
ed her to be drawn aground at the Isthmus of 
Corinth, and consecrated her to the god of the 
sea. The poets have made her a constellation 
in heaven. Hygm. fab. 14, A. P. 2, c. 37. — 
Catull. de Nupt. Pel. <^ Thet.— Val. Place. 1, 
V. 93, &c. — PhcBdr. 4, fab. 6. — Seneca in Medea. 
— Apollon. Argon. — Apollod. — Cic. de Nat. D. 
— Plin. 7, c. 56. — Manil. 1. 

Argonautje, a name given to those ancient 
heroes who went with Jason on board the ship 
Argo to Colchis, about 89 years before the tak- 
ing of Troy, or 1263 B. C. The causes of this 
expedition arose from the following circum- 
stance: — Athamas king of Thebes, had mar- 
ried Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, whom he di- 
vorced to marry Nephele, by whom he had two 
children, Phryxus and Helle. As Nephele 
was subject to certain fits of madness, Athamas 
repudiated her, and took a second time Ino, by 
whom he had soon after two sons, Learchus 
and Melicerta. As the children of Nephele 
were to succeed to their father by right of birth. 
Ino conceived an immortal hatred against them! 
and she caused the city of Thebes to be visited 
by a pestilence, by poisoning all the grain which 
had been sown in the earth. Upon this the 
oracle was consulted ; and as it had been cor- 
rupted by means of Ino, the answer was that 
Nephele's children should be immolated to the 
gods. Phryxus was apprized of this, and he 
immediately embarked with his sister Helle, 
and fled to the court of iEetes, king of Colchis, 
one of his near relations. In the voyage Helle 
died, and Phryxus arrived safe at Colchis, and 
was received with kindness by the king. The 
poets have embellished the flight of Phryxus, 
by supposing that he and Helle fled through 
the air on a ram which had a golden fleece and 
wings, and was endowed with the faculties of 
speech. As they were going to be sacrificed, 
the ram took them on his back, and instantly 
disappeared in the air. On their way Helle 

Part III.— 4 R 



was giddy, and fell into that part of the sea 
which from her was called the Hellespont. 
When Phryxus came to Colchis, he sacrificed 
the ram to Jupiter, or, according to others, to 
Mars, to whom he also dedicated the golden 
fleece. He soon after married Chalciope, the 
daughter of iEetes ; but his father-in-law envied 
him the possession of the golden fleece, and 
therefore to obtain it he murdered him. Some 
time after this event, when Jason, the son of 
iEson, demanded of his uncle Pelias the crown 
which he usurped, ( Vid. Pelias^ Jason., jEson.) 
Pelias said that he would restore it to him, pro- 
vided he avenged the death of their common 
relation Phryxus, whom ^Eetes had basely mur- 
dered in Colchis. Jason , who was in the vigour 
of youth, and of an ambitious soul, cheerfully 
undertook the expedition, and embarked with 
all the young princes of Greece in the ship Argo. 
They stopped at the island of Lemnos, where 
they reiliained two years, and raised a new race 
of men from the Lemnian women who had 
murdered their husbands. Vid. Hypsipyle. 
After they had left Lemnos, they visited Samo- 
thrace, where they offered sacrifices to the gods, 
and thence passed to Troas and to Cyzicum. 
Here they met with a favourable reception from 
Cyzicus, the king of the country. The night 
after their departure, they were driven back by 
a storm again on the coast of Cyzicum, and the 
inhabitants, supposing them to be their enemies, 
the Pelasgi, furiously attacked *them. In this 
nocturnal engagement the slaughter was great, 
and Cyzicus was killed by the hand of Jason, 
who, to expiate the murder he had ignorantly 
committed, buried him in a magnificent man- 
ner, and ofiered sacrifices to the mother of 
the gods, to whom he built a temple on mount 
Dyndymus. From Cyzicum they visited Be- 
brycia, otherwise called Bithynia, where Pol- 
lux accepted the challenge of Amycus, king of 
the country, in the combat of the cestus, and 
slew him. They were driven from Bebrycia 
by a storm, to Salmydessa, on the coast of 
Thrace, where they delivered Phineus, king of 
the place, from the persecution of the harpies. 
Phineus directed their course through the Cya- 
nean rock or the Symplegades, {Vid. Cyanecs,) 
and they safely entered the Euxine sea. They 
visited the country of the Mariandinians, where 
Lycus reigned, and lost two of their compan- 
ions, Idmon, and Typhis their pilot. After 
they had left this coast, they were driven upon 
the island of Arecia, where they found the 
children of Phryxus, whom ^etes, their grand- 
father, had sent to Greece to take possession of 
their father's kingdom. From this island they 
at last arrived safe at ^a, the capital of the Col- 
chis. Jason explained the cause of his voyage 
to -^etes ; but the conditions on which he was 
to recover the golden fleece were so hard, that 
the Argonauts must have perished in the at- 
tempt, had not Meda, the king's daughter, 
fallen in love with their leader. She had a 
conference with Jason, and after mutual oaths 
of fidelity in the temple of Hecate, Medea 
pledged herself to deliver the Argonauts from 
her father's hard conditions, if Jason married 
her, and carried her with him to Greece. He 
was to tame two bulls, which had brazen feet 
and horns, and which vomited clouds of fire 
and smoke, and to tie them to a plough made of 
681 



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adamant stone, and to plough a field of two acres 
of ground never before cultivated. After this 
he was to sow in the plain the teeth of a dragon, 
from which an armed multitude were to rise upj 
and to be all destroyed by his hands. This 
done, he was to kill an ever-watchfal dragon, 
"which was at the bottom of the tree on which 
the golden fleece was suspended. All these la- 
bours were to be performed in one day ; and 
Medea's assistance, whose knowledge of herbs, 
magic, and potions, was unparalleled, easily 
extricated Jason from all danger, to the aston- 
ishment and terror of his companions, and of 
JKetes, and the people of Colchis, who had as- 
sembled to be spectators of this wonderful ac- 
tion. He tamed the bulls with ease, ploughed 
the field, sowed the dragon's teeth, and when 
the armed men sprang from the earth, he threw 
a stone in the midst of them, and they imme- 
diately turned their weapons one against the 
other, till they all perished. After this he went 
to the dragon, and by means of enchanted 
herbs, and a draught which Medea had given 
him, he lulled the monster to sleep, and obtain- 
ed the golden fleece, and immediately set sail 
with Medea. He was soon pursued by Absyr- 
tus, the king's son, who came up to them, and 
was seized and murdered by Jason and Medea. 
The mangled limbs of Absyrtus were strewed 
in the way through which ^etes was to pass, 
that his farther pursuit might be stopped. After 
the murder of Absyrtus, they entered the Palus 
Maeotis ; and by pursuing their course towards 
the left, according to the foolish account of poets 
who were ignorant of geography, they came to 
the island Peucestes, and to that of Circe. Here 
Circe informed Jason that the cause of all his 
calamities arose from the murder of Absyrtus, 
of which she refused to expiate him. Soon af- 
ter, they entered the Mediterranean by the 
columns of Hercules, and passed the straits of 
Charybdis and Scylla, where they must have 
perished, had not Tethys, the mistress of Pe- 
leus, one of the Argonauts, delivered them. 
They were preserved from the Sirens by the 
eloquence of Orpheus, and arrived in the island 
of the Phseacians, where they met the enemy's 
fleet, which had continued their pursuit by a 
different course. It was therefore resolved that 
Medea should be restored, if she had not been 
actually married to Jason; but the wife of Al- 
cinous, the king of the country, being appointed 
umpire between the Colchians and Argonauts, 
had the marriage privately consummated by 
night, and declared that the claims of JEetes 
to Medea were now void. From Pheeacia 
the Argonauts came to the bay of Ambracia, 
whence they were driven by a storm upon the 
coast of Africa, and, after many disasters, at last 
came in sight of the promontory of Melea, in 
the Peloponnesus, where Jason was purified of 
the murder of Absyrtus, and soon after arrived 
safe in Thessaly. Apollonius Rhodius gives 
another account equally improbable. He says 
that they sailed from the Euxine up one of the 
mouths of the Danube, and that Absyrtus pur- 
sued them by entering another mouth of the 
river. After they had continued their voyage 
for some leagues, the waters decreased, and they 
were obliged to carry the ship Argo across the 
country to the Adriatic, upwards of 150 miles. 
Here they met with Absyrtus, who had pur- 
682 



sued the same measures, and conveyed his 
ships in like manner over the land. Absyrtus 
was immediately put to death; and soon after 
the beam of Dodona ( Vid. Argo) gave an ora- 
cle, that Jason should never return home if he 
was not previously purified of the murder. Upon 
this they sailed to the island of ^a, where 
Circe, who was the sister of iEetes, expiated 
him without knowing who he was. There is a 
third tradition, which maintains, that they re- 
turned to Colchis a second time, and visited 
many places of Asia. This famous expedition 
has been celebrated in the ancient ages of the 
world ; it has employed the pen of many writers, 
and among the historians, Diodorus Siculus, 
Strabo, Apollodorus, and Justin ; and among 
the poets, Onomacritus, more generally called 
Orpheus, Apollonius Rhodius, Pindar, and 
Valerius Flaccus, have extensively given an 
account of its most remarkable particulars. 
The number of the Argonauts is not exactly 
known. Apollodorus and Diodorus say that 
they were 54. Tzetzes admits the number of 
50, but Apollodorus mentions only 45. The 
following list is drawn from the various authors 
who have made mention of the Argonautic ex- 
pedition. Jason, son of ^son, as is well known, 
was the chief. His companions were Acastus, 
son of Pelias, Actor, son of Hippasus, Adme- 
tus, son of Pheres, ^sculapius, son of Apollo, 
-ffitalides, son of Mercury and Eupoleme, Al- 
menus, son of Mars, Amphiaraus, son of 
OEcleus, Amphidamus, son of Aleus, Amphion, 
son of Hyperasius, Anceus, a son of Lycurgus, 
and another of the same name, Areus, Argus, 
the builder of the ship Argo, Argus, son of 
Phryxus, Armenus, Ascalaphus, son of Mars, 
Asterion, son of Cometes, Asterius, son of Ne- 
leus, Augoas, son of Sol, Atalahta, daughter of 
Schceneus, disguised in a man's dress, Autoly- 
cus, son of Mercury, Azorus, Buphagus, Butes, 
son of Teleon, Calais, son of Boreas, Canthus, 
son of Abas, Castor, son of Jupiter, Ceneus, son 
of Elatus, Cepheus, son of Aleus, Cius, Cly- 
tius, and Iphitus, sons of Eurythus, Coronus, 
Deucalion, son of Minos, Echion, oon of Mer- 
cury and Antianira, Ergynus, son of Neptune, 
Euphemus, son of Neptune and Macionassa, 
Eribotes, Euryalus, son of Cisteus, Eurydamas 
and Eurythion, sons of Iras, Eurytus, son of 
Mercury, Glaucus, Hercules, son of Jupiter, 
Idas, son of Aphareus, lalmenus, son of Mars, 
Idman, son of Abas, lolaus, son of Iphiclus, 
Iphiclus, son of Thestius, Iphiclus, son of Phi- 
lacus, Iphis, son of Alector, Lynceus, son of 
Aphareus, Iritus, son of Naubolus, Laertes, son 
of Arcesius, Laocoon, Leodatus, son of Bias, 
Leitus, son of Alector, Meleager, son of CEne- 
us, Mencetius, son of Actor, Mopsus, son of 
Amphycus, Nauplius, son of Neptune, Neleus, 
the brother of Peleus, Nestor, son of Neleus, 
Oileus. the father of Ajax, Orpheus, son of 
CEager, Palemon, son of ^tolius, Peleus and 
Teiamon,sons of iEacus, Periclimenes, son of 
Neleus, Peneleus, son of Hipalmus, Philocte- 
tes, son of Paean, Phlias, Pollux, son of Jupiter, 
Polyphemus, son of Elates, Pceas, son of Thau- 
macus, Phanus, son of Bacchus, Phalerus, son 
of Alcon, Phocas and Priasus, sons of Ceneus, 
one of the Lapithse, Talaus, Tiphus, son of 
Aginus, Staphilus, son of Bacchus, two of the 
name of Iphitus, Theseus, son of iEgeus, with 



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his friend Pirithous. Among these iEscula- 
pius was physician, and Typhis was pilot. 

Argus, I. a son of Arestor, whence lie is often 
called Arestorides. He married Ismene, the 
daughter of the Asopus. As he had a hun- 
dred eyes, of which only two were asleep at one 
time, Juno set him to watch lo, whom Jupiter 
had changed into a heifer ; but Mercury, by 
order of Jupiter, slew him by lulling all his 
eyes asleep with the sound of his lyre. Jujio 
put the eyes of Argus on the tail of the peacock, 
a bird sacred to her divinity. Moschus, Idyl. — 
Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 12 and I'^.—Propert. 1, v. 685, 

&c. el. 3.—Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 1. II. A 

son of Danaus, who built the ship Argo. Id. 

14. III. A son of Jupiter andNiobe, the first 

child which the father of the gods had by a 
mortal. He built Argos, and married Evadne, 

the daughter of Strymon. Id. 145. IV. A 

dog of Ulysses, who knew his master after an 
absence of 20 years. Homer. Od. 17, v. 300. 

Argynnis, a name of Venus, which she re- 
ceived from Argynnus, a favourite youth of 
Agamemnon, who was dro\\Tied in the Cephi- 
sus. Propert. 3, el. v. 52. 

Argyra. Vid. Selimmts. 

Ariadne, daughter of Minos 2d, king of 
Crete, by Pasiphae, fell in love with Theseus, 
who was shut up in the labyrinth to be devour- 
ed by the Minotaur, and gave him a clew of 
thread, by which he extricated himself from 
the difficult windings of his confinement. Af- 
ter he had conquered the Minotaur, he carried 
her away according to the promise he had made, 
and married her ; but when he arrived at the 
island of Naxos he forsook her, though she was 
already pregnant, and repaid his love with the 
most endearing tenderness. Ariadne, upon 
being abandoned by Theseus, hung herself, 
according to some ; but Plutarch says that she 
lived many years after. According to some 
writers, Bacchus loved her after Theseus had 
forsaken her, and gave her a crown of seven 
stars, which, after her death, was made a con- 
stellation. The Argives showed Ariadne's 
tomb, and wher one of their temples was re- 
paired, her ashes were found in an earthen urn. 
Homer, Od. 11, v. 320, says, that Diana de- 
tained Ariadne at Naxos. Plut. in Thes. — 
Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 2. Heroid. 10. De Art. Am. 
2, Fast. 3, V. AQ2.—Catull. de Nupt. Pel. <^ 
Thet. ep. 6l.--Hygin. fab. 14, 43, 210.— Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 1. 

Aricia, an Athenian princess, niece to Mge- 
us, whom Hippolytus married after he had 
been raised from the dead by ^sculapius. 
Ovid. Met. 15, v. 544.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. 762, &c. 
' Arion, I, a famous lyric poet and musician, 
son of Cyclos, of Methymna, in the island of 
Lesbos. He went into Italy with Periander, 
tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense 
riches by his profession. Some time after he 
wished to revisit his native country ; and the sail- 
ors of the ship in which he embarked resolved 
to murder hira,to obtain the riches which he was 
carrying to Lesbos. Arion, seeing them inflex- 
ible in their resolutions, begged that he might 
be permitted to play some melodious tune ; and 
as soon as he had finished it, he threw himself 
into the sea. A number of dolphins had been 
attracted round the ship by the sweetness of his 
music:, and it is said that one of them carried 



him safe on his back to Taenarus, whence he 
hastened to the court of Periander, who ordered 
all the sailors to be crucified at their return. 
Hygin. fab. I'^^.—HerodoL 1, c. 23 and 24.— 
ji^lian. de Nat. An. 13, c. 45. — Ital. 11. Propert. 

2, el. 26, V. 17. — Plut. in Symp. II. A horse, 

sprung from Ceres and Neptune, which had the 
power of speech, the feet on the right side like 
those of a man, and the rest of the body like a 
horse. Arion was brought up by the Nereides, 
who often harnessed him to his father's chariot, 
which he drew over the sea with uncommon 
swiftness. Neptune gave him to Copreus, who 
presented him to Hercules. Adrastus, king of 
Argos, received him as a present from Hercules, 
and with this wonderful animal he won the prize 
at the Nemaean games. Pans. 8, c. 25. — Pro- 
pert. 2, el. 34, v. 37. — Apollod. 3, c, 6. 

Arist^ds, son of Apollo and the nymph 
Cyrene, was born in the deserts of Libya, and 
brought up by the Seasons, and fed upon nec- 
tar and ambrosia. His fondness for hunting 
procured him the surname of Nomus and Agre- 
us. After he had travelled over the greatest 
part of the world, Aristseus came to settle in 
Greece, where he married Autonoe, the daugh- 
ter of Cadmus, by whom he had a son called 
Actaeon. He fell in love with Eurydice, the 
wife of Orpheus, and pursued her in the fields. 
She was stung by a serpent that lay in the grass, 
and died, for which the gods destroyed all the 
bees of Aristgeus. He succeeded, however, in 
appeasing the manes of Eurydice by the in- 
struction of Proteus, and his bees were restored 
to him. Some authors say, that Aristaeus had 
the care of Bacchus when young, and that he 
was initiated in the mysteries of this god. 
Aristaeus went to live on mount Haemus, where 
he died. He was, after death, worshipped as 
a demi-god, Aristaeus is said to have learned 
from the nymphs the cultivation of olives, and 
the management of bees, &c. which he com- 
municated to the rest of mankind. Virg. G. 
4, V. 3ll.—Diod. 4.— Justin. 13, c. l.— Ovid. 
Fast. 1, V. 363. — Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 18. — Paus. 
10, c. 11. —Hygin. fab. 161, 181, ^1.— Apollod. 

3, c. 4. — Herodot. 4, c. 4, &c. — Polycen. 1, c. 24. 
Artemisia. Vid. Part II. 

Arueris, a god of the Egyptians, son of Isis 
and Osiris. According to some accounts, Osiris 
and Isis were married together in their mother's 
womb, and Isis was pregnant of Arueris before 
she was born. 

Ardntius, I. a Roman who ridiculed the rites 
of Bacchus, for which the god inebriated him 
to such a degree that he ofl^ered violence to his 

daughter Medullina. Plut. in Parall. II. 

A man who wrote an account of the Punic wars 
in the style of Sallust, in the reign of Augustus. 

Tacit. Ann. 1. — Senec. ep. 14. III. Another 

Latin writer. Senec. de Benef. 6. IV. Pa- 

terculus. Vid. Phalaris. Plut. in Parall. 

V. Stella, a poet descended of a consular family 
in the age of Domitian. 

AscALAPHDs, I. a son of Mars and Astyoche, 
who was among the Argonauts, and went to the 
Trojan war at the head of the Orchomenians, 
with his brother lalmenus. He was killed by 
Deiphobus. Homer. 11. 2, v. 13, 1. 9, v. 82, 1 

13, Yt 518, II. A son of Acheron by Gorgyra 

or Orphne. When Ceres had obtained from 

Jupiter her daughter's freedom and return upon 

663 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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earth, provided she had eaten nothing in -the 
kingdom of Pluto, Ascalaphus discovered that 
she had eaten some pomegranates from a tree ; 
upon which Proserpine was so displeased with 
Ascalaphus, that she sprinkled water on his 
head, and immediately turned him into an owl. 
Afollod. 1, c, 5, 1. 2, c. 5.— Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 8. 

AscANius. Vid. Part II. 

Asius, a son of Dymas, brother of Hecuba. 
He assisted Priam in the Trojan war, and was 
killed by Idomeneus. Homer. 11. 2, v. 342, 1. 
12, V. 95, 1. 13, V. 384. 

Asopus, a son of Neptune, who gave his 
name to a river of Peloponnesus. Three of his 
daughters are particularly celebrated, ..Egina, 
Salamis, and Ismene. Apollod. I, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 
l^—Paus. 2, c. 12. 

AsPLEDON, a son of Neptune by the nymph 
Midea. He gave his name to a city of Boeotia, 
■whose inhabitants went to the Trojan war. 
Homer. II. 2, v. \S.—Paus. 9, c. 38. 

AssARACUs. Vid. Part II. 

AsTARTE, a powerful divinity of Syria, the 
same as the Venus of the Greeks, the daughter 
of Uranus, and mother of the seven Titanides. 
She had a famous temple at Hierapolis in Syria, 
which was served by 300 priests, who were al- 
ways employed in offering sacrifices. She is 
said to have consecrated a star which had fallen 
from heaven in the city of Tyre, the brilliancy 
of which gave light to her temple. Astarte has 
been identified with other goddesses. In the sa- 
cred writings she is called Ashtoreth, the god- 
dess of the Sidonians, to which people, with the 
other Phoenicians, she was an original deity. 
Being also the wife of Adonis, she is considered 
to be the same as Isis, the wife of the Egyptian 
Osiris, because Adonis and Osiris are the same. 
She was worshipped wiih peculiar veneration 
and with the greatest pomp at Ascalon. Lucian. 
de Dea Syria. — Cic. de Nal. D. — Judges xi. 5 
and 33. 

AsTERiA, I. a daughter of Ceus, one of the 
Titans, by Phoebe, daughter of CgbIus and Ter- 
ra. She married Perses, son of Crius, by whom 
she had the celebrated Hecate. She enjoyed 
for a long time the favour of Jupiter, under the 
form of an eagle ; but falling under his displea- 
sure, she was changed into a quail, called Ortyx 
by the Greeks ; whence the name of Oriygia, 
given to that island in the Archipelago where 
she retired. Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 4. — Hygin. fab. 

58.— Apollod. 1, c. 2, &c. II. One" of the 

daughters of Atlas, mother of CEnomaus, king 
of Pisa. Hygin. fab. 250. 

AsTERioN, and Asterius, I. a river god, fa- 
ther of Eubop?, Prosymna, and Acrsea, who 
murdered the goddess Juno. Paus. 2, c. 17. 

II. A son of Minos 2d, king of Crete, by 

Pasiphae. He was killed by Theseus, though 
he was thought the strongest of his age. Apol- 
lod orus supposes him to be the same as the fa- 
mous Minotaur. According to some, Asterion 
was son of Teutamus, one of the descendants 
of ^olus; and they say that he was surnamed 
Jupiter, because he had carried awav Europa, 
by whom he had Minos the 1st. Diod. 4. — 
Apollod. 3. — Paws. 2, c. 31. 

Aster5pe, and Asteropea, I. one of the Plei- 
ades, who were beloved by the gods and most 
illustrious heroes, and made constellations after 

death. II, A daughter of Pelias, king of 

C84 



lolchos, who assisted her sisters to kill her la- 
ther, whom Medea promised to restore to life. 
Her grave was seen in Arcadia in the lime of 
Pausaiiias, 8, c. 11. 

Asterop^us, a king of Paeonia, son of Pe- 
legon. He assisted Priam in the Trojan war, 
and was killed, after a brave resistance, by 
Achilles. Homer. II. 17, &c. 

AsTR^A, a daughter of Ast/aeus, king of Ar- 
cadia, or, according to oihers, of Titan, Saturn's 
brother, by Aurora. Some jnake her daughter 
of Jupiier and Themis, and others consider her 
the same as Rhea, wife of Saturn. She was 
called Justice^ of which virtue she was the god- 
dess. She lived upon the earth, as the poets 
mention, during the golden age, which is often 
called the age of Astrea ; but the wickedness 
and impiety of mankind drove her to heaven in 
the brazen and iron ages, and she was placed 
among the constellations of the zodiac under 
the name of Virgo. She is represented as a 
virgin, with a stern but majestic countenance, 
holding a pair of scales in one hand and a 
sword in the other. Senec. in Octav. — Ovid. 
Met. 1, V. UO.—Arat. 1. Phcenom. v. 98.— iEfc- 
siod. — Theog. 

AsTYAGE, a daughter of Hypseus, who mar- 
ried Periphas, by whom she had some children, 
among whom was Aption, the father of Ixion. 

AsTYANAX. Vid. Part II. 

AsTYCRATiA, I. the daughter of -^olus. Ho- 
mer. II. II. A daughter of Amphion and 

Niobe. 

AsTYDAMiA, or Astyadamia, I. a daughter of 
Amyntor, king of Orchomenos, in Boeotia, mar- 
ried Acastus, son of Pelias, who was king of 
lolchos. Vid. Peleus. She is called by some 
Hippolyte, and by others Cretheis. Apollod. 3. 

c. 13. — Pindar. Mem. 4. It. A daughter of 

Ormenus, carried away by Hercules, by whom 
she had Tlepolemus. Ovid. Heroid. 9, v. 50. 

AsTYLUs, one of the centaurs, who had the 
knowledge of futurity. He advised his brothers 
not to make war against the Lapithse. Ovid. 
Mel. 12, V. 338. 

AsTYNOME, I. a daughter of Amphion. 

II. Of Talaus. Hygin. Vid. CJiryses. 

AsTYocHE, and Astyoghia, I. a daughter of 
Actor, who had by Mars, Ascalaphus and lal- 
menus, who were at the Trojan war. Homer. 

II. 2, V. 20. II. A daughter of Amphion and 

Niobe. Apollod. 3, c. 4. III. A daughter of 

the Simois, who married Erichthonius. Id. 3, 

c. 12. IV. The wife of Strophius, sister to 

Agamemnon. Hygin. 

Atalanta, a daughter of Schosneus, king ot 
Scyros. According to some she was the daugh- 
ter of Jasus or Jasius, by Clymene; but others 
say that Men ali on was her father. This un- 
certainty as to the name of her father, has led 
some mythologists to maintain that there were 
two persons of that name. Atalanta was born 
in Arcadia, and, according to Ovid, she deter- 
mined to live in perpetual celibacy ; but her 
beauty gained her many admirers, and to free 
herself from their importunities, she proposed to 
run a race with them. They were to run with- 
out arms, and she was to carry a dart m her 
hand. Her lovers were to start first, and who- 
ever arrived at the goal before her, would be 
made her husband; but all those whom she 
overtook, were to be killed by the dart with 



AT 



MYTHOLOGY. 



AT 



•wMch she had armed herself. Many of her 
suiters perished in the attempt, till Hippomenes, 
the son of Macareus, proposed himself as her 
admirer. Venus had presented him with three 
golden apples from the garden of the Hespe- 
rides, or, according to others, from an orchard in 
Cyprus ; and as soon as he had started in the 
course, he artfully threw down the apples at 
some distance one from the other. While Ata- 
lanta stopped to gather the apples, Hippomene^g 
hastened on his course, arrived first at the goal, 
and obtained Atalanta in marriage. These two 
lovers, impatient to consummate their nuptials, 
entered the temple ofCybele; and the goddess 
was so offended at their impiety, that she chang- 
ed them into two lions. Apollodorus says that 
Atalanta's father was desirous of raising male 
issue, and that therefore she was exposed to wild 
beasu as soon as born. She was, however, 
suckled by a she-bear, and preserved by shep- 
herds. She killed two centaurs, Hyleus and 
Rhecus, who attempted her virtue. She was 
present at the hunting of the Calydonian boar, 
which she first wounded, and received the head 
as a present from Meleager,who was enamoured 
of her. She was also at the games instituted in 
nonour of Pelias, where she conquered Peleus. 
Apollod. 1, c. 8, 1. 3, c. 9, &c. — Pans. 1, c. 36, 
45, &c.—Hygin. fab. 99, 174, 185, 210.— .Elian. 
V. H. n.—Diod. 4.— Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 4, 1. 10, 
fab. 11. — Euripid. in Phceniss. 

Atargatis, a divinity among the Syrians, 
represented as a Siren. She is considered by 
some the same as Venus, honoured by the As- 
syrians under the name of Astarte. Sir ah. 16. 

Ate; the goddess of evil, and daughter of Ju- 
piter. She raised such jealousy and sedition in 
heaven among the gods, that Jupiter banished 
her for ever from heaven, and sent her to dwell 
on earth, where she incited mankind to wicked- 
ness, and sowed commotions among them, Ho- 
mer. 11. 19. She is the same as the Discord of 
the Latins, 

Athamas, a king of Thebes, in Boeotia, was 
son of tEoIus. He married Themisto, whom 
some call Nephele, and Pindar, Demotice, and 
by her he had Phryxus and Helle. Some time 
after, on pretence that Nephele was subject to 
fits of madness, be married Ino, the daughter of 
Cadmus, by whom he had two sons, Learchus 
and Melicerta. Ino became jealous of the chil- 
dren of Nephele; because they were to ascend 
their father's throne in preference to her own, 
therefore she resolved to destroy them ; but they 
escaped from her fury to Colchis, on a golden 
jam. Vid. Phryxus and ArgonuutcB. Accord- 
ing to the Greek scholiast of Lycophron, v. 22, 
Ino attempted to destroy the corn of the coun- 
try ; and the soothsayer, at her instigation, told 
Athamas, that before the earth would yield its 
usual increase, he must sacrifice one of the chil- 
dren of Nephele to the gods. The credulous 
father led Phryxus to the altar, where he was 
saved by Nephele. The prosperity of Ino was 
displeasing to Juno, more particularly because 
she was descended from Venus. The goddess 
therefore sent Tisiphone, one of the furies, to 
the house of Athamas, who became inflamed 
with such sudden fury, that he took Ino to be a 
lioness, and her two children to be whelps. In 
this fit of madness he snatched Learchus from 
her, and killed him ; upon which Ino fled with 



Meliceria, and with him in Her arms, she threw 
herself into the sea, and was changed into a sea 
deity, called Leucothoe. After this, Athamas 
recovered his senses ; and as he was without 
children, he adopted Coronus and Aliartus, the 
sons of Thersander his nephew. Hygin. fab. 
1, 2, 5, '229.— Apollod. 1, c. 7 and 9.- Ovid. Met. 
4, V. 467, &c. Fast. 6, v. 489.— P«ws. 9, c. 34. 

Athena, the name of Minerva among the 
Greeks ; and also among the Egyptians, before 
Cecrops had introduced the worship of the god- 
dess into Greece. Paus. 1, c, 2. 

ATLANTmEs, the daughters of Atlas, seven 
in number, Maia, Electra, Taygeta, Asterope, 
Merope, Alcyone, and Celaeno. They married 
some of the gods and most illustrious heroes, 
and their children were founders of many na- 
tions and cities. The Atlantides were called 
nymphs, and even goddesses, on account of 
their great intelligence and knowledge. The 
name of Hesperides was also given ihem on 
account of their mother Hespens. They were 
made constellations after death. Vid. Pleiades. 

Atlantis, a celebrated fabulous island, men- 
tioned by the ancients, of which the supposed 
situation is unknown. Vid. Part I. 

Atlas, one of the Titans, son of Japetus 
and Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He was 
brother to Epimetheus, Prometheus, and Me- 
noetius. His mother's name, according to Apol- 
lodorus, was Asia. He married Pleione, daugh- 
ter of Oceanus, or Hesperis, according to 
others, by whom he had seven daughters, called 
Atlantides. Vid. Atlantides. He was king of 
Mauretania, and master of a thousand flocks 
of every kind, as also of beautiful gardens, 
abounding in every species of fruit, which he 
had intrusted to the care of a dragon, Perseus, 
after the conquest of the Gorgons, passed by 
the palace of Atlas, and demanded hospitality. 
The king, who was informed by an oracle of 
Themis that he should be dethroned by one of 
the descendants of Jupiter, refused to receive 
him, and even offered him violence. Perseus, 
who was unequal in strength, showed him Me- 
dusa's head, and Atlas was instantly changed 
into a large mountain. This mountain, which 
runs across the deserts of Africa, east and 
west, is so high that the ancients have imagin- 
ed that the heavens rested on its top, and that 
Atlas supported the world on his shoulders, 
Hyginus says that Atlas assisted the giants in 
their wars against the gods, for which Jupiter 
compelled him to bear the heavens on his shoul- 
ders. The fable that Atlas supported the hea- 
vens on his back, arises from his fondness for 
astronomy, and his often frequenting elevated 
places and mountains, whence he might observe 
the heavenly bodies. The daughters of Atlas 
were carried away by Busiris, king of Egypt, 
but redeemed by Hercules, who received as a 
reward from the father the knowledge of astron- 
omy, and a celestial globe. This knowledge 
Hercules communicated to the Greeks; whence 
the fable has further said, that he eased for 
some time the labours of Atlas, by taking upon 
his shoulders the weight of the heavens. Ac- 
cording to some authors there were two other 
persons of that name, a k'ng of Italy, father of 
Electra, and a king of Arcadia, father of Maia, 
the mother of Mercury, Virg. Mn. 4, v. 481. 
1, 8, V. 186.— OrzU Met. 4, fab. M.—Diod. 3. • 
685 



AU 



MYTHOLOGY. 



BA 



Lucan. 9, v, 667, &c. — Val. Place. 5. — Hygin. 
83, 125, 155, 157, 192.—Aratus in Astron.— 
Apollod. I. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 508, &c. 

Atrax, a son of ^Etolus, or, according to 
others, of the river Peneus. He was king of 
Thessaly, and built a town which he called 
Atrax or Atracia. He was father to Hippoda- 
mia, who married Pirithous, and whom we 
must not confound with the wife of Pelops, who 
bore the same name. Propert. 1, el. 8, v. 25. — 
Slat. 1. Theb. v. 106.— Ovid. Met. 12, v. 209. 

Atreus. Vid. Part II, 

Atropos. Vid. ParccB. 

Atys, I. a youth to whom Ismene, the daugh- 
ter of CEdipus, was promised in marriage. He 
was killed by Tydeus before his nuptials. Stat. 

Theb. 8, v. 598. II. A son of Limniace, the 

daughter of the river Ganges, who assisted 
Cepheus in preventing the marriage of Andro- 
meda, and was killed by Perseus with a burn- 
ing log of wood. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 47. III. 

Vid. Part II., article Catullus. 

AvENTiNUs, a son of Hercules, by Rhea, who 
assisted Turnus against iEneas,and distinguish- 
ed himself by his valour. Virg. ^En. 7, v, 657. 

AuGA, and Auge, and Augea, daughter of 
Aleus, king of Tegea, by Neaera. Vid. Telephus. 

Augias, and Augeas, son of Eleus or Elius, 
was one of the Argonauts, and afterwards as- 
cended the throne of Elis. He had an immense 
number of oxen and goats, and the stables in 
which they were kept had never been cleaned, 
so that the task seemed an impossibility to any 
man. Hercules undertook it on promise of re- 
ceiving as a reward the tenth part of the herds 
of Augias, or something equivalent. The hero 
changed the course of the river Alpheus, or, ac- 
cording to others, of the Peneus, which imme- 
diately carried away the dung and filth from the 
stables. Augias refused the promised recom- 
pense, on pretence that Hercules had made use 
of artifice, and had not experienced any labour 
or trouble ; and he further drove his own son 
Phyleus from his kingdom, because he support- 
ed the claims of the hero. The refusal was a 
declaration of war. Hercules conquered Elis, 
put to death Augias, and gave the crown to 
Phyleus. Pausanias says, 5, c. 2 and 3, that 
Hercules spared the life of Augias for the sake 
of his son, and that Phyleus went to settle in 
Dulichium ; and that at the death of Augias, 
his other son, Agasthenes, succeeded to the 
throne. Augias received, after his death, the 
honours Avhich were generally paid to a hero. 
Augias has been called the son of Sol, because 
Elius signifies the sun. The proverb of Au- 
gean stable is now applied to an impossibility. 
Hijgin. fab. 14, 30, Ibl.—Plin. 17, c. 9.— 
Strab. 8.— Apollod. 2. 

Aurora, a goddess, daughter of Hyperion 
and Thia or Thea, or, according to others, of 
Titan or Terra, Some say that Pallas, son of 
Crius, and brother to Perses, was her father; 
hence her surname of Pallantias. She married 
Astrseus, and was mother of the Winds, the 
Stars, &c. Her amours with Tithonus and 
Cephalus are also famous; by the former she 
hati Memnon, and iEmathion, and Phaeton by 
the latter, Vid. Cephalus and Tithonis. She 
had also an intrigue with Orion, whom she car- 
ried to the island of Delos, where he was killed 
by Diana's arrows. Aurora is generally repre- 
686 



sented by the poets drawn in a rose-coloured 
chariot, and opening with her rosy fingers the 
gates of the east, pouring the dew upon the 
earth, and making the flowers grow. Her cha- 
riot is generally drawn by white horses, and she 
is covered with a veil, Nox and Somnus fly 
before her, and the constellations of heaven dis- 
appear at her approach. She always sets out be- 
fore the sun, and is the forerunner of his rising. 
The Greeks call her Eos, Homer. 11. 8, Od. 10. 
Hymn, in Vener. — Ovid. Met. 3,9, 15. — Apollod. 
1, 3.— Virg. jEn. 6, v 535.— Varro. de L. L. 5, 
&.C. — Hesiod. Theog. — Hygin. prcBf. fab, 

AusoN, a son of Ulysses and Calypso, from 
whom the Ausones, a people of Italy, are de- 
scended, 

AusTER, one of the winds blowing from the 
south, whose breath was pernicious to flowers 
as well as to health. He was parent of rain. 
Virg. Ed. 2, v. 58. Vid. Venti. 

AuTOCTHONEs. Vid. Part II. 

AuTOLYcus, a son of Mercury by Chione, a 
daughter of Deedalion. He was one of the Ar- 
gonauts. His craft as a thief has been greatly 
celebrated. He stole the flocks of his neigh- 
bours, and mingled them with his own, after 
he changed their marks. He did the same to 
Sisyphus son of iEolus; but Sisyphus was as 
crafty as Autolycus, and he knew his own oxen 
by a mark whichJie had made under their feet. 
Autolycus was so pleased with the artifice of 
Sisyphus, that he immediately formed an inti- 
macy with him, and even permitted him freely 
to enjoy the company of his daughter Anticlea. 
Hygin. fab, 200, &c.— Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 8,— 
Apollod. 1, — Homer. Od. 14, 

AuTOMEDON, a son of Dioreus, he went to the 
Trojan war with ten ships. He was the cha- 
rioteer of Achilles, after whose death he served 
Pyrrhus in the same capacity. Homer. 11. 9, 
16, &.c.— Virg. Mn. 2, v. 477. 

AuTONOE, I. a daughter of Cadmus, who 
married Aristae us, by whom she had Actseon, 
often called Autoneius heros. The death of her 
son ( Vid. Actaon) was so painful to her, that 
she retired from Boeotia to Megara, where she 
soon after died. Paus. 1, c. M.— Hygin. fab. 

119.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 720. II. One of the 

Danaides, Apollod. 2, 

AzAN, a son of Areas, king of Arcadia, by 
Erato, one of the Dryades. He divided his fa- 
ther's kingdom with his brothers Aphidas and 
Elatus, and called his share Azania. There 
was in Azania a fountain called Clitorius, 
whose waters gave a dislike for wine to those 
who drank them. Vitruv. 8, c. 3, — Ovid. Met, 
15, V, 322.— Paus. 8, c. 4. 

B. 

Bacchiad^, a Corinthian family descended 
from Bacchia, daughter of Dionysius. In their 
nocturnal orgies, they, as some report, tore to 
pieces Actseon, son of Melissus, which so en- 
raged the father, that before the altar he en- 
treated the Corinthians to revenge the death of 
his son, and he immediately threw himself into 
the sea. Upon this the Bacchiadae were banished, 
and went to settle in Sicily, between Pachvnum 
and Pelorus. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 401. —Strab. 8. 

Bacchus, was son of Jupiter and Semele, 
the daughter of Cadmus. After she had en- 



BA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



BA 



joyed the company of Jupiter, Semele was de- 
ceived, and perislied by the artifice of Juno. 
This goddess assumed the shape of Beroc, Se- 
mele's nurse, and persuaded her that she ought 
to beg of Jupiier to come to her with the same 
majesty as he courted the embraces of Juno. 
The artifice succeeded, and when Jupiter prom- 
ised his mistress whatever she asked, Semele 
required him to visit her with all the divinity of 
a god. Jupiter was unable to violate his oath, 
and Semele, unable to bear the majesty of Jupi- 
ter, was consumed and reduced to ashes. The 
child, of which she had been pregnant for seven 
months, was with difficulty saved from the 
flames, and put in his father's thigh, where he 
remained the full time he naturally was to have 
been in his mother's womb. From this circum- 
stance Bacchus has been called Bimaier. Ac- 
cording to some, Dirce, a nymph of the Ache- 
lous, saved him from the flames. Ovid says, 
that after his birth he was brought up by his 
aunt Ino, and afterwards intrusted to the care 
of the nymphs of Nysa. Lucian supposes that 
Mercury carried him, as soon as born, to the 
nymphs of Nysa ; and Apollonius says, that he 
was carried by Mercury to a nymph in the 
island of Euboe a, whence he was driven by the 
power of Juno, who was the chief deity of the 
place.- Some support that Naxos can boast of 
the place of his education, under the nymphs 
Philia, Coronis, and Clyda. Pausanias relates 
a tradition which prevailed in the town of Bra- 
siae in Peloponnesus; and accordingly mentions 
that Cadmus, as soon as he heard of his daugh- 
ter's amours, shut her up, with her child lately 
born, in a coffer, and exposed them on the sea. 
The coffer was carried safe by the waves to the 
coast of Brasise; but Semele was found dead 
and the child alive. Semele was honoured with 
a magnificent funeral, and Bacchus properly 
educated. This diversity of opinion shows 
that there were many of the same name. Dio- 
dorus speaks of three, and Cicero of a greater 
number ; but among them all, the son of Jupiter 
and Semele seems to have obtained the merit 
of the rest. Bacchus is the Osiris of the Egyp.^ 
tians, and his history is drawn from the Egyp- 
tian traditions concerning that ancient king. 
Bacchus assisted the gods in their war against 
the giants, and was cut to pieces ; but the son 
of Semele was not then born: this tradition, 
therefore, is taken from the history of Osiris, 
who was killed by his brother Typhon, and 
the worship of Osiris has been introduced by 
Orpheus into Greece under the name of Bac- 
chus. In his youth he was taken asleep in the 
island of Naxos, and carried awav by some 
mariners, whom he changed into dolphins, ex- 
cept the pilot, who had expressed some concern 
at his misfortune. His expedition into the East 
is most celebrated. He marched at the head of 
an army composed of men as well as of women, 
all inspired with divine fury, and armed with 
thyrsuses, cymbals, and other musical instru- 
ments. The leader was drawn in a chariot by 
a lion and a tiger, and was accompanied by Pan 
and Silenus, and all the satyrs. His conquests 
were easy and without bloodshed ; the people 
easily submitted, and gratefully elevated to the 
rank of a god the hero who taught them the use 
of the vine, the cultivation of the earth, and the 
manner of making honey. Amidst his benevo- 



lence to mankind, he was relentless in punishing 
all want of respect to his divinity ; and the 
punishment he inflicted on Pentheus, Agave, 
Lycurgus, &c., is well known. He has received 
the names of Liber, Bromius, Lyaeus, Evan, 
Thyonaeus, Psilas, &c., which are mostly de- 
rived from the places where he received ado- 
ration, or from the ceremonies observed in his 
festivals. As he was the god of vintage, of 
wine, and of drinkers, he is generally repre- 
sented crowned with vine and ivy leaves, with 
a thyrsus in his hand. His figure is that of an 
effeminate young man, to denote the joy which 
commonly prevails at feasts ; and sometimes 
that of an old man, to teach us that wine taken 
immoderately will enervate us, and consume 
our health, render us loquacious and childish 
like old men, and unable to keep secrets. The 
panther is sacred to him, because he went in his 
expedition covered with the skin of that beast. 
The magpye is also his favourite bird, because 
in his triumphs people were permitted to speak 
with boldness and liberty. Bacchus is some- 
times represented like an infant, holding a 
thyrsus and cluster of grapes, with a horn. He 
often appears naked, and riding upon the 
shoulders of Pan, or in the arms of Silenus, 
who was his foster-father. He also sits upon a 
celestial globe, bespangled with stars, and is 
then the same as the Sun or Osiris of Egypt. 
The festivals of Bacchus, generally called 
Orgies, Bacchanalia, or Dionysia, were intro- 
duced into Greece from Egypt by Danaus and 
his daughters. The infamous debaucheries 
which arose from the celebration of these fes- 
tivals are well known. Vid. Dionysia. The 
amours of Bacchus are not numerous. He 
married Ariadne, after she had been forsaken 
by Theseus in the island of Naxos ; and by 
her he had many children, among whom were 
Ceranus, Thoas, CEnopion, Tauropolis, &c. 
According to some, he was the father of Hy- 
menseus, whom the Athenians made the god 
of marriage. The Egyptians sacrificed pigs to 
him before the doors of their houses. The fir- 
tree, the yew-tree, the fig-tree, the ivy, and the 
vind, were sacred to him ; and the goat was 
generally sacrificed to him on account of the 
great propensity of that animal to destroy the 
vine. According to Pliny, he was the first who 
ever wore a crown. His beauty is compared 
to that of Apollo; and, like him, he is repre- 
sented with fine hair loosely flowing down his 
shoulders, and he is said to possess eternal 
youth. Sometimes he has horns, either because 
he taught the cultivation of the earth with oxen, 
or because Jupiter, his father, appeared to him 
in the deserts of Libya under the shape of a 
ram, and supplied his thirsty army with water. 
Bacchus went down to hell to recover his mo- 
ther, -whom Jypiter willingly made a goddess, 
under the name of Thyone. The three per- 
sons of the name of Bacchus, whom Diodorus 
mentions, are, the one who conquered the In- 
dies, and is surnamed the bearded Bacchus ; a 
son of Jupiter and Proserpine, who was repre- 
sented with horns ; and the son of Jupiter and 
Semole, called the Bacchus of Thebes. Those 
mentioned by Cicero are, a son of Proserpine ; 
a son of Nisus, who built Nysa ; a son of Ca- 
prius, who reigned in the Indies; a son of Ju- 
piter and the moon ; and a son of Thyone and 
687 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



BI 



Nisus. Cic. de Nat. D. 2 and Z.—Paus. 2, c. 
22, 37, 1. 3, c. 24, 1. 5, c. 19, Sic.—Herodot. 1, c. 
150, 1. 2, c. 42, 48, 49.—PluL in Isid. <^ Osir. 
— Diod. 1, 3, &c. — Orpheus in Dionys. — Apol- 
lod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 4, &c.—Ovid. Met. fab. 3, &c. 
Amor. 3, 1. 3, Fast. 3, v. 715. — Hygin. fab. 155, 
167, &c.—Plin. 7, c. 56, 1. 8, c. 2, 1. 36, c. 5.— 
Homer. 11. 6. — Lact. de fals. Rel. 1, c. 22. — Virg. 
G. 2, &c. — Euripid. in Bacch. — lAccian. de Sa- 
crif. de Baccho. in dial. Deor. — Appvzn. in 
Cyneg. — Philostrat. 1, Icon. c. 50. — Senec. in 
Chor. (Edip.— Martial. 8, ep. 26, 1. 14, ep. 107. 

Basilea, a daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
who was mother of all the gods. Diod. 3. 

BatIa, a daughter of Teucer, who married 
Dardanus, Apollod. 3, c. 10. 

Battus, a shepherd of Pylos, who promised 
Mercury that he would not discover his having 
stolen the flocks of Admetus, which Apollo tend- 
ed. He violated his promise, and was turned 
into apumice stone. Ovid. Met. 2, v. 702. 

Baubo, a woman who received Ceres when 
she sought her daughter all over the world, and 
gave her some water to quench her thirst. Ovid. 
Met. 5, fab. 7. 

Baucis, an old woman of Phrygia, who,-with 
her husband Philemon, lived in a small cottage, 
in a, penurious manner, when Jupiter and 
Mercury travelled in disguise over Asia. The 
gods came to the cottage, where they received 
the best things it afforded ; and Jupiter was so 
pleased with their hospitality, that he metamor- 
phosed their dwelling into a magnificent tem- 
ple, of which Baucis and her husband were 
made priests. After they had lived happy to 
an extreme old age, they died both at the same 
hour, according to their request to Jupiter, that 
one might not have the sorrow of following the 
other to the grave. Their bodies were changed 
into trees before the doors of the temple. Ovid. 
Met. 8, V. 631, &c. 

Bbrbryce, a daughter of Danaus, who is 
said to have spared her husband. Most authors, 
however, attribute that character of humanity 
to Hypermnestra. Vid. Danaides. 

Belenus, a divinity of the Gauls, the same 
as the Apollo of the Greeks and the Orus of 
the Egyptians. 

Belides, a surname given to the daughters 
of Belus. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 463. 

Belides, a name applied to Palemedes, as 
descended from Belus. Virg. jEn. 2, v. 82. 

Belisama, the name of Minerva among the 
Gauls, signifying queen of heaven. Cces. Bell. 
Gall. 6. 

Beller5phon, son of Glaucus, king of 
Ephyre, bv Eurymede, was at first called Hip- 
ponous. The murder of his brother, whom 
some call Alcimenus or Beller, procured him 
the name of Bellerophon, or murderer of Bel- 
ler. After this murder, Bellerophon fled to the 
court of Proetus, king of Argos. As he was of 
a handsome appearance, the king's wife, called 
Antgeaor Stenoboee, fell in love with him; and 
as he slighted her passion, she accused him be- 
fore her husband of attempts upon her virtue, 
Proetus, unwilling to violate the laws of hospi- 
tality, by punishing Bellerophon, sent him 
away to his father-in-law, Jobates, king of Ly- 
cia, and gave him a letter, in which he begged 
the king to punish with death a man who had 
so dishonourably treated his daughter. From 
688 



that circumstance, all letters which are of an 
unfavourable tendency to the bearer, have been 
called letters of Bellerophon. Jobates, to satisfy 
his son-in-law, sent Bellerophon to conquer a 
horrible monster, called Chimsera, in which 
dangerous expedition he hoped, and was even 
assured, he must perish. Vid. Chimcera. But 
the providence of Minerva supported him, and 
with the aid of the winged horse Pegasus, he 
conquered the monster and returned victori- 
ous. After this, Jobates sent him against the 
Solymi, in hopes of seeing him destroyed; but 
he obtained another victory, and conquered af- 
terwards the Amazons, by" the king's order. At 
his return from this third expedition, he was 
attacked by a party sent against him by Jobates ; 
but he destroyed all his assassins, and convin- 
ced the king that innocence is always protected 
by the gods. Upon this Jobates no longer 
sought to destroy his life, but gave him his 
daughter in marriage, and made him hissucces- 
sor on the throne of Lycia, as he was without 
male issue. Some authors have supported that 
he attempted to fly to heaven upon the horse 
Pegasus, but that Jupiter sent an insect, which 
stung the horse, and threw down the rider, who 
wandered upon the earth in the greatest melan- 
choly and dejection till the day of his death, 
one generation before the Trojan war. Belle- 
rophon had two sons, Isander, who was killed 
in his war against the Solymi, and Hippolo- 
chus, who succeeded to the throne after his 
death, besides one daughter, called Hippoda- 
mia, who had Sarpedon by Jupiter. The wife 
of Bellerophon is called Philonoe by Apollo- 
dorus, and Achemone by Homer, Homer. II. 6, 
V. 156, &.C.—JUV. 10.— Apollod. 2, c. 3, 1. 3, c. 
I.— Hygin. fab. 157 and 243. P. A. 2, c. 18.— 
Hesiod. Theog. v. 325. — Horat. 4, od. 11, v. 
"HQ.—Paus. 9, c. 31. 

Belus. Vid. Part 11. 

Bergion and Albion, two giants, sons of 
Neptune, who opposed Hercules as he attempt- 
ed to cross the Rhone, and were killed with 
stones from heaven. Mela, 2, c. 5. 

Beroe, I. an old woman of Epidaurus, nurse 
to Semele. Juno assumed her shape when she 
persuaded Semele not to grant her favours to 
Jupiter if he did not appear in the majesty of a 

god. Ovid Met. 3, v. 278. II. The wife of 

Doryclus, whose form was assumed by Iris at 
the instigation of Juno, when she advised the 
Trojan women to burn the fleet of ^neas in 

Sicily. Virg. ^n. 5, v. 620, III. One of 

the Oceanides, attendant upon Gyrene, Virg. 
G. 4, V. 341. 

BiA, a daughter of Pallas by Styx, Apollod. 
1, c. 1. 

Bianor, I. a son of Tiberius and Manto, the 
daughter of Tiresi as, who received the surname 
of Ocnus, and reigned over Etruria. He built 
a town, which he called Mantua, after his 
mother's name. His tomb was seen in the age 
of Virgil on the road between Mantua and 

Andes. Virg. Ed. 9, v. 60. II. A centaur, 

killed by Theseus. Ovid Met. 12, v. 342. 

Bias, son of Amythaon and Idomene, was 
king of Argos, and brother to the famous sooth- 
sayer Melampus. He fell in love with Perone, 
daughter of Neleus, king of Pylos \ but the fa- 
ther refused to give his daughter in marriage 
before he received the oxen of Iphiclus. Me* 



BO 



MYTHOLOGY. 



BU 



lampus, at his brother's request, went to sieze 
the oxen, and was caught in the fact. He, 
however, one year after, received his liberty 
from Iphiclus, who presented him with his oxen 
as a reward for his great services. Bias re- 
ceived the oxen from his brother, and obliged 
Neleus to give him his daughter in marriage. 
Homer. Od. 11.— Pans. 2, c. 6 and 18,. 1. 4, c. 
3i.—ApoUod. 1, c. 9. 

BiFORMis, {hvo forms,) a surname of Bac- 
chus and Janus. Bacchus received it because 
he changed himself into an old woman to fly 
from the persecution of Juno, or perhaps be- 
cause he was represented sometimes as a young, 
and sometimes as an old man. 

BiFRONS, a surname of Janus, because he 
was represented with two faces among the Ro- 
mans, as acquainted with the past and future. 
Virg. jEn. 7, v, 180. 

BiMATER, a surname of Bacchus, which sig- 
nifies that he had favo mothers, because, when 
he was taken from his mother's womb, he was 
placed in the thigh of his father Jupiter. Ovid. 
Met. 4, V. 12. 

BrsTON, son of Mars and Callirhoe, built 
Bisto?iia, in Thrace, whence the Thracians are 
often called Bistones. Herodot. 7, c. 110. — 
Plin. 4, c. 14. — lAican. 7, v. 569. 

BoLiNA, a virgin of Achaia, who rejected the 
addresses of Apollo, and threw herself into the 
sea to avoid his importunities. The god made 
her immortal. There is a city which bears her 
name in Achaia. Pans. 7, c. 23. 

Bona Dea, a name given to Ops, Vesta, 
CybeLe, Rhea, by the Greeks ; and by the Latins, 
to Fauna, or Fuata, This goddess was so 
chaste, that no man but her husband saw her 
after her marriage; from which reason, her 
festivals were celebrated only in the night by 
the Roman matrons in the houses of the high- 
est officers of the state, and all the statues of 
men were carefully covered with a veil where 
the ceremonies were observed. In the latter 
ages of the republic, however, the sanctity of 
these mysteries was profaned by the intrusion 
of men. Juv. 6, v. 313. — Propert. 4, el. 10, v. 
^b.— Ovid. de Art. Am. 3, v. 637. 

Bonus Eventus, a Roman deiiy, whose wor- 
ship was first introduced by the peasants. He 
was represented holding a cup in his right hand, 
and in his left, ears of corn, Varro de R. R. 
I.— Plin. 34, c. 8. 

Bootes, a northern constellation near the 
Ursa Major, also called Bubulcus and Arcto- 
phylax. Some suppose it to be Icarus, the father 
of Erigone, who was killed by shepherds for 
inebriating them. Others maintain that it is 
Areas, whom Jupiter placed in heaven. Ovid. 
Fast. 3, V. 405.— Ctc. de Nat. D. 2, c. 42, 

Booths, and Bcgotus, a son of Neptune and 
Melanippe, exposed by his mother, but preserv- 
ed by shepherds. Hygin. fab. 186. 

BoREADES, the descendants of Boreas, who 
long possessed the supreme power and the 
priesthood in the island of the Hyperboreans. 
Diod. 1 and 2. 

Boreas, the name of the north wind blowing 
from ihe Hyperborean mountains. According 
to the poets he was son of Astraeus and Aurora, 
but others make him son of the Strymon. He 
was passionately fond of Hyacinthiis, {Vid. 
JHyacinthus,) and carried away Orithyia, who 

Part III.— 4S 



refused to receive his addresses, and by her. he 
had Zetes and Calais, Cleopatra and Chione. 
He was worshipped as a deity, and represented 
with wings and white hair. The Athenians 
dedicated altars to him, and to the winds, when 
Xerxes invaded Europe. Homer. 11. 20, v. 222. 
—Hesiod. TKeog. v. Ti^.—Apollod. 3, c. 15.— 
Herodot. 7, c. 189.— O-yt^. Met. 6, v. 700. 

BRANcmALES, a surname of Apollo. 

Branchus, a youth of Miletus, son of Smi- 
crus, beloved by Apollo, who gave him the 
power of prophecy. He gave oracles at Didyme, 
which became inferior to none of the Grecian 
oracles, except Delphi, and which exchanged 
the name of Didymean for that of Branchidse. 
The temple, according to Strabo, was set on fire 
by Xerxes, who took possession of the riches it 
contained, and transported the people into 
Sogdiana, where they built a city, which was 
afterwards destroyed by Alexander. Strab. 15. 
— Stat. Theb, 3, v. 479, — Lucan. de Domo. 

Brjareus, I, a famous giant, son of Coelus 
and Terra, who had 100 hands and 50 heads, 
and was called by men jJEgeon, and only by the 
gods, Briareus. When Juno, Neptune, and 
Minerva conspired to dethrone Jupiter, Bria- 
reus ascended the heavens, and seated himself 
next to him, and so terrified the conspirators by 
his fierce and threatening looks, that they de- 
sisted. He assisted the giants in the war against 
the gods, and was thrown under jnount .^tr.a, 
according to some accounts. Hesiod. Theog. v. 
UQ.—Apollod. 1, c. \.~-Horn.er. 11. 1, v. 403. 

Virg. Mn. 6, v. 287, 1. 18, v. 565. II. A 

Cyclop, made judge between Apollo and Nep- 
tune, in their dispute about the isthmus and 
promontory of Corinth. He gave the former 
to Neptune, and the latter to Apollo. Paus. 
2, c. 1. 

Briseis. Vid. Part II. 

Brises. Vid. Part 11. 

Beiseus, a surname of Bacchus, from his 
nurse Brisa, or his temple at Brisa, a promon- 
tory at Lesbos. Per sins, 1, v. 76. 

Britomartis, I. a beautiful nymph of Crete, 
daughter of Jupiter and Charme, who devoted 
herself to hunting, and became a great favourite 
of Diana. She was loved by Minos, who pur- 
sued her so closely, that, to avoid his importu- 
nities, she threw herself into the sea. Pans. 2, 
c. 30, 1. 3, c. 14. II. A surname of Diana. 

Brizo, the goddess of dreams, worshipped in 
Del OS. 

Bromius, I, a surname of Bacchus, from 
£iO£|U£tv,/re7i(^(?re, alluding to the groans which 
Semele uttered when consumed by Jupiter's 



11.- 



-II. A 



son 



of 



Ovid. Met. 



fire. Ovid. Met. 4, v, 
^gyptus, • Apollod. 2, c. 1, 

Bromus, one of the centaurs 
12, V. 459. 

Brontes, {thunder,) one of the Cyclops. 
Virg. Mn. 8, v. 425. 

Brotheus, a son of Vulcan and Minerva, 
who burned himself to avoid the ridicule to 
which his deformity subjected him. Ovid. Met. 
5, V. 517. 

BucoLioN, I. a king of Arcadia, after Laias. 

Pans. 8, c. 5. II. A son of Laomedon and 

the nymph Calybe. III. A son of Hercules 

and Prazithea. He was also called Bucolus. 
IV. A son of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. 



Apollod. 2 and 3. 



689 



GA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CA 



BuNEA, a surname of Juno, 

BuNus, a son of Mercury and Alcidamea, 
who obtained the government of Corinth when 
jEetes went to Colchis. He built a temple to 
Juno. Paus. 2, c. 3 and 4. 

BuPHAGUs, I. a son of Japetus and Thorn ax, 
killed by Diana, whose virtue he had attempted. 
A river of Arcadia bears his name. Paus. 8, 

c. 24. II. A surname of Hercules, given 

him on account of his gluttony, 

BuRA, a daughter of Jupiter, or, according to 
others, of Ion and Helice, from whom B^lra or 
Buris, once a flourishing city in the bay of Co- 
rinth, received its name, Ovid. Met. 15, v. 293, 
— Paus. 7, c. 25. — Strab. 1 and 8. — Diod. 15, 

BusiRis, a king of Egypt, son of Neptune 
and Libya, or Lysianassa, who sacrificed all 
foreigners to Jupiter with the greatest cruelty. 
When Hercules visited Egypt, Busiris carried 
him to the altar bound hand and foot. The 
hero soon disentangled himself, and offered the 
tyrant his son Amphidamas, and the ministers 
of his cruelty on the altar. 

BuTEs, I. one of the descendants of Amycus, 
king of the Bebryces, very expert in the combat 
of the cestus. He came to Sicily, where he was 
received by Ly caste, by whom he had a son 
called Eryx. Lycaste, on account of her beauty, 
was called Venus ; hence Eryx is often called 
the son of Venus. Virg. jEn. 5, v. 372, 



II. A son of Pandion and Zeuxippe, priest of 
Minerva and Neptune. He married Chthonia, 
daughter of Erechtheus. Apollod. 3, c. 14, &c. 
III. An arm-bearer to Anchises, and after- 
wards to Ascanius. Apollo assumed his shape 
when he descended from heaven to encourage 
Ascanias to fight. Butes was killed by Tur- 
nus. Virg. JEn. 9, v. 647, 1. 12, v, 632, 

Byblia, a name of Venus, 

Byblis, a daughter of Miletus and Cyanea, 
Some say that Caunus became enamoured of 
her; and others report, that he fled from his 
sister's importunities, who sought him all over 
Lycia and Caria, and at last sat down all bathed 
in tears, and was changed into a fountain of the 
same name, Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, v, 284. — Met. 
9, V. ibl.—Hygin. fab. 2i3.—Paus. 7, c. 5. 

Byzas, a son of Neptune, king of Thrace, 
from whom it is said Byzantium received its 
name. Diod. 4. 

C. 

Caanthds, a son of Oceanus and Tethys. 
He was ordered by his father to seek his sister 
Malia, whom Apollo had carried away, and he 
burnt in revenge the ravisher's temple near the 
Isthmus, He was killed for his impiety by the 
god, and a monument raised to his memory. 
Paus. 9, c. 10. 

Cabarnos, a deity worshipped at Paros. 
His priests were called Cabarni. 

Cabiri, variously considered as ancient in- 
habitants of Boeotia, sacred priests, and deities. 
Some report that Prometheus,one of the Cabiri, 
received Ceres when in quest of Proserpine ; 
that she intrusted to him and his son a secret, 
which they religiously kept. Hence the Cabiric 
mysteries. When the Cabiri were dispersed 
by the Epigoni, at the time of the Theban ex- 
pedition, the few survivors united and became 
priests of Ceres. Others identify the Cabiri 
690 



with the Curetes, Corybantes, and Dactyli ; to 
which Faber adds the Dioscuri, Anactes, and 
Telchin^s. This writer considers the Cabiri 
as the same with the Arkite Titans, or the 
family of Noah. They were likewise denomi- 
nated Lares and Penates. Hence Virgil unites 
the Penates with the Magni Dii, or Cabiri, and 
describes Augustus as bringing them into the 
naval battle of Actium. Another title by which 
the Cabiri were known, was that of the Manes ; 
while their mother was supposed to have been 
called Mania. According to Faber, Mania is 
the Noetic ark ; and the Manes, however their 
history may have been corrupted, are no other 
than the patriarch and his family. Nonnus 
represents the Cabiri as sons of Vulcan, and 
Acusilaus, the Argive, aflirms that Casmilus, 
or Mercury, was the son of Vulcan and Cabira, 
and the father of the three Cabiri, from whom 
were born the three Cabirides ; and lastly, Phe- 
recydes mentions that the three Cabiri and the 
three Cabirides were the offspring of Vulcan 
and Cabira, the daughter of Proteus. Hero- 
dotus aflirms that the worship of the Cabiri was 
brought to Samothrace by the Pelasgi. Traces 
of the Cabiric worship are found in Phoenicia, 
Rome, (where were altars to the Cabiri in the 
Circus Maximus,) and other parts of Europe 
and Asia. Faber^s Cabiri. — Millin. Strabo. 10, 
—Nonni. Dionys. H.—jEn. 3, 11, 8, 678, — 
Berod. 2. 

Cabiria, a surname of Ceres. 

Cacus, a famous robber, son of Vulcan and 
Medusa, represented as a three-headed monster, 
and as vomiting flames. He resided in Italy. 
He plundered the neighbouring country ; and 
when Hercules returned from the conquest of 
Geryon, Cacus stole some of his cows, and 
dragged them backwards into his cave to pre- 
vent discovery. Hercules departed without 
perceiving the theft ; but his oxen having lowed, 
were answered by the cows in the cave of Ca- 
cus, and the hero became acquainted with the 
loss he had sustained. He ran to the cave, at- 
tacked Cacus, and strangled him in his arms, 
though vomiting fire and smoke. Hercules 
erected an altar to Jupiter Servetor, in com- 
memoration of this victory ; and an annual fes- 
tival was instituted by the inhabitants in honour 
of the hero who had delivered them from such 
a public calamity. Ovid. 1, Past. v. 551. — 
Virg. Mn. 8, v. 194. — Propert. 4, el. 10. — Juv. 
5, 125. — Liv. 1, c. 7. — Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 9. 

Cadmus, son of Agenor, king of PhcEnicia, 
by Telephassa or Agriope, was ordered by his 
father to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom 
Jupiter had carried away, and be was never to 
return to Phoenicia if he did not bring her back. 
As his search proved fruitless, he consulted the 
oracle of Apollo, and was ordered to build a 
city where he should see a young heifer stop in 
the grass, and to call the country Boeotia. He 
found the heifer according to the directions of 
the oracle ; and as he wished to thank the god 
by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to fetch 
water from a neighbouring grove. The waters 
were sacred to Mars, and guarded by a dragon, 
which devoured all the Phoenician's attendants. 
Cadmus, tired of their seeming delay, went to 
the place, and saw the monster still feeding on 
their flesh. He attacked the dragon, and over- 
came it by the assistance of Minerva, and 



c^ 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CA 



sowed the teeth in a plain, upon which armed ' 
men suddenly rose up from the ground. He 
threw a stone in the midst of them, and they 
instantl}'- turned their arms one against the 
other, till all perished except five, who assisted 
him in building his city. Soon after he mar- 
ried Hermoine, the daughter of Venus, with 
whom he lived in the greatest cordiality, and by 
whom he had a son, Polydorus, and four daugh- 
ters, Ino, Agave, Autonoe, and Semele. Juijo 
persecuted those children ; and their well- 
known misfortunes so distracted Cadmus and 
Hermoine, that they retired to Illyricum, loaded 
with grief and infirm with age. They entreat- 
ed the gods to remove them from the misfortunes 
of life, and they were immediately changed into 
serpents. Some explain the dragon's fable, by 
supposing that it was a king of the country 
whom Cadmus conquered by war; and the 
armed men rising from the field, is no more than 
men armed with brass, according to the am- 
biguous signification of a PhcEnician word. 
Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of 
letters into Greece ; but some maintain that the 
alphabet which he brought from Phoenicia was 
only different from that which is used by the 
ancient inhabitants of Greece. This alphabet 
consisted only of 16 letters, to which, afterwards, 
8 others were added. Vid. Simonides, Epi- 
charmus, and Palamedes. The worship of 
many of the Egyptian and PhcEnician deities 
was also introduced by Cadmus,whb is supposed 
to have come into Greece 1493 years before the 
Christian era, and to have died 61 years after. 
According to those who believe that Thebes 
was built at the sound of Amphion's lyre, Cad- 
mus built only a small citadel, which he called 
Cadmea, and laid the foundations of a city 
which was finished by one of his successors. 
Ovid. Met. 3, fab. 1, 2, &c.—Herodot. 2, c. 49, 
1. 4, c. Ul.—Hygin. fab. 6, 76, 155, &c.—Diod. 
1, &c. — Paus. 9, c, 5, &c. — Ilesiod. Theog. v. 
937, &c. 

Caduceus, a rod entwined at one end by 
two serpents, in the form of two equal semicir- 
cles. It was the attribute of Mercury and the 
emblem of power, and it had been given him by 
Apollo in return for the lyre. Various inter- 
pretations have been put upon the two serpents 
round it. Some suppose them to be a symbol 
of Jupiter's amours with Rhea, when these two 
deities transformed themselves into snakes. 
Others say that it originates from Mercury's 
having appeased the fury of two serpents that 
were fighting, by touching them with his rod. 
Prudence is generally supposed to be repre- 
sented by these two serpents, and the wings are 
the symbol of diligence; both necessary in the 
pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer- 
cury patronised. With ii Mercury conducted to 
the infernal regions the souls of the dead, and 
could lull-to sleep, and even raise to life a dead 
person. Virg. Mn. 4, v. 242. — Horat. 1, od. 10. 

CfficuLUS, a son of Vulcan, conceived, as 
some say, by his mother, when a spark of fire 
fell into her bosom. He was called Caeculus 
because his eyes were small. After a life spent 
in plundering and rapine, he built Prseneste; 
but being unable to find inhabitants, he im- 
plored Vulcan to show whether he really was 
his father. Upon this a flame suddenly shone 
among a multitude who were assembled to see 



some spectacle, and they were immediately per- 
suaded to become the subjects of Ceeculus. Virg. 
jEn.l, V. 680, says, that he was found in the fire 
by shepherds, and on that account called son of 
Vulcan, who is the god of fire. 

C^NEUs, one of the Argonauts. ApoUod. 1, 
c. 9. 

C.ENIS, a Thessalian woman, daughter of 
Elatus, who obtained from Neptune the power 
to change her sex, and to become invulnerable. 
She also changed her name, and was called 
Caneus. In the wars of the Lapithae against 
the centaurs, she offended Jupiter, and was 
overwhelmed with a huge pile of wood, and 
changed into a bird. Ovid. Met. 12, v. 172 and 
479. — Virg. ^n. 6, v. 448, says, that she re- 
turned again to her pristine form. 

C ALOHAS, a celebrated soothsayer, son of 
Thestor. He accompanied the Greeks to Troy, 
in the office of highpriest ; and he informed 
them that that city could not be taken without 
the aid of Achilles, that their fleet could not 
sail from Aulis before Iphigenia was sacrificed 
to Diana, and that the plague could not be stop- 
ped in the Grecian army before the restoration 
ofChryseisto her father. He told them also 
that Troy could not be taken before ten years' 
siege. He had received the power of divination 
from Apollo. Calchas was informed that as 
soon as he found a man more skilled than him- 
self in divination, he must perish ; and this 
happened near Colophon, after the Trojan war. 
He was unable to tell how many figs were in 
the branches of a certain fig-tree; and when 
Mopsus mentioned the exact number, Calchas 
died through grief Vid. Mopsus. Homer. II. 
1, V. 69. — JEschyl. in Agam. — Eurip. in Iphig. 
— Paus. 1, c. 43. 

Calchinia, a daughter of Leucippus. She 
had a son by Neptune, who inherited his grand- 
father's kingdoni of Sicyon. Paus. 2, c. 5. 

Caliadne, the wife of Egyptus. ApoUod. 2, 
c. 1. 

Calliope, one of the muses, daughter of Ju- 
piter and JVlnemosyne, who presided over elo- 
quence and heroic poetry. She is said to be 
the mother of Orpheus by Apollo, and Horace 
supposes her able to play on any musical instru- 
ment. She was represented with a trumpet in 
her right hand, and with books in the other, 
which signified that her office was to take no- 
tice of the famous actions of heroes, as Clio was 
employed in celebrating them ; and she held 
the three most famous epic poems of antiquity, 
and appeared generally crowned with laurels. 
She settled the dispute between Venus and 
Proserpine, concerning Adonis, whose compa- 
ny these two goddesses wished both perpetually 
to enjoy. Hesiod. Theog. — ApoUod. 1, c. 3. — 
Horat. od. 

Callirhoe, I. a daughter of the Scamander, 
who married Troas, by whom she had Ilus, Ga- 
nymede, and Assaracus. II. A daughter of 

Oceanus and Tethys^ mother of Echidna, Or- 

thos, and Cerberus, by Chrysaor, Hesiod. 

III. A daughter of Lycus, tyrant of Libya, 
who kindly received Diomedes at his return 
from Troy. He abandoned her, upon which 

she killed herself.- IV. A daughter of the 

Achelous, who married Alcmseon. Vid. Alc- 
mcBon. Paus. 8, c. 24. 

Callisto, and Calisto, called also Helice 
691 



CA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CA 



was daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, and 
one of Diana's attendants. She had a son by 
Jupiter, called Areas. Juno, who was jealous 
of Jupiter, changed Calisto into a bear ; but the 
god, apprehensive of her being hurt by the 
huntsmen, made her a constellation of heaven, 
with her son Areas, under the name of the bear. 
Ovid. Met. 2, fab. 4, &L(i.—Apollod. 3, c. 8.— 
Hygin. fab. 176 and 111.— Pans. 8, c. 3. 

Calyce, I. a daughter of jEoIus, son of He- 
lenus and Enaretta, daughter of Deimachus. 
She had Endymion, king of Elis, by Ethlius, 
the son of Jupiter. Apollod. 1, c. 7. — Paus. 5, 

c. 1. II. A Grecian girl, who fell in love 

with a youth called Evathlus. As she was 
unable to gain the object of her love, she threw 
herself from a precipice. This tragical story 
was made into a song by Stesichorus, and was 
still extant in the age of Athenaits, 14. 

Calydonius, a surname of Bacchus. 

Calypso, one of the Oceanides, or one of 
the daughters of Atlas, according to some, was 
goddess of silence, and reigned in the island 
of Ogygia, whose situation and even existence 
is doubted. When Ulysses was shipwrecked 
on her coasts, she received him with great hos- 
pitality, and offered him immortality if he would 
remain with her as a husband. The hero re- 
fused, and after seven years' delay, he was per- 
mitted to depart from' the island by order of 
Mercury, the messenger of Jupiter. During 
his stay, Ulysses had two sons by Calypso, 
Nausithous and Nausinous. Vid. Ogygia,' Fari 
I. Homer. Od. 7 and 15. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 
^GO.— Ovid. de Pont. 4, ep. 18. Amor. 2, el. 
ll.—Propert. 1, el. 15. 

Camilla, queen of the Volsci, was daughter 
of Metabus and Casmilla, She was educated 
in the woods, inured to the labours of hunting, 
and fed upon the milk of mares. Her father 
devoted her, when young, to the service of 
Diana. When she was. declared queen, she 
marched at the head of an array, and, accom- 
panied by three youthful females of equal cour- 
age as herself, to assist Turnus against jEneas, 
where she signalized herself by the numbers 
that perished by her hand. She was so swift 
that she could run, or rather fly, over a field of 
corn without bending the blades, and make her 
way over the sea without wetting her feet. She 
died by a wound she had received from Aruns. 
Virg. Mn. 7, v. 803, 1. 11. v. 435. 

Camiro and Clytia, two daughters of Pan- 
darus of Crete, When their parents were 
dead, they were left to the care of Venus; 
who, with the other goddesses, brought them 
up with tenderness, and asked Jupiter to grant 
them kind husbands. Jupiter, to punish upon 
them the crime of their father, who was acces- 
sary to the impiety of Tantalus, ordered the 
harpies to carry them away and deliver them to 
the furies. Paus. 10, c. 30. — Homer. Od. 20. v. <o^. 

Camcbn^, a name given to the muses, from 
the sweetness and melody of their songs, a cantu 
amazno, or, according to Varro, from carmen. 
Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 7. 

Campe, kept the 100 handed monsters con- 
fined in Tartarus. Jupiter killed her, because 
she refused to give them their liberty to come 
to his assistance against the Titans. Hesiod. 
Theog. ^Qd.— Apollod. 1, c. 2. 

Canens, anymph, called also Venilia, daugh- 
692 



ter of Janus and wife of Picas, king of the Lau- 
rentes. When Circe had changed her husband 
into a bird, she lamented him so much that she 
pined away, and was changed into a voice. She 
was reckoned as a deity by the inhabitants. 
Ovid. Met. 14, fab. 9. 

Capaneus, a noble Argive, son of Hippo- 
nous and Astinome, and husband to Evadne. 
He was so impious, that when he went to the 
Theban war, he declared that he would take 
Thebes even in spite of Jupiter. Such con- 
tempt provoked the god, who struck him dead 
with a thunderbolt. His body was burnt sepa- 
rately from the others, and his wife threw her- 
self on the burning pile to mingle her ashes 
with his. It is said that jEsculapius restored 
him to life, Ovid. Met. 9, v. iQ\.—Stat. Theb. 
3, &c. — Hygin. fab. 68 and 70. — Euripid. in 
Phmniss. and Supp. — JEschil. Sept. ante Theb. 

CA.PRIC0RNUS, a sign of the zodiac, in which 
appear 28 stars in the form of a goat, supposed 
by the ancients to be the goat of Amalthasa, 
which fed Jupiter with her milk. Some main- 
tain that it is Pan, who changed himself into a 
goat when frightened at the approach of Ty- 
phon. When the sun enters this sign it is the 
winter solstice, or the longest night in the year. 
Manil. 2 and i.—Horat. 2, od, 17, v. 19.— Hy- 
gin. fab. 196. P. A. 2, c. 28, 

Car, a son of Manes, who married Callirhoe, 
daughter of the Meeander. Caria received its 
name from him. Herodot. 1, c, 171, 

Carmanor, a Cretan, who purified Apollo of 
slaughter. Pans. 2, C; 30. 

Carme, a nymph, daughter of Eubulus and 
mother of Britomartis by Jupiter. She was one 
of Diana's attendants. Paus. 2, c. 30. 

Carmelus, a god among the inhabitants ot 
mount Carmel, situate between Syria and Ju- 
dasa. His worship was peculiar in this, that 
neither temple nor image was erected to his 
divinity, which was yet held in the greatest 
respect. Tacit. Hist. 2, c. 18. — Sueton. Vesp. 5. 

Carmenta, and Carmentis, a prophetess of 
Arcadia, mother of Evander, with whom she 
came to Italy, and was received bv King Fau- 
nus, about 60 years before the Trojan war. 
Her name was Nicostrata, and she received 
that of Carmentis from the wildness of her looks 
when giving oracles, as if carens mentis. She 
was the oracle of the people of Italy during 
her life, and after death she received divine 
honours. She had a temple at Rome, and the 
Greeks offered her sacrifices under the name of 
Themis. Ovid Fast. 1, v, 467, 1. 6. v. 530.— 
Plut. in Romul. — Virg. jEn.S,Y. 339. — Liv. 
5, c. 47. 

Carnj^, and Cardinea, a goddess at Rome, 
who presided over hinges, as also over the en- 
trails and secret parts of the human body. She 
was originally a nymph, called Grane, whom 
Janus ravished, and, for the injury, he gave 
her the power of presiding over the exterior 
of houses, and removing all noxious birds from 
the doors. The Romans offered her beans, ba- 
con, and vegetables, to represent the simplicity 
of their ancestors. Ovid. Fa'st. 6, v. 101, &c. 

Carpo, a daughter of Zephyrus, and one of 
the Seasons. She was drowned in the Maean- 
der. Paus. 9, c. 35. 

Carpophora, a name of Ceres and Proser- 
pine, in Tegea. Paus. S, c. 53. 



CA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CE 



Cassiupe, and Cassiopea, I. married Ce- 
plieus, king of ^Ethiopia, by whom she had An- 
dromeda. She boasted herself to be fairer than 
the Nereides ; upon which Neptune, at the re- 
quest of these nymphs, punished the insolence 
of Cassiope, and sent a huge sea monster to 
ravage Ethiopia. Vid. Androineda. Cassiope 
was made a southern constellation, consisting 
of 13 stars called Cassiope. Vid. Part I. Cic. 
de Nat. D. 2, c. ^i.—Apollod. 2, c. ^.—Ovid. 
Met. 4, V. l^S.—Propert. 1, el. 17, v. 3. 

Cassandra. Vid. Part II. 

Castor and Pollox, were twin brothers, 
sons of Jupiter, by Leda, the wife of Tyndarus, 
king of Sparta. The manner of their birth is 
uncommon. Jupiter, who was enamoured of 
Leda, changed himself into a beautiful swan, 
and desired Venus to metamorphose herself 
into an eagle. After this transformation the 
goddess pursued the god with apparent ferocity, 
and Jupiter fled for refuge into the arms of 
Leda, who was bathing in the Eurotas, and nine 
months after brought forth two eggs, from one of 
which came Pollux and Helena ; and from the 
other, Castor and Clytemnestra. The two 
former were the offspring of Jupiter, and the 
latter were believed to be the children of Tyn- 
darus. Some suppose that Leda brought forth 
only'one egg, from which Castor and Pollux 
sprung. Mercury, immediately after their birth, 
carried the two brothers to Pallena, where they 
were educated; and as soon as they had arrived 
to years of maturity they embarked with Jason 
to go in quest of the golden fleece. In this ex- 
pedition both behaved with superior courage ; 
Pollux conquered and slew Amycus in the com- 
bat of the cestus, and was ever after reckoned 
the god and patron of boxing and wrestling. 
Castor distinguished himself in the manage- 
ment of horses. The brothers cleared the Hel- 
lespont, and the neighbouring seas, from pirates, 
after their return from Cokhis ; from which 
circumstance they have been always deemed the 
friends of navigation. During the Argonautic 
expedition, in a violent storm, two flames of fire 
were seen to play round the heads of the sons 
of Leda, and immediately the tempest ceased 
and the sea was calmed. From this occurrence 
their power to protect sailors has been more 
firmly credited, and the two mentioned fires, 
which are very common in storms, have since 
been known by the name of Castor and Pollux; 
and when they both appeared, it was a sign of 
fair weather, but if only one was seen, it prog- 
nosticated storms, and the aid of Castor and 
Pollux was consequently solicited. Castor and 
Pollux made war against the Athenians to re- 
cover their sister Helen, whom Theseus had 
carried away ; and from their clemency to the 
conquered they acquired the surname oiAnaces, 
or benefactors. They were initiated in the sa- 
cred mysteries of the Cabiri, and in those of 
Ceres ofEleusis. They were invited to a feast 
when Lynceus and Idas were going to celebrate 
their marriage with Phcebe and Talaria, the 
daughters of Leucippus, who was brother to 
Tyndarus. Their behaviour after this invita- 
tion was cruel. They became enamoured of 
the two women whose nuptials they were to 
celebrate, and resolved to carry them away and 
marry them. This violent step provoked L>m- 
ceus and Idas ; a battle ensued, and Castor kill- 



ed Lynceus, and was killed by Idas. Pollux re- 
venged the death of his brother by killing Idas; 
and as he was immortal, and tenderly attached 
to his brother, he intreated Jupiter to restore 
him to life, or to be deprived himself of immor- 
tality. Jupiter permitted Castor to share the 
immortality of his brother ; and consequently, 
as long as the one was upon earth, so long was 
the other detained in the infernal regions, and 
they alternately lived and died every day ; or, 
according to others, every six months. This act 
of fraternal love Jupiter rewarded by making 
the two brothers constellations in heaven, under 
the name of Gemini^ which never appear to- 
gether; but when one rises the other sets, and 
so on alternately. Castor made Talaria mother 
of Anogon, and Phoebe had Mnesileus by Pol- 
lux. They received divine honours after death, 
and were generally called Dioscuri, sons of 
Jupiter. White lambs were more particularly of- 
fered on their altars, and the ancients were fond 
of swearing by the divinity of the Dioscuri, by 
the expressions oiMdepol and jEcastor. Among 
the ancients, and especially among the Romans, 
there prevailed many public reports, at different 
timeS; that Castor and Pollux had made their 
appearance to their armies; and, mounted on 
white steeds, had marched at the head of their 
troops and furiously attacked the enemy. Their 
surnames were many, and they lyere generally 
represented mounted on two white horses, arm- 
ed with spears, and riding side by side, with 
their heads covered with a bonnet, on whose top 
glittered a star. Ovid. Met. 6, v, 109. Fast. 

5, V. 701. Am. 3, el. 2, v. b^.~Hygin. fab. 
77 and 78. — Homer. Hymn, in Jov. vuer. — 
Eurip. in Helen. — Plut. in Thes. — Virg. A^n. 

6, V. \2l.—Manil. Arg. 2.—Liv. 2.—Dionys. 
Hal. 6. — Justin. 20, c. 3. — Hot at. 2, Sat. 1, v. 
"m.—Flor. 2, c. 12.— Ctc de Nat. D. 2, c. 2.— 
Apollon. 1. — Apollod. 1, c. 8, 9, 1. 2, c. 4, 1. 3, c. 

U.—Paus. 3, c. 24, 1. 4, c. 3 and 27. A friend 

of iEneas, who accompanied him into Italy. 
Virg. jE7i. 10, V. 124. Vid. Part IT. 

Caunus, a son of Miletus and Cyane. He 
was passionately fond of, or, according to others, 
he was tenderly beloved by his sister Byblis. 
He retired to Caria, where he built a city called 
by his own name. Vid. Byblis. Ovid. Met. 9, 
fab. 11. Fi^. Parti. 

Cedreatis, the name of Diana among the 
Orchoraenians, because her images were hung 
on lofty cedars. 

Cel^no, I, one of the daughters of Atlas. 

Ovid. 4, Fast. v. 173. II. One of the harpies, 

daughter of Neptune and Terra. Virg. JEn. 3, 
V. 245. 

Celeus, a king ofEleusis, father to Triptole- 
mus by Metanira. He gave a kind reception 
to Ceres, who taught his son the cultivation of 
the earth. Vid. Triptolemus. His rustic dress 
became a proverb. The invention of several 
agricultural instruments, made of osiers, is at- 
tributed to him. Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 508, 1. 5, v. 
296.— FtV^. G. 1, V. 165.—Apollon. 1, c. 5.— 
Pans. 1, c. 14, 

Cei.mus, a man who nursed Jupiter, by whom 
he was greatly esteemed. He was changed 
into a magnet stone for saying that Jupiter was 
mortal. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 281. 

Centadri, a people of Thessaly, half men 
and half horses. This fable of the existence of 
693 



CE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



dis 



the Centaurs, monsters supported upon the four 
legs of a horse, arises from the ancient people 
of Thessaly having tamed horses, and having 
appeared to the neighbours mounted on horse- 
back, a sight very uncommon at that time, and 
which, when at a distance, seems only one body, 
and consequently one creature. Some derive 
the name ano aov Kcvreiv ravpovs, goading bulls, 
because they went on horseback after their bulls 
which had strayed, or because they hunted wild 
bulls with horses. Some of the ancients have 
maintained, that monsters like the Centaurs 
can have existed in the natural course of things. 
Plutarch in Sympos, mentions one seen by Pe- 
riander, tyrant of Corinth ; and Pliny 7, c. 3, 
says, that he saw one embalmed in honey, which 
had been brought to Rome from Egypt in the 
reign of Claudius. The battle of the Centaurs 
with the Lapithas is famous in history. Ovid 
has elegantly described, it, and it has also em- 
ployed the pen of Hesiod, Valerius Flaccus, 
&c., and Pausanias in Eliac, says, it was repre- 
sented in the temple of Jupiter, at Olympia, and 
also at Athens, by Phidias and Parrhasius ac- 
cording to Pliny, 36, c. 5. The origin of this 
battle was a quarrel at the marriage of Hippo- 
damia with Pirithous, where the Centaurs, in- 
toxicated with wine, behaved with rudeness to 
the women that were present. Such an insult 
irritated Hercules, Theseus, and the rest of the 
Lapithas, who defeated the Centaurs, and obliged 
them to leave their country and retire to Ar- 
cadia. Here their insolence was a second time 
punished by Hercules, who, when he was going 
to hunt the boar of Erymanthus, was kindly 
entertained by the Centaur Pholus, who gave 
him wine which belonged to the rest of the 
Centaurs, but had been given them on condition 
of their treating Hercules with it whenever he 
passed through their territory. They resented 
the liberty which Hercules took with their wine, 
and attacked him with fury. The hero de- 
fended himself with his arrows, and defeated 
his adversaries, who fled for safety to the Cen- 
taur Chiron. Chiron had been the preceptor 
of Hercules, and therefore they hoped that he 
would desist in his presence. Hercules, though 
awed at the sight of Chiron, did not desist, but, 
in the midst of the engagement, he wounded 
his preceptor in the knee, who, in the excessive 
pain he suffered, exchanged immortality for 
death. The death of Chiron irritated Hercu- 
les the more, and the Centaurs that were pre- 
sent were all extirpated by his hand. The most 
celebrated of the Centaurs were Chiron, Eu- 
rytus, Amycus, Gryneus, Caumas, Lycidas, 
Arneus, Medon, Rhoetus, Pisenor, Mermeros, 
Pholus, &c. Diod. i.— Tzetzes CUl. 9.— Hist. 
237. — Hesiod. in Suet. Hercul. — Homer. 11. tf* 
Od.— Ovid. Met. 12.—Strab. 9.—Paus. 5, c. 10, 
&c.—^lian. V. H. 11, c. 2.—Apollod. 2, c. 3, 1. 
5._nr^. ^71. 6, V. 2S6.—Hygin. fab. 33 and 
G2.— Pindar, Pyth. 2. 

Cephalus, I. son of Deioneus, king of Thes- 
saly, by Diomede, daughter of Xuthus, married 
Procris, daughter of Erechtheus, king of 
Athens. Aurora fell in love with him, and car- 
ried him away ; but he refused to listen to her 
addresses, and was impatient to return to Pro- 
cris. The goddess sent him back ; and to try 
the fidelity of his wife, she made him put on a 
different form, and he arrived at the house of 
694 



Procris in the habit of a merchant. Procris 
was deaf to every offer ; but she suffered her- 
self to be seduced by the gold of this stranger, 
who discovered himself the very moment the^t 
Procris had yielded up her virtue. This cir- 
cumstance so ashamed Procris, that she fled 
from her husband, and devoted herself to hunt- 
ing in the island of Eubcea, where she was ad- 
mitted among the attendants of Diana, who 
presented her with a dog always sure of his 
prey, and a dart which never missed its aim and 
always returned to the hands of its mistress of 
its own accord. After this Procris returned in 
disguise to Cephalus, who was willing to dis- 
grace himself by some unnatural concessions to 
obtain the dog and the dart of Procris. Procris 
discovered herself at the moment that Cephalus 
showed himself faithless, and a reconciliation 
was easily made between them. They loved 
one another with more tenderness than before, 
and Cephalus received from his wife the pre- 
sents of Diana. As he was particularly fond 
of hunting, he every morning early repaired to 
the woods, and after much toil and fatigue, laid 
himself down in the cool shade, and earnestly 
called for Aura, or the refreshing breeze. This 
ambiguous, word was mistaken for the name of 
a mistress; and some informer reported to the 
jealous Procris that Cephalus daily paid a visit 
to a mistress, whose name was Aura. Procris 
too readily believed the information, and secret- 
ly followed her husband into the woods. Ac- 
cording to his daily custom, Cephalus retired 
to the shade, and called after Aura, At the 
name of Aura, Procris eagerly lifted up her 
head to see her expected rival. Her motion 
occasioned a rustling among the leaves of the 
bush that concealed her ; and as Cephalus lis- 
tened, he thought it to be a wild beast, and he 
let fly his unerring dart. Procris was struck 
to the heart, and instantly expired in the arms 
of her husband, confessing that ill-grounded 
jealousy was the cause of her death. Accord- 
ing to Apollodorus there were two persons of 
the name of Cephalus ; one, son of Mercury 
and Herse, carried away by Aurora, with whom 
he dwelt in Syria, and by whom he had a son 
called Tithonus. The other married Procris, 
and was the cause of the tragical event men- 
tioned above. Cephalus was father of Arcesius 
by Procris, and of Phaeton, according to Hesiod, 
by Aurora. Ovid. Met. 7, fab. 26. — Hygin. 
fab. 189.— Apollod. 3, c. 15, 

Cepheus, I. a king of .Ethiopia, father of 
Andromeda, by Cassiope, He was one of the 
Argonauts, and was changed into a constella- 
tion after his death. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 669, 1. 5, 
V. 12. — Paus. 4, c. 35, 1. 8, c, 4. — Apollod. 1, c. 
9, 1. 2, c. 1, 4 and 7, 1, 3, c, 9, mentions one, 
son of Aleus, and another, son of Belus. The 
former he makes king of Tegea, and father of 
Sterope ; and says, that he, with his twelve 
sons, assisted Hercules in a war against Hip- 
poconn, where they were killed. The latter He 
calls king of JEihiopia, and father of Andro- 
meda. II. A son of Lycurgus, present at the 

chase of the Calydonian boar. Apollod. 1, c, 8. 

CEPmsiADES, apatronymicofEteocles.son of 
Andreus and Evippe, from the supposition of his 
being the son of the Cephisus. Paus. 9, c. 34. 

Cerberus, a dog of Pluto, the fruit of Echid- 
na's union with Typhon. He had 50 heads, 



CE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CH 



according to Hesiod, and three, according to 
other mythologists. He was stationed at the 
entrance of hell, as a watchful keeper, to pre- 
vent the living from entering the infernal re- 
gions, and the dead from escaping from their 
confinement. Orpheus lulled him to sleep with 
his lyre ; and Hercules dragged him from hell 
when he went to redeem Alceste. Virg. JEn. 
5, V. 134, 1. 6, V. 411.— Homer. Od. 11, v. 622. 
— Paus. 2, c. 31, 1. 3, c. 25.— Hesiod. Thecfg. 
312.— Tibull. 1, el. 10, v. 35. 

Cercyon, and Cercyones, a king of Eleusis, 
son of Neptune, or, according to others, of Vul- 
can. He obliged all strangers to wrestle with 
him ; and as he was a dexterous wresiler, they 
were easily conquered and put to death. After 
many cruelties, he challenged Theseus in wrest- 
ling, and he was conquered and put to death 
by his antagonist. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 439. — 
Hygin. fab. 187. — Plut. in Thes. — Pans. 1, c. 
5 and 39. 

Ceres, the goddess of corn and of harvests, 
was daughter of Saturn and Vesta. She had 
a daughter by Jupiter, whom she called Phere- 
phata, fruit-bearing, and afterwards Proser- 
pine. This daughter was carried away by Plu- 
to as she was gathering flowers in the plains 
near Enna. The rape of Proserpine was griev- 
ous Co Ceres, who sought her all over Sicily ; 
and when night came, she lighted two torches 
in the flames of Mount iEtna, to continue her 
search by night all over the world. She at last 
found her veil near the fountain Cyane ; but 
no intelligence could be received of the place 
of her concealment, till at last the nymph Are- 
thusa informed her that her daughter had been 
carried away by Pluto. During the inquiries 
of Ceres for her daughter, the cultivation of 
the earth was neglected, and the ground be- 
came barren ; therefore, to repair the loss which 
mankind had suffered by her absence, the god- 
dess went to Attica, which was become the most 
desolate country in the world, and instructed 
Triptolemus, of Eleusis, in every thing which 
concerned agriculture. She taught him how 
to plough the ground, to sow and reap the corn, 
to make bread, and to take particular care of 
fruit trees. After these instructions, she gave 
him her chariot, and commanded him to travel 
all over the world, and communicate his know- 
ledge of agriculture to the rude inhabitants, who 
hitherto lived upon acorns and the roots of the 
earth. Vid. Triptolemus. Her beneficence to 
mankind made Ceres respected. Sicily was 
supposed to be the favourite retreat of the god- 
dess ; and Diodorus says, that she and her 
daughter made their first appearance to man- 
kind in Sicily, which Pluto received as a nup- 
tial d6wry from Jupiter when he married Pro- 
serpine. The Sicilians made a yearly sacrifice 
to Ceres, every man according to his abilities ; 
and the fountain of Cyane, through which Plu- 
to opened himself a passage with his trident, 
when carrying away Proserpine, was publicly 
honoured with an offering of bulls, and the 
blood of the victims was shed in the waters of 
the fountain. Besides these, other ceremonies 
were observed in honour of the goddess who 
had so peculiarly favoured the island. The 
commemoration of the rape was celebrated 
about the beginning of the harvest, and the 
search of Ceres at the time that corn is sown 



in the earth. The latter festival continued six 
successive days. Attica, which had been so 
eminently distinguished by the goddess, grate- 
fully remembered her favours in the celebration 
of the Eleusinian mysteries. Vid. Eleusinia. 
Ceres also performed the duties of a legislator, 
and the Sicilians found the advantages of her 
salutary laws ; hence her surname of Thesmo- 
phora. She is the same as the Isis of the Egyp- 
tians, and her worship, it is said, was first 
brought into Greece by Erechtheus. In their 
sacrifices the ancients offered Ceres a pregnant 
sow, as that animal often injures and destroys 
the productions of the earth. While the corn 
was yet in grass, they offered her a ram, after 
the victim had been led three times round the 
field. Ceres was represented with a garland 
of ears of corn on her head, holding in one 
hand a lighted torch, and in the other a poppy, 
which was sacred to her. She appears as a 
countr5'^-woman mounted on the back of an ox, 
and carrying a basket on her left arm, and hold- 
ing a hoe ; and sometimes she rides in a chariot 
drawn by winged dragons. She was supposed 
to be the same as Rhea, Tellus, Cybele, Bona 
Dea, Berecynthia, &c. The Romans paid her 
great adoration, and her festivals were yearly 
celebrated by the Roman matrons in the month 
of April, during eight days. They always 
bore lighted torches in commemoration of the 
goddess; and whoever came to these festivals 
without a previous initiation, was punished 
with death. Ceres is metaphorically called bread 
and corn, as the word Bacchus is frequently 
used to signify wine. Apollod. 1, c. 5, 1. 2, c. 
1, 1. 3, c. 12 and U.-Paus.- 1, c. 31, 1. 2, c. 34, 
1. 3, c. 23, 1. 8, c. 25, &.c.—Diod. 1, &c.— Hesiod. 
Theog.— Ovid. Fast. 4, v. All— Met. fab. 7, 8, 
&c. — Claudian. de Rapt. Pros. — Cic. in Verr. — 
Callimach. inCer. — Z/it'.29and31. — Stat. Theb, 
12.— Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 3'6.— Hygin. P. A. 2. 

Ceto, a daughter of Pontus and Terra, who 
married Phorcys, by whom she had the three 
Gorgons, &c. Hesiod. Theog. v. 237. — Lnican. 
9, V. 646. 

Ceus, and Cjeus, I. a son of CcbIus and Terra, 
who married Phoebe, by whom he had Latona 
and Asteria. Hesiod. Theog. v. 135. — Virg. 

Mn. 4, V. 179. II. The father of Troezene. ' 

Homer. II. 2, v. 354. 

Ceyx, a king of Trachinia, son of Lucifer 
and husband of Alcyone. He was drowned as 
he went to consult the oracle of Claros. His 
wife was apprized of his misfortune in a dream, 
and found his dead body washed on the sea- 
shore. They were both changed into birds 
called Alcyons. Vid. Alcyone. Ovid. Met. 1, 
V. 587. — Paus. 1, c. 32. According to Apollod. 
1, c. 7, 1. 2. c. 7, the husband of Alcyone and the 
king of Trachinia were two different persons. 

Chales, a herald of Busiris, put to death by 
Hercules. Apollod. 2, c. 5. 

Chalciope, I. a daughter of jEetes, king of 
Colchis, who married Phryxus, son of Athamas, 
who had fled to her father's court for protec- 
tion. She had some children by Phryxus, and 
she preserved her life from the avarice and cru- 
elty of her father, who had murdered her hus- 
band to obtain the golden fleece. Ovid. Heroid. 

17, V. 232.— Hygin. fab. 14, &c. II. The 

daughter of Rhexenor, who married iEgeus. 
Apollod. 3, c. 1, 

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MYTHOLOGY. 



CH 



Chalcon, a Messenian, who reminded Anti- 
lochus, son of Nestor, to beware of the Ethio- 
pians, by whom he was to perish. 

Chaos, a rude and shapeless mass of matter, 
and confused assemblage of inactive elements, 
which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the 
formation of the world, and from which the 
universe was formed by the hand and power of 
a superior being. This doctrine was first 
established by Hesiod, from whom the succeed- 
ing poets have copied it ; and it is probable that 
it was obscurely drawn from the account of 
Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to 
the siege of Troy. Chaos was deemed by some 
as one of the oldest of the gods, and invoked as 
one of the infernal deities. Virg. ^n. 4, v. 
510.— Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 1. 

Charites, and GRATiiE, the Graces, daughters 
of Venus by Jupiter or Bacchus, are three in 
number, Aglaia, ' Thalia, and Euphrosyne. 
They were the constant attendants of Venus, 
and they were represented as three young, 
beautiful, and modest virgins, all holding one 
another by the hand. They presided over kind- 
ness and all good offices, and their worship was 
the same as that of the nine muses. They 
were' generally represented naked, because 
kindnesses ought to be done with sincerity and 
candour. The moderns explain the allegory of 
their holding their hands joined, by observing, 
that there ought to be a perpetual and never- 
ceasing intercourse of kindness and benevo- 
lence among friends. Their youth denotes the 
constant remembrance that we ought ever to 
have of kindnesses received; and their virgin 
purity and innocence teach us, that acts of 
benevolence ought to be done without any ex- 
pectations of restoration, and that we ought 
never to suffer others or ourselves to be guilty 
of base or impure favours. Homer speaks only 
of two Graces. 

Charon, a god of hell,.son of Erebus and 
Nox, who conducted the souls of the dead in a 
boat over the river St3'-x and Acheron, to the 
infernal regions for an obolus. Such as had 
not been honoured with a funeral were not per- 
mitted to enter his boat without previously wan- 
dering on the shore for one hundred years. If 
any living person presented himself to cross the 
Stygian lake, he could not be admitted before 
he showed Charon a golden bough, which he 
had received from the Sibyl ; and Charon was 
imprisoned for one year, because he had ferried 
over, against his own will, Hercules, without 
this passport. Charon is represented as an old 
robust man, with a hideous countenance, long 
white beard, and piercing eyes. His garment 
is ragged and filthy, and his forehead is covered 
with wrinkles. As all the dead were obliged 
to pay a small piece of money for their admis- 
sion, it was always usual among the ancients to 
place under the tongue of the deceased a piece 
of money for Charon. This fable of Charon 
and his boat is borrowed from the Egyptians, 
whose dead were carried across a lake, where 
sentence was passed on them, and, according to 
their good or bad actions, they were honoured 
with a splendid burial, or left unnoticed in the 
open air. Vid. Acherusia. Diod. 1. — Senec. in 
Her. Fur. act. 3, v. 165.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 296, 
&c. Vid. Part TI. 

6ro 



Charybdis. Vid. Part I. 

Chelone, a nymph changed into a tortoise 
by Mercury, for not being present at the nup- 
tials of Jupiter and Juno, and condemned to per- 
petual silence for having ridiculed these deities. 

Chelonis, a daughter of Leonidas, king of 
Sparta, who married Cleombrotus. She accom- 
panied her father, whom her husband had ex- 
pelled, and soon after went into banishment 
with her husband, who had in his turn been ex- 
pelled by Leonidas. Plut. in Agid. tf- Cleorn. 

CniMiERA, I. a celebrated monster, sprung 
from Echidna and Typhon, which had three 
heads, that of a lion, of a goat, and a dragon, 
and continually vomited flames. The fore parts 
of its body were those of a lion, the middle was 
that of a goat, and the hinder parts were those 
of a dragon. It generally lived in Lycia, about 
the reign of Jobates, by whose orders Bellero- 
phon, mounted on the horse Pegasus, overcame 
it. This fabulous tradition is explained by the 
recollection that there was a burning mountain 
in Lycia, called Chimaera, whose top was the 
resort of lions on account of its desolate wilder- 
ness ; the middle, which was fruitful, was cov- 
ered with goats ; and at the bottom the marshy 
ground abounded with serpents. Bellerophon 
is said to have conquered theChimaera, because 
he first made his habitation on that mountain. 
Plutarch says that it is the captain of some 
pirates, who adorned their ship with the images 
of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. From the union 
of the Chimaera with Orthos, sprung the Sphinx, 
and the lion of Nemsea. Hovier. 11. 6, v. 181. 
—Hesiod. Theog. v. 'i2%—Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, 
c. 2.—lMcret. 5, v. 903.— Oui<^. 9, Met. v. 646. 

— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 288. II. One of the ships 

in the fleet of iEneas. Virg. Mn. 5, v. 118. 

Chione, I. a daughter of Dasdalion, of whom 
Apollo and Mercury became enamoured. She 
became mother of Philammon and Autolycus, 
the former of whom, as being son of Apollo, 
became an excellent musician ; and the latter 
was equally notorious for his robberies, of which 
his father Mercury was the patron. Chione 
grew so proud of her commerce with the gods, 
that she even preferred her beauty to that of 
Diana, for which impiety she was killed by the 
goddess and changed into a hawk. Ovid. Met. 

11, fab. 8. II. A daughter of Boreas and 

Orithyia, who had Eumolpusby Neptune. She 
threw her son into the sea, but he was preserved 
by his father. Apollod. 3,.c. 15. — Pans. 1. c. 38. 

Chiron, a centaur, half man and half a 
horse, son of Phil^ra and Saturn, was famous 
for his knowledge of music, medicine, and 
shooting. He taught mankind the use of plants 
and medicinal herbs ; and he instructed, in all 
the polite arts, the greatest heroes of his age ; 
such as Achilles, JEsculapius, Hercules, Jason, 
Peleus, Eneas, &c. He was wounded in the 
knee by a poisoned arrow, by Hercules, in his 
pursuit of the centaurs. As the wound was in- 
curable, and the cause of the most excruciating 
pains, Chiron begged Jupiter to deprive him of 
immortality. His prayers were heard, and he 
was placed by the gods among the constella- 
tions, under the name of Sagittarius. Hesiod. 
in Scuto. — Homer. 11. 11. — Pans. 3. c. 18, 1. 5, 
c. 19, 1. 9, c. ^\.— Ovid. Met.% v. 616.— Apollod. 
2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 13.— Horat. epod. 13. 

Chlor, a surname of Ceres at Athens. Her 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



CL 



yearly festivals called Chloeia, were celebrated 
with much mirth and rejoicing, and a ram was 
always sacrificed to her. The name of Chloe 
is supposed to bear the same signification as 
Flaxa, so often applied to the goddess of corn. 
The name, from its signification, (%Xv;7, herba 
virens) has generally been applied to women 
possessed of beauty and simplicity, 

Chloris, I. the goddess of flowers, who mar- 
ried Zephyrus. She is the same as Flora. 
Ovid. Fast. 5. — II, A daughter of Amphion, 
son of Jasus and Persephone, who married Ne- 
leus, king of Pylos, by whom she had one 
daughter and twelve sons, who all, except Nes- 
tor, were killed by Hercules, Homer. Od. 11, 
V. 280.— Pans. 2, c. 21, 1. 9, c. 36. 

Chonnidas, a man made preceptor to The- 
seus, by his grandfather Pittheus, king of Tros- 
zene. The Athenians instituted sacrifices to 
him for the good precepts he had inculcated 
into his pupil. Plut. m Tkes. 

Chronds, the Greek name of Saturn, or Time, 
in whose honour festivals, called Chronia, were 
yearly celebrated by the Rhodians and some of 
the Greeks, 

Chrysaor, a son of Medusa and Neptune. 
Some report that he sprung from the blood of 
Medusa, armed with a golden sword., whence 
his name xpi;o-of aop. He man led Callirhoe, 
one of the Oceanides,by whom he hadGeryon, 
Echidna, and the Chimasra. Hesiod. Theog. 
V 295. 

Chrysaoreus, a surname of Jupiter, from his 
temple at Stratonice, where all the Carians as- 
sembled upon any public emergency. Strab. 4. 

Chryses. Vid. Part II. 

Chrysippus, I. a natural son of Pelops, high- 
ly favoured by his father, for which Hippoda- 
mia, his step-mother, ordered her own sons, 
Atreus and Thyestes, to kill him, and to throw 
his body into a well, on account of which they 
were banished. Some say that Hippodamia's 
sons refused to murder Chrysippus, and that she 
did it herself Hygin. fab. 85. — Plato, de Leg. 
6. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. — Paus. 6, c. 20. 

Chthonia, a surname of Ceres, from a tem- 
ple built to her by Chthonia, at Hermione. She 
had a festival there called by the same name, 
and celebrated every summer. During the cele- 
bration, the priests of the goddess marched in 
procession, accompanied by the magistrates and 
a crowd of women and boys in white apparel, 
with garlands of flowers on their heads. Be- 
hind was dragged an untamed heifer, just taken 
from the herd. "When they came to the temple, 
the victim was let loose, and four old women, 
armed with scythes, sacrificed the heifer. A 
second, a third, and a fourth victim, was in a 
like manner despatched by the old women ; and 
it was observable that they all fell on the same 
side. Paus. 2, c. 35. 

CiLTX, a son of Phoenix, or, according to He- 
rodotus, of Agenor, who, after seekmg in vain 
his sister Europa, settled in a country to which 
he gave the name of Cilicia. Apollod. 3, c. 1, 
—Herodol. 7, c. 91. 

Cinaradas, one of the descendants of Ciny- 
ras, who presided over the ceremonies of Venus 
at Paphos. Tacit. 2. Hist. c. 3. 

CiNxiA, a surname of Juno, who presided 
over marriages, and was supposed to untie the 
girdle of new brides. 

Part III.— 4 T 



Cinyras, a king of Cyprus, son of Paphus, 
who married Cenchreis, by whom he had a 
daughter called Myrrha. Cinyras, according 
to some, stabbed hiinself. He was so rich, that 
his opulence, like that of Croesus, became pro- 
verbial. Ovid. Met. 10, fab. 9.— Plut. in Parall. 
—Hygin. fab. 242, 248, &c. 

Circe, a daughter of Sol and Perseis, cele- 
biated for her knowledge in magic and veno- 
mous herbs. She was sister to ^etes, king of 
Colchis, and Pasiphse, the wife of Minos. She 
married a Sarmatian prince of Colchis, whom 
she murdered to obtain his kingdom. She was 
expelled by her subjects, and carried by her fa- 
ther upon the coasts of Italy, in an island called 
^aea. Ulysses, at his return from the Trojan 
war, visited the place of her residence ; and all 
his companions, who ran headlong into pleasure 
and voluptuousness, were changed by Circe's 
potions into filthy swine. Ulysses, who was 
fortified against all enchantments by an herb 
called moly^ which he had received from. Mer- 
cury, went to Circe, and demanded, swoid in 
hand, the restoration of his companions to their 
former state. She complied, and loaded the hero 
with pleasures and honours. In this voluptuous 
retreat, Ulysses had by Circe one son called 
Telegonus, or two, according to Hesiod, called 
Agrius and Latinus. For one whole year 
Ulysses forgot his glor}' in Circe's arms, and at 
his departure, the nymph advised him to descend 
into hell, and consult the manes of Tiresias 
concerning the fates that attended him. Circe 
showed herself cruel to Scylla her rival, and to 
Picus. Vid. Scylla and Picus. Ovid. Met. 14, 
fab. 1 and 5. — Horat. 1, ep. 2, 1. 1. od. 17. — Virg. 
Ed. 8, V. 10.— JEn. 3, v. 386, 1.'7, v. 10, &c.— 
Hygin. fab. 125. — Apollon. 4. Arg. — Homer. 
Od. 10, V. 136, &c. — Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Hesiod. 
Th. 956— Strab. 5. 

Claviger, a surname of Janus, from his be- 
ing represented with a key. Ovid, Fast. 1, v. 
228. Hercules received also that surname, as 
he was armed with a club. Ovid. Met. 15, v. 284. 

Cleodoxa, a daughter of Niobe and Am- 
phion, changed into a stone as a punishment 
for her mother's pride. Apollod. 3, c. 5. 

Clio, I. the first of the Muses, daughter of 
Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over 
history. She is represented crowned with lau- 
rels, holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book 
in the other. Sometimes she holds a plectrum 
or quill with a lute. Her name signifies hon- 
our and reputation, (k-Xeo?, gloria;) and it was 
her oflice faithfully to record the actions of 
brave and illustrious heroes. She had Hya- 
cintha by Pierus, son of Magnes. She was also 
mother of Hymenseus, and lalemus, according 
to others. Hesiod. Tkeog. v. 75. — Apollod. 1, c. 

3. — Strab. 14. II. One of Cyrene's nymphs. 

Virg. G. 4, V. 341. 

Clite, the wife of Cyzicus, who hung her- 
self when she saw her husband dead. Apollon. 
1. — Orpheus. 

Cloacina, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over the Cloacse. Some suppose her to be Ve- 
nus, whose statue was found in the Cloaca, 
whence the name. The Cloacae were large 
receptacles for the filth and dung of the whole 
city, begun by Tarquin the Elder, and finished 
by Tarquin the Proud. They were built all 
under the city: so that, according to an expres- 
G97 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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sion of Pliny, Rome seemed to be suspended 
between heaven and earth. The building was 
so strong, and the stones so large, that though 
they were continually washed by impetuous tor- 
rents, they remained unhurt during above 700 
years. There were public officers chosen to 
take care of the Cloacee, called Curalores Cloa- 
carum urbis. Liv. 3, c. 48. — Plin. 5, c. 29. 

Clotho, the youngest of the three Parcae, 
daughter of Jupiter and Themis, or, according 
to Hesiod, of Night, was supposed to preside 
over the moment that we are born. She held 
the distaff in her hand, and span the thread of 
life, whence her name, (/cXweetj/, to spin.) She 
was represented wearing a crown with seven 
stars, and covered with a variegated robe. Vid. 
Parcce. Hesiod. Theog. v. 218. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. 

Cluacina, a name of Venus, whose statue 
was erected in that place where peace was made 
between the Romans and Sabines, after the 
rape of the virgins., Vid. Cloacina. 

Clusius, the surname of Janus when his 
temple was shut. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 130. 

Clymene, I. a daughter of Oceanus and Te- 
thys, who married Japetus, by whom she had 
Atlas, Prometheus, Menoetius, and Epimetheus. 

Hesiod. Theog. II. The mother of Phaeton 

by Apollo. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 756. III. The 

mother of Homer. Id. 10, c. 24. IV. A 

female servant of Helen, who accompanied her 
mistress to Troy, when she eloped with Paris. 
Ovid. Heroid. 17, v. ^^1.— Homer. 11. 3, v. 144. 

Clymeneides, a patronymic given to Phae- 
ton's sisters, who were daughters of Clymene. 

Clytemnestra, a daughter of Tyndarus, 
king of Sparta, by Leda. Vid. Part II. 

Clytia, or Clytie, I. a daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was de- 
serted by her lover, and pined away, and was 
changed into a flower, commonly called a sun- 
flower, which still turns its head towards the 
sun in h is course , as in pledge of her love. Ovid. 
Met. 4, fab. 3. &c. II. A daughter of Am- 



phidamus, mother of Pelops, by Tantalus.- 
III. A concubine of Amyntor, son of Phrastor, 
whose calumny caused Amyntor to put out the 

eyes of his falsely-accused son Phoenix. IV. 

A daughter of Pandarus. 

CocALUS, a king of Sicily, who hospitably 
received Daedalus when he fled before Minos. 
When Minos arrived in Sicily the daughters 
of Cocalus destroyed him. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 
'■H^l.—Diod. 4. 

CcBLUs, or Uranus, an ancient deity, sup- 
posed to be the father of Saturn, Oceanus, Hy- 
perion, &c. He was son of Terra, whom he 
afterwards married. The number of his chil- 
dren, according to some, amounted to forty-five. 
They were called Titans, and were so closely 
confined by their father, that they conspired 
against him, and were supported by their moth- 
er, who provided them with a scythe. Saturn 
armed himself with this scythe, and deprived 
his father of the organs of generation, as he 
was going to unite himself to Terra. From 
the blood which issued from the wound sprang 
the giants, furies, and nymphs. The mutilated 
parts were thrown into the sea, and from them, 
and the foam which they occasioned, arose 
Venus, the goddess of beauty. Hesiod. &c. 

CoMETHO, a daughter of Pterilaus, who de- 
prived her father of a golden hair in his head. 
698 



upon which depended his fate. She was put to 
death by Amphitryon for her perfidy. 4?'oZ.2,c.4. 

CoMus, the god of revelry, feasting, and noc- 
turnal entertainments. During his festivals 
men and women exchanged each other's dress. 
He was represented as a young and drunken 
man, with a garland of flowers on his head, 
and a torch in his hand, which seemed falling. 
He is more generally seen sleeping upon his 
legs, and turning himself when the heat of the 
falling torch scorched his side. Phil. 2. Icon. 
— Plut. QucBSt. Bom. 

Concordia, the goddess of peace and concord 
at Rome, to whom Camillus first raised a tem- 
ple in the capitol, where the magistrates often 
assembled for the transaction of public business. 
She had, besides this, other temples and statues, 
and was addressed to promote the peace and 
union of families and citizens. Plut. in Camil. 
— Plin. 33, c. 1. — Cic.pro Domo. — Ovid. Fast. 
1, V. 639, 1. 6, V. 637. 

CoNiSALTUs, a god worshipped at Athens, 
with the same ceremonies as Priapus at Lamp- 
sacus. Strab. 3. 

CoNNiDAS. Vid Chonnidas. 

Consentes, the name which the Romans 
gave to the twelve superior gods, the D'ii majo" 
rum gentium: The word signifies as much as 
consentie7ites, that is, who consented to the de- 
liberations of Jupiter's council. They were 
twelve in number, whose names Ennius has 
briefly expressed in these lines : — 

Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus,Mars, 
Mercuri^iSf Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo. 

Varro, de R. R. 

CoNstJs, a deity at Rome, who presided over 
councils. His temple was covered in the Mexi- 
mus Circus, to show that councils ought to be 
secret and inviolable. Some suppose that it is 
the same as Neptunus Equestris. Romulus in- 
stituted festivals to his honour, called Consu- 
alia, during the celebration of which the Ro- 
mans carried away the Sabine women. Vid. 
Consuales Ludi, Part II. Plut. in Rom. — Au- 
son. 69, and eleg. de far. R. 19. — Dionys. Hal. 1. 
— Idv. 1, c. 9. 

Coon, the eldest son of Antenor, killed by 
Agamemnon. Homer. 11. 

CopiA, the goddess of plenty; among the 
Romans, represented as bearing a horn filled 
with grapes, fruit, &c. 

Copreus, a son of Pelops, who fled to Mycenae 
at the death of Iphitus. Apollod. 2, c. 5. 

Core, a daughter of Ceres, the same as Pro- 
serpine. Festivals, called Coreia, were insti- 
tuted to her honour in Greece. 

CoREsus, a priest of Bacchus, at Calydon in 
Boeotia, who was deeply enamoured of the 
nymph Callirhoe, who treated him with dis- 
dain. He complained to Bacchus, who visited 
the country with a pestilence. The Calydo- 
nians were directed by the oracle to appease 
the god by sacrificing Callirhoe on his altar. 
The nymph was led to the altar, and Coresus, 
who was to sacrifice her, forgot his resentment 
and stabbed himself Callirhoe, conscious of her 
ingratitude to the love of Coresus, killed herseli 
on the brink of a fountain, which afterwards 
bore her name. Paus. 7, c. 21. 

CoRiA, a surname of Minerva among the 
Arcadians. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 23. 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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CoRCEBUs, a hero of Argolis, who killed a 
serpent called Pcene, sent by Apollo to avenge 
Argos, and placed by some authors in the num- 
ber of the faries. His country was afflicted 
with the plague, and he consulted the oracle of 
Delphi, which commanded him to build a tem- 
ple, where a tripod, which was given him, 
should fall from his hands. Paus. 1, y. 43. 
Fi^. Part II. 

CoRONis, I. a daughter of Phlegyas, loved fey 
Apollo. She became pregnant by her lover, 
who killed her on account of her criminal par- 
tiality to Ischys the Thessalian. The child 
was preserved and called ^Esculapius ; and the 
mother, after death, received divine honours, 
and had a statue at Sicyon, in her son's temple, 
which was never exposed to public view. Poms. 

2, c. 26. II. The daughter of Coronaeus, 

king of Phocis, changed into a crow by Miner- 
va, when flying before Neptune. Ovid. Met. 

2, V. 543., III. One of the daughters of Atlas 

and Pleione. 

CoRoNUs, I. a son of Apollo. Paus. 2, c. 5. 

II. A son of Phoroneus, king of the Lapi- 

ihae. Diod. 4. 

CoRYBANTEs, the priests of Cybele, called 
also Galli. In the celebration of their festivals 
they beat their cymbals, and behaved as if de- 
lirious. They first inhabited on mount Ida, 
and from thence passed into Crete, and secretly 
brought up Japiter. Some suppose that they 
received their name from Corobas, son of Jasus 
and Cybele, who first introduced the rites of 
his mother into Phrygia. There was a festival 
at Cnossus, in Crete, called Corybantica, in 
commemoration of the Corybantes, who there 
educated Jupiter. Vid. Curetes. Paus. 8, c. 
Tt.—Diod. b.—Horal. 1, od. 16.— Virg. Mn. 9, 
V. 617, 1. 10, V. 250. 

CoRYCiDEs, the nymphs who inhabited the 
foot of Parnassus. The name is often applied 
to the muses. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 320. 

CoRYMBiFfeR, a surname of Bacchus, from 
his wearing a crown of corymbi, certain berries 
that grow on the ivy. Ovid. 1. Past. v. 393. 

CoRYTUs, a king of Etruria, father to Jasius, 
whom Dardanus is said to have put to death to 
obtain the kingdom. 

CoTTus, a giant, son of Ccelus and Terra, 
who had 100 hands and 50 heads. Hesiod. 
Theog. V. 147. 

C0TYL.EUS, a surname of iEsculapius, wor- 
shipped on the borders of the Eurotas. His 
temple was raised by Hercules. Paus. 3, c. 19. 

CoTYTTO, the goddess of all debauchery, 
whose festivals, called Cotyttia, was celebrated 
by the Athenians, Corinthians, Thracians, <fec., 
during the night. Her priests were called Bap- 
tce. A festival of the same name was observed 
in Sicily, where the votaries of the goddess car- 
ried about boughs hung with cakes and fruit, 
which it was lawful for any person to pluck off. 
It was a capital punishment to reveal whatever 
was seen or done at these sacred festivals, and 
it cost Eupolis his life for an unseasonable re- 
flection upon them. The goddess Cotytto is 
suoposed to be the same as Proserpine or Ceres. 
Horat. epod. 17, v. 5S.—Juv. 2, v. 91. 

Creon, I. a king of Corinth, was son of Sisy- 
phus. He promised his daughter Glauce to 
Jason, who repudiated Media. To revenge 
the success of her rival, Medea sent her for a 



present a gown covered with poison. Glauce 
put it on, and was seized with sudden pains. 
Her body took fire, and she expired in the 
greatest torments. The house also was con- 
sumed by the fire, and Creon and his family 
shared Glauce's fate. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 7. 
— Eurip. in Med. — Hygin. fab. 25. — Diod. 4. 
II. A son of Menoetius, brother to Jocasta, 



the wife and mother of CEdipus. At the death 
of Laius, who had married Jocasta, Creon as- 
cended the vacant throne of Thebes. Vid. Ete- 
odes. Creon was afterwards killed by Theseus, 
who had made war against him at the request 
of Adrastus, because he refused burial to the 
Argives. Vid. Eteocles^ Polyiiices, Adra,stus, 
GEdipus. Apollod. 3, c. 56, &c. — Paus. 1, c. 39, 
1. 9, c. 5, &c. — Stat, in Theb. — Sophocl. in 
Antig. — Diod. 1 and 4. 

Greontiades, a son of Hercules by Megara, 
daughter of Creon, killed by his father because 
he had slain Lycus. 

Cretheis, the wife of Acastus, king of lol- 
chos,who fell in love with Peleus, son of iEacus. 
She is called by some Hippolyte, or Astidamia. 
Pindar. Nem. 4. 

Cretheus, a son of ^olus, father of .^on, by 
Tyro, his brother's daughter. Apol. 1, c. 7, &c. 

Creusa, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. 
As she was going to marry Jason, who had di- 
vorced Medea, she put on a poisoned garment, 
which immediately set her body on fire, and 
she expired in the most excruciating torments. 
She had received this gown as a gift from Me- 
dea, who wished to take that revenge upon the 
infidelity of Jason. Some call her Glauce. Vid. 
Part II. Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, v. 335. 

Crimissus, was a Trojan prince, who exposed 
his daughter on the sea, rather than suffer her 
to be devoured by the sea-monster which Nep- 
tune sent to punish the infidelity of Laomedon. 
Vid. Laomedon. The daughter came safe to 
the shores of Sicily. Crimissus, some time af- 
ter, went in search of his daughter, and was so 
disconsolate for her loss, that the gods changed 
him into a river in Sicily, and granted him the 
power of metamorphosing himself into v/hat- 
ever shape he pleased. Vid. Part I. 

Crocus, a beautiful youth, enamoured of the 
nymph Smilax. He was changed into a flower 
of the same name, on account of ihe impatience 
of his love, and Smilax was metamorphosed 
into a yew-tree. Ovid. 4, Met. v. 283. 

Crotopus, a king of Argos, son of Agenor, 
and father toPsamathe, the mother of Linus by 
Apollo. Ovid, in lb. 480. 

Crotds, a son of Eumene, the nurse of the 
Muses. He devoted his life to the labours of 
the chase, and after death Jupiter placed him 
among the constellations, under the name of 
Sagittarius. Paus. 9, c. 29. 

CupiDo, a celebrated deity among the an- 
cients, god of love, and love itself. There are 
different traditions concerning his parents. Ci- 
cero mentions three Cupids ; one, son of Mer- 
cury and Diana ; another, son of Mercury and 
Venus ; and the third, of Mars and Venus. 
Plato mentions two ; Hesiod, the most ancient 
theogonist, speaks only of one, who, as he says, 
was produced at the same time as Chaos and 
the Earth. There are, according to the more 
received opinions, two Cupids, one of whom is 
a lively ingenious youth, son of Jupiter and 
699 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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Venus ; whilst the other, son of Nox and Ere- 
bus, is distinguished by debauchery and riotous 
disposition, Cupid is represented as a winged 
infant, naked, armed with a bow and quiver full 
of arrows. On gems, and all other pieces of 
antiquity, he is represented as amusing himself 
with some childish diversion. Sometimes he 
appears driving a hoop, throwing a quoit, play- 
ing with a nymph, catching a butterfly, or try- 
ing to burn with a torch ; sometimes, like a con- 
queror, he marched triumphantly with a hel- 
met on his head, a spear on his shoulder, and a 
buckler on his arm. His power was generally 
known by his riding on the back of a lion, or 
on a dolphin, or breaking to pieces the thunder- 
bolts of Jupiter. Among the ancients he was 
worshipped with the same solemnity as his mo- 
ther Venus; and as his influence was extended 
over the heavens, the sea, and the earth, and 
even the empire of the dead, his divinity was 
universally acknowledged, and vows, prayers, 
and sacrifices were daily offered to him. Ac- 
cording to some accounts, the union of Cupid 
with Chaos gave birth to men ; and all the ani- 
mals which inhabit the earth, and even the gods 
themselves, were the offspring of love before the 
foundation of the w^orld. Cic. de Nat. D. 3. — 
Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 10.— Hesiod. Theog. v. 121, 
Sic.-^Oppian. Hali.^. Cyneg.^. — Biooi. Idyll. 
3. — Mosclius. — Eurip. in Hippol. — Theocrit. 
Idyll. 3, 11, &c. 

CuRETEs, by some considered the same as the 
Cabiri, Corybantes, &c. Vid. Cabiri. Strabo 
informs us, that the Curetes and Corybantes, 
whether gods, genii, demigods, or the servants 
of the gods, were the attendants of Rhea or 
Cybele ; as the Fauns, Bacchantes, and other 
rural deities, formed the escort of Bacchus. 
Some writers are of opinion that, besides the 
Curetes above described, there were others in 
Phrygia, who were only servants in the wor- 
ship of Cybele ; and who, on solemn occasions 
imitated the ceremonies of the Corybantes, 
thus commemorating their actions. The most 
important achievement of the Corybantes was 
that of having rescued the infant Jove from 
Saturn, by drowning his cries with a noise pro- 
duced by beating their shields with their swords. 
Hence originated the Pyrrhic dance, in which 
the later Curetes honoured the goddess, not 
only by striking their shields, but by moving 
with measured steps, and swaying the head to 
and fro. The effect was heightened by the 
drawing of the crests upon their helmets. Lu- 
cretius, in describing the dance, distinguishes 
between the ancient and later Curetes. Their 
number is variously reported. Those who iden- 
tify them with the JDioscuri, make them two in 
number; others three, five, eleven ; and some 
extend their number to fifty-two. Faher's Ca- 
biri. Millin. 

Cyane, a nymph of Sicily, who endeavoured 
to assist Proserpine when she was carried away 
by Pluto. The god changed her into a foun- 
tain now called Pisme, a few miles from Syra- 
cuse. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 112 

Cybebe, a name of Cybele. 

Cybele, a goddess, daughter of Coelus and 
Terra, and wife of Saturn. She is supposed to 
be the same as Ceres, Rhea, Ops, Vesta, Bona 
Mater, Magna Mater, Berecynthia.Dindymene, 
&c. According to Diodorns she was the daugh- 
700 



ter of a Lydian prince called Menos, by his wife 
Dindymene ; and he adds, that as soon as she 
was born she was exposed on a mountain. She 
was preserved and suckled by some of the wild 
beasts of the forest, and received the name of 
Cybele from the mountain where her life had 
been preserved. The attachment of Cybele to 
Atys is often dwelt upon by the poets of anti- 
quity. In Phrygia, her festivals were observed 
wiih the greatest solemnity. Her priests, called 
Corybantes, Galli, &c., were obliged to qualify 
themselves for her service after the manner of 
Atys.' In the celebration of the festivals they 
imitated the manners of madmen, and filled the 
air with dreadful shrieks and bowlings, mixed 
with the confused noise of drums, tabrets, buck- 
lers, and spears. This was in commemoration 
of the sorrow of Cybele for the loss of her 
favourite Atys. Those who consider Atys as 
typical of the sun, see, in the rites of Cybele 
and her attachment to Atys, a representation of 
the relation which existed between the Sun 
and Earth. Faber refers the fable of Cybele 
and Atys to the Helio-Arkite worship; so that, 
according to him, Rhea or Cybele is a new 
personification of the lunar Ark ; hence the 
mysteries of Rhea were immediately connected 
with those of Bacchus or Noah ; and hence, 
too, the alternate lamentations and rejoicing at 
the rites of Cybele, on account of the supposed 
death and revival of Bacchus or Adonis, who 
by the Phrygians was styled Atys, and by the 
Egyptians Osiris. Cybele was generally repre- 
sented as a robust woman, far advanced in her 
pregnancy, to intimate the fecundity of the earth. 
She held keys in her hand, and her head was 
crowned with rising turrets, and sometimes with 
the leaves of an oak. She sometimes appears 
riding in a chariot drawn by two tame lions ; 
Atys follows by her side, carrying a ball in his 
hand, and supporting himself upon a fir-tree, 
which is sacred to the goddess. Sometimes 
Cybele is represented with a sceptre in her 
hand, with her head covered with a tower. 
From Phrygia the worship of Cybele passed 
into Greece, and was solemnly established at 
Eleusis, under the name of the Eleusinian mys- 
teries of Ceres. The Romans, by order of the 
Sibylline books, brought the statue of the god- 
dess from Pessinus into Italy ; and when the 
ship which carried it had run on a shallow bank 
of the Tiber, the virtue and innocence of Clau- 
dia were vindicated in removing it with her 
girdle. It is supposed that the mysteries of 
Cvbele were first known about 1580 years B. C. 
The Romans were particularly superstitious in 
washing every year, on the 6th of the calends 
of April, the shrine of this goddess in the wa- 
ters of the river Almon. Vid. Atys, Eleusis, 
Rhea, Corybantes, Galli, &c. Augustin. de Civit. 
D. &c. — Lactant. — Inician. in Dea Sur. — Diod. 
S.— Virg. ^n. 9, v. 617, 1. 10, v. 252.— Lvcan. 
1, V. 566.— Ovid. Trist. 4, v. 210 and 361.— 
Plut. de Loquac. — Cic. ad Attic. — C(d. Rhod. 
8, c. 17, &c. 

Cychreus, a son of Neptune and Salamis. 
After death he was honoured as a god in Sala- 
mis and Attica. Paus. 1, c. 35. — Plut. in Tlies. 
—ApoJlod. 3, c. 12. 

Cyclopes, a certain race of men of gigantic 
stature, supposed to be the sons of Coelus and 
Terra. They had but one eye in the middle of 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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the forehead ; whence their name {KVK\og, cir- 
cules, (oip oculus.) They were three in number, 
according to Hesiod, called Arges, Brontes, and 
Steropes. Their number was greater according 
to other mythologists, and, in the age of Ulysses, 
Polyphemus was their king. Vid. Polyphemus. 
They inhabited the western part of the island 
of Sicily ; and because they were uncivilized 
in their manners, the poets speak of them as 
men-eaters. The tradition of their having only 
one eye originates from their custom of wear- 
ing small bucklers of steel, which covered their 
faces, and had a small aperture in the middle, 
which corresponded exactly to the eye. From 
their vicinity to Mount vEtna, they have been 
supposed to be the workmen of Vulcan, and to 
have fabricated the thunderbolts of Jupiter. 
The most solid walls and impregnable fortresses 
were said, among the ancients, to be the work 
of the Cyclops, to render them more respecta- 
ble ; and we find that Jupiter was armed with 
what ihey had fabricated, and that the shield of 
Pluto, and the trident of Neptune, were the 
produce of their labour. The Cyclops were 
reckoned among the gods, and we find a temple 
dedicated to their service at Corinth, where 
sacrifices were solemnly offered. Apollo de- 
stroyed them all, because they had made the 
thunderbolts of Jupiter with which his son 
^sculapius had been killed. From the differ- 
ent accounts given of the Cyclops by the an- 
cients, it may be concluded that they were all 
the same people, to whom various functions 
have been attributed, which cannot be reconciled 
one to the other without drawing the pencil of 
fiction 'or mythology. Apollod. 1, c. 1 and 2. — 
Homer. Od. 1 and 9. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 140. — 
Theocrit. Id. 1, &c.—SCrab. Q.— Virg. G. 4, v. 
170. ^n. 6, V. 639, 1. 8, v. 418, &c. 1. 11, v. 
263.— Oui<^. Met. 13, v. 780, 1. 14, v. 249. 

Cycnus, I. a son of Mars, by Pelopea, killed 
by Hercules. The manner of his death pro- 
voked Mars to such a degree, that he resolved 
severely to punish his murderer, but he was 
prevented by the thunderbolts of Jupiter. Hy- 
gin. fab. 31 and 261. — Hesiod. in Scut. Here. 

II. A son of Neptune, invulnerable in every 

part of his body, Achilles fought against him ; 
but when he saw that his darts were of no ef- 
fect, he threw him on the ground and smothered 
him. He stripped him of his armour, and saw 
him suddenly changed into a bird of the same 

name. Ovid. Met. 12, fab. 3, III. A son of 

Sthenelus, king of Liguria. He was deeply 
afflicted at the death of his friend and relation 
Phaeton, and in the midst of his lamentations 
he was metamorphosed into a swan. Ovid. Met. 
2, V. ZQl.— Virg. Mn. 10, v. 189.— Paws. 1, c. 30. 

Cyllarus, the most beautiful of all the Cen- 
taurs, passionately fond of Hylonome. They 
perished both at the same time, Ooid. 12, Met. 
V. 408. 

Cyllene, the mother of Lvcaon, by Pelasgus. 
Apollod. 3, c. 9. Vid. Part I. 

Cylleneius, a surname of Mercury, from 
his being" born on the mountain Cyllene. 

Cymothoe, one of the Nereides, represenled 
by Virg. Mn. 1, v. 148, as assisting the Trojans 
with Triton, after the storm with which jEoIus, 
at the request of Juno, had afflicted the fleet. 

Cynosura, a nymph of Ida in Crete. She 
nursed Jupiter who changed her into a^tar 



which bears the same name. It is the same as 
the Ursa Minor, Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 107. 

Cynthia, a surname of Diana, from mount 
Cynlhus, where she was born. 

CYNTmus, a surname of Apollo, from mount 
Cynthus, 

Cyparissus, a youth, son of Telephus of Cea, 
beloved by Apollo, He killed a favourite stag 
of Apollo, for which he was so sorry that he 
pined away and was changed by the god into 
a cypress tree, Virg. JSn. 3, v. 680. — Ovid. 
Met 10, V. 121, 

Cyrene, the daughter of the river Peneus, 
of whom Apollo became enamoured. He car- 
ried her to that part of Africa which is called 
Cyrenaica, where she brought forth Aristseus. 
She is called by some daughter of Hypseus, 
king of the Lapiihae, and son of the Peneus. 
Virg. G. 4, V. 321. — Justin. 13, c, 7, — Pindar. 
Pyth. 9. Vid. Part I. 

CYTHER.EA, a sumamc of Venus. 

Cyzicus, a son of CEneus and Stilba, who 
reigned in Cyzicus. Vid. Argonautce. Apollod. 1, 
c. 9. — Place. — Apollon. — Orpheus. Vid. Part I. 

D. 

Dagtyli, a name given to the priests of Cy- 
bele, which some derives fxoxn 6aKTv\oi^ finger, 
because they were ten, the same number as the 
fingers of the hand. Paus. 1, c. 8, 

D^DALioN, a son of Lucifer, brother to Ceyx 
and father of Philonis. He was so afflicted at 
the death of Philonis, whom Diana had put to 
death, that he threw himself down from the top 
of mount Parnassus, and was changed into a 
falcon by Apollo. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 295. 

Djsdalus, an Athenian, son of Eupalamus, 
descended from Erechtheus, king of Athens, 
He was the most ingenious artist of his age, 
and to him we are indebted for the invention 
of the wedge, the axe, the wimble, the level, 
and many other mechanical instruments, and 
the sails of ships. He made statues which 
moved of themselves, and seemed to be endow- 
ed with life. Talus, his sister's son, promised 
to be as great as himself, by the ingenuity of his 
inventions; and therefore, from envy, he threw 
him down from a window and killed him. Af- 
ter the murder of this youth, Daedalus, with his 
son Icarus, fled from Athens to Crete, where 
Minos, king of the country, gave him a cordial 
reception. Daedalus made a famous labyrinth 
for Minos, and assisted Pasiphae, the queen, to 
gratify her unnatural passion for a bull. For 
this action Daedalus incurred the displeasure 
of Minos, who ordered him to be confined in 
the labyrinth which he had constructed. Here 
he made himself wings with feathers and wax, 
and carefully fitted them to his body, and to 
that of his son, who was the companion of his 
confinement. They took their flight in the air 
from Crete ; but the heat of the sun melted the 
wax on the wings of Icarus, whose flight was 
too high, and he fell into that part of the ocean 
which from him has been called the Icarian Sea. 
The father, by a proper management of his 
wings, alighted at Cumae, where he built a tem- 
ple to Apollo, and thence directed his course 
to Sicily, where he was kindly received by Co- 
calus, who reigned over part of the country. 
He left many monuments of his ingenuity in 
"701 



DA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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Sicily, which still existed in the age of Diodorus 
Siculus. He was despatched by Cocalus, who 
was afraid of the power of Minos, who had de- 
clared war against him because he had given 
an asylum to Daedalus. The flight of Daedalus 
from Crete, with wings, is explained by observ- 
ing that he was the inventor of sails, which in 
his age might pass at a distance for wings. 
Pans. 1, 7 din&d.—Diod. 4.— Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 
3. Heroid. 4. De Art. Am. 2. Trist. 3, el. 4.— 
Hygin. fab. 40. — Virg. Mn. 6, v. 14. — Apollod. 
3, c. 1, &c.— Hero dot. 1, c. 170. 

Damasistratus, a king of Plaeta, who buried 
Laius. Apollod. 3, c. 5. 

Damia, a surname of Cybele. 

Danace, the name of the piece of money 
which Charon required to convey the dead over 
the Styx. Suidas. 

Danae, 1. the daughter of Acrisius, king of 
Argos, by Eurydice. She was confined in a 
brazen tower by her father, who had been told 
by an oracle that' his daughter's son would put 
him to death. His endeavours to prevent Danae 
•from becoming a mother proved fruitless; and 
Jupiter, who was enamoured of her, introduced 
himself to her bed by changing himself into a 
golden shower. From his embraces Danae had 
a son, with whom she was exposed on the sea 
by her father. The wind drove the bark which 
carried her to the coasts of the island of Seri- 
phus, where she was saved by some fishermen, 
and carried to Polydectes, king of the place, 
whose brother, called Dictys, educated the child, 
called Perseus, and tenderly treated the mother. 
Polydectes fell in love with her ; but as he was 
afraid of her son, he sent him to conquer the 
Gorgons, pretending that he wished Medusa's 
head to adorn the nupiials which he was going 
to celebrate with Hippodamia, the daughter of 
CEnomaus. When Perseus had victoriously 
finished his expedition, he retired to Argos with 
Danae, to the house of Acrisius, whom he inad- 
vertently killed. Some suppose that it was Prce- 
tus, the brother of Acrisius, who introduced 
himself to Danae in the brazen tower ; and in- 
stead of a golden shower, it was maintained 
that the keepers of Danae were bribed by the 
gold of her seducer. Virgil mentions that 
Danae came to Italy with some fugitives of 
Argos, and that she founded a city called Ardea. 
Ovid. Met. 4, v. 611. Art. Am. 3, v. 415. Amor. 
2, el. 19,v.'21. —Horat. 3, od. l6.—Ho7ner. 11. 14, 
V. 319.— Apollod. 2, C.2 and 4..— Stat. Theb. 1, v. 

2bb.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. 410. II. A daughter 

of Danaus, to whom Neptune offered violence. 

Danaides, the fifty daughters of Danaus king 
of Argos. When their uncle ^gyptus came 
from Egypt with his fifty sons, they were pro- 
mised in marriage to their cousins ; but before 
the celebration of their nuptials, Danaus, who 
had been informed by an oracle that he was to 
be killed by the hands of one of his sons-in-law, 
made his daughters solemnly promise that they 
would destroy their husbands. They were 
provided with daggers by their father, and all, 
except Hypermnestra, stained their hands with 
the blood of their cousins the first night of 
their nuptials; and as a pledge of their obe- 
dience to their father's injunctions, they pre- 
sented him each with the head of the murdered 
sons of ^gyptus. Hypermnestra was sum- 
moned to appear before her father, and answer 
702 



for her disobedience in suffering her husband, 
L)mceus, to escape ; but the unanimous voice 
of the people declared her innocent, and in 
consequence of her honourable acquittal, she 
dedicated a temple to the goddess of Persuasion. 
The sisters were purified of this murder by 
Mercury and Minerva, by order of Jupiter : but 
according to the more received opinion, they 
were condemned to severe punishment in hell, 
and were compelled to fill with water a vessel 
full of holes, so that the water ran out as soon 
as poured into it, and therefore their labour was 
infinite and their punishment eternal. The 
heads of the sons of JEgyptus were buried at 
Argos ; but their bodies were left at Lerna, 
where the murder had been committed. Apol- 
lod. 2, c. 1.— ^o'm^.3,od. II.— Strab. 8.— Pans. 
2, c. 16.— Hygin. fab. 168, &c. 

Danaus, a son of Belus and Anchinoe, who, 
after his father's death, reigned conjointly with 
his brother iEgyptus on the throne of Egypt. 
Some time after, a difference arose between the 
brothers, and Danaus set sail with his fifty 
daughters in quest of a settlement. He visited 
Rhodes, where he jconsecrated a statue to Mi- 
nerva, and arrived safe on the coast of Pelopon- 
nesus, w^here he was hospitably received by 
Gelanor, king of Argos. Gelanor had lately 
ascended the throne, and the first years of his 
reign were marked with dissensions with his 
subjects. Danaus took advantage of Gelanor's 
unpopularity, and obliged him to abdicate the 
crown. In Gelanor, the race of the Inachidce. 
was extinguished, and in Danaus the Belides 
began to reign at Argos. Some authors say 
that Gelanor voluntarily resigned the crown to 
Danaus, on account of the wrath of Neptune 
who had dried up all the waters of Argolis to 
punish the impiety of Inachus. The success 
of Danaus invited the fifty sons of vEgyptus 
to embark for Greece. They were kindly re- 
ceived by their uncle, who, either apprehensive 
of their number, or terrified by an oracle which 
threatened his ruin by one of his sons-in-law, 
caused his daughters, to whom they were prom- 
ised in marriage, to murder them the first night 
of their nuptials. His fatal orders were exe- 
cuted, but Hypermnestra alone spared the life 
of Lynceus. Vid. Danaides. Danaus at first 
persecuted Lynceus with unremitted fury, but 
he was afterwards reconciled to him, and he 
acknowledged him for his son-in-law and suc- 
cessor, after a reign of 50 years. He died 
about 1425 years before the Christian era, and 
after death he was honoured with a splendid 
monument in the town of Argos, which still 
existed in the age of Pausanias. According to 
JEschylus, Danaus left Egypt not to be present 
at the marriage of his daughters with the sons 
of his brother, a connexion which he deemed 
unlawful and impious. The ship in which Da- 
naus came to Greece was called Armais, and 
was the first that had ever appeared there. It 
is said that the use of pumps was first introduced 
into Greece by Danaus. Apollod. 2, c. 1. — Pqus. 
2, c, 19. — Hygin. fab. 168, &c. — Herodot. 2, c, 
91, &c. 7, c.'94. 

Daphne, I. a daughter of the river Peneus, or 
of the Ladon, by the goddess Terra, of whom 
Apollo became enamoured. This passion had 
been raised by Cupid, with whom Apollo, proud 
of his late conquest over the serpent Python, 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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had disputed the power of his darts. Daphne 
heard with horror the addresses of the god, and 
endeavoured to remove herself from his impor- 
tunities by flight. Apollo pursued her; and 
Daphne, fearful of being caught, entreated the 
assistance of the gods, who changed her into a 
laurel. Apollo crowned his head with the leaves 
of the laurel, and for ever ordered that that tree 
should be sacred to his divinity. Some say that 
Daphne was admired by Leucippus, son of 
CEnomaus, king of Pisa, who, to be in her com- 
pany, disguised his sex, and attended her in 
the woods in the habit of a huntress. Leucippus 
gained Daphne's esteem and love ; but Apollo, 
who was his powerful rival, discovered his sex, 
and Leucippus was killed by the companions of 
Diana. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 452, &c. — Parthen. 
Erotic, c. 15. — Paus. 8, c. 20. II. A daugh- 
ter of Tiresias, priestess in the temple of Del- 
phi, supposed by some to be the same as Manto, 
She was consecrated to the service of Apollo 
by the Epigoni, or, according to others, by the 
goddess Tellus. She was called Sibyl, on ac- 
count of the wildness of her looks and expres- 
sions when she delivered oracles. Her oracles 
were generally in verse, and Homer, according 
to some accounts, has introduced much of her 
poetry in his compositions. Diod. 4. — Paus. 
10, C..5. 

Daphnis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of Mer- 
cury by a Sicilian nymph. He was educated by 
the nymphs. Pan taught him to sing and play 
upon the pipe, and the muses inspired him with 
the love of poetry. It is supposed he was the 
first who wrote pastoral poetry, in which his 
successor Theocritus so happily excelled. He 
was extremely fond of hunting; and at his 
death, five of his dogs, from their attachment 
to him, refused all aliments and pined away. 
From the celebrity of this shepherd, the name 
of Daphnis has been appropriated by the poets, 
ancient and modern, to express a person fond 
of rural employments, and of the peaceful in- 
nocence which accompanies the tending of 
flocks. jElian. V. H. 10, c. IS.— Diod. 4. 

Dardanus, a son of Jupiter and Electra, who 
killed his broiher Jasius to obtain the kingdom 
of Etruria after the death of his reputed father 
Corytus, and fled to Samothrace, and thence to 
Asia Minor, where he married Batia,the daugh- 
ter of Teucer, king of Teucria. After the 
death of his father-in-law he ascended the 
throne, and reigned 62 years. He built the city 
of Dardania, and was reckoned the founder of 
the kingdom of Troy. He was succeeded by 
Erichthonius. According to some, Corybas, his 
nephew, accompanied him to Teucria, where 
he introduced the worship of Cybele. Darda- 
nus taught his subjects to worship Minerva ; 
and he gave them two statues of the goddess, 
one of which is well known by the name of 
Palladium. . Virg. Mn. 3, v. l&l.—Paus. 7, c. 
4. — Hys^in. fab. 155 and 275. — Afollod. 3. — 
Homer^ll. 20. Vid. Part I. 

Daulis, a nymph from whom the city of 
Daulis in Phocis, anciently called Anacris, re- 
ceived its name. It was there that Philomela 
and Procne made Tereus eat the flesh of his 
son ; and hence the nightingale, into which 
Philomela was changed, is often called Daulias 
avis. Ovid. ep. 15, v. 154. — Strab. 9. — Paus. 10, 
€. 4.—Ptol. 3, c. 15.— Lw. 32, c. IS.— Plin. 4, c. 3. 



Daunus, a son of Pilumnus and Danae. He 
came from Illyricum into Apulia, where he 
reigned over part of the country, which from 
him was called Daunia, and he was still on the 
throne when Diomedes came to Italy. Ptol. 3, 
c. I.— Mela, 2, c. 4.— Strab. 5. 

Decelus, a man who informed Castor and 
Pollux that their sister, whom Theseus had 
carried away, was concealed at Aphidnae. 
Herodot. 9, c. 73. 

Dejanira, a daughter of CEneus, king of 
^tolia. Her beauty procured her many ad- 
mirers, and her father promised to give her in 
marriage to him only who proved to be the 
strongest of his competitors. Hercules obtain- 
ed the prize, and married Dejanira, by whom 
he had three children, the most known of whom 
is Hyllus. As Dejanira was once travelling 
with her husband, they were stopped by the 
swollen streams of the Even us, and the centaur 
Nessus, offered Hercules to convey her safe to 
the opposite shore. The hero consented ; but 
no sooner had Nessus gained the bank, than he 
attempted to offer violence to Dejanira, and to 
carry her away in the sight of her husband. 
Hercules, upon this,aimed, from the other shore, 
a poisoned arrow at the seducer, and mortally 
wounded him. Nessus, as he expired, wished 
to avenge his death upon his murderer ; and 
he gave Dejanira his tunic, which was covered 
with blood, poisoned and infected by the arrow, 
observing, that it had the power of reclaiming 
a husband from unlawful loves. Dejanira ac- 
cepted the present ; and when Hercules proved 
faithless to her bed, she sent him the centaur's 
tunic, which instantly caused his death. Vid. 
Hercules. Dejanira was so disconsolate at the 
death of her husband, which she had ignorantly 
occasioned, that she destroyed herself. Ovid. 
Met. 8 and 9. — Diod. 4, — Senec. in Hercul. — 
Hygin. fab. 34. 

Deidamia, I. a daughter of Lycomedes, king 
of Scyros, She bore a son called Pyrrhus, or 
Neoptolemus, to Achilles, who was disguised at 
her father's court in women's clothes, under the 
name of Pyrra. Propert. 2, el. 9. — Apollod. 3. 

c. 13. II. A daughter of Adrastus, king of 

Argos, called also Hippodamia. 

Deimachus, a son of Neleus and Chloris, was 
killed, with all his brothers, except Nestor, by 
Hercules. Apollod. 1, c. 9. 

Deioneus, a king of Phocis, who married 
Diomede, daughter of Xuthus, by whom he had 
Dia. He gave his daughter Dia in marriage to 
Ixion, who promised to make a present to his 
father-in-law. Deioneus accordingly visited the 
house of Ixion, and was thrown into a large 
hole, filled with burning coals, by his son-in- 
law. Hygin. fab. 48 and 241. — Apollod. 1, c. 
7 and 9,1 2, c. 4. 

Deiopeia, a nymph, the fairest of all the four- 
teen nymphs that attended upon Juno. The 
goddess promised her in marriage to ^olus, 
the god of the winds, if he would destroy the 
fleet of iEneas, which was sailing for Italy 
Virg. jEn. 1 , v. 75. 

Deiphobe, a Sibyl of Cum3e,daughter of Glau- 
cus. It is supposed that she led ^Eneas to the in- 
fernal regions. Vid. Sibylla. Virg. JEn.6,Y.36. 

Deiphobus, a son of Hippolytus, who purified 
Hercules after the murder of Iphitus. Apollod, 
2, c. 6. Vid. Part IL 

703 



DE 



MYTHOLOGY, 



DE 



Deiphon, a brother of Triptolemus, son of 
Celeus and Metanira. When Ceres travelled 
over the world, she stopped at his father's court, 
and undertook to nurse him and bring him up. 
To reward the hospitality of Celeus, the goddess 
began to make his son immortal, and every 
evening she placed him upon burning coals to 
purify him from whatever mortal particles he 
still possessed. The uncommon growth of 
Deiphon astonished Metanira, who wished to 
see what Ceres did to make him so vigorous. 
She was frightened to see her son on burning 
coals, and the shrieks that she uttered disturbed 
the mysterious operations of the goddess, and 
Deiphon perished in the flames, Apollod. 1, c. 5. 

Deipyle, a daughter of Adrastus, who mar- 
ried Tydeus, by whom she had Diomedes. 
Apollod. 1, c. 8. 

Delia, a surname of Diana, because she w^as 
born in Delos. Virg. EcL 3, v. 67. 

Delius, a surname of Apollo, because he was 
born in Delos. 

DsLPmcus, a surname of Apollo, from the 
worship paid to his divinity at Delphi. 

Delphus, a son of Apollo, who built Delphi, 
and consecrated it to his father. The name of 
his mother is differently mentioned. She is 
called by some, Celeeno, by others, Meleene, 
daughter of Cephis, and by others Thyas, 
daughter of Cast alius, the first Vv^ho was priest- 
ess to Bacchus. Hygin. 161. — Pmts. 10, c. 6. 

Democoon. Vid. Part II. 

Demodice, the wife of Cretheus, king of lol- 
chos. Some call her Biadice, or Tyro. Hygin. 
P. A. 2, c. 20. 

Demodochus, a musician at the court of Alci- 
nous, who sang, in the presence of Ulysses, the 
secret amours of Mars and Venus, &c. Homer. 
Od. 8, V. Ai.—Plut. de Mus. 

Demophile, a name given. to the Sibyl of 
Cumge, who, as it is supposed by some, sold the 
Sibylline books to Tarquin. Varro apud Lact. 
1, c. 6. 

Demophoon, son of Theseus and Phaedra, 
was king of Athens, B. C. 1182, and reigned 
33 years. At his return from the Trojan war 
he visited Thrace, where he was tenderly re- 
ceived and treated by Phyllis. He retired to 
Athens, and forgot the kindness and love of 
Phyllis, who hanged herself in despair. Ovid. 
Heroid. 2. — Paus. 10, c. 55. 

Deois, a name given to Proserpine from her 
mother Ceres, who was called Deo. This 
name Ceres received, because when she sought 
her daughter all over the world, all wished her 
success in her pursuits, with the word J>7£(?, in- 
venies ; a (5??w, invenio. Ovid. Met. 6, v. 114. 

Derceto, and Dercetis, a goddess of Syria, 
called also Atergatis, whom some suppose to be 
the same as Astarte. She was represented as a 
beautiful woman above the waist, and the lower 
part terminated in a fish's tail. According to 
Diodorns, Venus, whom she had offended, made 
her passionately fond of a young priest, remark- 
able for the beauty of his features. She had a 
daughter by him, and became so ashamed of her 
incontinence, that she removed her lover,expos- 
ed thefruit of her amour, and threw herself into 
a lake. Her body was transformed into a fish, 
and her child was preserved and called Semira- 
mis. As she was chiefly worshipped in Syria, 
and represented like a fish, the Syrians ancient- 
704 



ly abstained from fishes. Those who believe 
they can find in the sacred writings the arche- 
type of all mythology, consider this Decerto to 
be a personification of the lunar ark, and the 
continual reference to aquatic animals as proof 
of an analogy too strong for mere coincidence. 
Fab. Cab. — Lucian. de Dea Ser. — Plin. 5, c. 
13.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. ii.—Diod. 2. 

Deucalion, a son of Prometheus, who mar- 
ried Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus. He 
reigned over part of Thessaly, and in his age 
the whole earth was overwhelmed with a deluge, 
Theimpiety of mankind had irritated Jupiter, 
who resolved to destroy mankind. Prometheus 
advised his son to make himself a ship, and by 
thismeans he saved himself and his wifePyrrha. 
This vessel was tossed about during nine suc- 
cessive days, and at last stopped on the top of 
mount Parnassus, where Deucalion remained 
till the waters had subsided. As soon as the 
waters had retired from the surface of the earth, 
Deucalion and his wife went to consult the ora- 
cle of Themis, and were directed to repair the 
loss of mankind by throwing behind them the 
bones of their grandmother. This was nothing 
but the stones of the earth ; and, after some hesi- 
tation about the meaning of the oracle, they 
obeyed. The stones thrown by Deucalion be- 
came men, and those of Pyrrha, women. Ac- 
cording to Justin, Deucalian was not the only 
one who escaped from the universal calamity. 
Many saved their lives by ascending the high- 
est mountains, or trusting themselves in small 
vessels to the mercy of the waters. This de- 
luge, which chiefly happened in Thessaly, ac- 
cording to the relation of some writers, was pro- 
duced by the inundation of the waters of the 
river Peneus, whose regular course w^as stopped 
by an earthquake near mount Ossa and Olym- 
pus. According to Xenophon there were no 
less than five deluges. The first happened un- 
der Ogyges, and lasted three months. The se- 
cond, which was in the age of Hercules and 
Prometheus, continued but one month. During 
the third, which happened in the reign of ano- 
ther Ogyges, all Attica was laid waste by the 
waters. Thessaly was totallj'' covered by the 
waters during the fourth, which happened in 
the age of Deucalion. The last was during the 
Trojan war, and its effects were severely felt by 
the inhabitants of Egypt. There prevailed a 
report in Attica, that the waters of Deucalion's 
deluge had disappeared through a small aper- 
ture, about a cubit wide, near Jupiter Olympus's 
temple; and Pausanias, who saw it, further 
adds, that a yearly offering of flour and honey 
was thrown into it with religious ceremony. 
The deluge of Deucalion, so much celebrated 
in ancient history is supposed to have happened 
1503 years B. C. Deucalion had two sons by 
Pyrrha, Hellen, called by some son of Jupiter, 
and Amphictyon, king of Attica, and also a 
daughter, Protogenea, who became mother of 
^thlius by Jupiter. The history of Deucalion, 
his birthplace, his adventures, and his name, 
have formed the subject of much learned ar- 
gument. Some conduct him from the Pelopon- 
nesus into Thessaly, whence they send forth 
his children to colonize the regions which have 
since become classic ; others, with abundant 
evidence, trace his march into Europe from 
Asia, and infer the Caucasian origin of the Eu- 



DI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



DI 



ropean Greeks from the emigration of this no- 
torious personage. Etymology establishes his 
connection with the mysteries of the early 
Arkite superstitions, and analogy converts him 
into the great Jewish patriarch. In such con- 
fusion it cannot be unsafe to consider Deucalion 
as a mythological personage, and to suspect that 
his descendants, Dorus, JEoIus, &c., are later 
names than Doris and jEolia. The flood, how- 
ever, which is said in his time to have desolated 
Thessaly, may serve, by the aid of geologfcal 
investigations, in fixing the period of the early 
populating of Greece ; and was, perhaps, among 
the last of those great catastrophes which form, 
as it were, eras in the geological revolutions of 
the earth. The opinions, of Banier and Malte 
Brun, though not altogether in accordance, are 
both highly worthy of consideration. The 
former supposes that about 884 years after the 
"universal deluge, in consequence of an earth- 
quake in those parts, the Peneus became ob- 
structed at its mouth, and its waters, being 
greatly increased by rains that had fallen be- 
fore, the country on its banks (according to 
Aristotle, the region of Dodona and of the Ache- 
lous) was inundated. The latter attributes the 
natural appearance of those regions to the shift- 
ing nature of the soil, which exposes it to con- 
tinual changes on the surface, in consequence 
of its tendency to sink. Find. 9, Olymp. — Ovid. 
Mel. 1, fab. S.—Heroid. 45, v. \&l.—Apollod. 1, 
c. 7. — Pans. 1, c. 10, 1. 5, c. S.—Juv. 1, v. 81. — 
Hygin. fab. 153. — Justin. 2, c. 6. — Diod. 5. — 
Lucian. de Dea Syria. 

DiA, a daughter of Deion, mother of Pirithous 
by Ixion. Vid. Part II. 

Diana, was the goddess of hunting. A.ccord- 
ing to Cicero, there were three of this name : a 
daughter of Jupiter and Proserpine, who be- 
came mother of Cupid; a daughter of Jupiter 
and Latona ; and a daughter of Upis and Glauce. 
The second is the most celebrated, and to her 
all the ancients allude. She was born at the 
same birth els Apollo ; and she obtained from 
her father the permission to live in perpetual ce- 
libacy, and to preside over the travails of wo- 
men. To shun the society of men, she devoted 
herself to hunting, and obtained the permission 
of Jupiter to have for her attendants 60 of the 
Oceanides, and 20 other nymphs, all of whom, 
like herself, abjured the use of marriage. She 
IS represented with a bent bow and quiver, and 
attended with dogs, and sometimes drawn in a 
chariot by two white stags. Sometimes she ap- 
pears with wings, holding a lion in one hand 
and a panther in the other, with a chariot drawn 
by two heifers, or two horses of different col- 
ours. She is represented taller by the head 
than her attendant nymphs, her face has some- 
thing manly, her legs are bare, well shaped and 
.strong, and her feet are covered with a buskin, 
worn by huntresses among the ancients. Diana 
received many surnames, particularly from the 
places where her worship was established, and 
from the functions over which she presided. 
She was called Lucina, Ilythia, or Juno Pronu- 
ba, when invoked by women in childbed; and 
Trivia when worshipped in the cross-ways, 
where her statues were generally erected. She 
was supposed to be the same as the moon, and 
Proserpine or Hecate, and from that circum- 
stance she was called Triformis; and some of 

Part III.— 4U 



her statues represented her with three heads, 
that of a horse, a dog, and a boar. Her power 
and functions under these three characters have 
been beautifully expressed in these two verses 

Terret, lustrat, agit, Proserpina, Jjuna^Diana 
Ima, suprema, feras, sceptro, fulgore, sagittd 

She was also called Agrotera, Orthia, Tau- 
rica, Delia, Cynthia, Aricia, &c. She was sup 
posed to be the same as the Isis of the Egyp- 
tians, whose worship was introduced into 
Greece with that of Osiris, under the name of 
Apollo. When Typhon waged war against the 
gods, Diana is said to have metamorphosed 
herself into a cat, to avoid his fury. The god- 
dess is generally known in the figures that re- 
present her by the crescent on her head, by the 
dogs which attend her, and by her hunting ha- 
bit. The most famous of her temples was that 
of Ephesus, which was one of the seven won- 
ders of the world. Vid. Ephesus. She was 
there represented with a great number of breasts, 
and other symbols, which signified the earth or 
Cybele. The inhabitants of Taurica were par- 
ticularly attached to the worship of this god- 
dess, and they cruelly ofiered on her altar all 
the strangers that were shipwrecked on their 
coasts. Her temple in Aricia was served by a 
priest who had always murdered his predeces- 
sor, and the Lacedeemonians yearly offered her 
human victims till the age of Lycurgus, who 
changed this barbarous custom* for the sacrifice 
of flagellation. The Athenians generally offer- 
ed her goats, and others a white kid, and some- 
times a boar pig, or an ox. Among plants the 
poppy and the ditamy were sacred to her. She, 
as well as her brother Apollo, had some oracles, 
among which those of Egypt, Cilicia, and Ephe- 
sus, are the most known. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 155. 
Met.3, V. 156, 1. 7, v. 94 and 194, &c.—Cic. de 
Nat. D. 3.—Horat. 3, od. 22.— Virg. G. 3, v. 
302. Mn. 1, V. b()b.— Homer. Od. b.—Paus. 8, 
c. 31 and 31.—CatuU.—Stat. 3, Silv. 1, v. 57.— 
Apollod. 1, c. 4, &c,, 1. 3, c. 5, &c. 

DicTYNNA, a nymph of Crete, who first in- 
vented hunting nets. She was one of Diana's 
attendants, and for that reason the goddess is 
often called Dictynnia. There was a festival 
at Sparta in honour of Diana, called Dictynnia. 
She is said to have given name to mount Dicte. 
Pans. 2, c. 30, 1. 3, c. 12. 

DicTYs, a king of the island of Seriphus, 
son of Magnes and Nais. He married the 
nymph Clyraene, and was made king of Seri- 
phus by Perseus, who deposed Polydectes, be- 
cause lie behaved with wantonness to Danae. 
Vid. Polydectes. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 4. 
Vid. Part" II. 

DiDYMiEus, a surname of Apollo. 

DiESPiTER, a surname of Jupiter, as being 
the father of light. 

Dn, the divinities of the ancient inhabitants 
of the earth were very numerous. They were 
endowed with understanding, and were actuat- 
ed by the same passions which daily afflict the 
human race ; and those children of superstition 
were appeased or provoked as the imperfect be- 
ing which gave them birth. Their wrath was 
mitigated by sacrifices and incense ; and some- 
time.^ human victims bled to expiate a crime 
which superstiMon alone supposed to exist. The 
sun, from its powerful influence and animating 
705 



DI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



DO 



nature, first attracted the notice and claimed the 
adoration of the uncivilized inhabitants of the 
earth. The moon also was honoured with sacri- 
fices and addressed in prayers ; and after im- 
mortality had been liberally bestowed on all the 
heavenly bodies, mankind classed among their 
deities the brute creation, and the cat and the 
sow shared equally with Jupiter himself, the 
father of gods and men, the devout veneration 
of their votaries. This immense number of 
deities have been divided into different classes, 
according to the will and pleasure of the my- 
thologists. The Romans, generally speaking, 
reckoned two classes of the gods, the dii ma- 
jorum gentium, or dii consulenteSy and the dii 
minorum gentium. The former were twelve 
in number, six males and six females. Vid. 
Consentes. In the class of the latter were ranked 
all the gods who were worshipped in different 
parts of the earth. Besides these, there were 
some called dii selecti, sometimes classed with 
the twelve greater gods ; these were Janus, Sa- 
turn, the Genius, the Moon, Pluto, and Bac- 
chus. There were also some called demi-gods, 
that is, who deserved immortality by the great- 
ness of their exploits, and for their uncommon 
services to mankind. Among these were Pri- 
apus, Vertumnus, Hercules, and those whose 
parents were some of the immortal gods. Be- 
sides these, there were some called topici, 
whose worship was established at particular 
places, such as Isis in Egypt, Astarte in Syria, 
Uranus at Carthage, &c. In process of time, 
also, all the passions and the moral virtues were 
reckoned as powerful deities ; and temples were 
raised to a goddess of concord, peace, &c. Ac- 
cording to the authority of Hesiod, there were 
no less than 30,000 gods that inhabited the 
earth, and were guardians of men, all sub- 
servient to the power of Jupiter. To these 
succeeding ages have added an almost equal 
number ; and indeed they were so numerous, 
and their functions so various, that we find 
temples erected and sacrifices offered to un- 
known gods. It is observable, that all the 
gods of the ancients have lived upon earth as 
mere mortals ; and even Jupiter, who was 
the ruler of heaven is represented by the my- 
Ihologists as a helpless child ; and we are 
acquainted with all the particulars that attend- 
ed the birth and education of Juno. In pro- 
cess of time, not only good and virtuous men, 
•who had been the patrons of learning and the 
supporters of liberty, but also thieves and pirates, 
were admitted among the gods; and the Roman 
senate courteously granted immortality to the 
most cruel and abandoned of their emperors. 

DiOGENiA, a daughter of the Cephisus, who 
married Erechtheus. Apollod. 

DioMEDEs, a king of Thrace, son of Mars 
and Gyrene, who fed his horses with human 
flesh. It was one of the labours of Hercules to 
destroy him ; and accordingly the hero, attended 
with some of his friends, attacked the inhuman 
tyrant, and gave him to be devoured by his own 
horses whom he had fed so barbarously. Diod. 
4—Paus. 3. c. 18— Apol. % c. 5. Vid. Part II. 

DioN^A, a surname of Venus, supposed to 
be the daughter of Jupiter and Dione. 

DioNE, a nymph, daughter of Nereus and 
Doris. She was mother of Venus, by Jupiter, 
according to Homer and others. Hesiod, how- 
706 



ever gives Venus a different origin. Venus is 
herself sometimes called Dione. Virg. 3, Mn. 
V. Vd.— Homer. 11. 5,v. 381.— .Stei.l, Sylv.\ v.86. 

DioNYsius, a surname of Bacchus. 

Dioscuri, or sons of Jupiter, a name given 
to Castor and Pollux. There were festivals in 
their honour, called Dioscuria, celebrated by 
the people of Corcyra, and chiefly by the La- 
cedaemonians. They were observed with much 
jovial festivity. The people made a free use of 
the gifts of Bacchus, and diverted themselves 
with sports, of which wrestling matches always 
made a part. 

DiRjE, the daughters of Acheron and Nox, 
who persecuted the souls of the guilty. They 
are the same as the Furies, and some suppose 
that they are called Furies in hell, Harpies on 
earth, and Dirse in heaven. They were rep- 
resented as standing near the throne of Jupiter, 
in an attitude which expressed their eagerness 
to receive his orders, and the power of torment- 
ing the guilty on earth with the most excrucia- 
ting punishments. Vir. Ailn. 4, v. 473, i. 8, v. 701. 

Dirge. Vid. Amphion, Aviiope. 

DiRPHYA, a surname of Juno, from Dirphya, 
a mountain of Boeotia, where the goddess had 
a temple. 

Dis, a god of the Gauls, the same as Pluto 
the god of hell. The inhabitants of Gaul sup- 
posed themselves descended from that deity. 
CcBS. Bell. G. 6.— Tacit. 4, Hist. c. 84, 

DiscoRDiA, a malevolent deity, daughter of 
Nox, and sister to Nemesis, the Parcse, and 
Death. She was driven from heaven by Ju- 
piter, because she sowed dissensions among the 
gods, and was the cause of continued quarrels. 
When the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis were 
celebrated, the goddess of discord was not in- 
vited, and this seeming neglect so irritated her, 
that she threw an apple into the midst of the 
assembly of the gods with the inscription of 
detur pulchriori. This apple was the cause of 
the ruin of Troy, and of infinite misfortunes to 
the Greeks. Vid. Paris. She is represented 
with a pale ghastly look, her garment is torn, 
her eyes sparkle with fire, and in her bosom 
she holds a dagger concealed. Her head is 
generally entwined with serpents, and she is 
attended by Bellona. She is supposed to be the 
cause of all the dissensions, murders, wars, and 
quarrels, which arise upon earth, public as well 
as private. Virg. jEn. 8, v, 702. — Hesiod. 
Theogn. 225. — Petronius. 

DiTHYRAMBUs, a sumamc of Bacchus, whence 
the hymns sung in his honour were called 
Dithyrambics. Horat. 4, od. 2. 

Divi, a name chiefly appropriated to those 
who were made gods after death, such as heroes 
and warriors, or the Lares and Penaies, and 
other domestic gods. 

DoDONA. Vid. Part I 

DoLON, a Trojan, son of Eumedes, famous 
for his swiftness. Being sent by Hector to spy 
the Grecian camp by night, he was seized by 
Diomedes and Ulysses, to whom he revealed 
the situation, schemes, and resolutions of his 
countrymen, with the hopes of escaping with 
his life. He was put to death by Diomedes as 
a traitor. Homer. II. 10, v. 3U.— Virg. jEn. 12. 
V. 349, &c. 

DoMiDucus, a god who presided over mar- 
riage. Juno also was called Domiduca, from 



DR 



MYTHOLOGY. 



EC 



the power she was supposed to have in mar- 
riages. 

Doris, a goddess of the sea, daughter of 
Oceanus and Tethys. She married her brother 
Nereus, by whom she had 50 daughters called 
Nereides. Her name is often used to express 
the sea itself. Propert. 1, el. 17, v. 25. — Virg. 
Ed. 10.— Hesiod. Theog. 240. 

DoRUS. Vid. Part II. 

Drances, a friend of Latinus, remarkable 
for his weakness and eloquence. He showed 
himself an obstinate opponent to the violent 
measures which Turnus pursued against the 
Trojans. Some have imagined that the poet 
wished to delineate the character and the elo- 
quence of Cicero under this name. Virg. Jin. 
11, V. 122. 

Drom^us, a suroame of Apollo in Crete. 

DRUiDiE, the ministers of religion among the 
ancient Gauls and Britons. They were divided 
into different classes, called the Bardi, Eubages, 
the Vates, the Semnothei, the Sarronides, and 
the Samothei. They were held in the greatest 
veneration by the people. Their life was aus- 
tere and recluse from the world ; their dress 
was peculiar to themselves, and they generally 
appeared with a tunic which reached a little 
below the knee. As the chief power was lodged 
in their hands, they punished as they pleased, 
and could declare war and make peace at their 
option. Their power was extended not only 
over private families, but they could depose ma- 
gistrates, and even kings, if their actions in any 
manner deviated from the laws of the state. 
They had the privilege of naming the magis- 
trates which annually presided over their cities ; 
and the kings were created only with their ap- 
probation. They were intrusted with the edu- 
cation of youth, and all religious ceremonies, 
festivals, and sacrifices, were under their pecu- 
liar care. They taught the doctrine of the me- 
tempsychosis, and believed the immortality of 
the soul. They were professionally acquainted 
with the art of magic, and from their knowledge 
of astrolog)'', they drew omens, and saw futurity 
revealed before their eyes. In their sacrifices 
they often immolated human victims to their 
gods ; a barbarous custom, which continued long 
among them, and which the Roman emperors 
atternpted to abolish to little purpose. The 
power and privileges which they enjoyed were 
beheld with admiration by their countrymen, 
and as their office was open to every rank and 
every station, there were many who daily pro- 
posed themselves as candidates to enter upon 
this important function. The rigour, however, 
and severity of a long noviciate deterred many, 
and few were willing to attempt a labour which 
enjoined them, during 15 or 20 years, to load 
their memory with the long and tedious max- 
ims of druidical religion. Their name is deri- 
ved from the Greek word Jf)i)f, an oak^ because 
the woods and solitary retreats were the places 
of their residence. Ccbs. Bell. G. 6, c. 13. — 
Plin. 16, c. AA.—Diod. 5. 

Dryades, and Hamadryades, a number of 
wood nymphs. The former class presided over 
the forests at large, through which they roamed, 
but the latter were attached individually to the 
trees. Every forest had its Dryad and every 
tree its Hamadryad, which, being born with its 
birth and growing with its growth, became ex- 



tinct by its decay. Oblations of milk, oil, and 
honey, were offered to them, and sometimes 
the votaries sacrificed a goat. Virg. G. 1, v. 11. 

Dryas, I. a son of Hippolocus, who was fa- 
ther to Lycurgus. He went with Eteocles to the 
Theban war, where he perished. Stat. Theb. 8, 

V. 355. II. A son of Mars^ who went to the 

chase of the Calydonian boar. Apol. 2, c. 8. 

III. A daughter of Faunus, who so hated the 
sight of men that she never appeared in public. 

Dryope, I. a woman of Lemnos, whose shape 
Venus assumed, to persuade all the females of 
the island to murder the men. i^acc. 2, v. 174. 
II. Avirginof CEchalia, whom Andraemon 



married after she had been ravished by Apollo. 
She became mother of the Amphisus, who, 
when scarce a year old, was with his mother 
changed into a lotus, Ovid. Met. 10, v. 331. 
III. A nymph of Arcadia, mother of Pan 



by Mercury, according to Homer, hymn, in Pan. 
Dusii, some deities among the Gauls. August, 
de C. D. 15, c. 23. 

E. 

Eanes, a man supposed to have killed Patro- 
clus, and to have fled to Peleus in Thessaly. 
Strab. 9. 

Eanus, the name of Janus among the ancient 
Latins. 

Ebon, a name given to Bacchiis by the people 
of Neapolis. Macrob. 1, c. 18. 

Echidna, a celebrated monster, sprung from 
the union of Chrysaor with Callirhoe,the daugh- 
ter of Oceanus. She is represented as a beauti- 
ful woman in the upper parts of the body, but 
as a serpent below the waist. She was mother, 
by Typhon, of Orthos, Geryon, Cerberus, the 
H3'dra, &c. According to Herodotus, Hercules 
had three children by her, Agathyrsus, Gelonus, 
and Scytha. Herod. 3, c. 108. — Hesiod. Theog. — 
Apol. 2.— Pans. 8, c, 18.— Ovid, Met. 9, v, 158. 

Echion, I. one of those men who sprung from 
the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus. He was 
one of the five who survived the fate of his 
brothers, and assisted Cadmus in building the 
city of Thebes, Cadmus rewarded his services 
by giving him his daughter Agave in marriage. 
He was father of Pentheus by Agave. He 
succeeded his father-in-law on the throne of 
Thebes, as some have imagined, and from that 
circumstance Thebes has been called Echionia:, 
and the inhabitants Echionida. Ovid. Met. 3, 

V. Sn.— TVist. 5, el. 5, v. 53. II. A son of 

Mercury and Antianira, who was the herald 
of the Argonauts. Place. 1, v. iOO. 

EcHioNiDEs, a patronymic given to Pentheus 
as descended from Echion. Ovid. Met. 3. 

Echo, a daughter of the Air and Tellus, who 
chiefly resided in the vicinity of the Cephisus. 
She was one of Juno's attendants, and became 
the confident of Jupiter's amours. Her loqua- 
city, however, dis'pleased Jupiter ; and she was 
deprived of the power of speech by Juno, and 
only permitted to answer to the questions which 
were put to her. Pan had formerly been one 
of her admirers, but he never enjoyed her fa- 
vours. Echo, after she had been punished by 
Juno, fell in love with Narcissus, and, on being 
despised by him, she pined away, and was 
changed into a stone, which still retained the 
power of voice. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 358. 
707 



EL 



MYTHOLOGY. 



EP 



Eetion. Vid. Part II. 

Egeria, a nymph of Aricia, in Italy, where 
Diana was particularly worshipped. Egena 
was courted by Numa, and, according to Ovid, 
she became his wife. This prince frequently 
visited her ; and that he might more success- 
fully introduce his laws and new regulations 
into the state, he solemnly declared, before the 
Roman people, that they were previously sanc- 
tified and approved by the nymph Egeria. 
Ovid says that Egeria was so disconsolate at 
the death of Numa, that she melted into tears, 
and was changed into a fountain by Diana. 
She is reckoned by many as a goddess who 
presided over the pregnancy of women ; and 
some maintain that she is the same as Lucina, or 
Diana. Liv. 1, c. 19.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 547.— 
Virg. Mn. 7, v. lib.— Martial, 2, ep. 6, v. 16. 

EioNEUs, a Thracian, father to Rhesus. Id.lQ. 

Elagabalus. Vid Heliogabalus. 

ELAPHi.asA, a surname of Diana in Elis. Paus. 
G, c. 22. 

Electra, one of the Oceanides, wife of At- 
las, and mother of Dardanus, by Jupiier. Ovid. 
Fast. 4, V. 31. Vid. Part II. 

Electryon, a king of Argos, son of Perseus 
and Andromeda. He was brother to Alcaeus, 
whose daughter Anaxo he married, and by her 
he had several sons and one daughter, Alcmene. 
Vid. Amphitryon and Alcmena. Apollod. 2, c. 
4. — Palis. 

Eleleus, a surname of Bacchus, from the 
word eXeXeu, which the Bacchanals loudly re- 
peated during his festivals. His priestesses 
were in consequence called Eleleis-ides. Ovid. 
Met. 4, V. 15. 

Elephenor, son of Chalcedon, was one of 
Helen's suiters. Homer. II. 2, v. 47. 

Eleuther, I. a son of Apollo. II. One of 

the Curetes, from whom a town of Bceotia, and 
another in Crete, received their name. Pans. 
9, c. 2 and 19. 

Eleutho, a surname of Juno Lucina. Pin- 
dar. Oh/mp. 6. 

Eligius, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped on 
mount Aventine. Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 328. 

Elpenor, one of the companions of Ulysses, 
changed into a hog by Circe's potions, and af- 
terwards restored to his former shape. He fell 
from the top of a house where he was sleeping, 
and was killed. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 252.— Ho- 
mer. Od. 10, V. 552, 1. 11, V. 51. 

Elysium, and Elysii Campi, a place or island 
in the infernal regions, where, according to the 
mythology of the ancients, the souls of the vir- 
tuous were placed after death. The employ- 
ment of the heroes who dwelt in those regions 
of bliss were various ; the manes of Achilles 
are represented as waging war with wild beasts, 
while the Trojan chiefs are innocently exerci- 
sing themselves in managing horses or in han- 
dling arms. To these innocent amusements 
some poets have added continual feasting and 
revelry, and they suppose that the Elysian fields 
were filled with all the incontinence and volup- 
tuousness which could gratify the low desires 
of the debauchee. The Elysian fields were, 
according to some, in the Fortunate Islands on 
the coast of Africa, in the Atlantic. Others 
place them in the island of Leuce; and, accord- 
ing to the authority of Virgil, they were situate 
in Italy. According to Lucian they were near 

708; 



the moon, or in the centre of the earth accord- 
ing to Plutarch. Virg. jEn. 6, v. 638. — Hom^r. 
Od.4.—Pindar.— TiAull.l,el 3, v. ol.—Ldi- 
cian. — Plut. de Consul. 

Emathion, a son of Titan and Aurora, who 
reigned in Macedonia. The country was called 
Emathia from his name. Some suppose that 
he was a famous robber, destroyed by Hercules. 
Ovid. Met. 5, v. ^\2.— Justin. 7, c. 1. 

Enceladus, a son of Titan and Terra, the 
most powerful of all the giants who conspired 
against Jupiter. He was struck by Jupiter's 
thunders, and overwhelmed under mount ^t- 
na. Some suppose that he is the same as Ty- 
phon. According to the poets, the flames of 
^tna proceeded from thebreath of Enceladus ; 
and as often as he turned his w^eary side, the 
whole island of Sicily felt the motion and shook 
from its very foundations. Virg. JEn. 3, v. 
578, &c. 

Endeis, a nymph, daughter of Chiron. She 
married iEacus king of Egina, by whom she 
had Peleus and Telamon. Paus. 2, c. 29. — 
Apollod. 3, c. 12. 

Endymion, a shepherd, son of iEthlius and 
Calyce. It is said that he required of Jupiter to 
grant to him to be always young, and to sleep 
as much as he would ; whence came the pro- 
verb of Endymionis somnum dormire, to express 
a long sleep. Diana weis so struck with his 
beauty, that she came down from heaven every 
night to enjoy his company. Endymion married 
Chromia, daughter of Itonus, or, according to 
some, Hyperipna, daughter of Areas, by whom 
he had three sons, Paeon, Epeus, and iEolus, 
and a daughter called Eurydice ; and so little 
ambitious did he show himself of sovereignty, 
that he made his crown the prize of the best 
racer among his sons, an honourable distinction 
which was gained by Epeus. The fable of En- 
dymion's amours with Diana, or the moon, 
arises from his knowledge of astronomy ; and 
as he passed the night on some high mountain, 
to observe the heavenly bodies, it has been re- 
ported that he was courted by the moon. Some 
suppose that there were two of that name, the 
son of a king of Elis, and the shepherd or as- 
tronomer of Caria. The people of Heraclea 
maintained that Endymion died on moimt Lat- 
mos, and the Eleans pretended to show his 
tomb at Olvmpia in Peloponnesus. Propert. 
2, el. 15.— Cic. Tusc. l.—Juv. 10.— Theocrit. 
3.— Paus. 5, c. 1, 1. 6, c. 20. 

Ennosigjeus, terra concussor, a surname of 
Neptune. Hes. Theog. 

Entellus. Vid. Part II. 

Enyo, a sister of Mars, called by the Latins 
Bellona, supposed by some to be the daughter 
of Phorcys and Ceto. Jfal. 10, v. 203. 

Eos, the name of Aurora among the Greeks, 
whence the epithet Eous is applied to all the 
eastern parts of the world. Ovid. East. 3, v. 
406. A. A. 3, V. 537, 1. 6, v. 478.— Hr^'. G. I, 
V.288, 1. 2,v. 115. 

Epaphus, a son of Jupiter and lo, who found- 
ed a city in Egypt, which he called Memphis, 
in honour of his wife, who was the daughter 
of the Nile. He had a daughter called Libya,, 
who became mother of ^gyptus and Danaus 
by Neptune. He was worshipped as a god at 
Memphis. Herodot.2,c. 153.— Ovid. Met. 1, 
v. 699, &c. 



ER 



MYTHOLOGY. 



ER 



Epeus, I. a son of Endymion, brother to Pae- 
on, who reigned in a part of Peloponnesus. 
His subjects were called from him Epi. Paus. 

5, c. 1. II. A son of Panopeus, who was 

the fabricator of the famous wooden horse 
which proved the ruin of Troy. Virg. JS?i. 
2, V. 264.— Justin. 20, c. 2.— Paus. 10, c. 26. 

EpfflALTES, or Ephialtus. Vid. Aloeus, Part 

n. 

Epicaste, I. a name of Jocasta, the mother 

and wife of OEdipus. Paus. 9, c. 5. II. A 

daughter of Mge\is, mother of Thestalus by 
Hercules. 

Epid6t.e. certain deities who presided over 
the birth and growth of children, and were 
known among the Romans by the name of Dii 
averrunci. They were worshipped by the La- 
cedaemonians, and chiefly invoked by those who 
were persecuted by the ghosts of the dead, &c. 
Paus. 2, c. 17, &c. 

Epigoni. Vid. Part II. 

Epimetheus, a son of Japetus and Clymene, 
one of the Oceanides, who inconsiderately mar- 
ried Pandora, by whom he had Pyrrha, the wife 
of Deucalion. Epimetheus was changed into a 
monkey by the gods, and sent into the island of 
Piihacusa. Apol. 1, c. 2 and 7. — Hyg. fab. — Hes. 
Theog. Vid. Prometheus and Pandora. 

Epiocmjs, a son of Lycurgus, who received 
divine honours in Arcadia, 

Epopeus, I. a son of Neptune and Canace, 
who came from Thessaly to Sicyon, and carried 
away Antiope, daughter of Nycteus, king of 
Thebes. This rape was followed by a war, in 
which Nycteus and Epopeus were both killed. 

Paus. 2, c. 6. — Apol. 1, c. 7, &c. II. A son 

of Aloeus, grandson to Phoebus. He reigned at 

Corinth. Paus. 2, c. 1 and 3. III. one of 

the Tyrrhene sailors who attempted to abuse 
Bacchus. Ovid Met. 3, v. 619. Vid. jEnaria. 

Erato, one of the Muses, who presided over 
lyric, tender, and amorous poetry. She is 
represented as crowned with roses and myrtle, 
holding in her right hand a lyre, and a lute in 
her left, musical instruments of which she is 
considered by some as the invenCress. Love is 
sometimes placed by her side holding a lighted 
flambeau, while she herself appears with a 
thoughtful, but oftener with a gay and anima- 
ted look. She was invoked by lovers, especially 
in the month of April, which among the Ro- 
mans, was more particularly devoted to love. 
Apollod. 10.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. 31.— Ovid, de 
Art. Am. 2, v, 425. Vid. Part II. 

Erebus, a deity of hell, son of Chaos and 
Darkness. He married Night, by whom he 
had the light and the day. The poets often 
used the word Erebus to signify hell itself, and 
particularly that part where dwelt the souls of 
those who had lived a virtuous life, from whence 
they passed into the Elysian fields, Cic. de Nat. 
D. 3, c. 17.— Hr^. Mn. 4, v. 26. 

Erechtheus, a son of Pandion 1st, was the 
sixth king of Athens. He was father of Ce- 
crops 2d, Metion, Pandorus, and four daugh- 
ters, Creusa, Orithya, Procris, and Othonia,by 
Praxithea. In a war against Eleusis he sacri- 
ficed Othonia, called also Chthonia, to obtain a 
victory which the oracle promised for such a 
sacrifice. In that war he killed Eumolpus, Nep- 
tune's son, who was the general of the enemy, 
for which he was struck with thunder by Jupi- 



ter, at Neptune's request. Some say that he 
was drowned in the sea. After death he re- 
ceived divine honours at Athens. He reigned 
50 years, and died B. C. 1347. According to 
some accounts he first introduced the mysteries 
of Ceres at Eleusis. Ovid. 6, v. 877. — Paus. 
2, c. 25, — Apollod. 3, c, 15. — Cic. pro Sezt. 21. 
^Tusc. 1, c. 48.— Nat. D. 3, c. 15. 

Erginus, a king of Orchomenos, son of Cly- 
menus. He obliged the Thebans to pay him a 
yearly tribute of 100 oxen, because his father had 
been killed by a Theban. Hercules attacked 
his servants, who came to raise the tribute, and 
mutilated them, and he afterw^ards killed Er- 
ginus, who attempted to avenge their death by 
invading Boeotia wath an army. Paus. 9, c. 17. 

Erginntjs, a man made master of the ship Ar- 
go by the Argonauts, after the death of Typhis. 

Erichthonius, I. the fourth king of Athens. 
He was very deformed, and had the tails of ser- 
pents instead of legs. Minerva placed him in 
a basket, which she gave to the daughters of 
Cecrops, with strict injunctions not to examine 
its contents. Vid. Hcrse. Erichthon was young 
when he ascended the throne of Athens. He 
reigned 50 years, and died B. C, 1437. The 
invention of chariots is attributed to him, and 
the manner of harnessing horses to draw them. 
He was made a constellation after death, under 
the name of Bootes. Ovid Met. 2, v. 553. — 
Hygin. fab, 166. — Apollod. 3, c.« 14. — Paus. 4. 

c. 2.— Firo-. a. 3, V. 113. II. A son of Dar- 

danus who reigned in Troy, and died 1374 B. 
C, after a long reign of about 75 years. Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 10. 

Erigone, I. a daughter of Icarius, who hung 
herself when she heard that her father had 
been killed by some shepherds whom he had in- 
toxicated. She was made a constellation, now 
known under the name of Virgo. Ovid. Met. 
6, i^h.4.—Stat. 11. Thcb.Y.Q44.— Virg. G. 1, 
V. 33.— ^^oZ. 3, c. U.—Hyg. fab. 1 and 24. Vid. 

Part II. II. A daughter of jEgysthus and 

Clytemnestra, priestess of Diana in Attica. 

Erinnys, I. the Greek name of the Eumeni- 
des. The word signifies the /i^ry of tlie mind, 
eoig vov?. Vid. Eumenides. Virg. JE71. 2, v. 
337. II. A surname of Ceres. 

Eriphyle, a sister of Ad rastus, king of Argos, 
who married Amphiaraus. She was daughter 
of Talaus and Lysimache. Vid. Amphiaraus. 

Eris, the goddess of discord among the 
Greeks. She is the same as the Discordia of 
the Latins. Vid. Discordia. 

Erisicthon, a Thessalian, son of Triops, 
who derided Ceres and cut down her groves. 
This impiety irritated the goddess, who afllicted 
him with continual hunger. He squandered 
all his possessions to gratify the cravings of his 
appetite, and at last he devoured his own limbs 
for want of food. His daughter Metra had the 
power of transforming herself into whatever 
animal she pleased, and she made use of that 
artifice to maintain her father, who sold her, 
afier which she assumed another shape and 
became again his property. Ovid. Met. fab, 18. 

Eros. Vid. Cupido, and Part II. 

Erse. Vid. Herse. 

Erycina, a surname of Venus, from mount 
Eryx, where she had a temple. She was also 
worshipped at Rome under this appellation. 
Ovid. Fast. 4, v. Ql\.—Horat. 1. Od. 2, v. 33. 
709 



EV 



MYTHOLOGY. 



EU 



Eryx, a son of Butes and Venus, who, rely- 
ing upon his strength, challenged all strangers 
to fight with him in the combat of the cestus. 
Hercules accepted his challenge after many 
had yielded to his superior dexterity, and Eryx 
was killed in the combat, and buried on the 
mountain which bears his name in Sicily, and 
on which he had built a temple to Venus, 
Virg. Mn. 5, v. 402. 

Eteocles, a son of (Edipus and Jocasta, 
After his father's death, it was agreed between 
him and his brother Polynices, that they should 
both share the royalty, and reign alternately 
each a year. Eteocles, by right of seniority, first 
ascended the throne, but after the first year of 
his reign was expired, he refused to give up the 
crown to his brother according to their mutual 
agreement. Polynices, resolving to punish such 
an open violation of a solemn engagement, 
went to implore the assistance of Adrastus, king 
of Argos. He received that king's daughter in 
marriage, and was soon after assisted with a 
strong army, headed by seven famous generals. 
These hostile preparations were watched by 
Eteocles, who on his part did not remain inac- 
tive. He chose seven brave chiefs to oppose 
the seven leaders of the Argives, and stationed 
them at the seven gates of the city. He placed 
himself against his brother Polynices, and he 
opposed Menalippus to Tydeus, Polyphonies to 
Capaneus, Megareus to Eteoclus, Hiperbius to 
ParthenopsBus, and Lasthenes to Amphiaraus. 
Much blood was shed in light and unavailing 
skirmishes, and it was at last agreed between 
the two brothers that the war should be decided 
by single combat. They both fell in an engage- 
ment conducted with the most inveterate fury 
on either side ; and it is even said that the ashes 
of these two brothers, who had been so inimical 
one to the other, separated themselves on the 
burning pile, as if, even after death, sensible of 
resentment and hostile to reconciliation. Stat. 
Theb. — Apollod. 3, c, 5, &c.—JEschyl. Sept. 
ante Theb. — Eurip. in Phanis. — Pans. 5, c. 9, 
1. 9, c. 6. 

Eteoclus, one of the seven chiefs of the army 
of Adrastus in his expedition against Thebes, 
celebrated for his valour, for his disinterested- 
ness and magnanimity. He was killed by Me- 
gareus, the son of Creon, under the walls of 
Thebes. Eurip. — Apollod. 3, c, 6. 

Evadne, a daughter of Iphis or Iphicles, of 
Argos, who slighted the addresses of ApoJlo, 
and married Capaneus, one of the seven chiefs 
who went against Thebes. When her hus- 
band had been struck with thunder by Jupiter 
for his blasphemies and impiety, and his ashes 
had been separated from those of the rest of the 
Argives, she threw herself on his burning pile 
and perished in the flames, Virs;. Mn. 6, v. 447. 
Propert. I, el, 15, v, 21.— Stat. Theb. 12, v, 800, 

Evan, a surname of Bacchus, which he re- 
ceived from the wild ejaculation of Evan! 
Evan I by his priestesses. Ovid. Met. 4, v, 15. 
— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 517. 

EvANDER, Vid. Part IT. 

E VERES, a son of Peteralaus, the only one of 
his family who did not perish in a battle against 
Electryon. Apollod. 2, 

Evius, a surname of Bacchus, given him in 
the war of the giants against Jupiter. Horat. 2, 
Oi.ll,v. 17. 

710 



EvipPE, the mother of the Pierides, who were 
changed into magpies. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 303. 

Evippus, a son of Thestius, king of Pleuron, 
killed by his brother Iphiclus in the chase of the 
Calydonian boar. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 

EuM^us. Vid. Part II. 

EuMELus, I, a son of Admetus, kingof Pherae 
in Thessaly. He went to the Trojan war, and 
had the fleetest horses in the Grecian army. 
He distinguished himself in the games made in 

honour of Patroclus. Homer. E. 2 and 23. 

II, A man contemporary with Triptolemus, of 
whorn he learned the art of agriculture. Paus. 
7, c. 18. Vid. Part II. 

EuMENiDES, a name given to the Furies by 
the ancients. They sprang from the drops of 
blood which flowed from the wound which 
Coelus, received from his son Saturn. Accord- 
ing to others they were daughters of the earth, 
and conceived from the blood of Saturn. Some 
make them daughters of Acheron and Night, 
or Pluto and Proserpine, or Chaos and Terra, 
according to Sophocles ; or, as Epimenides 
reports, of Saturn and Evonyme. According 
to the most received opinions they were three 
in number, Tisiphone, Megara, and Alecto, to 
which some add Nemesis. Plutarch "mentions 
only one, called Adrasta, daughter of Jupiter 
and Necessity, They were supposed to be the 
ministers of the vengeance of the gods, and 
therefore appeared stern and inexorable ; al- 
ways employed in punishing the guilty upon 
earth as well as in the infernal regions. They 
inflicted their vengeance upon eairth by wars, 
pestilence, and dissensions, and by the secret 
stings of conscience ; and in hell they punished 
the guilty by continual flagellation and torments. 
They were also called FurioB, Erinnyes, and 
DircB, and the appellation of Eiimenides, which 
signifies benevolence and compassion, they re- 
ceived after they had ceased to prosecute Ores- 
tes, who in gratitude oflfered them sacrifices, 
and erected a temple in honour of their divin- 
ity. Their worship was almost universal, and 
people presumed not to mention their names 
or fix their eyes upon their temples. They 
were honoured with sacrifices and libations, 
and in Achaia they had a temple, which, when 
entered by any one guilty of crime, suddenly 
rendered him furious, and deprived him of the 
use of his reason. In their sacrifices the vota- 
ries used branches of cedar and of alder, haw- 
thorn, saffron, and juniper; and the victims 
were generally turtle doves and sheep, with 
libations of wine and honey. They were gen- 
erally represented with a grim and frightful 
aspect, with a black and bloody garment, and 
serpents wreathing round their heads instead 
of hair. They held a burning torch in one 
hand and a whip of scorpions in the other, and 
were always attended by terror, rage, paleness, 
and death. In hell they were seated around 
Pluto's throne, as the ministers of his ven- 
geance. MscJi. in Eum. — Soph, in (Edip. Col. 

EuMOLPUs, a king of Thrace, son of Nep- 
tune and Chione. He was thrown into the 
sea by his mother, who wished to conceal her 
shame from her father. Neptune saved his 
life, and carried him into .Ethiopia, where he 
was brought up by Amphitrite, and afterwards 
by a woman of the country, one of whose 
daughters he married. An act of violence to 



EU 



MYTHOLOGY. 



EU 



his sister-in-law obliged him to leave ^Ethiopia, 
and he fled to Thrace with his son Ismarus, 
where he married the daughter of Tegyrius, 
the king of the countr)^ This connexion with 
the royal family rendered him ambitious ; he 
conspired against his father-in-law, and fled, 
when the conspiracy was discovered, to Attica, 
where he was initiated in the mysteries of 
Ceres of Eleusis, and made Hierophantes or 
high priest. He was afterwards reconciled to 
Tegyrius, and inherited his kingdom. He made 
war against Erechtheus, the king of Athens, 
who had appointed him to the office of high- 
priest, and perished in battle. His descendants 
were also invested with the priesthood, which 
remained for about 1200 years in that family. 
Vid. EumolpidcB. Apollod. 2, c. 5, &c. — Hygin. 
fab. 13.— Diod. b.—Paus. 2, c. 14. 

EvocATio. There were among the ancients 
three species of Evocations : 1st, by magic to 
call up the dead ; 2d, to withdraw, in cases of 
siege, &c., the protecting deity of the place be- 
sieged; and 3d, to enforce the presence and vi- 
sible appearance of any divinity. Of these the 
first was practised in the remotest period ; with 
the Hebrews it was among the things prohibited 
by the first lawgiver, and with the Greeks the 
early poet Orpheus is reputed the introducer, 
if not the inventor. In the time of Homer it 
was permitted to perform them openly, and as a 
profession. The most illustrious instances 
among the classic nations were, the Evocation 
of Eurydice by Orpheus, in Thrace, whence 
the fable perhaps of his descent into hell ; the 
Evocation of Tiresias by Ulysses, in the coun- 
try of the Cimmerians ; and the less historical 
conference of ^neas with the shade of Anchi- 
ses. In Jewish history the Evocation of Samuel 
may be placed beside the most famous of the 
above. The following form of invocation of 
the second kind is preserved in Macrobius : — 
*' If there be to Carthage a protecting god or 
goddess, I pray and beseech ye great gods, who 
have taken into your care this city, to abandon 
these habitations, these temples, and these sa- 
cred places ; to forget them, to fill them with 
terror, and to withdraw to Rome and to our peo- 
ple. May our dwellings, our temples, and our 
sacred ofierings find favour before you. Let it 
appear that you are my protectors, the protectors 
of the Roman people and of my soldiers. If you 
do this, I pledge myself to found temples and to 
institute games in your honour. ^^ Of the third 
species of evocation, by which the presence of 
some deity was to be brought from any place 
over which he exercised a tutelar guardianship, 
to another in which his votary chanced to be, the 
still extant hymns attributed to Orpheus and 
Homer, those of Callimachus, the Carmen Se- 
culare of Horace and others, remain as a spe- 
cimen. Horn. Od. — Virg. yEn. — Macrob. Sat. — 
Hor. Carm. 2, 1, and note, Anthonys edition. — 
Callim. 

EuPALAMUS, the father of Daedalus and of 
Matiadusa. Apollod. 3, c. 15. 

EuPEiTHEs, a prince of Ithaca, father to An- 
tinous. In the former part of his life he had 
fled before the vengeance of the Thresprotians, 
whose territories he had laid waste in the pur- 
suit of some pirates. During the absence of 
Ulysses he was one of the most importuning 
lovers of Penelope. Homer. Od. 16. 



EuPHEMus, a son of Neptune and Europa, 
who was among the Argonauts, and the hunt- 
ers of the Calydonian boar. He was so swift 
and light that he could run over the sea with- 
out scarce wetting his feet. Pindar. Pyth. 4. 
— Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Paus. 5, c. 17. 

EoPHORBUs. Vid. Part II. 

EupHROSYNA. Vid. Charites. 

EuROPA, a daughter of Agenor, king of Phoe- 
nicia and Telephassa. Jupiter became enam- 
oured of her, and, assuming the shape of a 
bull, mingled with the herds of Agenor, while 
Europa, with her female attendants, were ga- 
thering flowers in the meadows. Europa ca- 
ressed the beautiful animal, and at last had the 
courage to sit upon his back. The god took 
advantage of her situation, and with precipi- 
tate steps retired towards the shore, and crossed 
the sea with Europa on his back, and arrived 
safe in Crete. She became the mother of Mi- 
nos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus. After this 
distinguished amour with Jupiter, she married 
Asterius, king of Crete. This monarch seeing 
himself without children by Europa, adopted 
the fruit of her amours with Jupiter, and al- 
ways esteemed Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhada- 
manthus as his own children. Some suppose 
that Europa lived about 1552 years before the 
Christian era. Ovid. Met. 2, fab. 13.—Mosch. 
Idyl.— Apollod. 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part L 

EuROTAs, a son of Lelex, father to Sparta, 
who married Lacedaemon. He was one of the 
first kings of Laconia, and gave his name to the 
river which flows near Sparta. Apollod. 3, c. 
16.— Paws. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part I. 

EuRYALUs. Vid. Nisus, Part II. 

EtJRYBiADES, a Spartan, general of the Gre- 
cian fleet at the battles of Artemisium and Sa- 
lamis against Xerxes. He has been charged 
with want of courage, and with ambition. He 
offered to strike Themistocles when he wished 
to speak about the manner of attacking the Per- 
sians, upon which the Athenian said. Strike 
me, but hear me. Herodot. 8, c. 2, 74, &c. — 
Plut.in Them. — C. Nep. in Them. 

Edryclea, a beautiful daughter of Ops of 
Ithaca. Laertes bought her for 20 oxen, and 
gave her his son Ulysses to nurse, and treated 
her with much tenderness and attention. Ho- 
mer. Od. 19. 

Eurydice. Vid. Orpheus, and Part II. 

EuRYLOcHCS, one of the companions of Ulj's- 
ses, the only one who did not taste the potions 
of Circe. His prudence, however, forsook him 
in Sicily, where he carried away the flocks sa- 
cred to Apollo, for which sacrilegious crime he 
was shipwrecked. Homer. Od. 10, v. 205, 1. 12, 
V. 195.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 287. 

EuRYNOMUs, one of the deities of hell. Paus. 
10, c. 28. 

EuRYSTHEUs, a king of Argos and Mycena5, 
son of Sthenelusand Nicippe, the daughter of 
Pelops. Juno hastened his birth by two months, 
that he might come into the world before Her- 
cules, the son of Alcmena, as the younger of the 
two was doomed, by order of Jupiter, to be sub- 
servient to the will of the other. Vid. Alcmeva. 
This natural right was cruelly exercised by Eu- 
rystheus, who was jealous of the fame of Hercu- 
les; and who, to destroy so powerful a relation, 
imposed upon him the most dangerous and un- 
common enterprises, well known by the name 
711 



FA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PL 



of the twelve labours of Hercules. The suc- 
cess of Hercules in achieving those perilous la- 
bours alarmed Eurystheus in a greater degree, 
and he furnished himself with a brazen vessel, 
where he might secure himself a safe retreat in 
case of danger. After the death of Hercules, 
Eurystheus renewed his cruelties against his 
children, and made war against Ceyx, king of 
Trachinia, because he had given them support 
and treated them with hospitality. He was 
killed inihe prosecution of this war by Hyllus, 
the son of Hercules. His head was sent to 
Alcmena, the mother of Hercules, who, mind- 
ful of the cruelties which her son had suffered, 
insulted it, and tore out the eyes with the most 
inveterate fury. Eurystheus was succeeded on 
the throne of Argos by Atreus, his nephew. 
Hygin. fab. 30 and 32. — Apollod. 2, c. 4, &c. — 
Fans. 1, c. 33, 1. 3, c. 6.— Ovid. Met. 9, fab. 6. 
— Virg. jEn.8, v. 292. 

EuRYTmoN, and Eurytion, a centaur whose 
insolence to Hippodamia was the cause of the 
quarrel between the Lapithae and Centaurs at 
the nuptials of Pyrithous. Ovid. Met. 12. — 
Pans. 5, c. 10. — Hesiod. Theog, 

Edrytis, {idos,) a patronymic of lole, daugh- 
ter of Eurytus. Ovid. Met. 9, fab. 11. 

Eurytus, a king of (Echalia, father to lole. 
He offered his daughter to him who shot a bow 
better than himself Hercules conquered him, 
and put him to death because he refused him 
his daughter as the prize of his victory. Apol- 
lod. 2, c. 4 and 7. 

Euterpe, one of the Muses, daughter to Ju- 
piter and Mnemosyne, She presided over mu- 
sic, and was looked upon as the invenlress of 
the flute and of all wind instruments. She is 
represented as crowned with flowers, and hold- 
ing a flute in her hand. Some mythologists 
attributed to her the invention of tragedy, more 
commonly supposed to be the production of 
Melpomene. Vid. Muses. 

F. 

Fama, (fame,) was worshipped by the an- 
cients as a powerful goddess, and generally 
represented blowing a trumpet, &c. 

Fauna, a deity among the Romans, daughter 
of Picus, and originally called Marica. Her 
marriage with Faunus procured her the name 
of Fauna, and her knowledge of futurity that of 
Fatua and Fatidico.. It is said that she never 
saw a man after her marriage with Faunus, and 
that her uncommon chastity occasioned her be- 
ing ranked among the gods after death. She 
is the same, according to some, as Bona Mater. 
Some mythologists accuse her of drunkenness, 
and say that she expired under the blows of her 
husband , for an immoderate use of wine. Virg. 
JEn. 7, V. 47, &c, — Varro. — Justin. 43, c. 1, 

Fauni, certain rural deities, inhabiting, for 
the most part, the fields, and having the human 
figure, but with pointed ears and with the tail 
of a goat. They formed always a part of the 
train of Bacchus, together with the Sylvani and 
Satyrs. Vise. Mus. Pio. Clem. The peasants 
offered them a lamb or a kid with great so- 
lemnity. Virg. G. 1, V. 10. — Ovid. Met. 6, 
V. 392. 

Faunus, a son of Picus, who is said to have 
reigned in Italy about 1300 years B. C. His 
712 



bravery as well as wisdom have given rise to the 
tradition that he was son of Mars. He raised 
a temple in honour of the god Pan, called, by 
the Latins, Lupercus, at the foot of the Palatine 
hill, and he exercised hospitality towards stran- 
gers with a liberal hand. His great popularity, 
and his fondness for agriculture, made his sub- 
jects revere him as one of their country deities 
after death. He was represented with all the 
equipage of the satyrs, and was consulted la 
give oracles. Dionys. 1, c. 7. — Virg. JEn. 7, v. 
47, 1, 8, V. 314, 1. 10, V. b5.—Horat. 1, od. 17. 

Faustulus. Vid. Part II. 

Februus, a god at Rome, who presided over 
purifications, sometimes considered to be the fa- 
ther of Pluto, but by most mythologists thought 
to be Pluto himself 

Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, in which 
he received the dedication of the Spolia opima. 
Romulus, who first consecrated to him these 
Spolia, built a temple to Jupiter Feretrius, 
which was enlarged by Ancus Martins, and 
restored, at the request of Atticus, by Augustus. 
Liv. 1, 10. — Pint, in Rom. — C. ISep. in Att. — 
Propert. 4, 9. 

Feronia, a goddess worshipped in Italy. She 
presided over woods and groves, and her tem- 
ple was common to the Latins and the Sabines. 
There the manumitted slaves received the tes- 
timonials of their enfranchisement. Some have 
supposed her to be Juno, and others call her the 
mother of Herilus, who was slain by Evander. 
The name is derived a ferendo., because she 
gave assistance to her votaries, or perhaps from 
the town Feronia, near mount Soracte, where 
she had a temple. It was usual to make a yearly 
sacrifice to her, and to vi^ash the face and hands 
in the waters of the sacred fountain which flow- 
ed near her temple. It is said that those who 
were filled with the spirit of this goddess could 
walk barefooted over burning coals without 
receiving any injury from the flames. The 
goddess had a temple and a grove about three 
miles from Anxur, and also another in the dis- 
trict of Capena. Liv. 33, c. 26. — Virg. jEn. 7, 
V. 697 and QQQ.— Varro. deL. L. 4, c. 10.— Ital. 
IS.-StraA. b.—Horat. 1. Sat. 5, v. 24. 

Fides, the goddess of faith, oaths, and hon- 
esty, worshipped by the Romans, Numa was 
the first who paid her divine honours. 

FiDius Dius, a divinity by whom the Romans 
generally swore. He was also called Sancus or 
Sanctus and Semipater, and he was solemnly 
addressed in prayers the 5th of June, which 
was yearly consecrated to his service. Some 
.suppose him to be Hercules. Ov. Fast. 6, 
V. 213, —Va.r. de L. L. 4, c. 10.— Dion. Hal. 2 
and 9. 

Flora, the goddess of flowers and gardens 
among the Romans, the same as the Chloris of 
the Greeks. Some suppose that she was origin- 
ally a common courtesan, who left to the Ro- 
mans the immense riches which she had ac- 
quired by prostitution and lasciviousness, in 
remembrance of which a yearly festival was 
instituted in her honour. She was worshipped 
even among the Sabines, long before the founda- 
tion of Rome,and likewise among thePhoceans, 
who built Marseilles long before the existence 
of the capital of Italy. Tatius was the first who 
raised her a temple in the city of Rome. It is 
said that she married Zephyrus, and that she 



FU 



MYTHOLOGY. 



GA 



received from him the privileges^ of presiding 
over flowers, and of enjoying perpetual youth. 
Vid. Floralia. She was represented as crowned 
with flowers, and holding in her hand the horn 
of plenty. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 135, &c. — Varro 
de R. R. 1. — Lactant. 1, c. 20. 

Fornax, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over the baking of bread. Her festivals, called 
Fornacalia^ were first instituted by Numa, 
Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 525. 

FoRTUNA, a powerful deity among the an- 
cients, daughter of Oceanus, according to Ho- 
mer, or one of theParcae, according to Pindar. 
She was the goddess of fortune, and from her 
hand were derived riches and poverty, pleasures 
and misfortunes, blessings and pains. She was 
worshipped in different parts of Greece, and in 
Achaia ; her statue held the horn of plenty in 
one hand, and had a winged Cupid at its feet. 
In Boeotia she had a statue which represented 
her as holding Plutus, the god of riches, iji her 
arms, to intimate that fortune is the source 
whence wealth and honours flow. The Ro- 
mans paid particular attention to the goddess of 
Fortune, and had no less than eight temples 
erected to her honour in their city. Tullus 
Hostilius was the first who built her a temple, 
and from that circumstance it is easily known 
when her worship was first introduced among 
the Romans. Her most famous temples in Italy 
was at Antium, in Latium, where. presents and 
offerings were regularly sent from every part of 
the country. Fortune has been called Phere- 
polis, the protectress of cities, Acrea, from the 
temple of Corinth on an eminence, aKpo?. She 
was called Prenestine at Prseneste, in Italy, 
"where she had also a temple. Besides she was 
worshipped among the Romans under different 
names, such as Female fortune, Virile fortune, 
Equestrian, Evil, Peaceful, Virgin, &c. On 
the 1st of April, which was consecrated to Ve- 
nus among the Romans, the Italian widows and 
marriageable virgins assembled in the temple of 
Virile fortune, and, after burning incense and 
stripping themselves of their garments, they en- 
treated the goddess to hide from the eyes of their 
husbands whatever defects there might be on 
their bodies. The goddess of fortune is repre- 
sented on ancient monuments with a horn of 
plenty, and sometimes two, in her hands. She 
is blindfolded, and generally holds a wheel m 
her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy 
Sometimes she appears with wings, and treads 
upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder 
in her hand. Dionys. Hal. 4. — Ovid. Fast. 6, 
V. 569. Plut. de fort. Rom. and in Cor.—Cic. 
de Div. 2. — Liv. 10. — Augustin. de Civ. D. 4. — 
Flor. 1. — Val. Max. 1, c. 5. — Lucan. 2, &c. 

Fraus, a divinity worshipped among the Ro- 
mans, daughter of Orcus and Night. She pre- 
sided over treachery, &c. 

Fulgora; a goddess at Rome who presided 
over lightning. She was addressed to save her 
votaries from the effects of violent storms of 
thunder. Aug. de Civ. D. 6, c. 10. 

FuRrjE, the three daughters of Nox and 
Acheron, or of Pluto and Proserpine, according 
to some. Vid Eumenides. 

FuRiNA, the goddess of robbers, worshipped 
at Rome. Some say that she is the same as 
the Furies. Her festivals were called Furina- 
lia. Cic. de Nat. 'i. c. 8. — Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 3. 

Part III.— 4 X 



G. 

Galanthis, a servant maid of Alcmena. 
When Juno resolved to retard the birth of Her- 
cules, and hasten the labours of the wife of 
Sthenelus, she solicited the aid of Lucina, who 
immediately repaired to the house of Alcmena, 
and, in the form of an old woman, sat near the 
door and uttered some magical words, which 
served to prolong the labours of Alcmena. Alc- 
mena had already passed some days in the most 
excruciating torments, when Galanthis ran out 
of the house, and with a countenance expressive 
of joy, informed the old woman that her mis- 
tress had just brought forth. Lucina, at the 
words, rose from her posture, and that instant 
Alcmena was safely delivered. The laugh 
which Galanthis raised upon this made Lucina 
suspect that she had been deceived. She seized 
Galanthis by the hair, and threw her on the 
ground ; and while she attempted to resist, she 
was changed into a weazel. The Boeotians 
paid great veneration to the weazel, which, as 
they supposed, facilitated the labours of Alc- 
mena. JElian. H. Anim. 2. — Ov. Met. 9, fab. 6, 

Galatea, and Galath^ea, a sea-nymph, 
daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was pas- 
sionately loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, 
whom she treated with coldness and disdain ; 
while Acis, a shepherd of Sicily, enjoyed her 
unbounded affection. The happiness of these 
two lovers was disturbed by the jealousy of the 
Cyclops, who crushed his rival to pieces with 
a piece of a broken rock while he sat in the 
bosom of Galata^a. Galataea was inconsolable 
for the loss of Acis, and as she could not re- 
store him to life, she changed him into a foun- 
tain. Ov. Met. 13. V. 789.— Virg. JSn. 9, v. 103. 

Gamelia, a surname of Juno, as Gamelius was 
of Jupiter, on account of their presiding over 
marriages. Vid. Part 11. 

Ganymede, a goddess, better known by the 
name of Hebe. She was worshipped under 
this name in a temple at Philus, in Peloponne- 
sus. Pans. 2, c. 13. 

Ganymedes, a beautiful youth of Phrygia, 
son of Tros, and brother to Ilus and Assaracus. 
According to Lucian, he was son of Dardanus. 
He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he 
was hunting, or rather tending his father's 
flocks on mount Ida, and he became the cup- 
bearer of the gods in the place of Hebe. Some 
say that he was carried away by an eagle. He 
is generally represented sitting on the back of a 
flying eagle in the air. Pans. 5, c. 24. — Ho- 
mer, n. 20, V. 231.— Fir^. ^n. 5, v. 252.— 
Ovid. Met. 10, v. Wo.—Horat. 4, od. 4. The 
fable of the rape of Ganymedes has given oc- 
casion to much remark in its interpretation, but 
it seems that we may easily interpret it, as so 
many other acts of violence committed in those 
ages, when piracy was no dishonest occupation, 
have been interpreted, and Ganymedes may 
have been but the captive of some powerful 
prince, or pirate, most probably Tantalus, king 
of Lydia. At all events, it can hardly be neces- 
sary,as certain learned writers of the present day 
have done, to assure the reader that Jupiter did 
not carry off the young Trojan, and that Gany- 
mede's pouring out wine to the gods is a fable. 

Garamas, a king of Liby^a, whose daughter 
was mother of Ammon by Jupiter. 
713 



GI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CfL 



Gelanor, a king of Argos, who succeeded his 
father, and was deprived of his kingdom by Da- 
naus the Egyptian. Pans. 2, c. 16. Vid. DaTiaus. 

Gemini, a sign of the zodiac, which represents 
Castor and Pollux, the twin sons of Leda. 

Genius. Vid. Damon. 

Geryon, and Geryones, a celebrated mon- 
ster, born from the union of Chrysaor with Cal- 
lirhoe, and represented by the poets as having 
three bodies and three heads. He lived in the 
island of Gades, where he kept numerous flocks, 
which were guarded by a two-headed dog, 
called Orthos, and by Eurythion. Hercules, 
by order of Eurystheus, went to Gades, and 
destroyed Geryon, Orthos, and Eurythion, and 
carried away all his flocks and herds to Tiryn- 
thus. Hedod. Theog. ISl.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. 
661, 1. 8, V. 202.— Hal 1, v, 211.—ApoUod. 2.— 
Lucret. 5, v. 28. 

GiGANTEs, the sons of Coelus and Terra, 
who, according to Hesiod, sprang from the 
blood of the wound which Coelus received from 
his son Saturn ; whilst Hyginus calls them 
sons of Tartarus and Terra. They are rep- 
resented as men of uncommon stature, with 
strength proportioned to their gigantic size. 
Some of them, as Cottus, Briareus, and Gyges, 
had 50 heads and 100 arms, and serpents in- 
stead of legs. They were of a terrible aspect, 
their hair hung loose about their shoulders, and 
their beard was suffered to grow untouched. 
Pallene and its neighbourhood was the place of 
their residence. The defeat of the Titans, with 
whom they are often ignorantly confounded, 
and to whom they were nearly related, incensed 
them against Jupiter, and they all conspired to 
dethrone him. The god was alarmed, and 
called all the deities to assist him against a pow- 
erful enemy, who made use of rocks, oaks, and 
burning woods for their weapons, and who had 
already heaped mount Ossa upon Pelion, to 
.^cale with more facility the walls of heaven. 
At the sight of such dreadful adversaries, the 
gods fled with the greatest consternation into 
Egypt, where they assumed the shape of differ- 
ent animals to screen themselves from their 
pursuers. Jupiter, however, remembered that 
they were not invincible, provided he called a 
mortal to his assistance ; and, by the advice of 
Pallas, he armed his son Hercules in his cause. 
"With the aid of this celebrated hero, the giants 
were soon put to flight and defeated. Some 
were crushed to pieces under mountains or 
buried in the sea ; and others were flayed alive, 
or beaten to death with clubs. Vid. Enceladus, 
Aloides, Porphi/rion, Typhon, Otus, T^taiies, 
&c. The existence of giants has been support- 
ed by all the writers of antiquity, and received 
as an undeniable truth. Homer tells us, that 
Tityus, when extended on the ground, covered 
nine acres ; and that Polyphemus eat two of 
the companions of Ulysses at once, and walked 
along the shores of Sicily, leaning on a staff" 
which might have served for the mast of a ship. 
The Grecian heroes, during the Trojan war, 
and Turnus in Italy, attacked their enemies by 
throwing stones, which four men of the suc- 
ceeding ages would be unable to move. Plu- 
tarch alsomentions, in support of their gigantic 
stature, that Sertorius opened the grave of An- 
taeus in Africa, and found a skeleton which 
measured six cubits in length. Apollod. 1, c. 6. 
714 



—Pans. 8, c. 2, &c.—Ovid. Met. 1, v. 151.— 
Plut. in Sertor. — Hygin. fab. 28, «&c. — Hotmt. 
Od. 7 and IQ.— Virg G. 1, v. 280. JEn. 6, v. 
580. If the accounts of the giants be not, with 
other portions of the heathen mythology, an 
unfounded fable, they probably relate to some 
physical phenomena, or to some of the early 
convulsions of nature; in like manner as the 
mysteries of the worship of Osiris and Isis are 
supposed to have concealed, in the adventures 
of those deities, the laws and relations of the 
heavenly bodies, and their influence on the 
fertilizing inundations of the Nile. 

Glaucopis, a surname of Minerva, from the 
blueness of her eyes. Homer. — Hesiod. 

Glaucus, I. a son of Hippolochus, the son of 
Bellerophon. He assisted Priam in the Trojan 
war, and had the simplicity to exchange his 
golden suit of armour with Diomedesfor an iron 
one, whence came the proverb of Glauciet Dio- 
medes permutatio, to express a foolish purchase. 
He behaved with much courage and was killed 
by Ajax. Virg. JSn. 6, v. 483.— Martial. 9, ep. 

96. — Homer. 11. 6. II. A fisherman of An- 

thedon, in Boeotia, son of Neptune and Nais, 
or, according to others, of Polybius, the son of 
Mercury. As he was fishing, he observed that 
all the fishes which he laid on the grass receiv- 
ed fresh vigour as they touched the ground, and 
immediately escaped from him by leaping into 
the sea. He attributed the cause of it to the 
grass, and, by tasting it, he found himself sud- 
denly moved with a desire of living in the sea. 
Upon this he leaped into the water, and was 
made a sea deity by Ocean us and Tethus, at the 
request of the gods. After this transformation 
he became enamoured of the Nereid Scylla, 
whose ingratitude was severely punished by 
Circe. Vid. Scylla. Ovid. Mel. 13, v. 905, 
&c. — Hygin. fab. 199. — Athen. 7. — Apollon. 1. 
— Diod. 4. — Aristot. de Rep. Del. — Pans. 9, c. 

22. III. A son of Sisyphus, king of Corinth, 

by Merope,the daughter of Atlas, born at Pot- 
nia, a village of Boeotia. His mares tore his 
body to pieces as he returned from the games 
which Adrastus had celebrated in honour of his 
father. He was buried at Potnia. Hygin. 
fab. 250.— Fir^. G. 3, v. Z^l.-Afollod. 1 and 

2. IV. A son of Minos the 2d, and Pasi- 

phae, who was smothered in a cask of honey. 
Minos confined the soothsayer Polyidus with 
the dead body, and told him that he never 
would restore him his libertyif hedid not restore 
it to life. Polyidus was struck with the king's 
severity, but while he stood in astonishment, a 
serpent suddenly came towards the body and 
touched it. Polyidus killed the serpent, and im- 
mediately a second came, who seeing the other 
without motion or signs of life, disappeared, 
and soon after returned with a certain herb in 
his mouth. This herb he laid on the body of 
the dead serpent, who was immediately restored 
to life. Polyidus, who had attentively consider- 
ed what passed, seized the herb, and with it 
rubbed the body of the dead prince, who was 
instantly raised to life. Minos received Glau- 
cus with gratitude, but he refused to restore 
Polyidus to liberty before he taught his son the 
art of divination and prophecy. He consented 
with great reluctance, and when he was at last 
permitted to return to Argolis, his native coun- 
try, he desired his pupil to spit in his mouth. 



GO 



MYTHOLOGY. 



HA 



Glaucus consented, and from that moment he 
forgot all the knowledge of divination and heal- 
ing which he had received from the instruction 
of Polyidus. Hyginus ascribes the recovery of 
Glancus to iEsculapius. Apollod. 2, c. 3. — 

Hygin. 136 and 251, &c. V. A son of 

Epytus, who succeeded his father on the throne 
of Messenia, about 10 centuries before the Au- 
gustan age. He introduced the worship of Ju- 
piter among the Dorians, and was the first who 
offered sacrifices toMachaon, the son of ^scu- 
lapius. Pans. 4, c. 3. Vid. Part I. 

Gnossis, and Gnossia, an epithet given to 
Ariadne, because she lived, or was born at 
Gnossus. The crown which she received from 
Bacchus, and which was made a constellation, 
is called Gnossia Stella. Virg. G. 1, v. 222. 

GoNiADEs, nymphs in the neighbourhood of 
the river Cytherus. ■ Strab. 8. 

GoRDius. Vid. Part II. 

GoRGo, the name of the ship which carried 
PerseuSj after he had conquered Medusa. Vid. 
Part II. 

GoRGONEs, three celebrated sisters, daughters 
of Phorcys and Ceto, whose names were Sthe- 
no, Euryale, and Medusa, all immortal except 
Medusa. According to the mythologists, their 
hairs were entwined with serpents, their hands 
were of brass, their wings of the colour of gold, 
their body was covered with impenetrable 
scales, and their teeth were as long as the tusks 
of a wild boar, and they turned to stones all 
those on whom they fixed their eyes. Medusa 
alone had serpents in her hair, according to 
Ovid, and this proceeded from the resentment 
of Minerva, in whose temple Medusa had gra- 
tified the passion of Neptune, who was enam- 
oured of the beautiful colour of her locks, 
which the goddess changed into serpents. Ac- 
cording to some authors, Perseus, when he 
went to the conquest of the Gorgons, was armed 
with an instrument like a scythe by Mercury, 
and provided with a looking-glass by Minerva, 
besides winged shoes, and a helmet of Pluto, 
which rendered all objects clearly visible and 
open to the view, while the person who wore it 
remained totally invisible. With weapons like 
these Perseus obtained an easy victory ; and 
after his conquest returned his arms to the dif- 
ferent deities whose favours and assistance he 
had so recently experienced. The head of Me- 
dusa remained in his hands; and after he had 
finished all his laborious expeditions, he gave it 
to Minerva, who placed it on her aegis, with 
which she turned into stones all such as fixed 
their e^-'es upon it. It is said, that after the con- 
quest of the Gorgons, Pertheus took his flight 
in the air towards Ethiopia; and that the 
drops of blood which fell to the ground from 
Medusa's head were changed into serpents, 
which have ever since infested the sandy de- 
serts of Libya. The horse Pegasus also arose 
from the blood of Medusa, as well as Chrysaor 
with his golden sword. The residence of the 
Gorgons was beyond the ocean towards the west, 
according to Hesiod. iEschylus makes them 
inhabit the eastern parts of Scythia ; and Ovid, 
as the most received opinion, supports that they 
lived in the inland parts of Libya, near the lake 
of Triton or the gardens of the Hesperides. 
Diodorus and others explain the fable of the 
Gorgons, by supposing that they were a warlike 



race of women near the Amazons, whom Per- 
seus, with the help of a large array, totally de- 
stroyed. Hesiod. Theog. (^ Scut. — Apollon. 4. 
— Apollod. 2, c. 1 and 4, &c. — Homer. 11. 5 and 
11. — Virg. jEn. 6, &.c.—Diod. 1 and i.—Paus. 
2, c. 20, &c. — yEschyl. Prom. Act. 4. — Pindar. 
Pyth. 7 and 12. Oiymp. 3.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 
618, &c. — Pal<£phat. de Phorcyn. 

GoRGONiA, a surname of Pallas, because Per- 
seus, armed with her shield, had conquered the 
Gorgon who had polluted her temple with Nep- 
tune. 

GoRGOPHONE, a daughter of Perseus and An- 
dromeda, who married Perieres, king of Mes- 
senia, by whom she had Aphareus and Leucip- 
pus. After the death of Perieres, she married 
CEbalus, who made her mother of Icarus and 
Tyndarus. She is the first whom the mytholo- 
gists mention as having had a second husband. 
Pans. 4, c. 2. — Apollod. 1, 2 and 3. 

Gradivus, a surname of Mars among the 
Romans, perhaps from KpaSaivsiv, brandishing 
a spear. Though he had a temple without the 
walls of Rome, and though Numa had estab- 
lished the Salii, yet his favourite residence was 
supposed to be among the fierce and savage 
Thracians and Getae, over whom he particu- 
larly presided. Virg, ^En. 3, v. 35. — Homer. 
ll.—Liv. 1, c. 20, 1. 2, c. 45. 

GRATiiE. Vid. Ckarites. 

Gyges, or Gyes, a, son of Coalus and Terra, 
represented as having 50 heads and a hundred 
hands. He, with his brothers, made war against 
the gods, and was afterwards punished in Tar- 
tarus. Vid. Part II. Ovid, l^ist. 4, el. 7, v. 18. 

Gyn^cothcenas, a name of Mars at Tegea, 
on account of a sacrifice offered by the women 
without the assistance of the men, who were 
not permitted to appear at this religious cere- 
mony. Paus. 8, c. 48. 

H 

Hades, or Ades, a name given to Pluto ; also 
to the infernal regions. 

H^MON, a Theban youth, son of Creon, who 
was so captivated with the beauty of Antigone, 
that he killed himself on her tomb when he 
heard that she had been put to death by his fa- 
ther's orders. Propert. 2, el. 8, v. 21. 

Haljesus, and Halesds, a son of Agamem- 
non by Briseis or Clytemnestra. When he 
was driven from home he came to Italy, and 
settled on mount Massicus in Campania, where 
he built Falisci, and afterwards assisted Turnus 
against -^Eneas. He was killed by Pallas. Virg. 
Mn. 7, V. 724, 1. 10, v. 352. 

Halirrhotitjs, a son of Neptune and Eur)''te, 
who ravished Alcippe, daughter of Mars, be- 
cause she slighted his addresses. This violence 
offended Mars, and he killed the ravisher. Nep- 
tune cited Mars to appear before the tribunal 
of justice to answer for the murder of his son. 
The cause was tried at Athens, in a place which 
has been called from thence Areopagus, (ujo;;?, 
Mars, andjrayoj, village,) and the murderer was 
acquitted. Apollod. 3, c. 14. — Paus. 1, c. 21, 

Hamadryades. This word is derived from 
ajia simul, and Spvg quercus. Virg. Eel. 10, — 
Ovid. Met. 1, v, 647. Vid. Dry ades. 

Hammon, or Ammon, a surname of Jupiter 
in Libya. It is related that BaQchus, being on 
715 



HA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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the point of dying with thirst, when traversing 
the Libyan deserts, invoked the aid of Jupiter. 
Thereupon a ram appeared, and, stamping out 
the ground, opened a spring in the sand. This 
ram he acknowledged to be Jupiter, and there- 
fore built a temple to him, giving him the appel- 
lation of Ammon, or the Sandy. This temple 
was situated in the Oasis of Siwah. Alexander 
the Great, upon visiting it, was declared by the 
priests a son of the deity. Vid. Part I. Millm. 

Harcalo, a man famous for his knowledge 
of poisonous herbs, &c. He touched the most 
venomous serpents and reptiles without receiv- 
ing the smallest injury. Sil. 1, v. 406. 

Harmonia, or Hermnoiea, {Vid. Hermione,) 
a daughter of Mars and Venus, who married 
Cadmus. It is said that Vulcan, to avenge 
the infidelity of her mother, made her a present 
of a vestment died in all sorts of crimes, which 
in some measure inspired all the children of 
Cadmus with wickedness and impiety. Paus. 
9, c. 16, &c. 

Harmonides, a Trojan beloved by Minerva. 
He built the ships in which Paris carried away 
Helen. Homer. U. 5. 

Harpai^ion, a son of Pylasmenes king of 
Paphlagonia, who assisted Priam during the 
Trojan war, and was killed by Merion. Ho- 
mer. 11. 13, V. 643. 

Harpalyce, I. the daughter of Harpalycus, 
king of Thrace. Her mother died when she 
was but a child, and her father fed her with the 
milk of cows and mares, and inured her early 
to sustain the fatigues of hunting. When her 
father's kingdom was invaded by Neoptolemus, 
the son of Achilles, she repelled and defeated 
the enemy with manly courage. The death of 
her father, which happened soon after in a sedi- 
tion, rendered her disconsolate ; she fled the 
society of mankind, and lived in the forests 
upon plunder and rapine. Every attempt to 
secure her proved fruitless, till her great swift- 
ness was overcome by intercepting her with a 
net. After death the people of the country dis- 
puted their respective rights to the possessions 
which she acquired by rapine, and they soon 
after appeased her manes by proper oblations 
on her tomb. Virg. Mn. 1, v. 321. — Hygin. 

fab. 163 and 252. II. A mistress of Iphiclus, 

son of Thestius. She died through despair on 
seeing herself despised by her lover. This 
mournful story was composed in poetry, in the 
form of a dialogue called Harpalyce. Athen. 14. 

Harpocrates, a divinity supposed to be the 
same as Orus, the son of Isis, among the Egyp- 
tians. He is represented as holding one of his 
fingers on his mouth, and from thence he is 
called the god of silence, and intimates that the 
mysteries of religion and philosophy ought 
never to be revealed to the people. The Ro- 
mans placed his statues at the entrance of their 
temples. Catull. 75. — Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 10. 

Harpyl^, winged monsters, who had the face 
of a woman, the body of a vulture, and had 
their feet and fingers armed with sharp claws. 
They were three in number, Aello, Ocypete, 
and Celeno, daughters of Neptune and Terra. 
Thev were sent by Juno to plunder the tables 
of Phineus, whence they were driven to the 
islands called Strophades by Zethe? and Calais. 
They emitted an infectious smell, and spoiled 
whatever they touched by their filth and excre- 
716 



ments. They plundered ^neas during his voy- 
age towards Italy, and predicted many of the 
calamities which attended him, Virg. ^En. 3, 
V. 212, 1. 6, V. 2S9.—Hesiod. Theog. 265. 

Hebe, the daughter of Jupiter and Juno. As 
she was fair, and always in the bloom of youth, 
she was called the goddess of youth, and made 
by her mother cup-bearer to all the gods. She 
M'^as dismissed from her office by Jupiter, and 
Ganymedes, his favourite, succeeded her as cup- 
bearer. She was employed by her mother to 
prepare her chariot, and to harness her peacocks 
whenever requisite. "When Hercules was 
raised to the rank of a god, he was reconciled 
to Juno by marrying her daughter Hebe, by 
whom he had two sons, Alexiaris and Anicetus. 
As Hebe had the power of restoring gods and 
men to the vigour of youth, she, at the instance 
of her husband, performed that kind office to 
lolas his friend. Hebe was worshipped at Si- 
cyon, under the name of Dia, and at Rome 
under the name of Juventas. She is represent- 
ed as a young virgin crowned with flowers, and 
arrayed in a variegated garment. Paus. 1, c. 
19, 1. 2, c. 12.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 400. Fast. 9, 
V. 16.—Apollod. 1, c. 3", 1. 2, c. 7. 

Hecate, a daughter of Perses and Asterias, 
the same as Proserpine or Diana. She was 
called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and 
Hecate or Proserpine in hell, whence her name 
of Diva triformis, tergemina, triceps. She was 
supposed to preside over magic and enchant- 
ments, and was generally represented like a 
woman with three heads, that of a horse, a dog, 
or a boar ; and sometiines she appeared with 
three different bodies, and three different faces, 
only with one neck. Dogs, lambs, and honey, 
were generally offered to her, especially in high 
ways and cross roads, whence she obtained the 
name of Trivia. Her power was extended over 
heaven, the earth, sea, and hell; and to her 
kings and nations supposed themselves indebt- 
ed for their prosperity. Ovid. 7, Met. v. 94. — 
Hesiod. Theog.— Hor'at. 3, od. 22.— Paus. 2, c. 
22.— Virg Mn. 4, v. 511, 

Hector. Vid. Part II. 

Hecuba. Vid. Part 11. 

Helena. Fi<^. Part II. 

Helenus, Vid. Part II. 

Heliades, the daughters of the Sun and 
Clymene, They were three in number, Lam- 
petie, Phaetusa, and Lampethusa ; or seven, 
according to Hygin : Merope, Helie, Mg\e, 
Lampetie, Phoebe, iEtheria, and Dioxippe. 
They were so afflicted at the death of their 
brother Phseton, ( Vid. Phaton,) that they were 
changed by the gods into poplars, and their tears 
into precious amber, on the banks of the river 
Po. Ovid. Met. 2, v. SiO.- Hygin. fab. 154. 

Helicaon. Vid. Part II. 

Heltce, a star near the north pole, generally 
called Ursa Major. It is supposed to receive its 
name from the town of Helice, of which Calisto, 
who was changed into the Great Bear, was an 
inhabitant. Lucan. 2, v. 237. 

HelTconiades, a name given to the Muses, 
because they lived upon mount Helicon, which 
was sacred to them. 

Helle. Vid. Argonauta. 

Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
reigned in Phthiotis about 1495 years before 
the Christian era, and gave the name of Hel- 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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enians to his subjects. He had, by his wife 
Orseis, three sons ; ^olius, Dorus, and Xuthus, 
who gave their names to the three dilFerent na- 
tions, known under the name of ^olians, Dori- 
ans, and lonians. These last derive their name 
from Ion, son of Xuthus, and from the difler- 
ence, either of expression or pronunciation, in 
their respective languages, arose the different 
dialects well known in the Greek language. 
Pau$. 3, c. 20, 1. 7, c. l.—Diod. 5. 

Hemathion, a son of Aurora and Cephalus, 
or Tithonus. Apollod. 3. 

Hemithea, a daughter of Cycnus and Pro- 
clea. She was so attached to her brother Te- 
nes, that she refused to abandon him when his 
father Cycnus exposed him on the sea. They 
were carried "by the wind to Tenedos, where 
Hemithea long enjoyed tranquillity, till Achil- 
les, captivated by her charms, offered her vio- 
lence. She was rescued from his embrace by 
her brother Tenes, who was instantly slaughter- 
ed by the offended hero. Hemithea could not 
have been rescued from the attempts of Achilles, 
had not the earth opened and swallowed her af- 
ter she had fervently entreated the assistance of 
the gods. Vid. Tenes. Pffl%s. 10, c. 14. — DiodA. 

Hera, the name of Juno among the Greeks. 

Herceius, an epithet given to Jupiter. Ovid, 
lb. 286.—lAican. 9, v. 979. 

Hercijles, a celebrated hero, who, after death, 
was ranked among the gods, and received divine 
honours. According to the ancients there were 
many persons of the same name. Diodorus 
mentions three, Cicero six, and some authors 
extend the number to no less than forty-three. 
Of all- these the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, 
generally called the Theban, is the most cele- 
brated, and to him, as may easily be imagined, 
the actions of the others have been attributed. 
Hercules was brought up at Tirynthus ; or, ac- 
cording to Diodorus, at Thebes, and before he 
had completed his eighth month, the jealousy 
of Juno, intent upon his destruction, sent two 
snakes to devour him. The child, not terrified 
by the sight of the serpents, boldly seized them 
in both his hands and squeezed them to death, 
while his brother Iphiclus alarmed the house 
with his frightful shrieks. Vid Iphiclus. He 
was early instructed in the liberal arts, and 
Castor, the son of Tyndarus, taught him how 
to fight, Eurytus how to shoot with a bow and 
arrows, Autolycus to drive a chariot, Linus to 
play on the lyre, and Eumolpus to sing. He, 
like the rest of his illustrious contemporaries, 
soon after became the pupil of the centaur 
Chiron, and under him he perfected and ren- 
dered himself the most valiant and accomplish- 
ed of the age. In the 18th year of his age he 
resolved to deliver the neighbourhood of mount 
Cithasron from a huge lion which preyed on 
the flocks of Amphitryon, his supposed father, 
and which laid waste the adjacent country. 
He went to the court of Thespius, king of Thes- 
pis, who shared in the general calamity, and 
he received there a tender treatment, and was 
entertained during fifty days. The fifty daugh- 
ters of the king became all mothers by Hercu- 
les during his stay at Thespis. After he had 
destroyed the lion of mount Cithi3eron, he de- 
liveredl his country from the annual tribute of 
a hundred oxen which it paid to Erginus. 
Vid. Erginus. Such public services became 



universally known, and Creon, who then sat 
on the throne of Thebes, rewarded the patri- 
otic deeds of Hercules by giving him his daugh- 
ter in marriage, and intrusting him with the 
government of his kingdom. As Hercules, by 
the will of Jupiter, was subjected to the power 
of Eurystheus, {Vid Eurystheus,) and obliged 
to obey him in every respect, Eurystheus, ac- 
quainted with his successes and rising power, 
ordered him to appear at Mycenae and perform 
the labours which, by priority of birth, he was 
empowered to impose upon him. Hercules 
refused, and Juno, to punish his disobedience, 
rendered him so delirious that he killed his 
own children by Megara, supposing them to be 
the offspring of Eurystheus. Vid Megara. 
When he recovered the use of his senses, he 
was so struck with the misfortunes which had 
proceeded from his insanity, that he concealed 
himself, and retired from the society of men 
for some time. He afterwards consulted the 
oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must 
be subservient for twelve years to the will of 
Eurystheus, in compliance with the commands 
of Jupiter ; and that after he had achieved the 
most celebrated labours, he should be reckoned 
in the number of the gods. So plain and ex- 
pressive an answer determined him to go to 
Mycenae, and to bear with fortitude whatever 
gods or men imposed upon him. Eurystheus 
seeing so great a man totally subjected to him, 
and apprehensive of so powerful an enemy, 
commanded him to achieve a number of en- 
terprises, the most difficult and arduous ever 
known, generally called the 12 labours of Her- 
cules. The favours of the gods had completely 
armed him when he undertook his labours. He 
had received a coat of arms and helmet from 
Minerva, a sword from Mercury, a horse from 
Neptune, a shield from Jupiter, a bow and ar- 
rows from Apollo, and from Vulcan a golden 
cuiras and brazen buskin, with a celebrated 
club of brass, according to the opinion of some 
writers, but more generally supposed to be of 
wood, and cut by the hero himself in the forest 

of Nemaea. The first labour imposed upon 

Hercules by Eurystheus, was to kill the lion of 
Nemaea, which ravaged the country ^ear My- 
cenas. The hero, unable to destroy him with 
his arrows, boldly attacked him with his club, 
pursued him to his den, and after a close and 
sharp engagement he choked him to death. 
He carried the dead beast on his shoulders to 
Mycenae, and ever after clothed himself with 
the skin. Eurystheus was so astonished at the 
sight of the beast, and at the courage of Her- 
cules, that he ordered him never to enter the 
gates of the city when he returned from his 
expeditions, but to wait for his orders without 
the walls. He even made himself a brazen 
vessel, into which he retired whenever Her- 
cules returned. The second labour of Her- 
cules was to destroy the Lernaean hydra, which 
had seven heads according to Apollodorus, 50 
according to Simonides, and 100 according to 
Diodorus. This celebrated monster he attacked 
with his arrows, and soon after he came to a 
close engagement, and by means of his heavy 
club he destroved the heads of his enemy. But 
this was productive of no advantage ; for as 
soon as one head was beaten to pieces by the 
club, immediatelv two sprang up, and the labour 
717 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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of Hercules would have remained unfinished 
had not he commanded his friend lolas to burn, 
with a hot iron, the root of the head which he 
had crushed to pieces. This succeeded, ( Vid. 
Hydra,) and Hercules became victorious, 
opened the belly of the monster, and dipped his 
arrows in the gall to render the wounds which 
he gave fatal and incurable. He was or- 
dered in his third labour t^^ bring alive and un- 
hurt into the presence of Eurystheus a stag, 
famous for its incredible swiftness, its golden 
horns, and brazen feet. This celebrated ani- 
mal frequented the neighbourhood of CEnoe, 
and Hercules was employed for a whole year 
in continually pursuing it, and at last he caught 
it in a trap, or when tired, or, according to 
others, by slightly wounding it and lessening its 
swiftness. As he returned victorious, Diana 
snatched the goat from him, and severely 
reprimanded him for molesting an animal 
which was sacred to her. Hercules pleaded 
necessity, and by representing the commands 
of Eurystheus, he appeased the goddess and ob- 
tained the beast. The fourth labour was to 

bring alive to Eurystheus a wild boar which 
ravaged the neighbourhood of Erymanthus. In 
this expedition he destroyed the centaurs, ( Vid. 
Centauri,) and caught the boar by closely pur- 
suing him through the deep snow. Eurystheus 
was so frightened at the sight of the boar, that, 
according to Diodorus, he hid himself in his 
brazen vessel for some days. In his fifth la- 
bour Hercules was ordered to clean the stables 
of Augias, where 3000 oxen had been confined 

for many years. Vid. Augias. For his sixth 

labour he was ordered to kill the carnivorous 
birds which ravaged the country near the lake 
Stymphalis in Arcadia. Vid. Stymphalis.' 



In his seventh labour he brought alive into 
Peloponnesus, a prodigious wild bull which laid 
waste the island of Crete.- In his eighth la- 
bour he was employed in obtaining the mares 
of Diomedes, which fed upon human flesh. He 
killed Diomedes, and gave him to be eaten by 
his mares, which he brought to Eurystheus, 
They were sent to mount Olympus by the king 
of Mycenae, where they were devoured by the 
wild beasts ; or, according to others, they were 
consecrated to Jupiter, and their breed still ex- 
isted in the age of Alexander the Great, For 

his ninth labour he was commanded to obtain 
the girdle of the queen of the Amazons. Vid. 

Hippolite. In his tenth labour he killed the 

monster Geryon,king of Gades, and brought to 
Argos his numerous flocks which fed upon 

human flesh. Vid. Geryon. The eleventh 

labour was to obtain apples from the garden 

of the Hesperides. Vid. Hesperides. The 

twelfth and last, and most dangerous of his 
labours, was to bring upon the earth the three- 
headed dog Cerberus. This was cheerfully 
undertaken by Hercules, and he descended into 
hell by a cave on mount Taenarus, He was 
permitted by Pluto to carry away his friends 
Theseus and Pirithous, who were condemned 
to punishment in hell ; and Cerberus also was 
granted to his prayers, provided he made use of 
no arms, but only force, to drag him away, 
Hercules, as some report, carried him back to 
hell after he had brought him before Eurys- 
theus. Besides these arduous labours, which 
the jealousy of Eurystheus imposed upon him, 
"718 



he also achieved others of his own accord, 
equally great and celebrated. Vid. Cacus, An- 
taus, Busiris, Eryx, &c. He accompanied the 
Argonauts to Colchis before he delivered him- 
self up to the king of Mycenae. He assisted 
the gods in their wars against the giants, and 
it was through him alone that Jupiter obtained 
a victory. Vid. Gigantes. He conquered 
Laomedon, and pillaged Troy. Vid. Laomedon. 
When lole, the daughter of Eurytus, king of 
QEchalia, of whom he was deeply enamoured, 
was refused to his entreaties, ne became the 
prey of a second fit of insanity, and he mur- 
dered Iphitus, the only one of the sons of Eu- 
rytus who favoured his addresses to lole. Vid. 
Iphitus. He was some time after purified of 
the murder, and his insanity ceased ; but the 
gods persecuted him more, and he was visited 
by a disorder which obliged him to apply to 
the oracle of Delphi for relief. The coldness 
with which the Pythia received him, irritated 
him, and he resolved to plunder Apollo's temple, 
and carry away the sacred tripod. Apollo op- 
posed him, and a severe conflict was begun, 
which nothing but the interference of Jupiter 
with his thunderbolts could have prevented. He 
was upon this told by the oracle that he must be 
sold as a slave, and remain three years in the 
most abject servitude to recover from his dis- 
order. He complied : and Mercury, by order 
of Jupiter, conducted him to Omphale, queen of 
Lydia, to whom he was sold as a slave. Here 
he cleared all the country from robbers ; and 
Omphale, who was astonished at the greatness 
of his exploits, restored him to liberty, and mar- 
ried him. Hercules had Agelaus, and Lamon 
according to others, by Omphale, from whom 
Croesus, king of Lydia, was descended. He be- 
came also enamoured of one of Omphale's fe- 
male servants, by whom he had Alceus. After 
he had completed the years of his slavery, he 
returned to Peloponnesus, where he re-establish- 
ed on the throne of Sparta, Tyndarus, who had 
been expelled by Hippocoon. He became one 
of Dejanira's suiters, and married her, after he 
had overcome all his rivals. Vid. Achelous. 
He was obliged to leave Calydon, his father-in- 
law's kingdom, because he had inadvertently 
killed a man with a blow of his fist, and it was 
on account of this expulsion that he was not 
present at the hunting of the Calydonian boar. 
From Calydon he retired to the court of Ceyx, 
king of Trachinia. In his way he was stopped 
by the swollen streams of the Evenus, where 
the centaur Nessus attempted to offer violence 
to Dejanira, under the perfidious pretence of 
conveying her over the river. Hercules perceiv- 
ed the distress of Dejanira, and killed the cen- 
taur, who, as he expired, gave her a tunic, 
which, as he observed, had the power of re- 
calling a husband from unlawful love. Vid. 
Dejanira. Ceyx, king of Trachinia, received 
him and his wife with great marks of friend- 
ship, and purified him of the murder he had 
committed at Calydon. Hercules was still 
mindful that he had once been refused the hand 
of lole ; he therefore made war against her 
father Eurytus, and killed him with three of his 
sons. lole fell into the hands of her father's 
murderer, and found that she was loved by Her- 
cules as much as before. She accompanied him 
to mount CEta, where he was going to raise an 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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altar, and ofler a solemn sacrifice to Jupiter. As 
he had not then the tunic in which he arrayed 
himself to offer a sacrifice, he sent Lichas to 
Dejanira in order to provide himself a proper 
dress. Dejanira, informed of her husband's 
tender attachment to lole, sent him a filter, or 
more probably the tunic which she had received 
from Nessus, and Hercules, as soon as he had 
put it on, fell into a desperate distemper, and 
found the poison of the Lernsean hydra pene- 
trate through his bones. He attempted to pull 
off the fatal dress, but it was too late ; and in 
the midst of his pains and tortures he inveighed 
in the most bitter imprecations against the cred- 
ulous Dejanira, the cruelty of Eurystheus, and 
the jealousy and hatred of Juno. As the distem- 
per was incurable, he implored the protection 
of Jupiter, and gave his bow and arrows to Phi- 
loctetes, and erected a large burning pile on the 
top of mount QEta. He spread on the pile the 
skin of the Nemaean lion, and laid down upon 
it as on a bed, leaning his head on his club. Phi- 
loctetes, or, according to others, Pa^an or Hyl- 
lus, was ordered to set fire to the pile, and the 
hero saw himself on a sudden surrounded with 
the flames, without betra3^ingany marks of fear 
or astonishment. Jupiter saw him from heaven, 
and told the surrounding gods that he would 
raise- to the skies the immortal parts of a hero 
who had cleared the earth from so many mon- 
sters and tyrants. The gods applauded Jupi- 
ter's resolution, the burning pile was suddenly 
surrounded with a dark smoke, and after the 
mortal parts of Hercules were consumed, he 
was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn 
by four horses. Some loud claps of thunder 
accompanied his elevation, and his friends, 
unable to find either his bones or ashes, showed 
their gratitude to his memory by raising an al- 
tar where the burning pile had stood. Menoe- 
tius, the son of Actor, offered him a sacrifice of 
a bull, a wild boar, and a goat, and enjoined 
the people of Opus yearly to observe the same 
religious ceremonies. His worship soon be- 
came as universal as his fame ; and Juno, who 
had once persecuted him with such inveterate 
fury, forgot her resentment, and gave him her 
daughter Hebe in marriage. Hercules has re- 
ceived many surnames and epithets, either 
from the place where his worship was establish- 
ed, or from the labours which he achieved. His 
temples were numerous and magnificent, and 
his divinity revered. The Phoenicians offered 
quails on his altars, and as it was supposed that 
he presided over dreams, the sick and infirm 
were sent to sleep in his temples, that they 
might receive in their dream the agreeable 
presages of their approaching recovery. The 
white poplar was particularly dedicated to his 
service. Hercules is generally represented na- 
ked, with strong and well-proportioned limbs; 
he is sometimes covered with the skin of the 
Nemaean lion, and holds a knotted club in his 
hand, on which he often leans. Diod. 1 and 4. 
— Cic. de Nat. D. 1, &c. — Apollod. 1 and 2. — 
Paus. 1, 3, 5, 9 and 10. — H"siod. in Scut. Here. 
&c.—Hygin. fab. 29, 32, Sz-Z.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 
236, &.c.—Eer. 9, Amor. Trist. &c.— Homer. 11. 
8, &c. — Theocrit.'^A. — Eurip. in Here. — Virg. 
JEn. 8, V. 294. — Lucan. 3 and 6. — Apollon. 2.— 
Dionys. Hal. 1. — Sophocl. in Trachin. — Plut. 
in Ampkit. — Senec. in Here, furent. <f« (Et. — ■ 



Plin. 4, c. 6, 1. n, &c.—Philost. Icon. % c. 5.— 
Herodot. 1, c. 7, 1. 2, c. 42, &c.— Quint. Smym. 
6, V. 207, &c. — Callim. Hym. in Dian. — Pindar. 
Olymph. od. S.—Ital. 1, v. 438.— Stat. 2. Theb. v. 
564. — Mela, 2, c. 1. — Lnician. — Dial. — Lactanl. 
defals. Rel. — Strai. 3, &c, — Herat. Od. Sat. &c. 

Hercyna, a nymph who accompanied Ceres 
as she travelled over the world. A river in 
Boeolia bore her name. Paus. 9, c. 39. 

Herilus, a king of Prseneste, son of the 
nymph Feronia. As he had three lives, he was 
killed three times by Evander. Vir. Mn. 8, v. 563. 

Hermaphroditus, a son of Venus and Mer- 
cury, educated on mount Ida by the Naiades. 
At the age of 15 he began to travel to gratify his 
curiosity. When he came to Caira, he bathed 
himself in a fountain, and Salmacis, the nymph 
who presided over it. became enamoured of him, 
and attempted to seduce him. Hermaphroditus 
continued deaf to all entreaties and offers; and 
Salmacis endeavouring to obtain by force what 
was denied to prayers, closely em.braced him, 
and entreated the gods to make them two but one 
body. Her prayers were heard, and Salmacis 
and Hermaphroditus, now two in one body, still 
preserved the characteristics of both their sexes. 
Hermaphroditus begged the gods that all who 
bathed in that fountain might become effemi- 
nate. Ovid. Met. 4, v. Sil.—Hygin. fab. 271. 

Hermes, the name of Mercury among the 
Greeks. Vid. Mercurius. 

Hermione, a daughter of Mars and Venus, 
who married Cadmus. The gods, except Juno, 
honoured their nuptials with their presence, and 
she received as a present, a rich veil and a 
splendid necklace which had been made by 
Vulcan. She was changed into a serpent with 
her husband Cadmus, and placed in the Elysian 
fields. Vid. Har mania. Apollod. S. — Ovid. Met. 
4, fab. 13. Vid. Parts I and II. 

Heroes, the name which was given by the 
ancients to such as were born from a god, or to 
such as had signalized themselves by their ac- 
tions, and seemed to deserve immortality by the 
service they had rendered their country. The 
heroes which Homer describes, such as Ajax, 
Achilles, &c. were of such prodigious strength, 
that they could lift up and throw stones which 
the united force of four or five men of his age 
could not have moved. The heroes were sup- 
posed to be interested in the affairs of mankind 
after death, and they were invoked with much 
solemnity. As the altars of the gods were 
crowded with sacrifices and libations, so the 
heroes were often honoured with a funeral 
solemnity, in which their great exploits were 
enumerated. 

Herse, a- daughter of Cecrnps, king of 
Athens, beloved by Mercury. The god dis- 
closed his love to Aglauros, Herse's sister, in 
hopes of procuring an easy admission to Herse ; 
but Aglauros, through jealousy, discovered the 
amour. Herse became mother of Cephalus by 
Mercury, and, after death, she received divine 
honours at Athens. Ovid. Met. 2, v. 559, &c. 

Hertha, and Herta, a goddess among the 
Germans, supposed to be the same as the earth. 
She had a temple and a chariot dedicated to her 
service, in a lemote island, and was supposed to 
visit the earth at stated times, when her cominsr 
was celebrated with the greatest rejoicings and 
festivity. Tacit, de Germ. 
719 



EL 



MYTHOLOGY. 



JEP 



Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, king of 
Troy, by Stryrao, the daughter of the Scaman- 
der. It fell to her lot to be exposed to a sea- 
monster, to whom the Trojans yearly presented 
a marriageable virgin, to appease the resent- 
ment of Apollo and Neptune, whom Laomedon 
had offended, but Hercules promised to deliver 
her, provided he received as a reward six beau- 
tiful horses. Laomedon consented, and Hercu- 
les attacked the monster just as he was going 
to devour Hesione, and he killed him with his 
club. Laomedon, however, refused to reward 
the hero's services ; and Hercules, incensed at 
his treachery, besieged Troy, and put the king 
and all his family to the sword, except Podarces, 
or Priam, who had advised his father to give 
the promised horses to his sister's deliverer. 
The conqueror gave Hesione in marriage to his 
friend Telamon, who had assisted him during 
the war, and he established Priam upon his fa- 
ther's throne. Homer, II. 5, v. 638. — Diod. 4. 
Apollod. 2, c. 5, &c:—Ovid. Met. 11, v. 212. 

Hesperides, three celebrated nymphs, daugh- 
ters of Hesperus. Apollodorus mentions four, 
JEgle, Erythia, Vesta, and Arethusa; andDio- 
dorus confounds them with the Atlantides, and 
supposes that they were the same number. 
They were appointed to guard the golden ap- 
ples which Juno gave to Jupiter on the day of 
their nuptials ; and the place of their residence, 
placed beyond the ocean by Hesiod, is more 
universally believed to be near mount Atlas in 
Africa, according to Apollodorus. This cele- 
brated place or garden abounded with fruits 
of the most delicious kind, and was carefully 
guarded by a dreadful dragon which never 
slept. It was one of the labours of HerculesJto 
procure some of the golden apples of the Hes- 
perides. These were brought to Eurystheus, 
and afterwards carried back by Minerva into 
the garden of the Hesperides, as they could be 
preserved in no other place. Hercules is some- 
times represented gathering the apples, and the 
dragon, which guarded the tree, appears bowing 
down his head, as having received a mortal 
wound. This monster, as it is supposed, was 
the offspring of Typhon, and it had a hundred 
heads and as many voices. This number, 
however, is reduced by some to only one head. 
Those that attempt to explain mythology, ob- 
serve that the Hesperides were certain persons 
who had an immense number of flocks; and that 
the ambiguous word uri^ov, which signifies an 
apple, and a sheep, gave rise to the fable of the 
golden apples of the Hesperides. Diod. 4. — 
Ovid. Met. 4, V. 637, &c. 1.9, v. 90.— Hi/^in. fab. 
:iO.—Apol. 3, c. 5.— Hesiod. Theog. v. 215, &c. 

Hesperus, I. a son of Japetus, brother to At- 
las. He came to Italy, and the country received 
the name of Hesperia from him, according to 
some accounts. He had a daughter called Hes- 
peris, who married Atlas, and became mother 
of seven daughters, called Atlantides or Hespe- 
rides. Diod. 4. II. The name of Hesperus 

was also applied to the planet Venus, when it 
appeared after the setting of the sun. It was 
called Phosphorus or L/ucifer when it preceded 
the sun. Cic. de J^at. D. 2, c. 2. — Senec. de 
Hippol. 749. Id. in Med. 71. 

Hesus, a deity among the Gauls, the same as 
the Mars of the Romans. iMcan. 1, v. 445. 
Hierax, a youth who awoke Argus to inform 
720 



him that Mercury was stealing lo^ Mercury 
killed him, and changed him into a bird of prey. 
Apollod. 2, c. 1. Vid. Part II. 

Hilaria, a daughter of Leucippus and Phi- 
lodice. As she and her sister Phoebe were going 
to marry their cousins Lynceus and Idas, they 
were carried away by Castor and Pollux, who 
married them. Hilaria had Anagon by Castor, 
and she, as well as her sister, obiained, after 
death, the honours which were generally paid 
to heroes. Apollod. 3. — Propert. 1, el. 2, v. 16. 
—Pans. 2, c. 22, 1. 3, c. 19. 

HiPPius, a surname of Neptune, from his 
having raised a horse (tTTTroj) from the earth in 
his contest with Minerva, concerning the giving 
a name to Athens. 

HippocENTAURi, a race of monsters who 
dwelt in Thessaly. Vid. Ceniauri. 

HippocooN, a son of CEbalus, brother to 
Tyndarus. He was put to death by Hercules 
because he had driven his brother from the king- 
dom of Lacedaemon. He was at the chase of 
the Calydonian boar. Diod. 4. — Apollod. 2, &c. 
1. 3, c. 10.— Paws. Lacon.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 314. 

Hippodame, and Hippodamia, I. a daughter 
of OEnomaus, king of Pisa, in Elis, who mar- 
ried Pelops, son of Tantalus. Her father re- 
fused to marry her, except to him who could 
overcome him in a chariot race. As the beauty 
of Hippodamia was greatly celebrated, many 
courted her, and accepted her father's condi- 
tions, though death attended a defeat. Thir- 
teen had already been conquered, and forfeited 
their lives, when Pelops came from Lydia and 
entered the lists. He previously bribed Myrti- 
lus, the charioteer of CEnomaus, and ensured 
himself the victory. Hippodamia became mo- 
ther of Atrens and Thyestes, and it is said 
that she died of grief for the death of her fa- 
ther, which her guilty correspondence with Pe- 
lops and Myrtilus had occasioned. Virg. G. 3, 
V, 7. — Hygin. fab. 84 and 253. — Pans. 5, c. 14, 
&.c.—Diod. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. 8 and 17. Vid. 
(Enomaus. — II. A daughter of Adrastus, king 
of Argos, who married Pirithous, king of the 
Lapithse. The festivity which prevailed on the 
day of her marriage was interrupted by the at- 
tempts of Eurytus to offer her violence. Vid. 
pirithous. She is called Ischomache by some, 
and Deidamia by others. Ov)id. Met. 12. — 
Plut. in Thes. 

HiPPOLOCHUs, I. a son of Bellerophon, father 
to Glaucu?,who commanded the Lycians during 

the Trojan war. II. A son of Glaucus also 

bore the same name. Homer. 11. 6, v. 119. 

HippoLYTE, a queen of the Amazons, given 
in marriage to Theseus by Hercules, who had 
conquered her, and taken away her girdle by 
order of Eurystheus. Vid. Hercules. She ha3 
a son by Theseus, called Hippyolytus. Plut. in 
Thes. — Propert. 4, el. 3. Vid. Acastus. 

HippSlytds, a ^on of Theseus and Hippo- 
Ivte, famous for his virtues and his misfortunes. 
Temples were raised to his memory, particu- 
larly at Troezene, where he received divine 
honours. According to some accounts, Diana 
restored him to life. Vid. Phadra, and Part II. 
HippoMEDON, a son of Nisimaclms and My- 
thidice, who was one of the seven chiefs who 
went against Thebes. He was killed by Isma- 
rus, son of Acastus. Apol. 3, c. 6. — Paus. 2, c. 36. 
HippoMENES. Vid. Atalanta. 



HY 



MYTHOLOGY. 



HY 



HiPPoNA, a goddess who presided over horses. 
Her statues were placed in horses' stables. Juv. 
8, V. 157. 

HippoTHoox, a son of Neptune and Alope, 
daughter of Cercyon, exposed in the woods by 
his mother, that her amours with the god might 
be concealed from her father. Her shame was 
discovered, and her father ordered him to be put 
to death. Neptune changed her into a fountain, 
and the child was preserved by mares ; whence 
his name, and when grown up, placed on his 
grandfather's throne by the friendship of The- 
seus. Hygin. fab. 187. — Pans. 1, c. 38. 

Honor, a virtue worshipped at Rome. Her 
first temple was erected by Scipio Africanus, 
and another was afterwards built by Claudius 
Marcellus. Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 23. 

HoRA, a goddess at Rome, supposed to be 
Hersilia, who married Romulus. She was said 
to preside over beauty. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 851. 

HoR^, three sisters, daughters of Jupiter and 
Themis, according to Hesiod, called Eunomia, 
Dice, and Irene. They were the same as the 
seasons who presided over the spring, summer, 
and winter, and were represented by the poets 
as opening the gates of heaven and of Olympus. 
Homer. U. 5, v. 749. — Paiis. 5, c. 11. — Hesiod. 
Theog. V. 902. 

HoRTA, a divinity among the Romans, who 
presided over youth, and patronised all exhorta- 
tions to virtue and honourable deeds. She is 
the same as Herselia. 

HoRUs, a son of Isis, one of the deities of the 
Egyptians. 

HqspiTALis, a surname of Jupiter among the 
Romans, as the god of hospitality, 

Hyacinthus, a son of Amyclas and Diomede, 
greatly beloved by Apollo and Zephyrus. He 
returned the former's love, and Zephyrus, in- 
censed at his coldness and indifference, resolv- 
ed to punish his rival. As Apollo, who was 
intrusted with the education of Hyacinthus, 
once played at quoit, with his pupil, Zephy- 
rus blew the quoit, as soon as it was thrown 
by Apollo, upon the head of Hyacinthus, and 
he was killed by the blow. Apollo was so dis- 
consolate at the death of Hyacinthus, that he 
changed his blood into a flower, which bore his 
name, and placed his body among the constella- 
tions. The Spartans also established yearly 
festivals in honour of the nephew of their king. 
Pans. 3, c. 19.— Ovid. Met. 10, v. 185, &c.— 
Apollod. 3, &c. 

Hyades, five daughters of Atlas, king of 
Mauretania, who were so disconsolate at the 
death of their brother Hyas, who had been kill- 
ed by a wild boar, that they pined away and 
died. They became stars after death, and were 
placed near Taurus, one of the 12 signs of the 
zodiac. They received the name of Hyades 
from their brother Hyas. Their names are 
Phaola, Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, and Po- 
Ivxo. To these some have added Thione and 
Prodice, and they maintained that they were 
daughters of Hyas and iEthra, one of the 
Oceanides. Euripides calls them daughters of 
Erechtheus. The ancients supposed that the 
rising and setting of the Hyades was always at- 
tended with much rain, whence the name (vu) 
pluo.) Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 165. — Hygin. fab. 182. 
— Eurip. in Ion. 

Hyas, a son of Atlas, of Mauretania, by 

Part III.-4 Y 



^thra. He was killed in an attempt to rob a 
lioness of her whelps. Some say that he died 
by the bite of a serpent, and others that he was 
killed by a wild boar. Vid. Hyades. Hygin. 
fab. 192.— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 170. 

Hydra, a celebrated monster, which infested 
the neighbourhood of the lake Lerna in Pelo- 
ponnesus. It was the fruit of Echidna's union 
with Typhon. It had a hundred heads ac- 
cording to Diodorus ; fifty, according to Simo- 
nides ; and nine according to the more received 
opinion of Apollodorus, Hygin lus, &c. As soon 
as one of these heads was cut off, two imme- 
diately grew up if the wound was not stopped 
by fire. It was one of the labours of Hercules to 
destroy this dreadful monster, and this he easily 
effected with the assistance of lolaus, who ap- 
plied a burning iron to the wounds, as soon as 
one head was cut off. The conqueror dipped 
his arrows in the gall of the hydra, and, from 
that circumstance, all the wounds which he 
gave proved incurable and mortal. Hesiod. 
Theog. — Apollod. 2, c. 5. — Pans. 5, c. 17. — 
Ovid. Met. 9, v. 69.—Horat. 4, ob. 4, v. 61.— 
Virg. Mn. 6, v. 276, 1. 7, v. 658. 

HYGEfA, or Hygiea, the goddess of health, 
daughter of iEsculapius, held in great venera- 
tion among the ancients. Her statues repre- 
sented her with a veil, and the matrons usually 
consecrated their locks to her. She was also 
represented on monuments as a young woman, 
holding a serpent in one hand, and in the other 
a cup, out of which the serpent sometimes 
drank. According to some authors, Hygeia is 
the same as Minerva, who received that name 
from Pericles, who erected her a statue, because 
in a dream she had told him the means of 
curing an architect, whose assistance he want- 
ed to build a temple. PUd. in Pericl.—Paus. 
1, c. 23. 

Hylas, a son of Thiodamas, king of Mysia, 
and Menodice, stolen away by Hercules, and 
carried on board the ship Argo to Colchis. On 
the Asiatic coast the Argonauts landed to take 
a supply of fresh water ; and Hylas, following 
the example of his companions, went to the 
fountain with a pitcher, and fell into the water 
and was drowned. The poets have embellished 
this tragical stor}', by saying, that the nymphs 
of the river, enamoured of the beautiful Hylas, 
carried him away; and that Hercules, discon- 
solate at the loss of his favourite youth, filled 
the woods and mountains with his complaints, 
and, at last, abandoned the Argonautic expedi- 
tion to go and seek him. Apol. 1, c. 9. — Hygin. 
fab. 14. 211.— Virg. Ed. 6.—Propert. 1, el. 20. 

Hyllus, a son of Hercules and Dejanira, 
who, soon after his father's death, married lole. 
He, as well as his father, was persecuted by the 
envy of Eurystheus, and obliged to fly from the 
Peloponnesus. The Athenians gave a kind re- 
ception to Hyllus and the rest of the Heraclidae, 
and marched against Eurystheus. Hyllus ob- 
tained a victory over his enemies, and killed 
with his own hand Eurystheus, and sent his 
head to Alcmena, his grandmother. Some time 
after he attempted to recover the Peloponnesus 
with the Heraclidae, and was killed in single 
combat by Echeraus, king of Arcadia. Vid. 
Heradida, Hercules. Herodot. 7, c. 204, &c. 
—Sf.rnb. 9.—Diod. A.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 270. 
Vid. Part I. 

721 



HY 



MYTHOLOGY. 



M 



Hylonome, the wife of Cyllaras, who killed 
herself the moment her hiisband was murdered 
by the Lapithse. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 405. 

Hymen^us, and Hymen, the god of marriage 
among the Greeks, was son of Bacchus and 
Venus, or, according to others, of Apollo and 
one of the muses. Hymenaeus, according to 
the more received opinions, was a young Athe- 
nian of extraordinary beauty,bui ignoble origin. 
He became enamoured of the daughter of one 
of the richest and noblest of his countrymen, 
and, as the rank and elevation of his mistress 
removed him from her presence and conver- 
sation, he contented himself to follow her 
wherever she went. In a certain procession, 
in which all the matrons of Athens went to 
Eleusis, Hymenaeus, to accompany his mistress, 
disguised himself in woman's clothes, and join- 
ed the religious troop. His youth, and the 
fairness of his features, favoured his disguise. 
A great part of the procession was seized by 
the sudden arrival of some pirates, and Hyme- 
naeus, who shared the captivity of his mistress, 
encouraged his female companions, and assassi- 
nated their ravishers while they were asleep. 
Immediately after this, Hymenasus repaired to 
Athens, and promised to restore to liberty the 
matrons who had been enslaved, provided he 
was allowed to marry one among them who was 
the object of his passion. The Athenians con- 
sented, and Hymenaeus experienced so much 
felicity in his marriage state that the people of 
Athens instituted festivals in his honour, and 
solemnly invoked him at their nuptials, as the 
Latins did their Thalassius. Hymen was 
generally represented as crowned with flowers, 
chiefly with marjoram or roses, and holding a 
burning torch in one hand, and in the other a 
vest of purple colour. It was supposed that he 
always attended at nuptials ; for, if not, matri- 
monial connexions were fatal, and ended in the 
most dreadful calamities ; and hence people ran 
about calling aloud, Hymen! Hymen! &c. 
Ovid. Medea. Met. 12, v. ^l^.— Virg.AHn. 1, 
&.c.— Catull. ep. 62. 

Hyperion, a son of Coelus and Terra, who 
married Thea, by whom he had Aurora, the 
sun and moon. Hyperion is often taken by 
the poets for the sun itself. Herod. Theog. — 
Apollod. 1, c. 1 and 2. — Homer, hymn, ad Ap. 

Hypermnestra. Vid. Danaides. 

Hypsipyle, a queen of Lemnos, daughter of 
Thoas and Myrine. During her reign, Venus, 
whose altars had been universally slighted, 
punished the Lemnian women, and rendered 
their mouths and breath so extremely offensive 
to the smell, that their husbands abandoned 
them, and gave themselves up to some female 
slaves, whom they had taken in the war against 
Thrace. This contempt was highly resented 
by all the women of Lemnos, and they resolved 
on revenge, and all unanimously put to death 
their male relations, Hypsipyle alone excepted, 
who spared the life of her faiher Thoas. Soon 
after this cruel murder, the Argonauts landed 
at Lemnos, in their expedition to Colchis and 
remained for some time in the island. During 
their stay the Argonauts rendered the Lemnian 
women mothers; and Jason, the chief of the 
Argonautic expedition, left Hypsipyle pregnant 
at his departure, and promised her eternal fideli- 
ty. Hypsipyle brought twins, Euneus and Ne- 
732 



brophonus, whom some have called Deiphilus 
or Thoas, Jason forgot his vows and promises 
to Hypsipyle, and the unfortunate queen was 
soon after forced to leave her kingdom by the 
Lemnian women, who conspired against her 
life, still mindful that Thoas had been preserved 
by means of his daughter. Hypsipyle, in her 
flight, was seized by pirates, and sold to Lycur- 
gus, king of Nemeea. She was intrusted with 
the care of Archemorus, the son of Lycurgus j 
and when the Argives marched against Thebes, 
they met Hypsipyle, and obliged her to show 
them a fountain, where they might quench their 
thirst. To do this more expeditiously, she laid 
down the child on the grass, and in her absence 
he was killed by a serpent. Lycurgus attempted 
to revenge the death of his son, but Hypsipyle 
was screened from his resentment by Adrastus, 
the leader of the Argives. Ovid. Heroid. 6. — 
Apollon. 1. — Stat. 5. — Theb. — FV,ac. 2. — ApoUod. 
1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. &.—Hygin. fab. 15, 74, &c. 

I. 

Iacchus, a surname of Bacchus, ah la^^i-Vy 
from the noise and shouts which the bacchanals 
raised at the festivals of this deity. Virg. Eel. 

6, G. 1, V, 166.— Ovid. Met. 4, 15. Some 

suppose him to be a son of Ceres ; because in 
the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries, the 
word Iacchus was frequently repeated. Herodot. 
8, c. 65. — Pans. 1, c, 2. 

Ialmenus, a son of Mars and Astyoche, who 
went to the Trojan war with his brother Asca- 
laphus, with 30 ships, at the head of the inhab- 
itants of Orchomenos and Aspledon, in Boeotia. 
Pans. 9, c. Zl.— Homer. II. 2, v. 19. 

Iambe, a servant maid of Metanira, wife of 
Celeus, king of Eleusis, who tried to exhilarate 
Ceres when she travelled over Attica in quest 
of her daughter Proserpine, From the jokes 
and stories which she made use of, free and 
satirical verses have been cdiWedi Iambics. Apol- 
lod. 1, c, 5. 

Iamid^, certain prophets among the Greeks, 
descended from lamus, a son of Apollo, who re- 
ceived the gift of prophecy from his father, which 
remained among his posterity. Pans. 6, c. 2. 

Janus, the most ancient king who reigned in 
Italy. He was a native of Thessaly, and son of 
Apollo, according to some. He came to Italy, 
where he planted a colony and built a small 
town on the river Tiber, which he called Jani- 
culum. Some authors make him son of Coelus 
and Hecate ; and others make him a native of 
Athens. During his reign, Saturn, driven from 
heaven by his son Jupiter, came to Italy, where 
Janus received him with much hospitality, and 
made him his colleague on the throne. Janus 
is represented with two faces, because he was 
acquainted with the past and the future ; or, 
according to others, because he was taken fur 
the sun, who opens the day at his rising, and 
shuts it at his setting. Some statues represented 
Janus with four heads. He sometimes appeared 
with a beard, and sometimes without. In reli- 
gious ceremonies, his name was always invoked 
the first, because he presided over all gates and 
avenues, and it is through him only that prayers 
can reach the immortal gods. From that cir- 
cumstance he often appears with a key in his 
right hand , and a rod in his left. Sometimes he 



JA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



JA 



holds the number 300 in one hand, and in the 
other 65, to show that he presides over the year, 
of which the first month bears his name. Some 
suppose that he is the same as the world, or Cce- 
lus ; and from that circumstance they call him 
Eanus, ab eundo, because of the revolution of 
the heavens. He was called by different names, 
such as Conslvius a consorendo, because he pre- 
sided over generation ; Quirinus or Martialis, 
because he presided over war. He is also calleii 
Fakdcius ^ Clausuis, because the gales of his 
temples were opened during the time of war 
and shut in time of peace. He was chiefly wor- 
shipped among the Romans,where he had many 
temples, some erected to Janus Bifrons, others 
to Janus Gluad rifrons. The temples of Cliiadri- 
frons were built with four equal sides, with a 
door and three windows on each side. The four 
doors were the emblems of the four seasons of 
the year, and the three windows in each of the 
sides the three months in each season, and all 
together, the twelve months of the year. Janus 
was generally represented in statues as a young 
man. After death, Janus was ranked among 
the gods, for his popularity, and the civilization 
which he had introduced among the wild in- 
habitants of Italy, His temple, which was al- 
ways open in time of war, was shut onl)'' three 
times during above 700 years, under Numa, 
234 B. C, and under Augustus ; and during 
that long period of time, the Romans were con- 
tinually employed in war. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 
65, &c.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. 607, — Varro de L. L. 
1. — Macrob. Sat. 1, 

Japetus, a son of Coelus or Titan, by Terra, 
who married Asia, or, according to others, 
Clymene, by whom he had Atlas, MencEtius, 
Prometheus, and Epimetheus, The Greeks 
looked upon him as the father of all mankind, 
and therefore from his antiquity old men were 
frequently called Japeti. His sons received the 
patronymic of Impetionides. Ovid. Met. 4,v. 631. 
—Hesiod. Theog. 136 and 508.— A^oZZo^. 1, c. 1. 

Iapyx, a son of Daedalus, who conquered a 
part of Italy, which he called lapj/gia. Ovid. 
Met. 14, V. 458, Vid. Part I, 

Iarbas, a son of Jupiter and Garamantis, 
king of Gaetulia, from which Dido bought land 
to build Carthage, He courted Dido, but the 
arrival of -/Eneas prevented his success, and the 
queen, rather than marry Iarbas, destroyed 
herself. Vid. Dido. Virg. Mn. 4, v. 36, &s.— 
Justin. 18, c. 6. — Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 552. 

Iasion, and Iasius, a son of Jupiter and Elec- 
tra, oneof the Atlan tides, who reigned over part 
of Arcadia, where he diligently applied himself 
to agriculture. He married the goddess Cybele, 
or Ceres, and all the gods were present at the 
celebration of his nuptials. He had by Ceres 
two sons, Philomelusand Plutus, towhora some 
have added a third, Corybas, who introduced 
the worshi-p) and mysteries of his mother in 
Phrygia. He had also a daughter, whom he 
exposed as soon as born, saying that he would 
raise only male children. The child, who was 
suckled by a she-bear and preserved, rendered 
herself famous afterwards, under the name of 
Atalanta. Iasion was killed with a thunderbolt 
of Jupiter, and ranked among the gods after 
death by the inhabitants of Arcadia. Hes. The. 
910.— Virg. ^n. 3, v. im.—Hyg. Poet. 2, c. 4. 

Jason, a celebrated hero, son of Alcimede, 



daughter of Phylacus, by ^son the son of Cre- 
theus, and Tyro the daughter of Salmoneus. 
Tyro, before her connexion with Cretheus the 
son of iEolus, had two son, Pelias and Neleus, 
by Neptune, iEson was king of lolchos, and 
at his death the throne was usurped by Pelias, 
and ^son, the lawful successor, was driven to 
retirement and obscurity. The education of 
young Jason was intrusted to the care of the 
centaur Chiron, and he was removed from the 
presence of the usurper, who had been informed 
by an oracle that one of the descendants of 
JEoIus would dethrone him. After he had made 
the most rapid progress in every branch of sci- 
ence, Jason left the centaur, and by his advice 
went to consult the oracle. He was ordered to 
go to lolchos, his native country, covered with 
the spoils of a leopard, and dressed in the gar- 
ments of a Magnesian. In his journey he was 
stopped by the inundation of the river Evenus 
or Enipeus, over which he was carried by Juno, 
who had changed herself into an old woman. 
In crossing the streams he lost one of his san- 
dals, and at his arrival at lolchos, the singularity 
of his dress and the fairness of his complexion 
attracted the notice of the people, and drew a 
crowd around him in the market place, Pelias 
came to see him with the rest, and as he had 
been warned oy the oracle to beware of a man 
who should appear at lolchos with one foot bare 
and the other shod, the appearanc? of Jason, who 
had lost one of his sandals, alarmed him. His 
terrors were soon augmented. Jason, accom- 
panied by his friends, repaired to the palace of 
Pelias, and boldly demanded the kingdom which 
he had unjustly usurped. The boldness and 
popularity of Jason intimidated Pelias; he was 
unwilling to abdicate the crown, and yet he fear- 
ed the resentment of his adversary. As Jason 
was young and ambitious of glory, Pelias, at 
once to remove his immediate claims to the 
crown, reminded him that ^etes, king of Col- 
chis, had severely treated and inhumanly mur- 
dered their common relation Phryxus. He ob- 
served that such a treatment called aloud for 
punishment, and that the undertaking would be 
accompanied with much glory and fame. He 
farther added, that his old age had prevented 
him from avenging the death of Phryxus, and 
that if Jason would undertake the expedition, 
he would resign to him the crown of lolchos, 
when he returned victorious from Colchis. 
Jason readily accepted the proposal which 
seemed to promise such military fame, Vid. 
ArgonautcR. After this celebrated conquest he 
immediately set sail for Europe with Medea, 
who had been instrumental in his preservation. 
Jason's partiality for Glauce,the daughter of the 
king of Corinth, afterwards disturbed their mat- 
rimonial happiness, and Medea was divorced 
that Jason might more freely indulge his amo- 
rous propensities. This infidelity was severely 
revenged by Medea, ( Vid.Glauce,) who destroy- 
ed her children in the presence of their father. 
Vid. Medea. After his separation from Me- 
dea, Jason lived an unsettled and melancholy 
life. As he was one day reposing himself hy 
the side of the ship which had carried him to 
Colchis, a beam fell upon his head, and he was 
crushed to death. This tragical event had been 
predicted to him before by Medea, according to 
the relation of some authors. Some say that he 
723 



ID 



MYTHOLOGY. 



IL 



afterwards returned to Colchis, where he seized 
the kingdom and reigned in great security. Eu- 
rip.in Med.— Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 2,3, &c.—Diod. 
4. — Pans. 2 and 3. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Cic. de 
Nat. 3.— Ovid. Trist. 3, el. 9.—Strab. 7.— 
ApoU. — Mace. — Hygin. 5, &c. — Pindar. 3, Nfm. 
— Justin. 42, c. 2, &c. — Seiiec.inMed. — Tzetz. 
adiAjcopK. 115, &c. — Atheu. 13. Vid. Part II. 
IcARius, I, an Athenian, father of Erigone. 
He gave wine to some peasants, who drank it 
with the greatest avidity, ignorant of its intox- 
icating nature. They were soon deprived of 
their reason, and the fury and resentment of 
their friends and neighbours were immediately 
turned upon Icarius, who perished by their 
hands. After death he was honoured with 
public festivals, and his daughter was led to 
discover the place of his burial by means of his 
faithful dog Mosra. Erigone hung herself in 
despair, and was changed into a constellation 
called Virgo. Icarius was changed into the 
star Bootes, and the dog McEra into the star 
Canis. Hygin. fab. 130. — Apollod. 3, c. 14, 



II. A son of CEbalus of Lacedeemon. He gave 
his daughter Penelope in marriage to Ulysses 
king of Ithaca, but he was so tenderly attached 
to her, that he wished her husband to settle at 
Lacedaemon, Ulysses refused, and when he 
saw the earnest petitions of Icarius, he told 
Penelope, as they were going to embark, that 
she might choose freely either to follow him to 
Ithaca, or to remain with her father. Penelope 
blushed in the deepest silence, and covered her 
head with her veil. Icarius upon this permit- 
ted his daughter to go to Ithaca, and immediate- 
ly erected a temple to the goddess of modesty, 
on the spot where Penelope had covered her 
blushes with her veil. Homer. Od. 16, v. 435. 
Icarus, a son of Daedalus, who, with his fa- 
ther, fled with wings from Crete to escape the 
resentment of Minos. His flight being too high, 
proved fatal to him ; the sun melted the wax 
which cemented his wings, and he fell into that 

Eart of the JEgean Sea which was called after 
is name. Vid. Dcedalus. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 178. 

IcELOs, one of the sons of Somnus, who 
changed himself into all sorts of animals, 
"whence the name (fj^eXo? similis). Ovid. Met. 
11, V. 640. 

Ida, a nymph of Crete, who went into Phry- 
gia, where she gave her name to a mountain of 
that country. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 177. Vid. Part I. 

lD^A,the surname of Cybele, because she was 
worshipped on mount Ida. Lkcret. 2, v. 611. 

Idas, a son of Aphareus and Arane, famous 
for his valour and military glory. He was 
among the Argonauts, and married Marpessa, 
the daughter of Evenus, king of iEtolia. Mar- 
pessa was carried away by Apollo, and Idas 
pursued his wife's ravish er with bows and ar- 
rows, and obliged him to restore her. Vid. 
Marpessa. According to Apollodorus, Idas 
with his brother Lynceus associated with Pol- 
lux and Castor to carry away some flocks; but 
when they had obtained a sufficient quantity 
of plunder, they refused to divide it into equal 
shares. This provoked the sons of Leda ; Lyn- 
ceus was killed by Castor, and Idas, to revenge 
his brother's death, immediately killed Castor, 
and in his turn perished by the hand of Pollux. 
According to Ovid and Pausanias, ihe quarrel 
between the sons of Leda and those of Apha- 
734 



reus arose from a more tender cause : Idas and 
Lynceus, as they say, were going to celebrate 
their nuptials with Phoebe and Hilaira, the two 
daughters of Leucippus ; but Castor and Pollux, 
who had been invited to partake the common 
festivity, offered violence to the brides and car- 
ried them away. Idas and Lynceus fell in the 
attempt to recover their wives. Homer. 11. 9. — 
Hygin. fab. 14, 100, &c.— Ovid. Past. 5, v. 700. 
— Apollod. 1 and 3. — Pans. 4, c. 2 and 1. 5, c. 18. 

Idea, or Id.ea, I. a daughter of Dardaniis, 
who became the second wife of Phineus, king 
of Bithynia, and abused the confidence reposed 

in her by her husband. Vid. Phineus. II. 

The mother of Teucer by Scamander. Apol. 

Idmon, son of Apollo and Asteria, or, as some 
say, of Cyrene, was the prophet of the Argo- 
nauts. He was killed in hunting a wild boar 
in Bithynia, where his body received a magni- 
ficent funeral. He had predicted the time and 
manner of his death. Apollod. 1, c, 9. — Orph. 

Idomeneus. Vid. Part II. 

Ilaira, a daughter of Leucippus, carried 
away with her sister Phoebe, by the sons of 
Leda, as she w^as going to be married, &c. 

Ilia, or Rhea, a daughter of Numitor, king 
of Alba, consecrated by her uncle Amulius to 
the service of Vesta, which required perpetual 
chastity, that she might not become a mother to 
d ispossess him of his crown . He was, however, 
disappointed ; violence was offered to Ilia, and 
she brought forth Romulus and Remus, who 
drove the usurper from his throne, and restored 
the crown to their grandfather Numitor, its 
lawful possessor. Ilia was buried alive by 
Amulius for violating the laws of Vesta; and 
because her tomb was near the Tiber, some 
suppose that she married the god of that river. 
Horat. 1, od. 2.— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 211.— Ovid. 
Past. 2, 598. 

Iliades, I. a surname given to Romulus, as 

son of Ilia. Ovid. II. A name given to the 

Trojan women. Virg. JEn. 1, v. 484. 

Ilione, the eldest daughter of Priam, who 
married Polymnester, king of Thrace. Virg. 
Mn. 1, V. 657. 

Ilithyia, a goddess, called also Juno Lucina. 
Some suppose her to be the same as Diana. 
She presided over the travails of women; and 
in her temple at Rome, it was usual to carry a 
small piece of money as an oflfering. This cus- 
tom was first established by Servius Tullius, 
who, by enforcing it, was enabled to know the 
exact number of the Roman people. Hesiod. Th. 
i50.— Homer. 11. 11, od. \9.— Apollod. 1 and 2. 
— Horat. carm. scecul. — Ovid. Met. 9, v. 283. 

Illyrius, a son of Cadmus and Hermione, 
from whom Illyricum received its name. Apol. 

Ilus, I. the fourth king of Troy, was son of 
Tros by Callirhoe. He married Eurydice the 
daughter of Adrastus, by whom he had Themis, 
who married Capys, and Laomedon the father 
of Priam. He built, or rather embellished, the 
city of Ilium, called also Troy from his father 
Tros. Jupiter gave him the Palladium, a cele- 
brated statue of Minerva, and promised that 
as long as it remained in Troy, so long would 
the town remain impjegnable. When the tem- 
ple of Minerva was in flames, Ilus rushed into 
the middle of the fire to save the Palladium, for 
which action he was deprived of bis sight by the 
goddess, though he recovered it some time after. 



JO 



MYTHOLOGY. 



IP 



■Homer. ll.—Strab. Vi.—Apol 3, c. 12.— Ovid. 

Fast. 4, V. 33, 1. 6, v. 419. II. A name of As- 

•canius, while he was at Troy, Virg,^n.l,v.212. 

iNACHiDEf?, I. a patronymic of Epaphus, as 
grandson of Inachus. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 704. 
II. And of Perseus, descended from Ina- 
chus. Id. 4, fab. 11. 

Inachus, a son of Oceanus and Tethys, fa- 
ther of lo, and also of Phoroneus and iEgialeus. 
He founded the kingdom of Argos, and was 
succeeded by Phoroneus, B.C. 1807, and gave 
his name to a river of Argos, of which he be- 
came the tutelar deity. He reigned 60 years. 
Virg. G. 3, V. Ibl.—Apollod. 2, c. 2.— Pans. 2, 
c. 15. Vid. Part I. 

Indigetes, a name given to those deities who 
were worshipped only in some particular places, 
or who were become gods from men, as Her- 
cules, Bacchus, &c. Some derive the word 
from inde and geniti, born at the same place 
where they received their worship, Virg. G. 
1, V. 4QS.--Ovid. Met. 14, v. 608. 

Ino, a daughter of Cadmus and Harraonia. 
Vid. Alhamas. 

lo, daughter of Inachus, or, according to 
others, of Jasus or Pirenes, was priestess to 
Juno at Argos, Jupiter became enamoured of 
her ; but Juno, jealous of his intrigues, discover- 
ed the object of his affection, and surprised him 
in the company of lo, though he had shrouded 
himself in all the obscurity of clouds and thick 
mists. Jupiter changed his mistress into a beau- 
tiful heifer; and the goddess, who well knew 
the fraud, obtained from her husband the ani- 
mal whose beauty she had condescended to 
comrriend, Juno commanded the hundred-eyed 
Argus to watch the heifer ; but Jupiter, anxious 
for the situation of lo, sent Mercury to destroy 
Argus, and to restore her to liberty, Vid. Ar- 
gus, lo, freed from the vigilance of Argus, 
was now persecuted by Juno, who sent one of 
the furies, or rather a malicious insect, to tor- 
ment her. She wandered over the greatest part 
of the earth, and crossed over the sea, till at last 
she stopped on the banks of the Nile, still ex- 
posed to the unceasing torments of Juno's in- 
sect. Here she entreated Jupiter to restore her 
to her ancient form; and when the god had 
changed her from a heifer into a woman, she 
brought forth Epaphus. Afterwards she mar- 
ried Telagonus, king of Egypt, or Osiris, ac- 
cording to others ; and she treated her subjects 
with such mildness and humanity, that, after 
death, she received divine honours, and was 
worshipped under the name of Isis. Accord- 
ing to Herodotus, lo was carried away by Phoe- 
nician merchants, who wished to make reprisals 
for Europa, who had been stolen from them hy 
the Greeks. Some suppose that lo never came 
to Egypt. She is sometimes called Phoronis, 
from her brother Phoroneus. Oind. Met. 1, v. 
'lis.— Pans: 1, c. 25, 1. 3, c. IS.— Moschus.— 
Apollod. 2, c. i.— Virg. ^n. 7, Y.1^9.—Hygin. 
fab. 145. 

loBATEs, and Jobates, a king of Lycia, father 
of Stenobssa, the wife of Proetus, king of Argos, 
He was succeeded on the throne by Bellerophon, 
to whom she had given one of her daughters, 
called Philonoe, in marriage. Vid. Bellero- 
phon. Apollod. 2, c. 2. — Hygin. fab, 57. 

JocASTA, a daughter of Menoeceus, who mar- 
ried Laius, king of Thebes, by whom she had 



CEdipus. She afterwards married herson (Edi- 
pus, without knowing who he was, and had by 
him ^teocles, Polynices, &c. Vid. Laius, 
(Edipus. When she discovered that she had 
married her own son, and had been guilty of 
incest, she hanged herself in despair. She is 
called Epicasta by some mythologists. Stat. 
Theb. 8, v. 42. — Senec. and Sophocl. in (Edip. — 
Apol. 3, c. 5. — Hyg. fab. &&, &c. — Homer. Od. 11. 

loLAS, or loLAUs, a son of Iphiclus, king of 
Thessaly, who assisted Hercules in conquering 
the hydra, and burnt with a hot iron the place 
where the heads had been cut off, to prevent 
the growtli of others. He was restored to his 
youth and vigour by Hebe, at the request of his 
friend Hercules, Some time afterwards, lolas 
assisted the Heraclidae against Eurystheus, and 
killed the tyrant with his own hand. Accord- 
ing to Plutarch, lolas had a monument in Boeo- 
tia and Phocis, where lovers used to go and 
bind themselves by the most solemn oaths of 
fidelity, considering the place as sacred to love 
and friendship. According to Diodorus and 
Pausanias, lolas died and was buried in Sar- 
dinia, where he had gone to make a settlement 
at the head of the sons of Hercules, by the fifty 
daughters of Thespius. Ovid. Met. 9, v, 399. 
—Apollod. 2, c. A.— Pans. 10, c, 17, 

loLE, a daughter of Eurytus, king of OEcha- 
lia. Her father promised her in marriage to 
Hercules, but he refused to perform his engage- 
ments, and lole was carried away by force. 
Vid. Eurytus. It was to extinguish the love 
of Hercules for lole, that Dejanira sent him 
the poisoned tunic which caused his death, Vid. 
Hercules and Dejanira. After the death of 
Hercules, lole married his son Hyllus, by De- 
janira. Apollod. 2, c. l.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 270. 

Ion, a son of Xuthus and Creusa, daughter 
of Erechtheus, who married Helice, the daugh- 
ter of Selinus, king of iEgiale. He succeeded 
on the throne of his father-in-law, and built a 
city, which he called Helice, on account of his 
wife. His subjects from him received the name 
of lonians, and the country that of Ionia. Vid. 
lones and Ionia. Apollod. 1, c, 7, — Paus. 7, c. 
l.—Strah. l.—Herodot. 7, c, 94, 1, 8, c, 44-. 
Vid. Part II. 

Iphiclus, or Iphicles, I. a son of Amphitry- 
on and Alcmena, born at the same birth with 
Hercules. As these two children were together 
in the cradle, Juno, jealous of Hercules, sent 
two large serpents to destroy him. At the sight 
of the serpents, Iphicles alarmed the house ; 
but Hercules, though not a year old, boldly 
seized them, one in each hand, and squeezed 

them to death. Apol. 2, c. 4. — Theocrit. II. 

A king of Phylace, in Phthiotis, son of Phyla- 
cus and Clymene. Vid. Melampus. He was 
father to Pordace and Protesilaus. Homer. Od. 
11, II. n.— Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Paus. 4, c. 36. 

Ifhigenia, a daughter of Agamemnon and 
Clytemnestra. When the Greeks, going to the 
Trojan war, were detained by contrary winds 
at Aulis, they were informed by one of the 
soothsayers, that, to appease the gods, they 
must sacrifice Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daugh- 
ter, to Diana. As Iphigenia was tenderly loved 
by her mother, the Greeks sent for her on pre- 
tence of giving her in marriage to Achilles. 
Clytemnestra gladly permitted her departure, 
and Iphigenia came to Aulis: here she saw the 
725 



IP 



MYTHOLOGY. 



IS 



bloody preparations for the sacrifice ; she im- 
plored the forgiveness and protection of her fa- 
ther, but tears and entreaties were unavailing. 
Calchas took the knife in his hand, and, as he 
was going to strike the fatal blow, Iphigenia 
suddenly disappeared, and a goat of uncommon 
size and beauty was found in her place for the 
sacrifice. This supernatural change animated 
the Greeks, the wind suddenly became favour- 
able, and the combined fleet set sail from Aulis. 
Iphigenia's innocence had raised the compas- 
sion of the goddess on whose altar she was going 
to be sacrificed, and she carried her to Taurica, 
where she intrusted her with the care of her 
temple. In this sacred of&ce Iphigenia weis 
obliged, by the command of Diana, to sacrifice 
all the strangers which came into that country. 
Many had already been ofiered as victims on the 
bloody altar, when Orestes and Pylades came 
to Taurica. Their mutual and unparalleled 
friendship, ( Vid. Pylades and Ores^s,) disclosed 
to Iphigenia that one of the strangers whom she 
was going to sacrifice was her brother ; and, 
upon this, she conspired with the two friends to 
fly from the barbarous country, and carry away 
the statue of the goddess. They successfully 
effected their enterprise, and murdered Thoas, 
who enforced the human sacrifices. According 
to some authors, the Iphigenia who was sacri- 
ficed at Aulis was not a daughter of Agamem- 
non, but a daughter of Helen by Theseus. Ho- 
mer does not speak of the sacrifice of Iphigenia, 
though very minute in the description of the 
Grecian forces, adventures, &c. The statue of 
Diana, which Iphigenia brought away, was af- 
terwards placed in the grove of Aricia, in Italy. 
Pans. % c. 22, 1. 3, c. \Q.—Ovid. Met. 12, 
V. Zl.— Virg. JEn.2, v. IIQ.—Mschyl.—Eurip. 

Iphinoe, one of the principal women of Lem- 
nos, who conspired to destroy all the males of 
the island after their return from a Thracian 
expedition. Flacc. 2, v. 163. 

Iphis, I. son of Alector, succeeded his father 
on the throne of Argos. He advised Polyni- 
ces, who wished to engage Amphiaraus in the 
Theban war, to bribe his wife Eriphyle, by giv- 
ing her the golden collar of Harmonia. This 
succeeded, and Eriphyle betrayed her husband. 
Apollod. 3. — Flacc. 1, 3, and 7. II. A beau- 
tiful youth of Salamis, of ignoble birth. Vid. 

Anaxarete. III. A daughter of Ligdus and 

Telethusa, of Crete. When Telethusa was 
pregnant, Ligdus ordered her to destroy her 
child if it proved a daughter, because his 
poverty could not afibrd to maintain a useless 
charge. The severe orders of her husband 
alarmed Telethusa, and she would have obey- 
ed, had not Isis commanded her in a dream to 
spare the life of her child. Telethusa brought 
forth a daughter, which was given to a nurse, 
and passed for a boy under the name of Iphis. 
Ligdus continued ignorant of the deceit, and 
when Iphis was come to the years of puberty, 
her father resolved to give her in marriage to 
lanthe, the beautiful daughter of Telestes. A 
day to celebrate the nuptials was appointed, but 
Telethusa and her daughter were equally anxi- 
ous to put off'the marriage ; and, w^hen all was 
unavailing, they implored the assistance of Isis, 
by whose advice the life of Iphis had been pre- 
served. The goddess was moved, she changed 
the sex of Iphis, and. on the morrow, the nup- 
72C 



tials were consummated with the greatest re- 
joicings. Ovid. Met.' 9, v. 666, «&c. 

IpmTus, a son of Eurytus, king of (Echalia. 
When Autolycus stole away the oxen of Eury- 
tus, Iphitus was sent in quest of them, and, in 
his search, he met with Hercules, whose good 
favours he had gained by advising Eurytus to 
give lole to him in marriage. Hercules assisted 
Iphitus in seeking the lost animals ; but when 
he recollected the ingratitude of Eurytus, he 
killed Iphitus by throwing him down from the 
walls of Tiryn thus. Homer. Od. 21. — Apollod. 
2,c.6.' H^. Part II. 

Irene, I. a daughter of Cratinus the painter. 

Plin. 35, c. 11. II. One of the seasons among 

the Greeks, called by the moderns Horse. Her 
two sisters were Dia and Eunomia, all daugh- 
ters of Jupiter and Themis, Apollod. 1, c. 3. 

Iris, a daughter of Thaumas and Electra, 
one of the Oceanides, messenger of the gods, 
and more particularly of Juno. Her ofiice was 
to cut the thread which seemed to detain the 
soul in the body of those that were expiring. 
She is the same as the rainbow, and from that 
circumstance she is represented with wings, 
with all the beautiful and variegated colours of 
the rainbow, and appears sitting behind Juno, 
ready to execute her commands. She is like- 
wise described as supplying the clouds with 
water to deluge the world. Hesiod. Theog. v. 
2&Q.— 0vid. Met. 1, v. 271, and seq. 1. 4, v. 481. 
1. 10, V, 585.— Fir^, M%. 4, v. 694, Vid. Part I. 

Isis, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, 
daughter of Saturn and Rhea, according toDio- 
dorus of Sicily. Some suppose her to be the 
same as lo. According to some traditions men- 
tioned by Plutarch, Isis married her brother 
Osiris, and was pregnant by him even before she 
had left her mother's womb. These two an- 
cient deities, as some authors observe, compre- 
hended all nature and all the gods of the hea- 
thens. Isis was the Venus cf Cyprus, the 
Minerva of Athens, the Cybele of the Phry- 
gians, the Ceres of Eleusis, the Proserpine of 
Sicily, the Diana of Crete, the Bellona of the 
Romans, &c. Osiris and Isis reigned conjoint- 
ly in Egypt, but the rebellion of Typhon, the 
brother of Osiris, proved fatal to this sovereign. 
Vid. Osiris and Typhon. The ox and cow 
were the symbols of Osiris and Isis, because 
these deities, while on earth, had diligently ap- 
plied themselves in cultivating the earth, Vid. 
Apis. As Isis was supposed to be the moon 
and Osiris the sun, she was represented as 
holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full 
of ears of corn. The Egyptians believed that 
the yearly and regular inundations of the Nile 
proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis 
shed for the loss of Osiris, whom Typhon had 
murdered. This word Isis, according to some, 
signifies ancient, and, on that account, the in- 
scription of the statues of the goddess were 
often in these words : lam all that has been, that 
shall be, and none among mortals has hitherto 
taken off my veil. The worship of Isis was 
universal in Egypt ; the priests were obliged to 
observe perpetual chastity, their head was 
closely shaved, and they always walked bare- 
footed, and clothed themselves in linen gar- 
ments. They never eat onions, they abstained 
from salt with their meat, and were forbidden 
to eat the flesh of sheep and of hogs. During 



JXJ 



MYTHOLOGY. 



JU 



the night they were employed in continual de- 
votion near the statue of the goddess. Cleo- 
patra, the beautiful queen of Egjrpt, was wont 
to dress herself like this goddess, and affected to 
be called a second Isis. Cic. de Div. 1. — Plut. 
de hid. tf« Osirid. — Diod. 1. — Dionys. Hal. 1. — 
Herodoi. 2, c. 59. — Dacan. 1, v. 831. 

IsMENE, a daughter of (Edipus and Jocasta, 
who, when her sister Antigone had been con- 
demned to be buried alive by Creon, for giving 
burial to her brother Polynices against the ty- 
rant's positive orders, declared herself as guilty 
as her sister, and insisted upon being equally 
punished with her. This instance of generosity 
was strongly opposed by Antigone, who wished 
not to see her sister involved in her calamities. 
Sophocl. in Antig. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. 

IsMENius, a surname of Apollo, at Thebes, 
where he had a temple on the borders of the 
Ismenus. 

IsMENUs, a son of Apollo and Melia, one of 
the Nereides, who gave his name to the Ladon, 
a river of BcEotia, near Thebes, falling into the 
Asopus, and thence into the Euripus. Paus. 
9, c. 10. 

IssE, a daughter of Macareus, the son of 
Lycaon. She was beloved by Apollo, who to 
obtain her confidence changed himself into the 
form of a shepherd to whom she was attached. 
This metamorphosis of Apollo was represented 
on the web of Arachne. Ovid. Met. 6, v. 124. 

Italus, I. a son of Telegonus. Hygin: fab. 
127. — —II. An Arcadian prince, who came to 
Italy, where he established a kingdom called 
after him. It is supposed that he received divine 
honours after death, as ^neas calls upon him 
among the deities to whom he paid his adoration 
when he entered Italy. Virg. jEn. 7, v. 178. 

Itonus, akingofThessaly, son of Deucalion, 
who first invented the manner of polishing 
metals. lAican. 6, v. 402. 

Itys. Vid. Philomela. 

ItJLUs. Vid. Part II. 

Juno, a celebrated deity among the ancients, 
daughter of Saturn and Ops. She was sister 
to Jupiter, Pluto, Neptune, Vesta, Geres, &c. 
She was born at Argos, or, according to others, 
in Samos, and was intrusted to the care of the 
Seasons, or, as Homer and Ovid mention, to 
Oceanus and Tethys. At the nuptials of Jupi- 
ter and Juno, the gods, all mankind, and all the 
brute creation, attended. By her marriage with 
Jupiter, Juno became the queen of all the gods, 
and mistress of heaven and earth. Her conju- 
gal happiness, however, was frequently disturb- 
ed by the numerous amours of her husband, and 
she showed herself jealous and inexorable in 
the highest degree. Her severity to the mis- 
tresses and illegitimate children of her husband 
was unparalleled. Juno had some children by 
Jupiter. According to Hesiod, she was mother 
of Mars, Hebe, and Ilithya, or Lucina ; and, 
besides these, she brought forth Vulcan, with- 
out having any commerce with the other sex. 
According to others, it was not Vulcan, but 
Mars, or Hebe, whom she brought forth in this 
manner. The daily and repeated debaucheries 
of Jupiter at last provoked Juno to such a de- 
gree, that she retired to Eubcea, and resolved for 
ever to forsake his bed. Jupiter produced a re- 
conciliation, after he had applied to Citheeron for 
advice, and after he had. obtained forgiveness 



by fraud and artifice. Vid. Dadala. This 
reconciliation, however cordial it might appear, 
was soon dissolved by new offences ; and, to 
stop the complaints of the jealous Juno, Jupiter 
had often recourse to violence and blows. He 
even punished the cruelties which she had ex- 
ercised upon his son Herctiles, by suspending 
her from the heavens by a golden chain, and 
tying a heavy anvil to her feet. This punish- 
ment rather irritated than pacified Juno. She 
resolved to revenge it, and she engaged some of 
the gods to conspire against Jupiter, and to im- 
prison him, but Thetis delivered him from this 
conspiracy by bringing to his assistance the 
famous Briareus. Apollo and Neptune were 
banished from heaven for joining in the con- 
spiracy, though some attribute their exile to 
different causes. The worship of Juno was uni- 
versal, and even more than that of Jupiter, ac- 
cording to some authors. Her sacrifices were 
offered with the greatest solemnity. She was 
particularly worshipped at Argos, Samos, Car- 
thage, and afterwards at Rome. The ancients 
generally offered on her altars a ewe lamb and 
a sow the first day of every month. No cows 
were ever immolated to her, because she as- 
sumed the nature of that animal when the gods 
fled into Egypt in their war with the giants. 
Among the birds, the hawk, the goose, and par- 
ticularly the peacock, often called Junonia avis, 
( Vid. Argus,) were sacred to her. The dittany, 
the poppy, and the lily, were her favourite 
flowers. As Juno's power was extended over 
all the gods, she often made use of the goddess 
Minerva as her messenger, and even had the 
privilege of hurling the thunder of Jupiter when 
she pleased. Her temples were numerous, the 
most famous of which were at Argos, Olympia, 
&c. At Rome no woman of debauched charac- 
ter was permitted to enter her temple, or even 
to touch it. The surnames of Juno are various; 
they are derived either from the functions or 
things over which she presided, or from the 
places where her worship was established. She 
was the queen of the heavens ; she protected 
cleanliness, and presided over marriage and 
child-birth, and particularly patronised the most 
faithful and virtuous of the sex, and severely 
punished incontinence and lewdness in matrons. 
She was the goddess of all power and empire, 
and she was also the patroness of riches. She 
is represented sitting on a throne with a diadem 
on her head, and a golden sceptre in her right 
hand. Some peacocks generally sat by her, and 
a cuckoo often perched on her sceptre ; while 
Iris behind her displayed the thousand colours 
of her beautiful rainbow. She is sometimes 
carried through the air in a rich chariot drawn 
by peacocks. The Roman consuls, when they 
entered upon office, were always obliged to offer 
her a solemn sacrifice. The Juno of the Ro- 
mans was called Matrona or Romana. She 
was generally represented as veiled from head 
to foot, and the Roman matrons always imitated 
this manner of dressing themselves, and deemed 
it indecent in any married women to leave any 
part of her body but her face uncovered. She 
has received the surname of Samia, Argiva, 
Telchinia, Imbrasia, Acrea, Cithaeroneia, Bu- 
nea, Ammonia, Fluonia, Anthea, Tropeia.Par- 
thenos, Teleia, Zera, Ilithyia, Lucinia, Pronu- 
ba, Pupulonia, Sospita, Moneta, Curis, Februa, 
727 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



IX 



Opigenia, &c. Cic. de Nat. D. 2. — Paus, 2, 
&c. — Apollod. 1, 2, 3. — Apollon. l.~ Argon. — 
Horn. II. 1, &c.— Virg. JEn. 1, &LZ.—Herodot. 
I, 2, 4, &:c.—SU. l.—Diomjs. Hal. l.—Liv. 23, 
24, 27, &c.— Ovid. Met. 1, &c.—Fast. b.—Plut. 
qucest. Rom. — Tibnll. 4, el. 13. — Athen. 15. — 
Plin.U. 

Jupiter, the most powerful of all the gods of 
the ancients. According to Varro there were 
no less than 300 persons of that name ; Diodo- 
rus mentions two; and Cicero three, two of 
Arcadia and one of Crete. To that of Crete, 
who passed for the son of Saturn and Ops, the 
actions of the rest have been attributed. Ac- 
cording to the opinion of the mythologisls, Ju- 
piter was saved from destruction by his mother, 
and intrusted to the care of the Corybantes. 
Saturn, who had received the kingdom of the 
world from his brother Titan on condition of 
not raising male children, devoured all his sons 
as soon as born ; but Ops, oifended at her hus- 
band's cruelty, secreted Jupiter and gave a stone 
to Saturn, which he devoured on the supposition 
that it was a male child. Jupiter was educated 
in a cave on mount Ida, in Crete, and fed upon 
the milk of the goat Amalthaea, or upon honey, 
according to others. He received the name of 
Jupiter, quasi juvans pater. His cries were 
drowned by the noise of cymbals and drums, 
which the Corybantes beat at the express com- 
mand of Ops. Vid. Corybantes. As soon as 
he was a year old, Jupiter found himself suf- 
ficiently strong to make war against the Titans, 
who had imprisoned his father because he had 
brought up male children. The Titans were 
conquered, and Saturn set at liberty by the 
hands of his son, Saturn, however, soon after, 
apprehensive of the power of Jupiter, conspired 
against his life, and was, for this treachery, 
driven from his kingdom and obliged to fly for 
safety into Latium. Jupiter divided with his 
brothers the empire of the world. He reserved 
for himself the kingdom of heaven, and gave 
the empire of the sea to Neptune, and that of 
the infernal regions to Pluto. He married 
Metes,Themis, Euronyme, Ceres, Mnemosyne, 
Latona, and Juno, ( Vid. Juno,) and became a 
Proteus to gratify his passions. His children 
were also numerous as well as his mistresses. 
According to Apollodorus, 1, c. 3, he was father 
of the Seasons, Irene, Eunomia, the Fates, Clo- 
the, Lachesis, and Atropos, by Themis; of 
Venus, by Dione; of the Graces, Aglaia, Eu- 
phrosyne, and Thalia, by Eurynome, the daugh- 
ter of Oceanus ; of Proserpine, by Styx ; of the 
nine Muses, by Mnemosyne, &c. Vid. Niobe, 
Laodamia, Pyrrha, Protogenia, Electra, Maia, 
Semele, &c. The worship of Jupiter was uni- 
versal ; he was the Ammon of the Africans, 
the Belus of Babylon, the Osiris of Egypt, &c. 
His surnames were numerous, many of which 
he received from the place or function over 
which he presided. He was severally called 
Jupiter Feretrius, Inventor, Elicius, Apomyos, 
Capitolinus, Latialis, Pistor, Sponsor, Herceus, 
Anxurus, Victor, Maximus, Optimos, Olym- 
pius, Fluvialis, &c. The worship of Jupiter 
surpassed that of the other gods in solemnity. 
His altars were not, like those of Saturn and 
Diana, stained with the blood of human victims, 
but be was delighted with the sacrifice of goats, 
sheep, and white bulls. The oak was sacred 
728 



to him, because he first taught mankind to live 
upon acorns. He is generally represented as 
sitting upon a golden or ivory throne, holding, 
in one hand, thunderbolts, just ready to be hurl- 
ed, and, in the other, a sceptre of cypress. His 
looks express majesty, his beard flows long and 
neglected, and the eagle stands with expanded 
wings at his feet. He is sometimes represented 
with the upper parts of his body naked, and 
those below the waist carefully covered, as if 
to show that he is visible to the gods above, but 
that he is concealed from the sight of the in- 
habitants of the earth. Jupiter had several 
oracles, the most celebrated of which were at 
Dodona, and Ammon in Libya. As Jupiter was 
the king and father of gods and men, his power 
was extended over the deities, and every thing 
was subservient to his will, except the Fates. 
From him mankind received their blessings and 
their miseries ; and they looked upon him as 
acquainted with every thing past, present, and 
future. He was represented at Olympia with 
a crown like olive branches, his mantle was 
variegated with different flowers, particularly 
the lily, and the eagle-perched on the top of the 
sceptre which he held in his hand. The Cre- 
tans represented Jupiter without ears, to signify 
that the sovereign master of the world ought 
not to give a partial ear to any particular per- 
son, but be equally candid and propitious to all. 
At Lacedsemon he appeared with four heads, 
that he might seem to hear with greater readi- 
ness the different prayers and solicitations which 
were daily poured to him from every part of the 
earth. Paus. 1, 2, &c. — Liv. 1, 4, 5, &c. — 
niod. 1 and 3.— Homer. Id. 1, 5, &c. Od. 1, 4,&c. 
— Hymn, ad Jov. — Orpheus. — Callimac. Jov. — 
Pindar. Olymp. 1, 3, 5. — Apollon. 1, &c. — Hes- 
iod. Theog. in Scut. — Here. Oyer, et Dies.—Ly- 
cophron. in Cass. — Virg. JEn. 1, 2, &c., G. 3. — 
Ovid' Met. 1, fab. 1, &c.—Horat. 3, od. 1, &c. 

JuTURNA, a sister of Turnus, king of the Ru- 
tuli. She heard with contempt the addresses 
of Jupiter, or, according to others, she was 
not unfavourable to his passion, so that the god 
rewarded her love with immortality. She was 
afterwards changed into a fountain of the same 
name near the Numicus, falling into the Tiber. 
The waters of that fountain were used in sacri- 
fices, and particularly in those of Vesta. They 
had the power to heal diseases. Varro de L. 
L. 1, c. 10.— Ovid. Fast. 1, v.708, 1. 2, v. 585.-- 
Virg. Mn. 12, v. 139.— Cic. Cluent. 36. 

JuvENTAS, or JuvENTUs, a goddcss at Rome, 
who presided over youth and vigour. She is 
the same as the Hebe of the Greeks, represent- 
ed as a beautiful nymph, arrayed in variegated 
garments. Liv. 5, c. 54, 1. 21, c. 62, 1. 36, c. 
3&.— Ovid. ex Pont. 1, ep. 9, v. 12. 

IxioN, a king of Thessaly, son of Plilegas, 
or, according to Hyginus, of Leontes, or, ac- 
cording to Diodorus, of Antion, by Perimela, 
daughter of Amythaon. He married Dia, 
daughter of Eioneus or Deioneus, and promised 
his father-in-law a valuable present for the 
choice he had made of him to be his daughter's 
husband. Unwilling, however, to fulfil his 
promises, he invited his father-in-law to a feast 
at Larissa, the capital of his kingdom, and 
when Deioneus was come, according to the ap- 
pointment, he threw him into a pit which he had 
previously filled with wood and burning coals. 



LA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



LA 



This premeditated treachery so irritated the 
neighbouring princes, that all of them refused 
to perform the usual ceremonies by which a man 
was then purified of murder, and Ixion was 
shurmed and despised by all mankind. Jupiter 
had compassion upon him, and carried him to 
heaven, and introduced him at the tables of the 
"gods. Here he became enamoured of Juno, 
who was willing to gratify his passion, though, 
according to others, she informed Jupiter of the 
attempt on her virtue. Jupiter made a cloud in 
the shape of Juno, and carried it to the place 
where Ixion had appointed to meet Juno. Ixion 
was caught in the snare, and from his embrace 
with the cloud, he had the Centaurs, or, accord- 
ing to others, Centaurus. Vid. Centauri. Ju- 
giter, displeased with the insolence of Ixion 
anishedhim from heaven ; but when he heard 
that he had seduced Juno, the god struck him 
with his thunder, and ordered Mercury to tie 
him to a wheel in hell which continually whirls 
round. The wheel was perpetually in motion, 
therefore the punishment of Ixion was eternal. 
Diod. 4. — Hygin. fab. 62. — Pindar. 2. — Pyth. 
2.— Virg. G. 4, V. 484.— ^7t. 6, v. mi.— Ovid. 
Met. 12, V. 210 and 2>m.—Philostr. Ic. 2, c. 3.— 
Lactant. in Th. 2. 

L. 

Labdacides, a name given to CEdipus, as 
descended from Labdacus. 

Labdacus, a son of Polydorus by Nycteis, 
the daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes. His 
father and mother died during his childhood, 
and he was left to the care of Nycteus, who at 
his death left his kingdom in the hands of Ly- 
cus, with orders to restore it to Labdacus as 
soon as of age. He was father to Laius. It 
is unknown whether he ever sat on the throne 
of Thebes, According to Statins, his father's 
name was Phoenix. His descendants were 
called Labdacides. Stat. Theh. 6, v. 451. — Apol. 
3, c. 5. — Pans. 2, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 5, 

Labradeijs, a surname of Jupiter in Caria. 
The word is derived from labrys, which in the 
language of the country signifies a hatchet, 
which Jupiter's statue held in his hand. Plut. 

Labyrinthus, a building whose numerous 
passages and perplexing windings render the 
escape from it difiicult, and almost impracti- 
cable. There were four very famous among 
the ancients, one near the city of Crocodiles or 
Arsinoe, another in Crete, a third at Lemnos, 
and a fourth in Italy, built by Porsenna. That 
of Egypt was the most ancient, and Herodotus, 
who saw it, declares that the beauty and the art 
of the building were almost beyond belief It 
was built by twelve kings, who at one time 
reigned in Egypt, and it was intended for the 
place of their burial, and to commemorate the 
actions of their reign. It was divided into 12 
halls, or according to Pliny, into 16, or as Strabo 
mentions, into 27. The halls were vaulted 
according to the relation of Herodotus. They 
had each six doors, opening to the north, and the 
same number to the south, all surrounded by 
one wall. The edifice contained 3000 chambers, 
1500 in the upper part, and the same . number 
below. She chambers above were seen by 
Herodotus, and astonished him beyond concep- 
tien, but he was not permitted to see those be- 

Part III. 4 Z 



low, where were buried the holy crocodiles and 
the monarchs whose munificence had raised the 
edifice. The roofs and walls were incrusted 
with marble, and adorned with sculptured 
figures. The halls were surrounded with 
stately and polished pillars of white stone, and, 
according to some authors, the opening of the 
doors was artfully attended with a terrible 
noise, like peals of thunder. The labyrinth of 
Crete was built by Deedalus, in imitation of that 
of Egypt, and it is the most famous of all in 
classical history. It was the place of confine- 
ment for Daedalus himself, and the prison of the 
Minotaur. According to Pliny, the labyrinth 
of Lemnos surpassed the others in grandeur and 
magnificence. It was supported by forty col- 
umns of uncommon height and thickness, and 
equally admirable for their beauty and splen- 
dour. Mela. 1, c. 9.—Plin. 36, c. IS.—Strab. 
10.— Diod. l.—Herodot. 2, c. U8.— Virg. JEn. 
5, V. 588. 

Laced^mon, a son of Jupiter and Taygeta, 
the daughter of Atlas, who married Sparta, the 
daughter of Eurotas, by whom he had Amyclas 
and Eurydice, the wife of Acrisius. He was 
the first who introduced the worship of the 
Graces in Laconia, and who first built them a 
temple. From Lacedaemon and his wife, the 
capital of Laconia was called Lacedaemon and 
Sparta. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Hygin. fab, 155. — 
Pans. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part I. , 

Lachesis. Vid. ParccB. 

Laertes. Vid. Parts I. and II. 

LjEstrygones, the most ancient inhabitants 
of Sicily. Some suppose them to be the same 
as the people of Leontium,, and to have been 
neighbours to the Cyclops. They fed on hu- 
man flesh, and when Ulysses came on their 
coasts, they sunk his ships and devoured his 
companions. Vid. Antiphates. They were of 
a gigantic stature, according to Homer, who 
however does not mention their country, but 
only speaks of Lamus as their capital. A colo- 
ny of them, as some suppose, passed over into 
Italy, with Lamus at their head, where they 
built the town of Formiae, whence the epithet 
of LcEstrygonia is often used for that of For- 
miana. Plin. 3, c. 5. — Ovid. Met. 14, v. 233, 
&c. Fast. 4. ex Pont. 4, ep. 10. — Tzetz. in 
Dycophr. v. 662 and 818. — Homer Od. 10. v. 
Sl.—Sil. 7, V. 276. 

Laiades, a patronymic of CEdipus, son of 
Laius. Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 18. 

Laius, a son of Labdacus, who succeeded to 
the throne of Thebes, which his grandfather 
Nycteus had left to the care of his brother Lycus 
till his grandson came of age. He was driven 
from his kingdom by Amphion and Zethus, who 
were incensed against Lycus for the indignities 
which Antiope had suffered. He was after- 
wards restored, and married Jocasta, the daugh- 
ter of Creon. Vid. CEdipus. Sophocl. in (Edip. 
— Hygin. 9 and 66. — Diod. 4. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. 
— Pans. 9, c. 5 and 26.^ — Plut. d£ Curios. 

Lamta and Auxesia, two deities of Crete, 
whose Avorship was the same as at Eleusis. 
The Epidaurians made them two statues of an 
olive tree given them by the Athenians, pro- 
vided they came to offer a sacrifice to Minerva 
at Athens, Paus. 2, c, 30, &c. 

LAMiiG, certain monsters of Africa, who had 
the face and breast of a woman, and the rest of 
729 



LA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



LA 



the body like that of a serpent. They allured 
strangers to come to them, that they might de- 
vour them ; and though ihey were not endowed 
with the faculty of speech, yet their hissings was 
pleasing and agreeable. Some believe them to 
be witches, or rather evil spirits, who, under the 
form of a beautiful womein, enticed young chil- 
dren and devoured them. According to some, 
the fable of the Laraiae is derived from the 
amours of Jupiter with a certain beautiful wo- 
men called Lamia, whom the jealousy of Juno 
rendered deformed, and whose children she de- 
stroyed ; upon which Lamia became insane, and 
so desperate that she eat up all the children that 
came in her way. They are also called Le- 
mures. Vid. Lemures. Philostr. in Ap. — Ho- 
rat. Art. Poet. v. 340. — Plut. de Curios. — Dion. 

Lampetia, I, a daughter of Apollo and Neae- 
ra. She, with her sister Phsetusa, guarded her 
father's flocks in Sicily when Ulysses arrived 
on the coasts of that island. The companions 
of Ulysses, impelled by hunger, paid no regard 
to their sanctity, but carried away and killed 
some of the oxen. They then embarked on 
board their ships, but here the resentment of 
Jupiter followed them. A storm arose, and they 
all perished except Ulysses, who saved himself 
on the broken piece of a mast. Homer. Od. 12, 

V. 119. — Propert. 3, el. 12. II. According 

to Ovid. Met. 2, v. 349, Lampetia is one of the 
Heliades, who was changed into a poplar tree 
at the death of her brother Phaeton. 

Lampeto, and Lampedo, a queen of the 
Amazons, who boasted herself to be the daugh- 
ter of Mars. She gained many conquests in 
Asia, where she founded several cities. She 
was surprised afterwards by a band of barba- 
rians, and destroyed with her female attendants. 
Justin. 2, c. 4. 

Lamus, I. a king of the Lsestrygones, who is 
supposed by some to have founded Pormise in 
Italy. The family of the Lamise at Rome was, 
according to the opinion of some, descended 

from him. Hot at. 3, od. 17. II. A son of 

Hercules and Omphale, who succeeded his mo- 
ther on the throne of Lydia. Ovid. Heroid. 9, 
v. 54. Vid. Part I. 

Laocoon, a son of Priam and Hecuba, or, 
according to others, of Antenor, or of Capys. 
As being priest of Apollo, he was commissioned 
by the Trojans to offer a bullock to Neptune to 
render him propitious. During the sacrifice, two 
enormous serpents issued from the sea and at- 
tacked Laocoon's two sons, who stood next to 
the altar. The father immediately attempted 
to defend his sons, but the serpents falling upon 
him squeezed him in their complicated wreaths, 
so that he died in the greatest agonies. This 
punishment was inflicted upon him for his te- 
merity in dissuadingthe Trojansto bring into the 
city the fatal wooden horse which theGreekshad 
consecrated to Minerva, as also for his impiety 
in hurling a javelin against the sides of the 
horse as it entered within the walls. Hyginus 
attributes this to his marriage against the con- 
sent of Apollo, or, according to others, for his 
polluting the temple, by his commerce with his 
wife Antiope, before the statue of the god. 
Virg. JEn. 2, v. 41 and 201.— Hygin. fab. 135. 
Laodamas, I. a son of Alcinous, king of the 
Pheeacians, who offered to wrestle with Ulysses 
while at his father's court. Ulysses, mindful 
730 



of the hospitality of Alcinous, refused the chal- 
lenge of Laodamas. Homer. Od. 7, v. 170. 

II. A son of Eteocles, king of Thebes. Paus. 
9, c. 15. 

Laodamia, I. a daughter of Acastus and As- 
tydamia, who married Protesilaus, the son of 
Iphiclus, king of a part of Thessaly. When 
she heard that he had fallen by the hand of 
Hector, to keep alive the memory of a husband 
whom she had tenderly loved, she ordered a 
wooden statue to be made and regularly placed 
in her bed. Iphiclus ordered the wooden image 
to be burned, in hopes of dissipating his daugh- 
ter's grief. He did not succeed. Laodamia 
threw herself into the flames with the image, 
and perished. This circumstance has given oc- 
casion to fabulous traditions related by the poets, 
which mention, that Protesilaus was restored to 
life, and to Laodamia, for three hours ; and that 
when he was obliged to return to the infernal 
regions, he persuaded his wife to accompany 
him. Virg. Mn. 6, v. 447. — Ovid. Her. ep. 13. 

— Hygin. fab. 104. — Propert. 1, el. 19. -TI. 

A daughter of Bellerophon by Achemone, the 
daughter of king lobates. She had a son by 
Jupiter, called Sarpedon. She dedicated her- 
self to the service of Diana, and hunted with 
her ; but her. haughtiness proved fatal to her, 
and she perished by the arrows of the goddess. 
Homer. II. 6, 12 and 16. 

Laodice, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
who became enamoured of Acamas, son of 
Theseus, when he came with Diomedes from 
the Greeks to Troy with an embassy to demand 
the restoration of Helen. She afterwards mar- 
ried Helicaon son of Antenor, and Telephus 
king of Mysia. Some call her Astyoche. Ac- 
cording to the Greek scholiast of Lycophron, 
Laodice threw herself from the top of a tower 
and was killed when Troy was sacked by the 
Greeks. Dictys Cret. 1. — Paus. 13, c. 26. — 
Homer. 11. 3 and 6. II. A daughter of Aga- 
memnon, called also Electra. Homer. 11. 9. 
Vid. Part II. 

Laodocus, a son of Antenor, whose form 
Minerva borrowed, to advise Pandarus to break 
the treaty which subsisted between the Greeks 
and Trojans. Homer. 11. 4. 

Laogoras, a king of the Dryopes, who ac- 
customed his subjects to become robbers. He 
plundered the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and 
was killed by Hercules. Apol. 2, c. 7. — Diod. 4. 

Laomedon, son of Ilus, king of Troy, mar- 
ried Stry mo, called by some Placia, or Leucippe, 
by whom he had Podarces, afterwards known 
by the name of Priam, and Hesione. He built 
the walls of Troy, and was assisted by Apollo 
and Neptune, whom Jupiter had banished from 
heaven, and condemned to be subservient to 
the will of Laomedon for one year. When the 
walls were finished, Laomedon refused to re- 
ward the labours of the gods, and soon after his 
territories were laid waste by the god of the 
sea, and his subjects were visited by a pestilence 
sent by Apollo. He was put to death bv Her- 
cules after a reign of 29 years. Vid. Hesione. 
Homer. 11. 21,— Virg. Mn. Sand 9.— Ovid. Met. 
11, fab. 6.—Apollod. 2, c. 5.— Paus. 7, c. 20.— 
Horat. 3, od. 3.— Hygin. 89. 

Laothoe, a daughter of Altes, a king of the 
Leleges, who married Priam,and became mother 
of Lycaon and Polydorus. Homer. II. 21, v. 85. 



LA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



LA 



Laphria, a surname of Diana at Patrae, in 
Acliaia, where she had a temple, with a statue 
of gold and ivory, which represented her in the 
habit of a huntress. The statue was made by 
Menechmus and Soidas, two artists of celebrity. 
This name was given to the goddess from La- 
phirus, the son of Delphus, who consecrated the 
statue to her. There was a festival of the god- 
dess there, called also Laphria, of which Paus. 
7j c. 18, gives an account. 

Lapith^, a people of Thessaly. Vid. La- 
pithus. 

Lapithus, a son of Apollo, by Stilbe. He 
was brother to Centaurus, and married Orsi- 
nome, daughter of Euronymus, by whom he 
had Phorbas and Periphas. The name of La- 
piiha was given to the numerous children of 
Phorbas and Periphas, or rather to the inhabi- 
tants of the country of which they had obtained 
the sovereignty. The chief of the Lapithae as- 
sembled to celebrate the nuptials of Pirithous, 
one of their number, and among them were 
Theseus, Dryas, Hopleus, Mopsus, Phalerus, 
Exadius, Prolochus, Titaresius, &c. The Cen- 
taurs were also invited to partake the common 
festivity, and the amusements would have been 
harmless and innocent, had not one of the in- 
toxicated Centaurs oifered violence to Hippo- 
damia, the wife of Pirithous. The Lapithae 
resented the injury, and the Centaurs supported 
their companions, upon which the .quarrel be- 
came universal, and ended in blows and slaugh- 
ter. Many of the Centaurs were slain, and at 
last were obliged to retire. Vid. Centauri. 
The invention of bits and bridles for horses is 
attributed to the Lapithae. Virg. G. 3, v. 115. 
Mn. 6, V. 601, 1. 7, v. ^Qo.— Ovid Met. 12, v. 530, 
1. 14, V. 670. — Hesiod. in Scut. — Diod. 4. — Find. 
2.—Pyth.—Strab. 9.— Stat. Tkeb. 7, v. 304. 

Lara, or Laranda, one of the Naiads, daugh- 
ter of the river Almon, in Latium, famous for 
her beauty and her loquacity, which her parents 
long endeavoured to correct, but in vain. She 
revealed to Juno the amours of her husband 
Jupiter with Juturna, for which the god cut off 
her tongue, and ordered Mercury to conduct 
her to the infernal regions. Lara became 
mother of two children, to whom the Romans 
have paid divine honours, according to the 
opinion of some, under the name of Lares. 
Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 599. 

Lares, gods of inferior power at Rome, who 
presided over houses and families. They were 
two in number, sons of Mercury by Lara. Vid. 
Lara. In process of time their power was ex- 
tended not only over houses, but also over the 
country and sea; and we find Lares Urbaniio 
preside over the cities, F'o.miliares over houses, 
Rustici over the couniry, Compitales over 
cross roads, Marini over the sea, Viales over 
the roads, Paiellarii, &c. According to the 
opinion of some, the worship of the gods Lares, 
■who are supposed to be the same as the manes, 
arises from the ancient custom, among the Ro- 
mans and other nations, of burying their dead 
in their houses, and from their belief that their 
spirits continually hovered over the houses for 
the protection of its inhabitants. The statues 
of the Lar'^s, resembling monkeys, and covered 
■with the skin of a dog, were placed in a niche 
behind the doors of the houses, or around the 
hearths. At the feet of the Lares was the 



figure of a dog barking, to intimate their care 
and vigilance. Incense was burnt on their 
altars, and a sow was also offered on particular 
days. Their festivals were observed at Rome 
in the month of May, when their statues were 
crowned with garlands of flowers, and offerings 
of fruit presented. The word Lares seems to 
be derived from the Etruscan word Lars, which 
signifies conductor or leader. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 
]29. — Juv. 8, V. 8. — Plut. in Qucest. Bom. — 
Varro de L. L. 4, c. lO.—Horat. 3, od. 23.— 
Plant, in Aid. d^ Cist. 

Larva, a name given to wicked spirits. The 
word itself signifies a mask. Vid. Lemures. 

Latialis, a surname of Jupiter, who was 
worshipped by the inhabitants of Latium upon 
mount Albanus at stated times. The festivals, 
which were first instituted by Tarquin the 
Proud, lasted 15 days. Liv. 21. Vid. Ferice 
LatincB. 

Latinus, I. a son of Faunus by Marica, king 
of the Aborigines in Italy, who from him were 
called Latini. He married Amata, by whom he 
had a son and a daughter. Vid. JSneas. 



II. A son of Sylvius ^neas, surnamed also 
Sylvius. He was the 5th king of the Latins, 
and succeeded his father. He was father to 
Alba his successor. Dion. 1, c. 15. — Liv. 2, c. 3. 

Latobius, the god of health among the Co- 
rinthians. 

Latois, a name of Diana, as being the daugh- 
ter of Latona. 

Latona, a daughter of Coeus the Titan and 
Phoebe, or, according to Homer, of Saturn. 
She was admired for her beauty, and celebrated 
for the favours which she .granted to Jupiter. 
Juno, always jealous of her husband's amours, 
made Latona the object of her vengeance, and 
sent the serpent Python to disturb her peace and 
prosecute her. Latona wandered from place to 
place in the time of her pregnancy, continually 
alarmed for fear of Python. She was driven 
from heaven, and Terra, influenced by Juno, 
refused to give her a place where she might 
find rest and bring forth. Neptune, moved with 
compassion, struck with his trident, and made 
immoveable the island of Delos, which before 
wandered in the iEgean, and appeared some- 
times above, and sometimes below, the surface 
of the sea. Latona, changed into a quail by 
Jupiier, came to Delos, where she resumed her 
original shape, and gave birth to Apollo and 
Diana, leaning against a palm tree or an olive. 
Her repose was of short duration ; Juno dis- 
covered the place of her retreat, and obliged her 
to fly from Delos. She wandered over the great- 
est part of the world ; and in Caria, where her 
fatigue compelled her to stop, she was insulted 
and ridiculed by peasants of whom she asked 
for water while they were weeding a marsh. 
Their refusal and insolence provoked her, and 
she entreated Jupiter to punish their barbarity. 
They were all changed into frogs. Her beauty 
proved fatal to the giant Tityus, whom Apollo 
and Diana put to death. Vid. IHtyus. At 
last, Latona became a powerful deity, and saw 
her children receive divine honours. Her wor- 
ship was generally established where her chil- 
dren received adoration, particularly at Arg-os, 
Delos, &c., where she had temples. She had 
an oracle in Egypt, celebrated for the true de- 
cisive answers which it gave. Diod. 5. — He- 
731 



LE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



LE 



fodoL 2, c. 155.— Paws. 2 and 3.— Homer. U. 21. 
— Hymn, in Ap. <^ Dian. — Hesiod. Theog. — 
ApoLlod. 3, c. 5 and \Q.—Ovid. Met. 6, v. 160. 
— Hygin. fab. 140. 

Laverna, the goddess of thieves and dis- 
honest persons at Rome. She did not only pre- 
side over robbers, called from her Laverniones, 
but she protected such as deceived others, or 
formed their secret machinations in obscurity 
and silence. Her worship was very popular, 
and the Romans raised her an altar near one 
of the gates of the city, which, from that cir- 
cumstance, was called the gate of Laverna. 
She was generally represented by a head with- 
out a body. Horab. 1, ep. 16, v. 60. — Varro de 
L. L. 4. 

Lavinia, a daughter of king Latinus and 
Amata. She was betrothed to her relation King 
Turn us, but because the oracle ordered her fa- 
ther to marry her to a foreign prince, she was 
given to jEneas after the death of Turnus. At 
her husband's death she was left pregnant ; and 
being fearful of the tyranny of Ascanius, her 
son-in-law, she fled into the woods, where she 
brought forth a son called ^neas Sylvius. 
Dionys. Hal. 1. — Virg. jEn. 6 and 7. — Ovid. 
Met. 14, V. bOl.—Liv. 1, c. 1. 

Lausos, I, a son of Numitor, and brother of 
Ilia. He was put to death by his uncle Arau- 
lius, who usurped his father's throne. Ovid. 

Fast. 4, V. 54. II. A son of Mezentius, 

king of the Tyrrhenians, killed by ^neas in 
the war which his father and Turnus made 
against the Trojans. Virg. JSn. 7, v. 649, 1. 10, 
V. 426, &c. 

Learchus, a son of Athamas and Ino. Vid. 
Athamas. 

Leda, a daughter of king Thespius and Eu- 
rythemis, who married Tyndarus, king of Spar- 
ta. Vid. CoMor. Some mythologists attribute 
her amour with Jupiter to Nemesis ; and they 
further mention, that Leda was intrusted wdth 
the education of the children which sprang from 
the eggs brought forth by Nemesis. Vid. He- 
lena. To reconcile this diversity of opinions, 
others maintain that Leda received the name of 
Nemesis after death. Homer and Hesiod make 
no mention of the metamorphosis of Jupiter 
into a swan, whence some have imagined that 
the fable was unknown to these two ancient 
poets, and probably invented since their age. 
Apollod. 1, c. 8, 1. 3, c. \Q.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. 109. 
— Hesiod. 17, v. 55. — Hygin. fab. 77. — Isocr. in 
Hel. — Homer. Od. 11. — Eurip. in Hel. 

Lelaps, I. a dog that never failed to seize 
and conquer whatever animal he was ordered to 
pursue. It was given to Procris by Diana, and 
Procris reconciled herself to her husband by pre- 
senting him with that valuable present. Ac- 
cording to some, Procris had received it from 
Minos, as a reward for the dangerous wounds 
of which she had cured him. Hi/gin. fab. 128. 

Ovid. Met. 7, V. 111.— Pans. 9," c. 19. TI. 

One of Actaeon's dogs. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 211. 

Lemures, the manes of the dead. The an- 
cients suppose that the souls, after death, wan- 
dered all over the world, and disturbed the peace 
of its inhabitants. The good spirits were called 
Lares familiares, and the evil ones were known 
by the name of Larv(Z, or Lemures. They 
terrified the good, and continually haunted the 
wicked and impious; and the Romans had the 
732 



superstition to celebrate festivals in their honour, 
called Leviuria, or Lemuralia, in the month of 
May. They were first instituted by Romulus 
to appease the manes of his brother Remus, 
from whom they were called Remuria, and by 
corruption, Lemuria. These solemnities con- 
tinued three nights, during which the temples 
of the gods were shut, and marriages prohibited. 
It was usual for the people to throw black beans 
on the graves of the deceased, or to Durn them, 
as the smell was supposed to be insupportable 
to them. They also muttered magical words, 
and, by beating kettles and drums, ihey be- 
lieved that the ghosts would depart, and no 
longer come to terrify their relations upon earth. 
Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 421, &c. — Horat. 2, ep. 2, v. 
"^m.—Persius 5, v. 185. 

Len^eus, a surname of Bacchus, from 'Xrivn^, 
a winepress. There was a festival called Le^ 
ncea, celebrated in his honour, in which the ce- 
remonies observed at the other festivals of the 
god chiefly prevailed. There were, besides, poet- 
ical contentions, &c. Pans. — Virg. G. 2, v. 4. 
M7i. 4. V. 201.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 14. Vid. Part II. 

Leos, a son of Orpheus, who immolated his 
three daughters for the good of Athens. Vid. 
Leocorion. 

Lestrygones. Vid. Lcsstrygones. 

Lethe, I. one of the rivers of hell, whose wa- 
ters the souls of the dead drank after they had 
been confined for a certain space of time in Tar- 
tarus. It had the power of making them forget 
whatever they had done, seen, or heard before, 

as the name implies, }^T}dri, oblivion. II. Lethe 

is a river of Africa, near the Syrtes, which 
runs under the ground, and some time after 
rises agam; whence the origin of the fable 

of the Lethean streams of oblivion. III. 

Another in Boeotia, whose waters were drunk 
by those who consulted the oracle of Tropho- 
nius. Lucan. 9, v. 355. — Ovid. Trist. 4, el. 1, 
V, 47.— Virg. G. 4, v. 545. yEn. 6, v. 714.— 
Ital. 1, V. 235, 1. 10, V. 555.— Pans. 9, c. 39.— 
Horat. 4, od. 7, v. 27. 

Levana, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over the action of the person who took up from 
the ground a newly-born child after it had been 
placed there by the midwife. This was gen- 
erally done by the father, and so religiously 
observed was this ceremony, that the legiti- 
macy of a child could be disputed without it. 

Ledge, I. a small island in the Euxine Sea, of 
a triangular form, between the mouths of the 
Danube and the Borysthenes. According to 
the poets, the souls of the ancient heroes were 
placed there as in the Elysian fields, where they 
enjoyed perpetual felicity, and reaped the repose 
to which their benevolence to mankind, and 
their exploits during life, seemed to entitle them. 
From that circumstance it has been often called 
the island of the blessed, &c. According to 
some accounts, Achilles celebrated there his 
nuptials with Iphigenia, or rather Helen, and 
shared the pleasures of the place with the 
manes of Ajax, &c. Strab.2. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — 

Ammian. 22.— Q. Calah. 3, v. 773. II. One 

of the Oceanides, whom Pluto carried into his 
kingdom. 

Ledcippe, I. a brother of Tyndarus, king of 
Sparta, who married Philodice, daughter of 
Inachus, by whom he had two daughters,^ Hi- 
lair a and Phoebe, known by the patronymic of 



LI 



^rVTHOLOGY. 



LI 



Leucippides. They were carried away by their 
cousins Castor and Pollux, as they were going 
to celebrate their nuptials with L>ticus and 
Idas. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 701. — Apollod. 3, c. 

10, &c.—Paus. 3, c. 17 and 26. II. A son 

of Xanthus, descended from Bellerophon. He 
became deeply enamoured of one of his sisters. 
Some time alter the father resolved to give his 
daughter in marriage to a Lycian prince. The 
future husband was informed that the daughter 
of Xanthus secretly entertained a lover, and he 
communicated the intelligence to the father. 
Xanthus upon this secretly watched his daugh- 
ter, and when Leucippus had introduced him- 
self to her bed, the father, in his eagerness to 
discover the seducer, occasioned a little noise in 
the room. The daughter was alarmed, and as 
she attempted to escape, she received a mortal 
woimd from her father, who took her to be the 
lover. Leucippus came to her assistance, and 
stabbed his father in the dark, without knowing 
who he was. This accidental parricide obliged 
Leucippus to fly from his country. He came to 
Crete, where the inhabitants refused to give him 
an asylum when acquainted with the atrocious- 
ness of his crime, and he at last came to Ephe- 
sus, where he died in the greatest misery and 

remorse. Hermesianax apud ParLhen. c. 5. 

III. A son of CEnomaus, who became enamour- 
ed of Daphne, and to obtain her confidence dis- 
guised himself in a female dress, and attended 
his mistress as a companion. He gained the 
afiections of Daphne by his obsequiousness and 
attention, but his artifice at last proved fatal 
through the influence and jealousy of his rival 
Apollo ; for when Daphne and her attendants 
were bathin g in the Ladon , the sex of Leu cippus 
was discovered, and he perished by the darts of 
the females. Parthen. Erot. c.l5. — Paus. 8, c. 20. 
Leucothoa, or Leucothea, I. the wife of 
Athamas, changed into a sea deity. Vid. Ino. 
She was called Mutura by the Romans, who 
raised her a temple, where all the people, parti- 
cularly women, offered vows for their brother's 
children. They did not entreat the deity to 
protect their own children, because Ino had Deen 
unfortunate in hers. No female slaves were 
permitted to enter the temple, or if their curi- 
osity tempted them to transgress this rule, they 
were beaten away with the greatest severity. 
To this supplication for other people's children, 
Ovid alludes in these lines, Fast. 6: — 

Non tamen hanc, pro stripe sua pia mater adorat, 
Ipsa parum felix visafuisse parens. 

II. A daughter of king Orchamus, by Eury- 

nome. Apollo became enamoured of her, when 
Clytia, who tenderly loved Apollo, and was 
jealous of his amours with Leucothoe, discover- 
ed the whole intrigue to her father, who ordered 
his daughter to be buried alive. The lover, 
unable to save her from death, sprinkled nectar 
and ambrosia on her tomb, which penetrating 
as far as the body, changed it into a beautiful 
tree, which bears the frankincense. Ovid. Met. 
4, V. 196. Vid. Part I. 

LiBENTiNA, a surname of Venus, who had a 
temple at Rome, where the young women used 
to dedicate the toys and childish amusements 
of their youth when arrived at nubile years. 
Varro de L. L. 5, c. 6. 

Liber, a surname of Bacchus, which signifies 



free. He received this name from his delivering 
some cities of Bceotia from slavery, or, accord- 
ing to others, because wine, of which he was the 
patron, delivered mankind from their cares, and 
made them speak wath freedom and unconcern. 
The word is often used for wine itself. Senec. 
de tro.nq. anivi. 

Libera, I. a goddess, the same as Proserpine. 

Cic. in Ver. 4, c. 48. II. A name given to 

Ariadne by Bacchus, or Liber, when he had 
married her. Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 513. 

LiBERTAS, a goddess of Rome, who had a 
temple on mount Aventine, raised by T. Grac- 
chus, and improved and adorned by Pollio with 
maay elegant statues and brazen columns, and 
a gallery in which were deposited the public acts 
of the state. She was represented as a woman 
in a light dress, holding a rod in one hand and 
a cap in the other, both signs of independence, 
as the former was used by the magistrates in the 
manumission of slaves, and the latter was worn 
by slaves who were soon to be set at liberty. 
Sometimes a cat was placed at her feet, as this 
animal is very fond of liberty, and impatient 
when confined. Liv. 24, c. 16, 1. 25, c. 7. — 
Ovid. Trist. 3, el. 1, v. 12.— Plut. in Grac— 
Dio. Cas. 44. 

Libitina, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over funerals. According to some she is the 
same as Venus, or rather Proserpine. Servius 
Tullius first raised her a temple at* Rome, where 
every thing necessary for funerals were exposed 
to sale, and where the registers of the dead 
were usually kept, Dionys. Hal. 4. — Liv. 40, 
c. 19.— FaZ. Max. 5, c. 2.— Plut. Qua;st. Rom.— 
From the name of the goddess, those who took 
charge of funerals at Rome were called Libi- 
tinarii. Plutarch considers the question why 
the Romans made the same goddess under the 
name of Venus in the one instance, and of 
Libitina in the other, preside over the period of 
birth and also of death ; and thinks that th^y 
desired to suggest thereby the brevity of life. 
With the same intention the Greeks had at 
Delphi an image of Venus Epitymbia (E-jto/x- 
I3ta). Servius Tullius, with a view of ascer- 
taining the number of deaths which occurred 
annually, enacted that a piece of money should 
be deposited in the temple on occasion of ever}' 
funeral. Millivi. — Plut. — Dionys. Hal. 

Libya, a daughter of Epaphus and Cassi- 
opea, who became mother of Agenor and Belus 
by Neptune. Apollod. 2, c. 1, 1. 3, c. 1. — Pa^is. 
1, 44. Vid. Part I. 

LicHAS, a servant of Hercules, who brought 
him the poisoned tunic from Dejanira. He was 
thrown by his master into the sea with great 
violence, and changed into a rock in the Eu- 
boean Sea. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 211. 

LicYMMDs, a son of Electryon and brother 
of Alcmena. He was so infirm in his old age, 
that when he walked he was ahvays supported 
by a slave. Triptolemus, son of Hercules, see- 
ing the slave inattentive to his duty, threw a 
stick at him, which unfortunately killed Licym- 
nius. The murderer fled to Rhodes. Apollod. 2, 
c. 7. — Diod. 5. — Homer. 11. 2. — Pind. Olymp. 7. 

Linus, " was the son of Urania by Amphi- 
marus, the son of Neptune. The renown which 
he acquired for his skill in music was superior 
not only to that of his contemporaries, but to 
that of all his predeces«;ors ; and he is said to 
733 



LU 



MYTHOLOGY. 



LY 



have been slain by Apollo for attempting to 
compare his skill in singing with that of the 
god. Indeed the death of Linus was lamented 
by every barbarous nation; and among the 
E^ptians there is a song which the Greeks call 
Lmus : for this song is denominated by the 
Egyptians Maneroon. But the Greeks, and 
among these Homer, mention this song as Gre- 
cian. For Homer, being well acquainted with 
the misfortune of Linus, says that Vulcan re- 
presented, among others things, in the shield of 
Achilles, a boy playing on a harp, and singing 
the fate of Linus : — 

* To these a youth awakes the warbling strings, 
Whose tender lay the fate of Linus sings.'' 

But Pamphus, who composed the most ancient 
hymns for the Athenians, says, that grief for 
the death of Linus increased to that degree, 
that he came to be called Oitolinos, or lamenta- 
ble Linus. And afterwards the Lesbian Sappho, 
having learned the name Oitolinos from the 
verses of Pamphus, celebrates in her poems 
Adonis and Oitolinos. The Thebans, too, boast 
that Linus was buried in their country ; and 
they say, that after the loss of the Greeks at 
Chaeronea, Philip the son of Amyntas, in «on- 
sequence of a vision in a dream, brought the 
bones of Linus to Macedonia ; and afterwards, 
from another dream, carried back the bones to 
Thebes. The covering however of this tomb, 
and every thing else belonging to it, have, they 
say, been obliterated through length of time. 
The Thebans likewise assert, that there was a 
junior Linus, the son of Israenius; and that 
when but a boy he was slain by Hercules, 
whom he instructed in music." Pausanius. 
" However, neither the Linus, the son of Am- 
phimarus, nor he who was the son of Ismenius, 
composed any thing in verse ; or, if they did, 
it has not been transmitted to posterity. Ac- 
cording to Suidas, he was a poet of Chalcis, 
and the first that brought the knowledge of let- 
ters from PhcEnicia to Greece. He taught Her- 
cules letters, and is said to have ranked as the 
prince of lyric poets. Two fragments are all 
the remains of his works at present." Tdylor. 

LiRioPE, one of the Oceanides, mother of 
Narcissus by the Cephisus. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 311. 

LissA, the name of a fury whom Euripides 
introduces on the stage as conducted by Iris, at 
the command of Juno, to inspire Hercules with 
that fatal rage which ended in his death. 

LoTis, or Lotos, a beautiful nymph, daugh- 
ter of Neptune. To save herself from the im- 
portunities of Priapus, she implored the gods, 
who changed her into a tree called Lotus, con- 
secrated to Venus and Apollo. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 
348. 

LoTOPHAGi, a people on the coast of Africa 
near the Syrtes. They received this name from 
their living upon the lotus. Ulysses visited their 
country at his return from the Trojan war. 
Herodot. 4, c. 177. — Strab. 17. — Mela, 1, c. 7. — 
Plin. 5, c. 7, 1. 13, c. 17. 

LuA, a goddess at Rome, who presided over 
things which were purified by lustrations, 
whence the name (a luendo.) She is supposed 
to be the same as Ops or Rhea. 

Lucifer, the name of the planet Venus, or 
morning star. It is called iMcifer, when ap- 
pearing in the morning before the sun : but 
734 



when it follows it, and appears some time after 
its setting, it is called Hesperus. According to 
some mythologists, Lucifer was son of Jupiter 
and Aurora. 

LuciNA, a goddess, daughter of Jupiter and 
Juno, or, according to others, of Latona. As her 
mother brought her into the world without pain, 
she became the goddess whom women in labour 
invoked, and she presided over the birth of 
children. She receives this name either from 
lucus or from lux, as Ovid explains it : — 

Gratia LucincB, dedit hac tibi nomine lucus ; 
Aut quia principium tu, Dea, lucis habes. 

Some suppose her to be the same as Diana and 
Juno, because these two goddesses were also 
sometimes called Lucina, and presidefl over the 
labours of women. She is called' Ilythia by the 
Greeks. She had a famous temple at Rome, 
raised A. U. C. 396. Varr. de L. L. i.—Cic. 
de J^at. D. 2, c. 21.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v, 449.— 
Horat, Carm. Sec. 

LtJNA, (the moon,) was daughter of Hyperion 
and Terra, and was the same, according to some 
mythologists, as Diana. She was worshipped 
by the ancient inhabitants of the earth with 
with many superstitious forms and ceremonies. 
It was supposed that magicians and enchanters, 
particularly those of Thessaly, had an uncon- 
trollable power over the moon, and that they 
could draw her down from heaven at pleasure 
by the mere force of their incantations. Her 
eclipses, according to their opinion, proceeded 
from thence; and, on that account, it was usual 
to beat drums and cymbals, to ease her labours, 
and to render the power of magic less efiectual. 
Ovid. Met. 12, v. 263, &.(i.— Tibull. 1, el. 8, v. 
2\.—Hesiod. Theog.— Virg. Eel. 8, v. 69. 

LuPA. {a she-wolf,) was held in great venera- 
tion at Rome, because Rom.ulus and Remus, 
according to an ancient tradition, were suckled 
and preserved by one of these animals. This 
fabulous story arises from the surname of Lupa, 
which was given to the wife of the shepherd 
Faustulus, to whose care and humanity these 
children owed their preservation. Ovid. Fast. 
2, V. 415. — Plut. in Romul. 

Ly^us, a surname of Bacchus. It is derived 
from 'Xvciv, solvere, because wine, over which 
Bacchus presides, gives freedom to the mind, 
and delivers it from all cares and melancholy. 
Horat. ep. 9. — Lucan. 1, v. 675. 

Lycaon, I. the first king of Arcadia, son of 
Pelasgus and Meliboea. He built a town called 
Lycosuraonthetop of mount Lycaeus, in honour 
of Jupiter. He had many wives, by whom he 
had a daughter called Calisto, and fifty sons. 
He was succeeded on the throne by Nyctimus, 
the eldest of his sons. He lived about 1820 
years before the Christian era. Apollod. 3. — 
Hygin. fab. I16.—Catul. ep. 16.— Pans. 8, c. 2, 

&c. IT. Another king of Arcadia, celebrated 

for his cruelties. He was changed into a wolf 
by Jupiter, because he offered human victims 
on the altars of the god Pan. Some attribute 
this metamorphosis to another cause. The sins 
of mankind, as they relate, were become so 
enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to 
punish wickedness and impiety. He came to 
Arcadia, where the people began to pay proper 
adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however, 
to try the divinity of the god, served up human 



LY 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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flesh on his table. This impiety so irritated 
Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house 
of Lycaon, and changed him into a wolf. Ovid. 
Met. 1, V. 198, &c. — These two monarchs are 
often confounded together, though no less than 

an age elapsed between their reigns. III. A 

son of Priam and Laothoe. He was taken by 
Achilles, and carried to Lemnos, whence he 
escaped. He was afterwards killed by Achilles 
in the Trojan war. Homer. 11. 21, &c. 

Lycastus, I. a son of Minos I. He was fa- 
ther of Minos II. by Ida, the daughter of Cory- 

bas. Diod. 4. II. A son of Minos and Phi- 

lonome, daughter of Nyctimus. He succeeded 
his father on the throne of Arcadia. Paus. 8, 
c. 3 and 4. 

Ltcius, an epithet given to Apollo from his 
temple in Lycia, where he gave oracles, parti- 
cularly at Patara, where the appellation of py- 
cicB sortes was given to his answers. Virg. 
jEn. 4, v. 346. 

Lycomedes, a king of Scyros, an island in 
the .^gean Sea, son of Apollo and Parthenope. 
He was secreily intrusted with the care of 
youQg Achilles, whom his mother Thetis had 
disguised in woman's clothes, to remove him 
from the Trojan war, where she knew he must 
unavoidably perish. Lycomedes has rendered 
himself famous for his treachery to Theseus. 
Plut. in Thes. — Paus. 1, c. 17, 1. 7, c. 4. — Apol. 
3, c. 13. Vid. Part II. 

Lycurgus, a king of Thrace. He drove 
Bacchus out of his kingdom, and abolished his 
worship, for which impiety he was severely 
punished by the gods. He put his own son 
Dryas to death in a fury, and he cut off his own 
legs, mistaking them for vine boughs. He was 
put to death in the greatest torments by his sub- 
jects, who had been informed by the oracle that 
they should not taste wine till Lycurgus was no 
more. This fable is explained by observing, 
that the aversion of Lycurgus for wine, over 
which Bacchus presided, arose from the filthi- 
ness and disgrace of intoxication, and therefore 
the monarch wisely ordered all the vines of his 
dominions to be cut down, that himself and his 
subjects might be preserved from the extrava- 
gance and debauchery which are produced by 
too free a use of wine. Hygin. fab. 132. — 
Homer. 11. 6, v. 130. — Avollod. 3, c. 5. — Ovid. 
Met. 4, V. 22.— Hr^. jEn.3, v. U.—Horat. 2, 
od. 19. Vid. Part II. 

Lycus, I. a king of Boeotia, successor to his 
brother Nycteus, who left no male issue. He 
was intrusted with the government only during 
the minority of Labdacus, the son of the daugh- 
ter of Nycteus, He was farther enjoined to 
make war against Epopeus, who had carried 
away by force Antiope, the daughter of Nyc- 
teus, He was successful in this expedition, re- 
covered Antiope and married her. Vid. An- 
tiope. Paus. 9, c. 5. — Apollod. 3. c. 5, II. A 

king of Libya, who sacrificed whatever stran- 
gers came upon his coast. When Diomedes, at 
his return from the Trojan war, had been ship- 
wrecked there, the tyrant seized him and con- 
fined him. He, however, escaped by means of 
Callirhoe, the tyrant's daughter, who was en- 
amoured of him, and who hung herself when 
she saw herself deserted, III. A son of Nep- 
tune by Celaeno, made king of a part of Mysia 
by Hercules. He offered violence to Megara, 



the wife of Hercules, for which he was killed 
by the incensed hero, Lycus gave a kind re- 
ception to the Argonauts, Apollod. 3, c. 10. — 
Hygin. fab. 18, 31, 32, 137. Vid. Parts I. and 11. 

Lydus, Vid. Part II, 

Lygodesma, a surname of Diema at Sparta, 
because her statue was brought by Orestes from 
Taurus,shielded round with osiers, Paus.3,c.l6. 

Lynceus, I, son of Aphareus, was among the 
hunters of the Calydonian boar, and one of the 
Argonauts, He was so sharpsighted, that, as 
it is reported, he could see through the earth. 
He stole some oxen with his brother Idas, and 
they were both killed by Castor and Pollux 
when they were going to celebrate their nuptials 
with the daughters of Leucippus, Apollod. 1 
and 3. — Hygin. fab. — Paus. 4, c, 2, — Ovid. 

Met. 3, V. 303.—Apollon. Arg. 1. -11. A son 

of jEgyptus, who married Hypermnestra, the 
daughter of Danaus. His life was spared by 
the love of his wife, Vid. Danaides. He made 
war against his father-in-law, dethroned him 
and seized his crown. Some say that Lynceus 
was reconciled to Danaus, and that he succeed- 
ed him after his death, and reigned forty-one 
years. Apollod. 2, c. 1. — Paus. 2, c, 16, 19, 25. 
Ovid. Heroid. 14. 

Lyncus, Lynceus, or Lynx, a cruel king of 
Scythia, or, according to others, of Sicily. He 
received with feigned hospitality, Triptolemus, 
whom Ceres had sent all over the world to 
teach mankind agriculture ; an'd as he was 
jealous of his commission, he resolved to mur- 
der this favourite of the gods in his sleep. As 
he was going to give the deadly blow to Trip- 
tolemus, he was suddenly changed into a lynx, 
an animal which is the emblem of perfidy and 
ingratitude. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 650. 

LysidIce, a daughter of Pelops and Hippoda- 
mia, who married Mastor, the son of Perseus 
and Andromeda. Apol. 2, c, i.—Paus. 8, c, 14. 

M. 

Macaria, I. a daughter of Hercules and De- 
janira. After the death of Hercules, Eurys- 
tkeus made war against the Heraclidse, whom 
the Athenians supported, and the oracle decla- 
red that the descendants of Hercules should ob- 
tain the victory if any one of them devoted him- 
self to death. This was cheerfully accepted by 
Macaria, who refused to endanger the life of the 
children of Hercules by suffering the victim to 
be drawn by lot, and the Athenians obtained a 
victory. Great honours were paid to the patri- 
otic Macaria, and a fountain of Marathon was 

called by her name, Paus. 1, c, 32, II. An 

ancient name of Cyprus. 

Macedo, 1. a son of Osiris, who had a share 
in the divine honours which were paid to his 
father. He was represented clothed in a wolf's 
skin, for which reason the Egyptians held that 
animal in great veneration. Diod. 1. — Plut. 

in Isid. et Os. II. A man who gave his 

name to Macedonia. Some supposed him to be 
the same as the son or general of Osiris, whilst 
others considered him as the grandson of Deu- 
calion by the mother's side. Diod. 1, 

Machaon, a celebrated phvsician, son of 

iEsculapius and brother to Podalirus. He 

went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants of 

Trica, Ithome, and (Echalia, According to 

735 



MA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



MA 



some, he was king of Messenia. As physician 
to the Greeks, he healed the wounds which 
they received during the Trojan war, and was 
one of those concealed in the wooden horse. 
Some suppose that he was killed before Troy 
by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus. He receiv- 
ed divine honours after death, and had a tem- 
ple to Messenia. Homer. 11. 2, &c. — Ovid, ex 
Pont. 3, ep. 4. — Quint. Smyr.6, v. 409. — Virg. 
jEn. 2, V. 263 and 426. 

MiEONiD.SE, a name given to the Muses, be- 
cause Homer, their greatest and worthiest fa- 
vourite, was supposed to be a native of Mseonia. 

Magnes, a young man, who found himself 
detained by the iron nails which were under his 
shoes as he walked over a stone mine. This 
was no other than the magnet, which received 
its name from the person who had been first 
sensible of its power. Some say that Magnes 
was a slave of Medea, whom that enchantress 
changed into a magnet. Orph. de lapul. 10, v. 7. 

Maia, I. a daughter of Atlas and Pleione, 
mother of Mercury by Jupiter. She was one 
of the Pleiades, the most luminous of the seven 
sisters. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Virg. jEn. 1, v. 
301. II. A surname of Cybele. 

Majestas, a goddess among the Romans, 
daughter of Honour and Reverence. Ovid. 5, 
Fast. 5, V. 25. 

Mallophora, {Icznani ferens,^ a surname un- 
der which Ceres had a temple at Megara, be- 
cause she had taught the inhabitants the utility 
of wool, and the means of tending sheep to ad- 
vantage. This temple is represented as so old 
in the age of Pausanias, that it was falling to 
decay. Pans. 1, c. 44. 

Manes, a name generally applied by the 
ancients to the souls when separated from the 
body. They were reckoned among the infernal 
deities, and generally supposed to preside over 
the burying places, and the monuments of the 
dead. They were worshipped with great solem- 
nity, particularly by the Romans, The augurs 
always invoked them when they proceeded to 
exercise their sacerdotal offices. Virgil intro- 
duces his hero as sacrificing to the infernal dei- 
ties, and to the Manes, a victim whose blood 
was received in a ditch. The word Manes is 
supposed to be derived from Mania, who was 
by some reckoned the mother of those tremen- 
dous deities. Others derive it from manare, 
quod per omnia (ztherea terrenaque manabant, 
because they filled the air, particularly in the 
night, and were intent to molest and disturb 
the peace of mankind. Some say that manes 
comes from manis, an old Latin word which 
signified good or propitious. The word manes 
is differently used by ancient authors ; some- 
times it is taken for the infernal regions, and 
sometimes it is applied to the deities of Pluto's 
kingdom ; whence the epitaphs of the Romans 
were always superscribed with D. M. Dis Ma- 
nibus, to remind the sacrilegious and profane, 
not to molest the monuments of the dead, which 
were guarded with such sanctity. Propert. 1, 
el. \9.— Virg. 4, G. v. 469. Mn. 3, SLC.—Horat. 
1, Sat. 8, V. 28. 

Mania, a goddess, supposed to be the mother 
of the Lares and Manes. 

Mannus, the son of Tuisto, both famous di- 
vinities among the Germans, Tac. de Germ.c.'2. 

Mantineus, the father of Ocalea, who mar- 
736 



ried Abas the son of Lynceus and Hypermnes- 
tra. Apollod. 2, c. 9. 

Manto, a daughter of the prophet Tiresias, 
endowed with the gift of prophecy. She was 
made prisoner by the Argives when the city of 
Thebes fell into their hands, and as she was the 
worthiest part of the booty, the conquerors sent 
her to Apollo, the god of Delphi, as the most 
valuable present they could make. Manto, often 
called Daphne, remained for some time at Del- 
phi, where she officiated as priestess, and where 
she gave oracles. From Delphi she came to 
Glares, in Ionia, where she established an ora- 
cle of Apollo. Here she married Rhadius, the 
sovereign of the country, by whom she had a 
son called Mopsus, Manto afterwards visited 
Italy, where she married Tiberinus the king of 
Alba, or, as the poets mention, the god of the 
river Tiber, From this marriage sprang Ocnus, 
who built a town in the neighbourhood, which, 
in honour of his mother, he called Mantua. 
Manto, according to a certain tradition, was so 
struck at the misfortunes which afflicted Thebes, 
her native country, that she gave way to her sor- 
sow and was turned into a fountain. Some sup- 
pose her to be the same who conducted ^Eneas 
into hell, and who sold the Sibylline- books to 
Tarquin the Proud, She received divine hon- 
ours after death, Virg. Mn. 1, v, 199, 1. 10, 
V, l^'d.— Ovid. Met. 6, V, Ibl.—Diod. 4..—Apol. 

3, c, l.—Strab. 14 and \Q.—Paus. 9, c. 10 and 
33, 1. 7, c. 3. 

Marianus, a surname given to Jupiter, from 
a temple built to his honour by Marius. It was 
in this temple that the Roman senate assembled 
to recall Cicero, a circumstance communicated 
to him in a dream. Val. Max. 1, c. 7. 

Marica, a nymph of the river Liris, near 
Minturnse. She married King Faunus, by 
whom she had King Latinus, and she was after- 
wards called Fauna and Fatua, and honoured 
as a goddess. A city of Campania bore her 
name. Some suppose her to be the same as 
Circe. Virg. JEn. 7, v. n.—Liv. 27, c. 37. 

Maron, I. a son of Evanthes, highpriesl of 
Apollo, in Africa, when Ulysses touched upon 

the coast. Homer. Od. 9, v. 179. II. An 

Egyptian who accompanied Osiris in his con- 
quests, and built a city in Thrace, called from 
him Maronea. Mela, 2, c. 2. — Diod. 1. 

Marpesia, a celebrated queen of the Ama- 
zons, who waged a successful war against the 
inhabitants of mount Caucasus. The mountain 
was called Marpesius Mans, from its female 
conqueror. Justin. 2, c. 4. — Virg. JSn. 6. 

Marpessa, a daughter of the Evenus, who 
married Idas, by whom she had Cleopatra, the 
wife of Meleager. Marpessa was tenderly loved 
by her husband; and when Apollo endeavoured 
to carry her away, Idas followed the ravisher 
with a bow and arrows, resolved on revenge. 
Apollo and Idas were separated by Jupiter, 
who permitted Marpessa to go with that of the 
two lovers whom she most approved of She 
returned to her husband. Homer. 11. 9, v. 549. 
—Ovid. Met. S, V. 305.— Apollod. 1, c. l.—Paus. 

4, c. 2, 1. 5, c. 18. 

Mars, a god of war among the ancients, was 
the son of Jupiter and Juno, according to He- 
siod. Homer, and all the Greek poets, or of Juno 
alone, according to Ovid. Vid. Jurw. The 
education of Mars was intrusted by Juno to the 



MA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



ME 



god Priapus, who instructed him in dancing and 
every manly exercise. His trial before the 
celebrated court of the Areopagus, according 
to the authority x)f some authors, for the murder 
of Hallirhoiius, forms an interesting epoch in 
history. Vid. Areopagitce. The amours of 
Mars and Venus are greatly celebrated. In the 
wars of Jupiter and the Titans, Mars was seized 
by Otus and Ephialtes, and confined for fifteen 
months, till Mercury procured him his liberty. 
His worship was not very universal among the 
ancients; his temples were not numerous in 
Greece, but in Rome he received the most un- 
bounded honours, and the warlike Romans 
were proud of paying homage to a deity whom 
they esteemed as the patron of their city, and 
the father of the first of their monarchs. His 
most celebrated temple at Rome was built by 
Augustus after the battle of Philippi. It was 
dedicated to Mars ultor, or the avenger. His 
priests among the Romans were called Salii ; 
they were first instituted by Numa. Mars was 
generally represented in the naked figure of an 
old man, armed with a helmet, a pike, and a 
shield. Sometimes he appeared in a military 
dress, and with a long flowing beard, and some- 
limes without. He generally rode in a chariot 
drawn by furious horses, which the poets call 
Flight and Terror. His altars were stained 
with the blood of the horse, on account of his 
warlike spirit, and of the wolf, on account of his 
ferocity. Magpies and vultures were also of- 
fered to him, on account of their greediness and 
voracity. The Scythians generally offered him 
asses, and the people of Caria, dogs. The 
weed called dog-grass was sacred to him, be- 
cause it grows, ab it is commonly reported, in 
places which are fit for fields of battle, or where 
the ground has been stained with the eflusion 
of human blood. The surnames of Mars are 
not numerous. He was called Gradivus, Ma- 
vors, duirinus, Salisubsulus, among the Ro- 
mans. The Greeks called him Ares, and he 
was the Enyalus of the Sabines, the Camulus 
of the Gauls, and the Mamers of Carthage. 
Mars was father of Cupid, Anteros, and Har- 
monia, by the goddess Venus. He had Ascala- 
phus and lalmenus by Astyoche ; and Thes- 
tius, by Demonice, the daughter of Agenor. 
Besides these, he was the reputed father of 
Romulus, CEnomaus, &c. He presided over 
gladiators, and was the god of hunting, and of 
whatever exercises or amusements have some- 
thing manly and warlike. Among the Romans 
it was usual for the consul, before he went on 
an expedition, to visit the temple of Mars, where 
he offered his prayers, and in a solemn manner 
shook the spear which was in the hand of the 
statue of the god, at the same time exclaiming, 
" Marsviliga ! god of war, watch over thesafe- 
tv of this city." Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 231. Trist. 
2, V. 925.-^ Hygin. fab. 148.— Virg. G. 4, v. 346. 
Mn. 8, V. 701. — Lucian. in Electr. — Varro de 
L. L. 4, c. \0.— Homer. Od. 1, 11. b.— Place. 6. 
— Apollod. 1, &c. — Hesiod. Theog. — Pindar. 
od, 4, Pyth. — Quint. Smyr. 14. — Paus. 1, c. 21 
and ^.—Juv. 9, v. 102. 

Marsyas, a celebrated piper of Celeenee in 
Phrygia, son of Olympus, or of Hyagnis, or 
CEagrus. He was so skilful in playing on the 
flute, that he is generally deemed the inventor of 
it. According to the opinion of some he found 

Part III.— 5 A 



it when Minerva had thrown it aside on account 
of the distortion of her face when she played 
upon it. Marsyas was enamoured of Cybele, 
and he travelled with her as far asNysa, where 
he had the imprudence to challenge Apollo to a 
trial of his skill as a musician. The god ac- 
cepted the challenge, and it was mutually agreed 
that he who was defeated should be flayed alive 
by the conqueror. The Muses, or, according to 
Diodorus, the inhabitants of Nysa,were appoint- 
ed umpires. Each exerted his utmost skill, and 
the victory, with much difficulty, was adjudged 
to Apollo. The god, upon this, tied his antago- 
nist to a tree and flayed him alive. The death 
of Marsyas was universally lamented ; the 
Fauns, Satyrs, and Dryads, wept at his fate, 
and from their abundant tears arose a river of 
Phrygia, well known by the name of Marsyas. 
In independent cities among the ancients the 
statue of Marsyus was generally erected in the 
forum, to represent the intimacy which subsist- 
ed between Bacchus and Marsyas, as the em- 
blems of liberty. It was also erected at the en- 
trance of the Roman forum, as a spot where 
usurers and merchants resorted to transact 
business, being principally intended in terro- 
rem litigatorum ; a circumstance to which 
Horace seems to allude, 1 Sat. 6, v. 120. At 
Celsenas, the skin of Marsyas was shown to 
travellers for some time ; it was suspended in 
the public place in the form of a bladder or a 
foot-ball. Hygin. fab 165. — Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 
707. Met. 6, fab. l.—Diod. Z.—ltal. 8, v. 50a 
—Plin. 5. c. 29, 1. 7, c. b^.—Paus. 10, c. 30.— 
Apollod. 1, c. 4. Vid. Parts I, and 11. 

Matuta, a deity among the Romans, the 
same as the Leucothoe of the Greeks. She was 
originally Ino, who was changed into a sea 
deity, {Vid. Ino axid Leucothoe,) and she was 
worshipped by sailors as such at Corinth in a 
temple sacred to Neptune. Only married wo- 
men and freeborn matrons were permitted to 
enter her temples at Rome, where they gene- 
rally brought the children of their relations in 
their arms. Liv. 5, &c. — Cic. de Nat. D. 3, v. 19. 

Mechaneds, a surname of Jupiter. He had 
a statue near the temple of Ceres at Argos, and 
there the people swore, before they went to the 
Trojan war, either to conquer or to perish. 
Paus. 2, c. 22. 

Mecisteds, I. a son of Echius or Talaus, was 
one of the companions of Ajax. He was killed 

by Polydamas. Homer. 11. 6, v. 28, &c. II. 

A son of Lycaon. Apollod. 

Medea, a celebrated magician, daughter of 
TEetes, king of Colchis. Her mother's name, 
according to the more received opinion of He- 
siod and Hyginus, was Idyia, or, according to 
others, Ephyre, Hecate, Asterodia, Antiope, 
and Neraea, She was the niece of Circe. When 
Ja.son came to Colchis in quest of the golden 
fleece. Meda became enamoured of him, and 
it was to her well-directed labours that the Ar- 
gonauts owed their preservation. Vid. Argo- 
naut(S. When Jason reached lolchos, his na- 
tive country, the return and victories of the Ar- 
gonauts were celebrated with universal rejoic- 
ings; but JEson, the father of Jason, was un- 
able to assist at the solemnity on account of the 
infirmities of his age, Medea, at her husband's 
request, removed the weakness of .^son, and 
by drawing away the blood from his veins and 
737 



ME 



MYTHOLOGY. 



ME 



filling them again with the juice of certain herbs, 
she restored to him the vigour and sprightliness 
of youth. The daughters ofPelias were also 
desirous to see their father restored by the same 
power. They accordingly killed him of their 
own accord, and boiled his flesh in a caldron, 
but Meda refused to perform the same friendly 
offices to Pelias which he had done to iEson, 
and he was consumed by the heat of the fire, 
and even deprived of a burial. This action 
greatly irritated the people of lolchos, and Me- 
dea, with her husband, fled to Corinth to avoid 
the resentment of an offended populace. Here 
they lived for ten years with much conjugal 
tenderness; but the love of Jason for Glauce, the 
king's daughter, soon interrupted their mutual 
harmony, and Medea was divorced. Medea 
revenged the infidelity of Jason by causing the 
death of Glauce and the destruction of her fam- 
ily. Vid. Glauce. This action was followed 
by another still more atrocious. Medea killed 
two of her children in their father's presence, 
and when Jason attempted to punish the bar- 
barity of the mother, she fled through the air 
upon a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
From Corinth, Medea came to Athens, where, 
after she had undergone the nocessary purifica- 
tion of her murder, she married king ^geus, 
and gave birth to a son who was called Medus. 
Soon after, when Theseus wished to make him- 
self known 10 his father, (Vid. ^geics,) Medea, 
jealous of his fame and fearful of his power, 
attempted to poison him at a feast which had 
been prepared for his entertainment. Her at- 
tempts, however, failed of success, and the sight 
of the sword, which Theseus wore by his side, 
convinced ^Egeus that the stranger, against 
whose life he had so basely conspired, was no 
less than his own son. The father and the son 
were reconciled, and Medea, to avoid the 
punishment which her wickedness deserved, 
mounted her fiery chariot, and disappeared 
through the air. She came to Colchis, where 
according to some, she was reconciled to Jason, 
who had sought her in her native country after 
her su'dden departure from Corinth. She died 
at Colchis, as Justin mentions, when she had 
been restored to the confidence of her family. 
After death, she married Achilles in the Ely- 
sian fields, according to the traditions mention- 
ed by Simonides. The murder of Mermerus 
and Pheres, the youngest of Jason's children by 
Medea, is not attributed to their mother, ac- 
cording to iElian, but the Corinthians them- 
selves assassinated them in the temple of Juno 
Acrsea. Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Hygin. fab. 21, 22, 
23, &c. — Plut in Thes. — Dioni/s. Perieg. — 
Julian. V. H. 5, c. 21.— Pans. 2, c. 3, 1. 8, c. 1. 
— Euripid. in Med. — Diod. 4. — Ovid. Met. 7, 
fab. 1, in Med.—Strab. l.—Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 
19. — Apollon. Arg. 3, &c. — Orpheus. — Flacc. — 
Jjiican. 4, V. 556, 

Medesicaste, a daughter of Priam, who mar- 
ried Imbrius, son of Mentor, who was killed by 
Teucer during the Trojan war. Homer. 11. 13, 
V. Y12.— Apollod. 3. 

Meditrina, the goddess of medicine, whose 
festivals, called Meditrinalia, were celebrated 
at Rome the last day of September, when they 
made offerings of fruits. Varro de L. L. 5, c. 3. 

Medusa, I. one of the three Gorgons, daugh- 
ter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was the only 
738 



one of the Gorgons who was subject to mortal- 
ity. She is celebrated for her personal charms 
and the beauty of her locks. Neptune became 
enamoured of her, and obtained her favours in 
the temple of Minerva. This violation of the 
sanctity of the temple provoked Minerva, and 
she changed the beautiful locks of Medusa, 
which had inspired Neptune's love, into ser- 
pents. According to Apollodorus and others, 
Medusa and her sisters came into the world with 
snakes on their heads instead of hair, with yel- 
low wings and brazen heads. Their body was 
also covered with impenetrable scales, and their 
very looks had the power of killing or turning 
to stones. Perseus rendered his name immortal 
by the conquest of Medusa. He cut off her head, 
and the blood that dropped from the wound 
produced the innumerable serpents that infest 
Africa. The conqueror placed Medusa's head 
on the Eegis of Minerva, which he had used in 
his expedition. The head still retained the same 
petrifying power as before, as it was fatally 
known in the court of Cepheus. Vid. Andro- 
meda. Some suppose that the Gorgons were 
a nation of women, whom Perseus conquered. 
Vid. Gorgones. Apollod. 2, c. 4. — Hesiod. Theog. 
— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 618.— iMcan. 9, v.'624.— 

Apollon. i. — Hygin. fab. 151. II. A daughter 

of Priam. III. A daughter of Sthenelus. 

Apollod. 

Meg^ra, one of the Furies, daughter of Nox 
and Acheron. The name is derived from 
jxeyaiptiv invidere, and she is represented as em- 
ployed by the gods like her sisters to punish 
the crimes of mankind, by visiting them with 
diseases, with inward torments, and with 'death. 
Virg. yEn. 12, v. 846. Vid. Eumenides. 

Megale, the Greek name of Cybele, the 
mother of the gods, whose festivals were called 
Megalesia. 

Meganira, the wife of Celeus, king of Eleu- 
sis, in Attica. She was mother to Triptolemus, 
to whom Ceres, as she travelled over Attica, 
taught agriculture. She received divine hon- 
ours after death, and she had an altar raised 
to her, near the fountain where Ceres had first 
been seen when she arrived at Attica. Paus. 
1, c. 39. 

Megara, the daughter of Creon, king of 
Thebes, given in marriage to Hercules because 
he had delivered the Thebans from the ty- 
ranny of the Orchomenians. Vid. Erginus. 
When Hercules went to hell by order of Eu- 
rystheus, violence was offered to Megara by 
Lycus, a Theban exile, and she would have 
yielded to her ravisher, had not Hercules re- 
turned that moment and punished him with 
death. This murder displeased Juno, and she 
rendered Hercules so delirious, that he killed 
Megara and the three children he had by her 
in a fit of madness, thinking them to be wild 
beasts. Some say that Megara did not perish 
by the hand of her husband, but that he after- 
wards married her to his friend lolas. The 
names of Megara's children by Hercules v/ere 
Creontiades, Therimachus, and Deicoon. Hy- 
gin. fab. 82. — Senec. in Here. — Apollod. 2, c. 6. 
— Diad. 4. 

Melampus, a celebrated soothsayer and phy- 
sician of Argos, son of Amythaon, and Ido- 
menea, or Dorippe. He lived at Pylos, in Pe- 
loponnesus. His servants once killed two large 



ME 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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serpents who had made their nests at the bot- 
tom of a large oak, and Melampus paid so much 
regard to these two reptiles, that he raised a 
burning pile and burned them upon it. He also 
took particular care of their young ones, and 
fed them with milk. Some time after this the 
young serpents crept to Melampus as he slept 
on the grass near the oak ; and, as if sensible 
of the favours of their benefactor, they wan- 
tonly played around him, and softly licked his 
scars. This awoke Melampus, who was 
astonished at the sudden change which his 
senses had undergone. He found himself ac- 
quainted with the chirping of the birds, and 
with all their rude notes as they flew around 
him. He look advantage of this supernatural 
gift, and soon made himself perfect in the 
knowledge of futurity, and Apollo also in- 
structed him in the art of medicine. He had 
soon after the happiness of curing the daughters 
of Proetus, by giving them ellebore, which, 
from this circumstance, has been called me- 
lampodium, and as a reward for his trouble he 
married the eldest of these princesses. Vid. 
Pratides. The tyranny of his uncle Neleus, 
king of Pylos, obliged him to leave his native 
country, and PrcEtus, to show himself more 
sensible of his services, gave him part of his 
kingdom, over which he established himself 
About this lime the personal charms of Pero, 
the daughter of Neleus, had gained many ad- 
mirers, but the father promised his daughter 
only to him who brought into his hands the oxen 
of Iphiclus. Bias, who was also one of her ad- 
mirers, engaged his brother Melampus to steal 
the oxen, and deliver them to him, Melampus 
was caught in the attempt and imprisoned ; but 
he taught the childless Iphiclus how to become 
a father, and not only obtained his liberty, but 
also the oxen, and with them he compelled Ne- 
leus to give Pero in marriage to Bias. A severe 
distemper, which had rendered the women of 
Argos insane, was totally removed by Me- 
lampus ; and Anaxagoras, who then sat on the 
throne, rewarded his merit by giving him part 
of his kingdom, where he established himself, 
and where his posterity reigned during six 
successive generations. He received divine 
honours after death, and temples were raised to 
his memory. Hovier. Od. 11, v. 287, 1. 15, v. 
255. — Herodot. 2 and 9. — Apollod. 2, c. 2. — 
Pmis. 2, c. 18, 1. 4, c. ^.— Virg. G. 3, v. 550. 

Melampyges, a surname of Hercules, from 
the black and hairy appearance of his back, &c. 

Melanippe, I. a daughter of ^olus, who had 
two children by Neptune, for which her father 
put out both her eyes, and confined her in a 
prison. Her children, who had been exposed 
and preserved, delivered her from confinement, 
and Neptune restored her to her eyesight. 
She afterwards married Metapontus. Hygin. 
fab. 186. — ^11. A nymph who married Itonus, 
son of Amphictyon, by whom she had Boeotus, 
who gave his name to Boeotia. Paus. 9, c. 1. 

Melanippus, I. a priest of Apollo, at Gyrene, 
killed by the tyrant Nicocrates. Polycen. 8. 

II. A son oif Astacus, one of the Theban 

chiefs who defended the gates of Thebes 
against the army of Adrastus, king of Argos, 
and was killed by Amphiaraus. Vid. Tydeus. 
Apollod. 1, c. 8.—jEschyl. ante Theb. — Paus. 9, 
c. 18. — ■■ — III. A son of Mars, who became 



enamoured of Cometho, a priestess of Diana 
Triclaria. For violation of the sanctity of the 
place, the two lovers soon after perished by a 
sudden death, and the country was visited by a 
pestilence, which was stopped only after the of- 
fering of a human sacrifice by the direction of 
the oracle. Paus. 7, c. 19. 

Meleager, a celebrated hero of antiquity, son 
of CEneus, king of..Etolia, by Althaea, daughter 
of Thestius. The Parcae were present at the 
moment of his birth, and predicted his future 
greatness. Clolho said, that he would be brave 
and courageous ; Lachesis foretold his uncom- 
mon strength, and Atropos declared that he 
should live as long as that firebrand, which was 
on the fire, remained entire and unconsumed. 
Althaea no sooner heard this than she snatched 
the stick from the fire, and kept it with the 
most jealous care, as the life of her son was 
destined to depend upon its preservation. The 
fame of Meleager increased with his years ; he 
signalized himself in ihe Argonautic expedition, 
and afterwards delivered his country from the 
neighbouring inhabitants, who made war against 
his father, at the instigation of Diana, whose 
altars CEneus had neglected. Vid. (Eneus. 
No sooner were they destroyed, than Diana 
punished the negligence of CEneus by a greater 
calamity. She sent a huge wild boar, which 
laid waste all the country, and seemed invinci- 
ble on account of its immense size. It became 
soon a public concern, all the neighbouring 
princes assembled to destroy this terrible ani- 
mal, and nothing became more famous in my- 
thological history than the hunting of the Caly- 
donian boar. The princes, and chiefs who as- 
sembled, and who are mentioned by mytholo- 
gists, are Meleager, son of CEneus, Idas and 
Lynceus, sons of Aphareus, Dryas son of Mars, 
Castor and Pollux sons of Jupiter and Leda, 
Pirithous son of Ixion, Thesus sonof ^Egeus, 
Anceus and Cepheus sons of Lycurgus, Adme- 
tus son of Pheres, Jason son of .^son, Peleus 
and Telemon sons of ^acus, Iphicles son of 
Amphitryon, Eurytrion son of Actor, Atalanla 
daughter of Schoeneus, lolas the friend of Her- 
cules, the sons of Thestius, Amphiaraus son of 
Oileus, Protheus, Cometes, the brothers of Al- 
thaea, Hippolhous son of Cereyon, Leucippus, 
Adrastus, Ceneus, Phileus, Echeon, Lelex, 
Phoenix son of Amyntor, Panopeus, Hyleus, 
Hippasus, Nestor, Menoetius, the father of Pa- 
troclus, Amphicides, Laertes the father of Ulys- 
ses, and the four sons of Hippocoon. This 
troop of armed men attacked the boar with un- 
usual fury, and it was at last killed by Melea- 
ger. The conqueror gave the skin and the 
head to Atalanla, who had first wounded the 
animal. This partiality to a woman irritated 
the others, and particularly Toxeus and Plexip- 
pus, the brothers of Altha?a, and they endeav- 
oured to rob Atalanta of the honourable pres- 
ent. Meleager defended a woman of whom he 
was enamoured, and killed his uncles in the at- 
tempt. Meantime, the news of this celebrated 
conquest had already reached Calydon, and 
Althaea went to the temple of the gods to return 
thanks for the victory which her son had gain- 
ed. As she went, she met the corpses of her 
brothers that were brought from the chase, and 
at this mournful spectacle she filled the whole 
city with her lamentations. She was upon this 
739 



ME 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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informed that ihey Imd been killed by Melea- 
ger, and in the moment of her resentment, to 
revenge the death of her brothers, she threw 
into the fire the fatal slick on which her son's 
life depended, and Meleager died as soon as it 
was consumed. Homer does not mention the 
firebrand, whence some have imagined that this 
fable is posterior to that poet's age. But he says 
that the death of Toxeus and Plexippus so irri- 
tated Althaea, that she uttered the most horrible 
curses and imprecations upon the head of her 
son. Meleager married Cleopatra, the daughter 
of Idas and Marpessa, as also Atalanta, accord- 
ing to some accounts. Afollod. 1, c. 8. — Apol- 
lon. 1, arg. 1, v. 997, 1. 3, v. blS.—Flacc. 1 and 
G.—Pmis. 10, c. 31.— Hygin. U.— Ovid. Met. 
8.— Homer. 11. 9. Vid. Part II. 

Meleagrides, the sisters of Meleager, daugh- 
ters of CEneus and Althaea. They were so dis- 
consolate at the death of their brother Meleager, 
that they refused all aliment, and were changed 
into birds called Meleagrides. The youngest 
of the sisters, Gorge and Dejanira, who had 
been married, escaped this metamorphosis. 
Apollod. 1, c. 8.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 540.— PZwi. 
10, c. 26. 

Melicerta, Melicertes, or Melicertus, a 
son of Athamas and Ino. Vid. Athamas. After 
his transformation, Melicerta was known 
among the Greeks by the name of Palaemon, 
and among the Latins by that of Portumnus. 
Some suppose that the Isthmian games were in 
honour of him. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 4. — 
Paus. 1, c. 44. — Hygin. fab, 1 and 2. — Ovid. 
Met. 4, V. 529, &.c.—Plut. de Symp. 

Melissa, I. a daughter of Melissus, king of 
Crete, who, with her sister Amalthaea, fed Jupi- 
ter with the milk of goats. She first found out 
the means of collecting honey; whence some 
have imagined that she was changed into a bee, 
as her name is the Greek word for that insect. 

Columell. II. One of the Oceanides, who 

married Inachus, by whom she had Phoroneus 
and iEgialus. Vid. Part II. 

Melpomene, one of the Muses, daughter of 
Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over 
tragedy. Horace has addressed the finest of his 
odes to her, as to the patroness of lyric poetry. 
Her garments were splendid ; she wore a bus- 
kin, and held a dagger in one hand, and in the 
other a sceptre and crowns. Horat. 3, od. 4. — 
Hesiod. Theog. 

Memnon, a king of Ethiopia, son of Titho- 
nus and Aurora. He came with a body of ten 
thousand men to assist his uncle Priam during 
the Trojan war, where he behaved with great 
courage, and killed Antilochus, Nestor's son. 
The aged father challenged the -(Ethiopian 
monarch, but Memnon refused it on account of 
the venerable age of Nestor, and accepted that 
of Achilles. He was killed in the combat in 
the sight of the Grecian and Trojan armies. 
Aurora was so disconsolate at the death of her 
son, that she flew to Jupiter, all bathed in tears, 
and begged the god to grant her son such hon- 
ours as might distinguish him from other mor- 
tals. Jupiter consented, and immediately a 
numerous flight of birds issued from the burn- 
ing pile on which the body was laid, and after 
they had flown three times round the flames, 
they divided themselves into two separate 
bodies, and fought with such acrimony that 
740 



above half of them fell down into the fire as 
victims to appease the manes of Memnon. 
These birds were called Memiionides ; and it 
has been observed by some of the ancients, that 
they never failed to return yearly to the tomb 
of Memnon in Troas, and repeat the same 
bloody engagement, in honour of the hero from 
whom they received their name. The -Ethio- 
pians or Egyptians, over whom Memnon reign- 
ed, erected a celebrated staiue to the honour of 
their monarch. This statue had the wonderful 
property of uttering a melodious sound every 
day, at sun-rising, like that which is heard at 
the breaking of the string of a harp when it is 
wound up. This was effected by ihe rays of 
the sun when they fell upon it. At the setting 
of the sun, and in the night, the sound was lugu- 
brious. This is supported by the testimony of 
the geographer Strabo, who confesses himself 
ignorant whether it proceeded from the basis 
of the statue, or the people that were then round 
it. This celebrated statue was dismantled by 
order of Cambyses, when he conquered Egypt, 
and its ruins still astonish modern travellers by 
their grandeur and beauty. Memnon was the 
inventor of the alphabet, according to Anti- 
clides, a writer mentioned by Pliny, 7, c. 56, 
Mosch. in Bion.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 578, &c. — 
yElian. 5, c. l.—Paus. 1, c, 42. 1. 10, c. 31.— 
Strab. 13 and 17. — Juv. 15, v. 5. — Philostra. in 
Apollod. — Plin. 36, c. 7. — Homer. Od. 9. — 
Quint. Calab. — Vid. Part II. 

Mena, a goddess worshipped at Rome, and 
supposed to preside over women. She was the 
same as Juno. According to some, the sacri- 
fices offered to her were young puppies that still 
sucked their mother. Aug. de Civ. D.4, c. 2. 
—Plin. 29, c. 4. 

Menalippe, I. a sister of Antiope, queen of 
the Amazons, taken by Hercules when that 
hero made war against this celebrated nation. 
She was ransomed, and Hercules received in 
exchange the arms and belt of the queen. Juv. 

8, V. 229. II. A daughter of the centaur 

Chiron, beloved by -Slolus, son of Hellen. She 
v.-as changed into a mare, and called Ocyroe. 
Some suppose that she assumed the name of 
Menalippe, and lost that of Ocyroe. She be- 
came a constellation after death, called the 
horse. Some authors call her Hippe or Evippe. 
Hygin. P. A. 2, c. 18.— Polhcx. 4. Mena- 
lippe is a name common to other persons, but 
it is generally spelt Melanippe by the best au- 
thors. — Vid. Melanippe. 

Menelaus. Vid. Part II. 

Menesteus. Vid. Part II. 

Menceceus, I. a Theban, father of Hippo- 

nome, Jocasta, and Creon. II. A young 

Theban, son of Creon. He offered himself to 
death, when Teresias, to insure victory on the 
side of Thebes against the Argive forces, or- 
dered the Thebans to sacrifice one of the 
descendants of those who sprang from the dra- 
gon's teeth, and he killed himself near the cave 
where the dragon of Mars had formerly re- 
sided. The gods required this sacrifice because 
the dragon had been killed by Cadmus, and no 
sooner was Menceceus dead, than his country- 
men obtained the victory. Stat. Theb. 10, v. 
614. — Eurip. Phan. — Apollod. 3, c. 6. — Cic. 
Tusc. 1, c. 98. — Sophocl. in Antig. 

Mencetius, a son of Actor and jEginia. He 



ME 



JMYTHOLOGY. 



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left his mother and went to Opus, where he had, 
by Sthenele, or, according to others, by Philo- 
mela or Polymela, Patroclus, often called from 
him Mencetides. Menoetius was one of the Ar- 
gonauts. Apollod. 3, c. 24. — Homer. 11. 1, v. 
301.—Hygin. fab. 97. 

Mera, a dog of Icarius, who, by his eri:?s, 
showed Erigone where her murdered father had 
been thrown. Immediately after this discovery, 
the daughter hung herself in despair, and the 
dog pined away, and was made a constellation 
in the heavens, known by the name of Canis. 
Ovid. Met. 7, V. 363.—Hygin. fab. 130.— 
^Elian. Hist. An. 7, c. 28. 

Mercurius, a celebrated god of antiquity, 
called Hermes by the Greeks. There were no 
less than five of this name according to Cicero : 
a son of Coelus and Lux ; a son of Valens and 
Coronis ; a son of the Nile ; a son of Jupiter 
and Maid ; and another, called by the Egyptians 
Thaut. Some add a sixth, a son of Bacchus 
and Proserpine. To the son of Jupiter and 
Maia the actions of all the others have been 
probably attributed, as he is the most famous 
and the best known. Mercury was the messen- 
ger of the gods, and of Jupiter in particular; he 
was the patron of travellers and of shepherds ; 
he conducted the souls of the dead into the in- 
fernal regions ; and not only presided over ora- 
tors, merchants, declaimers, but he was also the 
god of thieves, pickpockets, and all dishonest 
persons. His name is derived a 'rfiercibus, be- 
cause he was the god of merchandise among 
the Latins. He was born, according to the 
more received opinion, in Arcadia, on mount 
Cyllene, and in his infancy he was intrusted to 
the care of the Seasons. The day that he was 
born, or, more probably, the following day, he 
gave an early proof of his craftiness and dis- 
honesty, in stealing away the oxen of Admetus 
which Apollo tended. He gave another proof 
of his thievish propensity, by taking also the 
quiver and arrows of the divine shepherd; and 
he increased his fame by robbing Neptune of 
his trident, Venus of her girdle. Mars of his 
sword, Jupiter of his sceptre, and Vulcan of 
many of his mechanical instruments. Those 
specimens of his art recommended him to the 
notice of the gods, and Jupiter took him as his 
messenger, interpreter, and cup-bearer in the 
assembly of the gods. This last office he dis- 
charged till the promotion of Ganymede. He 
was presented by the king of heaven with a 
wing cap called pelasus, and with wings for 
his feet called talaria. He had also a short 
sword, called herpe^ which he lent to Perseus. 
He was the confidant of Jupiter's amours, and 
he often was set to watch over the jealousy and 
intrigues of Juno. The invention of the lyre 
and its seven strings is ascribed to him. This 
he gave to Apollo, and received in exchange 
the celebrated caduceus with which the god of 
poetry used to drive the flocks of King Adme- 
tus. Vid. Caduceus. In the wars of the giants 
against the gods, Mercury showed himself spir- 
ited, brave and active. He delivered Mars from 
the long confinement which he suflered from 
the superior power of the Aloides. He puri- 
fied the Danaides of the murder of their hus- 
band ; he lied Ixion to his wheel in the infer- 
nal regions; he destroyed the hundred-eyed 
Argus; hesoldHecrulesto Omphale, the queen 



of Lydia ; he conducted Priam to the tent of 
Achilles, to redeem the body of his son Hec- 
tor ; and he carried the infant Bacchus to the 
nymphs of Nysa. Mercury had many sur- 
names and epithets. He was called Cyllenius, 
Tricephalos, Agoneus, &c. His children are 
also numerous as well as his amours. He was 
father of Autolycus, by Chione ; Cephalus, by 
Creusa ; and of Priapus, according to some. 
He was also father of Hermaphroditus, by Ve- 
nus ; of Pan, by Dry ope, or Penelope. His 
worship was w'ell established, particularly in 
Greece, Egypt, and Italy. He was worshipped 
at Tanagra, in Boeotia, under the name of Cri- 
ophorus, and represented as carrying a ram on 
his shoulders, because he delivered the inhabi- 
tants from a pestilence by telling them to carry 
a ram in that maimer round the walls of their 
city. The Roman merchants yearly celebrated 
a festival, on the 15Lh of May, in honour of 
Mercury, in a temple near the Circus Maxi- 
mus. A pregnant sow was then sacrificed, and 
sometimes a calf; and particularly the tongues 
of animals were offered. After the votaries had 
sprinkled themselves with water with laurel 
leaves, they offered prayers to the divinity, and 
entreated him to be favourable to them, and to 
forgive whatever artful measures, false oaths, or 
falsehoods, they had used or uttered in the pur- 
suit of gain. Sometimes Mercury appears on 
monuments with a large cloak round his arm, 
or tied under his chin. The chief ensigns of 
his power and offices are his caduceus^ his peta- 
sus, and his talaria. In Egypt, his statues rep- 
resented him with the head of a dog ; whence 
he was often confounded with Anubis, and re- 
ceived the sacrifice of a stork. Offerings of 
milk and honey were made because he was the 
god of eloquence, whose powers were sweet 
and persuasive. The Greeks and Romans of- 
fered tongues to him by throwing them into the 
fire, as he was the patron of speaking, of which 
the tongue is the organ. Sometimes his statues 
represent him as without arms, because, ac- 
cording to some, the power of speech can pre- 
vail over every thing, even without the assist- 
ance of arms. Homer. Od. 1, &c. 11. 1, &c. — 
Hymn, in Merc. — Lucian. in Mort. Dial. — 
Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 667. Met. 1, 4, 11, li.— Mar- 
tial. 9, ep. 3b.— Stat, llieb. 4.— Pans. 1, 7, 8 
and 9. — Orpheus. — Plui. in Num. — Varro de 
L. L. Q.—Plut. in Phad.—Liv. 2Q.— Virg. G. 
1. yEn.. 1, V. 48. — Diod. 4 and 5. — Apollod. 1, 
2 and 3. — Apollon. Arg. 1. — Horat. 1, od. 10. — 
Hygin. fab. P. A. %—Tzetz. in Jjyc. 219.— 
Cic. de Nat. D. — Lactaniius. — Philostr. 1. — 
Icon. c. 27. — Manil. — Macrob. 1, So.t. c. 19. 
Vid. Part II. 

Meriones. Vid. Part II. 

Merope, one of the Atlantides. She mar- 
ried Sisyphus, son of ^olus, and, like her 
sisters, was changed into a constellation after 
death, Vid. Pleiades. It is said that in the 
constellation of the Pleiades the star of Merope 
appears more dim and obscure than the rest, 
because she, as the poets observe, married a 
mortal, while her sisters married some of the 
gods or their descendants. Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 
lib.— Diod. 4.— Hygin. fab. 1^2.— Apollod. 1, c. 
9. Vid. Part II. 

Mestor, I. a son of Perseus and Andromeda, 
who married Lysidice, daughter of Pelops, by 
741 



MI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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whom he had Hippothoe. — —11. A son of Pte- 
rilaus. 

Metanira, the wife of Celeus, king of Eleu- 
sis, who first taught mankind agriculture. She 
is also called Meganira. ApoUod. 1, c. 5. 

Metiadusa, a daughter of Eupalamus, who 
married Cecrops, by whom she had Pandion. 
ApoUod. 3, c. 15. 

Metis, one of the Oceanides. She was Ju- 
piter's first wife, celebrated for her great pru- 
dence and sagacity above the rest of the gods. 
Jupiter, who was afraid lest she should bring 
forth into the world a child more cunning and 
greater than himself, devoured her in the first 
month of her pregnancy. Some time after this 
adventure, the god had his head opened, from 
which issued Minerva, armed from head to foot. 
Hesiod. Theog. v. 890. — Hygin. 

Midas, a king of Phrygia, son of Gordius or 
Gorgias. The hospitality he showed to Silenus, 
the preceptor of Bacchus, who had been brought 
to him by some peasants, was liberally reward- 
ed ; and Midas was permitted to choose what- 
ever recompense he pleased . He demanded of 
the god that whatever he touched might be turn- 
ed into gold. His prayer was granted ; and 
when the very meats which he attempted to eat 
became gold in his mouth, he begged Bacchus 
to take away a present which must prove so 
fatal to the receiver. He was ordered to wash 
himself in the river Pactolus, whose sands were 
turned into gold by the touch of Midas. Some 
time after this adventure, Midas had the impru- 
dence to support that Pan was superior to Apol- 
lo in singing and in playing upon the flute ; for 
which rash opinion the offended god changed 
his ears into those of an ass, to show his igno- 
rance and stupidity. This, Midas attempted to 
conceal from the knowledge of his subjects, but 
one of his servants saw the length of his ears, 
and being unable to keep the secret, and afraid 
to reveal it, apprehensive of the king's resent- 
ment, he opened a hole in the earth, and after 
he had whispered there that Midas had the ears 
of an ass, he covered the place as before, as if 
he had buried his words in the ground. On 
that place, as the poets mention, grew a number 
of reeds, which, when agitated by the wind, 
"Uttered the same sound that had been buried 
beneath, and published to the world that Midas 
had the ears of an ass. Some explain the fable 
of the ears of Midas, by the supposition that he 
kept a number of informers and spies, who were 
continually employed in gathering every sedi- 
tious word that might drop from the mouths of 
his subjects. Midas, according to Strabo, died 
of drinking bull's hot blood. This he did, as 
Plutarch mentions, to free himself from the nu- 
merous ill dreams which continually tormented 
him. Midas, according to some, was son of 
Cybele. He built a town which he called An- 
cyrae. Ovid. Met. 11, fab. 5. — Plut. de Superst. 
—Strab. I.— Hygin. fab. 191, ^li.—Max. Tyr. 
30.— Pans. 1, c. i.— Val. Max. 1, c. 6.— Hero- 
dot. 1, c. U.—jElian. V. H. 4 and 12.— Cic. de 
Div. 1, c. 36, 1. 2, c. 31. 

MiLANioN, I. a youth who became enamoured 
of Aialanta. He is supposed by some to be the 
same as Meleager or Hippomanes. Ovid. Art. 
Am. 2, V. 188. II. A son of Amphidamas. 

MiLEsius, a surname of Apollo. 

Miletus, a son of Apollo, who fled from 
742 



Crete to avoid the wrath of Minos, whom he 
meditated to dethrone. He came to Caria, 
where he built a city which he called by his 
own name. Some suppose that he only con- 
quered a city there called Anactoria, which 
assumed his name. They farther say, that he 
put the inhabitants to the sword, and divided 
the women among his soldiers. Cranea, a 
daughter of the Mseander, fell to his share. 
Strab. U.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. U6—Paus. 7, c. 
2. — ApoUod. 3, c. 1. 

MiNEiDES, the daughters of Minyas or Mi- 
neus, king of Orchomenos, in Boeotia. They 
were three in number, Leuconoe, Leucippe, 
and Alcithoe. Ovid calls the two first Clymene 
and Iris. They derided the orgies of Bacchus, 
for which impiety the god inspired them with 
an unconquerable desire of eating human flesh. 
They drew lots which of them should give up 
her son as food to the rest. The lot fell upon 
Leucippe, and she gave up her son Hippasus, 
who was instantly devoured by the three sis- 
ters. They were changed into bats. In com- 
memoration of the bloody crime, it was usual 
among the Orchomenians for the high-priest, 
as soon as the sacrifice was finished, to pursue, 
with a drawn sword, all the women who had 
entered the temple, and even to kill the first he 
came up to. Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 12. — Plut. 
QucBst. Gr. 38. 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, war, and 
all the liberal arts, was produced from Jupiter's 
brain without a mother. The power of Minerva 
was great in heaven ; she could hurl the thun- 
ders of Jupiter, prolong the life of men, bestow 
the gift of prophecy ; and, indeed, she was the 
only one of all the divinities whose authority 
and consequence were equal to those of Jupiter. 
Her quarrel with Neptune, concerning the right 
of giving a name to the capital of Cecropia, 
deserves attention. The assembly of the gods 
settled the dispute, by promising *.he preference 
to whichever of the two gave the most useful 
and necessary present to the inhabitants of the 
earth. Neptune, upon this, struck the ground 
with his trident, and immediately a horse issued 
from the earth. Minerva produced the olive, 
and obtained the victory by the unanimous 
voice of the gods, who observed that the olive, 
as the emblem of peace, is far preferable to the 
horse, the symbol of war and bloodshed. The 
victorious deity called the capital AthencB, and 
became the tutelar goddess of the place. The 
attempts of Vulcan to offer her violence proved 
ineffectual, and her chastity was not violated, 
though the god left on her body the marks of 
his passion. Minerva was the first who built a 
ship, and it was her zeal for navigation, and her 
care for the Argonauts, which placed the pro- 
phetic tree of Dodona behind the ship Argo 
when going to Colchis. She w^as known among 
the ancients by many names. She was called 
Athena, Pallas, ( Vid. Pallas,) Parthenos, from 
her remaining in perpetual celibacy; Tritonia, 
because worshipped near the lake Tritonis ; 
Glaucopis, from the blueness of her eyes ; Argo- 
rea,from her presiding over markets; Hippia, 
because she first taught mankind how to man- 
age the horse ; Stratea and Area, from her 
martial character ; Coryphagenes, because born 
from Jupiter's brain ; Sais, because worshipped 
at Sais, &c. Some attributed to her the inven- 



MI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



MI 



tion of the flute, whence she was surnamed 
Andon, Luscinia, Musica, Salpiga, &c. She, 
as it is reported, once amused herself in play- 
ing upon her favourite flute before Juno and 
Venus, but the goddesses ridiculed the distor- 
tion of her face in blowing the instrument. 
Minerva, convinced of the justness of their re- 
marks by looking at herself in a fountain near 
mount Ida, threw away the musical instrument, 
and denounced a melancholy death to him who 
found it. Vid. Marsyas. The worship of 
Minerva was universally established ; she had 
magnificent temples in Egypt, Phoenicia, all 
parts of Greece, Italy, Gaul, and Sicily. Sais, 
Rhodes, and Athens, particularly claimed her 
attention ; and it is even said that Jupiter 
rained a shower of gold upon the island of 
Rhodes, which had paid so much veneration 
and such an early reverence to the divinity of 
his daughter. The festivals celebrated in her 
honour were solemn and magnificent. Vid. 
Panathenaa. She was invoked by every artist, 
and particularly such as worked in wood, em- 
broidery, painting, and sculpture. It was the 
duty of almost every member of society to im- 
plore the assistance and patronage of a deity 
who presided over sense, taste, and reason. 
Hence the poets have had occasion to say : — 

Ta nihil invito, dices, faciesve Minerva, 

and : — 

Qui beneplacarit Pallade, doctus erit. 

Minerva was represented in difierent ways, ac- 
cording to the different characters in which she 
appeared. She generally appeared with a 
countenance full more of masculine firmness 
and composure than of softness and grace. In 
one hand she held a spear, and in the other a 
shield, with the dying head of Medusa upon it. 
Sometimes, this Gorgon's head was on her 
breastplate, with living serpents writhing round 
it, as well as round her shield and helmet. In 
most of her statues she is represented as sitting, 
and sometimes she holds in one hand a distaff 
instead of a spear. When she appeared as the 
goddess of the liberal arts, she was arrayed in 
a variegated veil, which the ancients called pep- 
lum. Some of her statues represented her hel- 
met with a sphinx in the middle, supported on 
either side by griffins. In some medals, a 
chariot drawn by four horses, or sometimes a 
dragon or a serpent, with winding spires, appear 
at the top of her helmet. She was partial to 
the olive tree; the owl and the cock were her 
favourite birds, and the dragon, among reptiles, 
was sacred to her. The functions, offices, and 
actions of Minerva, seem so numerous, that 
they undoubtedly originate in more than one 
person. Cicero speaks of five persons of this 
name ; a Minerva, mother of Apollo; a daugh- 
ter of the Nile, who was worshipped at Sais, in 
Egypt ; a third, born from Jupiter's brain ; a 
fourth, daughter of Jupiter and Coryphe ; and a 
fifth, daughter of Pallas, generally represented 
with winged shoes. This last put her father to 
death because he attempted her virtue. Paus. 
1, 2, 3, &c.—Horat. 1, od. 16, 1. 3, od. 4.— Virg. 
jEn. 2, &c. — Strab. 6, 9 and 13. — Pkilost. Icon. 
^.—Ovid. Fast. 3, &c. Met. 6.—Cic. de Nat. D. 
1, c. 15, 1. 3, c. 23, &c. — Apollod. 1, &c. — Pin^ 
dar. Olymp. l.^Lucan. 9, v. 354. — Sophocl. 



CEdip. — Homer. 11. &c. Od. Hymn, ad Pall. — 
Diod. 5. — Hesiod. Theog. — jEsckyl. in Eum. — 
iMcian. Dial. — Clem. Alex. Strom. 2. — Orpheus, 
Hymn. 31. — Q. Smyrn. 14, v. 448. — Apoll. 1. — 
Hygin. fab. IGS.—Stat. Theb. 2, v. 721, 1. 7, &c. 

— Callim. in Cerer. — JElian. V. H. 12. — C. Nep. 
in Paus. — Pint, in Lye. &c, — Thucyd. 1. — He- 
rodot. 5. 

Minos, a king of Crete, son of Jupiter and 
Europa, who gave laws to his subjects B. C. 
1406, which still remained in full force in the 
age of the philosopher Plato. His justice and 
moderation procured him the appellation of the 
favourite of the gods, the confidant of Jupiter, 
the wise legislator, in every city of Greece ; 
and, according to the poets, he was rewarded 
for his equity after death, with the office of su- 
preme and absolute judge in the infernal regions. 
In this capacity, he is represented sitting in the 
middle of the shades, and holding a sceptre in 
his hand. The dead plead their different causes 
before him, and the impartial judge shakes the 
fatal urn, which is filled with the destinies ol 
mankind. He married Ithona, by whom he 
had Lycastes, who was the father of Minos 2d. 
Homer. Od. 19, v. IIQ.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 432.— 
Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Hygin. fab. 41. — Diod. 4. — 
Horat. 1, od. 28. The 2d was a son of Ly- 
castes, the son of Minos I. a king of Crete. He 
married Pasiphae, the daughter of Sol and 
Perseis, and by her he had many ^children. He 
increased his paternal dominions by the con- 
quest of the neighbouring islands ; but he 
showed himself cruel in the war which he car- 
ried on against the Athenians, who had put to 
death his son Androgens. Vid. Androgens. He 
took Megara by the treachery of Scylla, ( Vid. 
Scylla,) and, not satisfied with a victory, he 
obliged the vanquished to bring him yearly to 
Crete seven chosen boys and the same number 
of virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
Vid. Minotaurus. This bloody tribute was at 
last abolished when Theseus destroyed the 
monster. Vid. Theseus. When Daedalus, whose 
industry and invention had fabricated the lab)'-- 
rinth, and whose imprudence in assisting Pa- 
siphae, in the gratification of her unnatural 
desires, had offended Minos, fled from the place 
of his confinement with wings, ( Vid. Dcedalus,) 
and arrived safe in Sicily, the incensed mon- 
arch pursued the offender, resolved to punish 
his infidelity. Cocalus, king of Sicily, who had 
hospitably received Daedalus, entertained his 
royal guest with dissembled friendship ; and 
that he might not deliver to him a man whose 
ingenuity and abilities he so well knew, he put 
Minos todeath. Some say that it was the daugh- 
ters of Cocalus who put the king of Crete to 
death, by detaining him so long in a bath till he 
fainted, after which they suffocated him. Minos 
died about 35 years before the Trojan war. He 
was father of Androgens, Glaucus, and Deuca- 
lion, and two daughters Phaedra and Ariadne. 
Many authors have confounded the two mon- 
archs of this name, the grandfather and the 
grandson; but Homer, Plutarch, and Diodorus, 
prove plainly that they were two different 
persons. Paus. in Ach. 4. — Plut. in Thes. — 
Hygin. fab. 41.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. Ul.—Diod. 4. 

— Virg. j^n. 6, v. 21.— Plut. in Min.—Athen. 
Fln.cc. 14. 

Minotaurus, a celebrated monster, half a man 
743 



MN 



MYTHOLOGY. 



MO 



and half a bull, according to this verse of Ovid 
A. A. 2, V. 24 :— 

Semibovemque vtrum, semivirumque bovem. 

It was the fruit of Pasiphae's amours. Minos 
confined in the labyrinth a monster which con- 
vinced the world of his wife's lasciviousness, 
and reflected disgrace upon his family. The 
Minotaur usually devoured the chosen young 
men and maidens whom the tyranny of Minos 
yearly exacted from the Athenians. Theseus 
delivered his country from this shameful trib- 
ute, when it had fallen to his lot to be sacri- 
ficed to the voracity of the Minotaur, and, by 
means of Ariadne, the king's daughter, he de- 
stroyed the monster, and made his escape from 
the windings of the labyrinth. Some suppose 
that Pasiphae was enamoured of one of her 
husband's courtiers, called Taurus, and, some 
time after, brought twins into the world, one of 
whom greatly resembled Minos and the other 
Taurus. In the natural resemblance of their 
countenance with that of their supposed fathers 
originated their name, and consequently the fa- 
ble of the Minotaur. Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 2.— 
Hygin. fab. 40. — Plut. in Thes.—Palaphat. — 
Virg. Mn. 6, v. 26. 

MiNTHE, a daughter of Cocytus, loved by Plu- 
to. Proserpine discovered her husband's amour, 
and changed his mistress into an herb called by 
the same name, mint. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 729. 

MiNYAS, a king of BoBotia, son of Neptune 
and Triiegonia, of Neptune and Callirhoe, or 
of Chryses, Neptune's son, and Chrysogenia, 
the daughter of Halmus. He married Clyto- 
dora, by whom he had Presbon, Periclymenus, 
and Eteoclymenus. He was father of Orcho- 
menos, Diochithondes, and Athamas, by a sec- 
ond marriage with Phanasora, the daughter of 
Paon. According to Plutarch and Ovid he had 
three daughters. Vid. Mineides. Pans. 9, c.36. — 
Plut. Quasi. Grac. 38.—Ov.Met. 4, v. 1 and 468. 

Mithras, a god of Persia, supposed to be the 
sun, or, according to others, Venus Urania. 
His worship was introduced at Rome, and the 
Romans raised him altars, on which was this 
inscription, Deo Soli Mithrce, or Soli Deo invic- 
to MiihrcB. He is generally represented as a 
young man, whose head is covered with a tur- 
ban after the manner of the Persians. He sup- 
ports his knee upon a bull that lies on the 
ground, and one of whose horns he holds in one 
hand, while with the other he plunges a dagger 
into his neck. Stat. Theb. 1, v. l^.—Curt. 4, 
c. 13. — Claudian. de Laud. Stil. I. 

Mnasilus, a youth who assisted Chromis to 
tie the old Silenus, whom they found asleep in a 
cave. Some imagine that "Virgil spoke of Varus 
under the name of Mnasilus. Virg. Ed. 6, v. 13. 

Mnemosyne, a daughter of Ccelus and Ter- 
ra, mother of the nine Muses, by Jupiter, who 
assumed the form of a shepherd to enjoy her 
company. The word Mne^aosyne signifies m^m- 
orr/, and therefore the poets have rightly called 
memory the mother of the Muses, because it is 
to that mental endowment that mankind are 
indebted for their progress in science. Ovid. 
Met. 6, fab. 4. — Pindar. Isth. 6. — Hesiod. Theog. 
—Apollod. 1, c. 1, &c. 

Mnevis, a celebrated bull, sacred to the sun, 
in the town ofHeliopolis. He was worshipped 
vith the same superstitious ceremonies as Apis, 
744 



and, at his death he received the most magnifi- 
cent funeral. He was the emblem of Osiris. 
Diod. 1. — Plut. de Isid. 

MoLORCHUs, an old shepherd near Cleonae, 
who received Hercules wiih great hospitality. 
The hero, to repay the kindness he received, 
destroyed the Nemaean lion, which laid waste 
the neighbouring country, and therefore the 
Nemaean games, instituted on this occasion, are 
to be understood by the words Lnicus Molorcki. 
There were two festivals instituted in his hon- 
our, called MalorchecB. Martial. 9, ep. 44, 1. 
14, ep: \^.-- Apollod. 2, c. b.— Virg. G. 3, v. 19. 
—Stat. Theb. 4, v. 160. 

MoLOSsus. Vid. Part II. 

MoMus, a god of pleasantry among the an- 
cients, son of Nox, according to Hesiod. He 
was continually employed in satirising the 
gods, and whatever they did was freely turned 
to ridicule. He censured the house which Mi- 
nerva had made, because the goddess had not 
made it moveable, by which means a bad neigh- 
bourhood might be avoided. Venus herself was 
exposed to his satire ; and when the sneering 
god had found no fault in the body of the naked 
goddess, he observed, as he retired, that the 
noise of her feet was too loud, and greatly im- 
proper in the goddess of beauty. These reflec- 
tions upon the gods were the cause that Momus 
was driven from heaven. He is generally 
represented raising a mask from his face, and 
holding a small figure in his hand. Hesiod. in 
Theog. ^Lucian. in Herm. 

Moneta, a surname of Juno among the Ro- 
mans. She received it because she advised 
them to sacrifice a pregnant sow to Cybele, to 
avert an earthquake. Cic. dx Div. 1, c. 15. — 
Livy says, (7, cap. 28,) that a temple was vowed 
to Juno, under this name, by the dictator Fu- 
rius, when the Romans waged war against the 
Aurunci, and that the temple was raised to the 
goddess of the senate, on the spot where the 
house of Manlius Capitolinus had formerly 
stood. Suidas, however, says, that Juno was 
surnamed Moneta, from assuring the Romans, 
when in the war against Pyrrhus they com- 
plained of want of pecuniary resources, that 
money could never fail to those who cultivated 
justice. 

MoNYCHus, a powerful giant, who could root 
up trees, and hurl them like a javelin. He re- 
ceives his name from his having the feet of a 
horse, as the word implies. Juv. 1, v. 11. 

Mopsus, I. a celebrated prophet, son of Man- 
to and Apollo, during the Trojan war. He 
was consulted by Amphimachus, king of Colo- 
phon, who wished to know what success would 
attend his arms in a war which he was going to 
undertake. He predicted the greatest calami- 
ties ; but Calchas, who had been a soothsayer 
of the Greeks during the Trojan war, promised 
the greatest success. Amphimachus followed 
the opinion of Calchas, but the opinion of Mop- 
sus was fully verified. This had such an effect 
upon Calchas that he died soon after. His 
death is attributed by some to another mortifica- 
tion of the same nature. The two soothsayers, 
jealous of each other's fame, came to a trial of 
their skill in divination. Calchas first asked 
his antagonist how many figs a neighbouring 
tree bore ; ten thousand except one, replied 
Mopsus, and one single vessel can contain them 



MU 



MYTHOLOGY. 



MY 



all. The figs were gathered, and his conjec- 
tures were true, Mopsus now, to try his adver- 
sary, asked him how many young ones a certain 
pregnant sow would bring forth. Calchas con- 
fessed his ignorance, and Mopsus immediately 
said, that the sow would bring forth on the mor- 
row ten young ones, of which only one should 
be a male, all black ; and that the females should 
all be known by their white streaks. The 
morrow proved the veracity of his prediction, 
and Calchas died by excess of the grief which 
his defeat produced. Mopsus, after death, was 
ranked among the gods ; and had an oracle at 
Malia, celebrated for the true and decisive an- 
swers which it gave. Strab. 9. — Paus. 7, c. 3. 
—Armnian. 14, c. 8. — Plut. de orac. defect. 

II. A son of Ampyx and Chloris, born at 

Titaressa in Thessaly. He was the prophet 
and soothsayer of the Argonauts, and died at 
his return from Colchis by the bite of a serpent 
in Libya. Jason erected him a monument on 
the seashore, where afterwards the Africans 
built him a temple where he gave oracles. He 
has often been confounded with the son of 
Manto, as their professions and their names 
were alike. Hygin. fab. 14, 128, 173. — 
Strab. 9. 

Morpheus, the son and minister of the god 
Somnus, who naturally imitated the grimaces, 
gestures, words, and manners, of mankind. 
He is sometimes called the god of sleep. He 
is generally represented as a sleeping child, of 
great corpulence, and with wings. He holds a 
vase in one hand, and in the other are some 
poppies. 

Mors, one of the infernal deities, born of 
Night, without a father. She was worshipped 
by the ancients, particularly by the Lacedaemo- 
nians, with great solemnity, and represented not 
as an actually existing power, but as an imagi- 
nary being. Euripides introduces her in one of 
his tragedies on the stage. The moderns rep- 
resent her as a skeleton armed with a scythe 
and a cimeter. 

MuLciBER, a surname of Vulcan, {a mul- 
cendo ferrwm,^ from his occupation. Ovid Met. 
2, V. 5. Vid. Vulcanus. 

MuRTiA, or Myrtia, ( a iivpros,) a supposed 
surname of Venus, because she presided over 
the myrtle. This goddess was the patron of 
idleness and cowardice. Varro de L. L. 4, 
c.32. 

Mus.E, certain goddesses, who presided over 
poetry, music, dancing, and all the liberal arts. 
They were daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
svne, and were nine in number ; Clio, Euterpe, 
Thalia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Erato, Poly- 
hymnia, Calliope, and Urania. Some suppose 
that there were in ancient times only three 
Muses, Melete, Mneme, and Aoede ; others four, 
Telxiope, Aoede, Arche, Melete. They were, 
according to others, daughters of Pierus and 
Antiope ; from which circumstance they are all 
called Pierides. The name of Pierides might 
probably be derived from mount Pierus where 
Ihey were born. They have been called Casta- 
tides, Aganippides, Lebethrides, Anoides, Heli- 
coniades, &c., from the places where ihey were 
worshipped, or over which they presided . Apol- 
lo, who was the patron and the conductor of the 
Muses, has received the name of Musagetes, or 
leader of the Muses. The same surname was 

Part 111.-5 B 



also given to Hercules. The palm-tree, the 
laurel, and all the fountains of Pindus, Heli- 
con, Parnassus, &c., were sacred to the muses. 
They were generally represented as young, 
beautiful, and modest virgins. They were fond 
of solitude, and commonJy appeared in differ- 
ent attire, according to the arts and sciences 
over which they presided. Sometimes, they 
were represented as dancing in a chorus, to in- 
timate the near and indissoluble connexion 
which exists between the liberal arts and 
sciences. The Muses sometimes appear with 
wings, because by the assistance of wings they 
freed themselves from the violence of Pyrenaeus. 
The worship of the Muses was universally 
established, particularly in the enlightened parts 
of Greece, Thessaly, and Italy. No sacrifices 
were ever offered to them, though no poet ever 
began a poem without a solemn invocation to 
the goddesses who presided over verse. There 
were festivals instituted in their honour in 
several parts of Greece, especially among the 
Thespians, every fifth year. The Macedonians 
observed also a festival in honour of Jupiter and 
the Muses. It had been instituted by King Ar- 
chelaus, and it was celebrated with stage plays, 
games, and different exhibitions, which con- 
tinued nine days, according to the number of the 
Muses. Plut. Erot. — Pollux. JEschin. in IHtn. 
— Paus. 9, c. 29. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. — Cic. de 
Nat. Z>. 3, c. 21.— Hesiod. Tkeog.— Virg.JEn. 
— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 310. — Homer. Hymn. Mus. — 
Juv. 7. — Diod. 1. — Martial. 4, ep. 14. 

Muta, a goddess who presided over silence 
among the Romans. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 580. 

MuTtJNUs, or MuTiNus, a deity among the 
Romans, much the same as' the Priapus of the 
Greeks. The Roman matrons, and particularly 
new married women, disgraced themselves by 
the ceremonies which custom obliged them to 
observe before the statue of this impure deity. 
August, de Civ. D. 4, c. 9, 1. 6, c. 9. — Lactant. 
1, c. 20. 

Myagrus, or Myodes, a divinity among the 
Egyptians, called also Achor. He was en- 
treated by the inhabitants to protect them from 
flies and serpents. His worship passed into 
Greece and Italy. Plin. 10, c. 28.— Paws. 8, 
c. 26. 

Myrrha, a daughter ofCinyras, king of Cy- 
prus, She became enamoured of her father, 
and had a son by him, called Adonis. "When 
Cinyras was apprized of the incest he had com- 
mitted, he attempted to stab his daughter, and 
Myrrha fled into Arabia, where she was chang- 
ed into a tree called myrrh. Hygin. fab. 58 
and 21b.— Ovid Met. 10, v. 2dQ.—Plut. in Par. 
— Apollod. 3. 

Myrtilus, a son of Mercury and Phaetusa, 
or Cleobule, or Clymene, was arm-bearer to 
CEnomaus, king of Pisa. He was so experi- 
enced in riding, and in the management of 
horses, that he rendered those of CEnomaus the 
swiftest in all Greece. His infidelity proved 
at last fatal to him. Vid. CEnomaus. The body 
of Myrtilus, according to some, was carried by 
the waves to, the seashore, where he received 
an honourable burial, and as he was the son of 
Mercury, he was made a constellation. Diod 
A.— Hygin. fab. 84 and 224.— Paws, 8, c. 14.— 
Apollon. 1. 

Myscellus. Vid. Part 11. 
745 



NA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



NE 



N^NU, the goddess of funerals at Rome, 
whose temple was without the gates of the city. 
The songs which were sung at funerals were 
also called ncenia. They were generally filled 
with the praises of the deceased, but sometimes 
they were so unmeaning and improper, that the 
word became proverbial to signify nonsense. 
Varro de Vita P. R. — Plant. — Asin. 41, c. 1, 
V. 63. 

Naiades, or Naides, certain inferior deities, 
who presided over rivers, springs, wells, and 
fountains. The Naiades generally inhabited 
the country, and resorted to the woods or mea- 
dows near the stream over which they presided, 
whence the name {yaieiv, tojlow.) They are 
represented as young and beautiful virgins, 
often leaning upon an urn, from which flows a 
stream of water. ^Egle was the fairest of the 
Naiades, according to Virgil. They were held 
in great veneration among the ancients, and 
often sacrifices of goats and lambs were offered 
to them with libations of wine, honey, and oil. 
Sometimes they received only offerings of milk, 
fruit, and flowers. Vid. Nymph(B. Virg. Eel. 
6.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 328.— Homer. Od. 13. 

Nais, I. one of the Oceanides, mother of 
Chiron or Glaucus, by Magnes. Apollod. 1, c. 

9. II. A nymph, mother by Bucolion of 

iEgesus and Pedasus. Homer. II. 6. III. 

A nymph in an island of the Red Sea, who, by 
her incantations, turned to fishes all those who 
approached her residence after she had admit- 
ted them to her embraces. She was herself 
changed into a fish by Apollo. Ovid. Met. 4, 
V. 49, &c. 

Napje^, certain divinities among the ancients, 
who presided over the hills and woods of the 
country. Some suppose that they were tute- 
lary deities of the fountains and the Naiades of 
the sea. Their name is derived from va-Kr], a 
grove. Virg. G. 4, v. 585. 

Narcea, a surname of Minerva in Elis, from 
her temple there erected by Narcseus. 

Narcissus, a beautiful youth, son of Cephi- 
sus and the nymph Liriope, born at Thespis, in 
Boeotia. He saw his image reflected in a foun- 
tain, and became enamoured of it, thinking it to 
be the nymph of the place. His fruitless at- 
tempts to approach this beautiful object so pro- 
voked him, that he grew desperate and killed 
himself His blood was changed into a flower, 
which still bears his name. The nymphs rais- 
ed a funeral pile to burn his body, according to 
Ovid, but they found nothing but a beautiful 
flower. Pausanias says that Narcissus had a 
sister as beautiful as himself, of whom he be- 
came deeply enamoured. He often hunted in 
the woods in her company, but his pleasure was 
soon interrupted by her death ; and still to keep 
afresh her memory, he frequented the groves, 
where he had often attended her, or reposed 
himself on the brim of a fountain, where the 
sight of his own reflected image still awakened 
tender sentiments. Pans. 9, c; 21. — Hygin. 
fab. ^l\.—Ovid. Met. 3, v. 346, &c.—Philos- 
trat. 1. 

Nascio, or Natio, a goddess at Rome, who 
presided over the birth of children. She had a 
temple at Ardea. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 18. 

Nauplius, a son of Neptune and Amymone, 
746 



king of Euboea. He was father to the celebrated 
Palamedes, who was so unjustly sacrificed to 
the artifice and resentment of Ulysses, by the 
Greeks, during the Trojan war. When the 
Greeks returned from the Trojan war, Nauplius 
saw them with pleasure distressed in a storm 
on the coast of EubcEa ; and to make their dis- 
aster still more universal, he lighted fires on 
such places as were surrounded with the most 
dangerous rocks, that the fleet might be ship- 
wrecked upon the coast. This succeeded, but 
Nauplius was so disappointed when he saw 
Ulysses and Diomedes escape from the general 
calamity, that he threw himself into the sea. 
According to some mythologists, there were 
two persons of this name, a native of Argos, 
who went to Colchis with Jason. He was the 
son of Neptune and Amymone. The other was 
king of Euboea, and lived during the Trojan 
war. He was, according to some, son of Cly- 
tonas, one of the descendants of Nauplius, the 
Argonaut. The Argonaut was remarkable for 
his knowledge of sea affairs, and of astronomy, 
He built the town of Nauplia, and sold Auge, 
daughter of Aleus, to .King Teuthras, to with- 
draw her from her father's resentment. Orph. 
Argon. — Apollod. 3, c. 7. — Apollon. 1, &c. — 
piacc. 1 and 5. — Strab. 8. — Pans. 4, c. 35. — 
Hygin. fab. 116. 

Nausicaa, a daughter of Alcinous, king of 
the Phseaceans. She met Ulysses shipwrecked 
on her father's coasts, and it was to her human- 
ity that he owed the kind reception he experi- 
enced from the king. She married, according 
to Aristotle and Dictys, Telemachus, the son of 
Ulysses, by whom she had a son called Persep- 
tolis or Ptoliporthus. Homer. Od. 6. — Pans. 5, 
c. 19.— Hvgin. fab. 126. 

Nausithous, a king of the Phseaceans, father 
to Alcinous. He was son of Neptune and 
Periboea. Hesiod makes him son of Ulysses 
and Calypso. Hesiod. Th. 1, c. 16. 

Nadtes, a Trojan soothsayer, who comforted 
^neas when his fleet had been burnt in Sicily. 
Virg. JEn. 5, v. 704. He was the progenitor 
of the Nautii at Rome, a family to whom the 
palladium of Troy was, in consequence of the 
service of their ancestors, intrusted. Virg. 
jEn. 5, V. 794. 

Ne^ra, a daughter of Pereus, who married 
Aleus, by whom she had Cepheus, Lycurgus, 
and Auge. Apollod. 3, c. 9. — Pans. 8, c. 4. 

Necessitas, a divinity who presided over the 
destinies of mankind, and who was regarded as 
the mother of the Parcse. Pans. 2, c. 4. 

Neleus, a son of Neptune and Tyro. He 
was brother to Pelias, with whom he was ex- 
posed by his mother. They were preserved and 
brought to Tyro, who had then married Cre- 
theus, king of lolchos. After the death of Cre- 
theus, Pelias and Neleus seized the kingdom of 
lolchos, which belonged to jiEson, the lawful 
son of Tj'-ro by the deceased monarch. After 
they had "reigned for some time conjointly, Pe- 
lias expelled Neleus from lolchos. Neleus came 
to Aphareus, king of Messenia, who treated 
him with kindness, and permitted him to build 
a city, which he called Pylos. Neleus married 
Chloris, the daughter of Amphion, by whom he 
had a daughter and twelve sons, who were all, 
except Nestor, killed by Hercules, together with 
their father. Neleus promised his daughter in 



NE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



NE 



marriage only to him who brought him the bulls 
of Iphiclus. Bias was the successful lover. 
Vid. Melampus. Ovid. Mel. 6, v. 418. — Pans. 
4, c. 36.—Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 6. 

Nemesis, one of the infernal deities, daugh- 
ter of Nox. She was the god dess of vengeance, 
always prepared to punish impiety, and at the 
same time liberally to reward the good and vir- 
tuous. She is made one of the ParciE by some 
mythologists, and is represented with a helha 
and a wheel. The people of Smyrna were the 
first who made her statues with wings, to show 
with what celerity she is prepared to punish 
the crimes of the wicked both by sea and land, 
as the helm and the wheel in her hands inti- 
mate. Her power did not only exist in this 
life, but she was also employed after death to 
find out the most effectual and rigorous means 
of correction. Nemesis was particularly wor- 
shipped at Rhamnus, in Attica, where she had 
a celebrated statue, 10 cubits long, made of Pa- 
rian marble by Phidias, or, according to others, 
by one of his pupils. The Romans were also 
particularly attentive to the adoration of a deity 
Avhom they solemnly invoked, and to whom 
they offered sacrifices before they declared war 
against their enemies, to show the world that 
their wars were undertaken upon the most just 
grounds. Her statue at Rome was in the capi- 
tol. Some suppose that Nemesis was the per- 
son whom Jupiter deceived, and that Leda was 
intrusted with the care of the children which 
sprang from the two eggs. Others observe that 
Leda obtained the name of Nemesis after death. 
According to Pausanias, there were more than 
one Nemesis. The goddess Nemesis was sur- 
named Rhamnusm, because worshipped at 
Rhamnus, and Adrasiia from the temple which 
AdrastuSjkingof Argos, erected to her when he 
went against Thebes to avenge the indignities 
which his son-in-law Polynices had suffered in 
being unjustly driven from his kingdom by 
Eteocles. The Greeks celebrated a festival, 
called A^emesia, in memory of deceased persons, 
as the goddess Nemesis was supposed to de- 
fend the relics and the memory of the dead from 
all insult. Hygin. P. A. 2, c. 8. — Paws. 1. c. 
23.—ApollGd. 3, c. 10.— Hesiod. Theog. 224.— 
PZi?i. 11, c. 28, 1.36, c. 5. 

Neoptolemus. Vid. Part II. 

Neph&le, the first wife of Athamas, king of 
Thebes, and mother of Phryxus and Helle. 
Vid. Athamas cf* Argonautce. She was changed 
into a cloud, whence her name is given by the 
Greeks to the clouds. Some call her Nebula^ 
which word is the Latin translation of Nephele. 
The fleece of the ram which saved the life of 
Nephele's children, is often called the Nephe- 
lian fleece. Apollod. 1. c. 9. — Hygin. 2, &c. — 
Ovid. Met. 11, v. 1%.—Macc. 11, v. 56. 

Nkpia, a daughter of Jasus, who married 
Olympus, king of Mysia, whence the plains of 
Mvsia are sometimes called JVepice campi. 

Neptunus, a god, son of Saturn and Ops, 
and brother to Jupiter, Pluto, and Juno. Nep- 
tune shared with his brothers the empire of 
Saturn, and received as his portion the kingdom 
of the sea. This, however, did not seem equiv- 
alent to the empire of heaven and earth, which 
Jupiter had claimed, therefore he conspired to 
dethrone him with the rest of the gods. The 
conspiracy was discovered, and Jupiter con- 



demned Neptune to build the walls of Troy. 
Vid. Laomedon. A reconciliation was soon 
after made, and Neptune was reinstated in all 
his rights and privileges. Neptune disputed 
with Minerva the right of giving a name to the 
capital of Cecropia, but he was defeated. This 
did not please Neptune ; he renewed, therefore, 
the combat by disputing for Troezene, but Ju- 
piter settled their disputes by permitting them 
to be conjointly worshipped there, and by giving 
the name of Polias, or the protectress of the city, 
to Minerva, and that of king of Troezene to the 
god of the. sea. He also disputed his right for 
the isthmus of Corinth with Apollo ; and Bria- 
reus, the Cyclops, who was mutually chosen 
umpire, gave the isthmus to Neptune and the 
promontory to Apollo. Neptune, as being god 
of the sea, was entitled to more power than any 
of the other gods, except Jupiter. Not only the 
ocean, rivers, and fountains, were subject to him, 
but he also could cause earthquakes at his plea- 
sure, and raise islands from the bottom of the 
sea with a blow of his trident. The worship of 
Neptune was established in almost every part 
of the earth, and the Libyans in particular 
venerated him above all other nations, and 
looked upon him as the first and greatest of the 
gods. The Greeks and the Romans were also 
attached to his worship, and they celebrated 
their Isthmian games and Consualia with the 
greatest solemnity. He was generally repre- 
sented sitting in a chariot made of a shell, and 
drawn by sea-horses or dolphins. Sometimes 
he is drawn by winged horses, and holds his 
trident in his hand, and stands up as his chariot 
flies over the surface of the Sea. Homer repre- 
sents him as issuing from the sea, and in three 
steps crossing the whole horizon. In the Con- 
sualia of the Romans, horses were led through 
the streets finely equipped and crowned with 
garlands, as the god, in whose honour the fes- 
tivals were instituted, had produced the horse, 
an animal so beneficial for the use of mankind. 
Pans. 1, 2, &c. — Homer. E. 7, &c. — Varro de 
L. L. i.—Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 26, 1. 2, c. 25.-- 
Hesiod. Theog.— Virg. Mn. 1, v. 12, &c. 1, 2, 
3, Sec— Apollod. 1, 2, &c.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. 117, 
&LC.—Herodot. 2, c. 50, 1. 4, c. WS.—Macrob. 
Saturn. 1, c. 17. — Aug. de Civ. D. 18. — Plut. in 
Them.. — Hygin. fab. l57. — Eurip. in Phceiiiss. 
— Place. — Apolloii. Rhod. 

Nereides, nymphs of the sea, daughters of 
Nereus and Doris. They were fifty according 
to the greater number of the mythologists, some 
of whose names are as follows : Amphitrlte, 
Eudora, Galena, Glauce, Thetis, Cymothoe, 
Mellta, Agave, Doris, &c. The Nereides were 
Implored as the rest of the deities; they had 
altars, chiefly on the coast of the sea, where the 
piety of mankind made offerings of milk, oil, 
and honey, and often of the flesh of goats. 
When they were on the seashore they general- 
ly resided In grottos and caves, which were 
adorned with shells and shaded by the branches 
of vines. Their duty was to attend upon the 
more powerful deities of the sea, and to be sub- 
servient to the will of Neptune. They are re- 
presented as young and handsome virgins, sit- 
ting on dolphins, and holding Neptune's trident 
in tlieir hand, or sometimes garlands of flowers. 
Orpheus Hvmn. 23. — Coiul. de Rapt. — Pel. — 
Ovid. Met. 11. V. 361, &c.—S(at. 2, Sylv. 2, 1. 3, 
747 



KI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



NO 



Sylv. 1. — Paus. 2, c, 1, — Apollod. 1, c. 2 and 3. 
—Hesiod. Theog.— Homer. 11. 18, v. 39.— PZm. 
36, c. 5, — Hygin. &c. 

Nereus, a deity of the sea, son of Oceanus 
and Terra. He married Doris, by whom he 
had 50 daughters, called the Nereides. Vid. 
Nereides. Nereus was generally represented 
as an old man, with a long flowing beard, and 
hair of an azure colour. The chief place of his 
residence was in the ^gean Sea, where he was 
surrounded by his daughters, who often danced 
in choruses round him. He had the gift of 
prophecy, and informed those that consulted 
him of the different fates that attended them. 
He acquainted Paris with the consequences of 
his elopement with Helen ; and it was by his 
directions that Hercules obtained the golden 
apples of the Hesperides ; but the sea-god often 
evaded the importunities of inquirers by assum- 
ing different shapes, and totally escaping from 
their grasp. The word Nereus is often taken 
for the sea itself. Nereus is sometimes called 
the most ancient of all the gods. Hesiod. Theog. 
— Hygin. — Homer. 11. 18. — Apollod. — Orpheus 
Argon. — Horat. 1, od. 13. — Eurip. in Iphig. 

Nesimachus, the father of Hippomedon, a 
native of Argos, who was one ofthe seven chiefs 
who made war against Thebes. Hygin. 70. — 
Schol. Stat. Th. 1, V. 44. 

Nessds, a celebrated centaur, son of Ixion 
and the Cloud. He offered violence to Deja- 
nira, whom Hercules had intrusted to his care 
with orders to carry her across the river Evenus. 
Vid. Dejanira. Hercules saw the distress of 
his wife from the opposite shore of the river, 
and immediately he let fly one of his poisoned 
arrows, which struck the centaur to the heart. 
Nessus, as he expired, gave the tunic he then 
wore to Dejanira, assuring her that, from the 
poisoned blood which had flowed from his 
wounds, it had received the power of calling a 
husband away from unlawful loves. Dejanira 
received it with pleasure, and this mournful 
present caused the death of Hercules. Vid. 
Hercules. Apollod. 2, c. 7. — Ovid. ep. 9. — 
Senec. in Here. fur. — Paus. 3, c. 28. — Diod. 4. 

Nestor. Vid. Part II. 

Nisus. Vid. Part II. 

Ni5be, I. a daughter of Tantalus, king of 
Lydia, by Euryanassa or Dione. She married 
Amphion, the son of Jasus, by whom she had 
ten sons and ten daughters according to Hesiod, 
or two sons and three daughters according to 
Herodotus. Homer and Propertius say that 
she had six daughters and as many sons; and 
Ovid, Apollodorus, &c., according to the more 
received opinion, support that she had seven 
sons and seven daughters. The sons were 
Sipylus, Minytus, Tantalus, Agenor, Phaedi- 
mus, Damasichthon, and Ismenus; and those 
of the daughters, Cleodoxa, Ethodae or Thera, 
Astyoche, Phthia, Pelopia or Chloris, Asti- 
cratea, and Ogygia. The number of her chil- 
dren increased her pride, and she had the im- 
prudence to prefer herself to Latona, who en- 
treated her children to punish the arrogant 
Niobe. Her prayers were heard, and imme- 
diately all the sons of Niobe expired by the 
darts of Apollo, and all the daughters, except 
Chloris, who had married Neleus, king of Py- 
los, were equally destroyed by Diana; and Ni- 
obe, struck at the suddenness of her misfortunes, 
748 



was changed into a stone. The carcasses of 
Niobe's children according to Homer, were left 
unburied in the plains for nine successive days, 
because Jupiter changed into stones all such as 
attempted to inter them. On the tenth day 
they were honoured with a funeral by the gods. 
Homer. II. 2i.—JElian. V. H. 12, c. Z6.— Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 5. — Ovid. Met. fab. 5. — Hygin. fab. 

9.— Horat. 4, od. 6.—Propert. 2, el. 6. II. 

A daughter of Phoroneus, king of Peloponne- 
sus, by Laodice. She was beloved by Jupiter, 
by whom she had a son called Argus, who gave 
his name to Argia or Argolis, a country of Pe- 
loponnesus. Paus. 2, c. 22. — Apollod. 2, c. 1, 
1. 3, c. 8. 

NisDs, a king of Megara, son of Mars, or 
more probably of Pandfon. He inherited his 
father's kingdom with his brothers, and received 
as his portion the country of Megaris. The 
peace of the brothers was interrupted by the 
hostilities of Minos, who wished to avenge the 
death of his son Androgens, who had been 
murdered by the Athenians. Megara was be- 
sieged and Attica laid waste. The fate of Nisus 
depended totally upon- a yellow lock, which, as 
long as it continued upon his head, according 
to the words of an oracle, promised hini life and 
success in his affairs. His daughter Scylla 
(often called Nisia Virgo) saw from the walls 
of Megara the royal besieger, and she became 
desperately enamoured of him. To obtain a 
more immediate interview with this object of 
her passion, she stole away the fatal hair from 
her father's head as he was asleep ; the town 
was immediately taken, but Minos disregarded 
the services of Scylla, and she threw herself into 
the sea. The gods changed her into a lark, and 
Nisus assumed the nature of the hawk at the 
very moment that he gave himself death, not to 
fall into the enemy's hands. These two birds 
have continually been at variance with each 
other ; and Scylla, by her apprehensions at the 
sight of her father, seems to suffer the punish- 
ment which her perfidy deserved. Apollod. 3, 
c. 15.— Patis. 1, c. 19.—Strab. 9.— Ovid. Met. 
8, V. 6, &c.— Virg. G. 1, v. 404, &c. Vid. 
Part II. 

NocTiLUCA, a surname of Diana. She had 
a temple at Rome, on mount Palatine, where 
torches were generally lighted in the night, 
Varro de L. L. 4. — Horat. 4, od. 6, v. 38. 

NoMius, a surname given to Apollo, because 
he fed (vefiM pasco) the flocks of King Admetus 
in Thessaly. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 23. 

NoRTiA, a name given to the goddess of For- 
tune among the Etrurians. Liv. 7, c. 3. 

Nox, one of the most ancient deities among 
the heathens, daughter of Chaos. From her 
union with her brother Erebus, she gave birth 
to the Day and the Light. She was also the 
mother of the Parcse, Hesperides, Dreams, of 
Discord, Death, Momus, Fraud, &c. She is 
called by some of the poets the mother of all 
things, of gods as well as of men, and therefore 
she was worshipped with great solemnitvby the 
ancients. She had a famous statue in Diana's 
temple at Ephesus. It was usual to offer her 
a black sheep, as she was the mother of the 
Furies. The cock was also offered to her, as 
that bird proclaims the approach of day during 
the darkness of the night. She is represented 
as mounted on a chariot, and covered with a 



NY 



MYTHOLOGY. 



DC 



veil bespangled with stars. The constellations 
generally went before her as her constant mes- 
sengers. Sometimes she is seen holding two 
children under her arms, one of which is black, 
representing death, or rather night, and the 
other white, representing sleep or day. Some 
of the moderns have described her as a woman 
veiled in mourning, and crowned with poppies, 
and carried on a chariot drawn by owls and 
bats. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 950. — Ovid. Fast. l,Ar, 
455.— Pans. 10, c. 38.— Hesiod. Theog. 125 
and 21-2. 

NuMERiA, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over numbers. Aug. de Civ. D. 4, c. 11. 

NuNDiNA, a goddess whom the Romans in- 
voked when they named their children. This 
happened the ninth day after their birth, whence 
the name of the goddess, Nona dies. Macrob. 
Sat. 1, c. 16. 

NuRsicA, a goddess who patronised the Etru- 
rians. Juv. 10, V. 74. 

NycTELius, a surname of Bacchus, because 
his orgies were celebrated in the night, (i/u^ 
noZy T£\Eb)perficio.) The words Zater Nyctelius 
thence signify wine. Seneca in (Edip. — Paus. 
1, c. 40.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 15. 

Nycteus, I. a son of Hyrieus and Clonia. 

II. A son of Chthonius. III. A son of 

Neptune by Celene, daughter of Atlas, king of 
Lesbos, or of Thebes according to the more re- 
ceived opinion. He married a nymph of Crete 
called Polyxo or Almathaea, by whom he had 
two daughters, Nyctimene and Antiope. The 
first of these disgraced herself by her criminal 
amours, and was changed by Minerva into an 
owl. • Nycteus made war against Epopeus, who 
had carried away Antiope, and died of a 
wound which he had received in an engage- 
ment, leaving his kingdom to his brother Ly- 
cus, whom he entreated to continue the war 
and punish Antiope for her immodest conduct. 
Vid. Antiope. Paus. 2, c. 6. — Hygin. fab. 157 
and 2Q4.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 590, &c. 1. 6, v. 

no, &c. 

Nymphs, certain female deities among the 
ancients. They Vv'ere generally divided into 
two classes, nymphs of the land and nymphs 
of the sea. Of the nymphs of the earth, some 
presided over woods, and were called Dryades 
and Hermadryades ; others presided over moun- 
tains, and were called Oreades ; some presided 
over hills and dales, and were called Napcea., 
&c. The sea-nymphs were called Oceanides, 
J^ereides, Naiades, Potamides, Limnades, &c. 
These presided over the sea, over rivers, foun- 
tains, streams, and lakes. They fixed their 
residence not only in the sea, but also on moun- 
tains, rocks, in woods or caverns ; and their 
grottoes were beautified by evers:reens and 
delightful and romantic scenes. The nymphs 
were immortal, according to the opinion of some 
mythologists; others supposed that, like men, 
they were subject to mortality, though their life 
was of long duration. They lived for several 
thousand years, according to Hesiod, or, as 
Plutarch seems obscurely to intimate, they lived 
about 9720 years. The number of the nymphs 
is not precisely known. There were above 
3000, according to Hesiod, whose power was 
extended over the different places of the earth, 
and the various functions and occupations of 
mankind. They were worshipped by the an- 



cients, though not with so much solemnity as 
the superior deities. They had no temples 
raised to their honour, and the only ofierings 
they received were milk, honey, oil, and some- 
times the sacrifice of a goat. They were gen- 
erally represented as young and beautiful vir- 
gins, veiled up to the middle ; and sometimes 
they held a vase, from which they seemed to 
pour water. Sometimes they had grass, leaves, 
and shells instead of vases. It was deemed 
unfortunate to see them naked, and such sight 
was generally attended by a delirium, to which 
Propertius seems to allude in this verse, wherein 
he speaks of the innocence and simplicity of 
the primitive ages of the world : — 

Nee fuerat nudas poena videre Deas. 

The nymphs were generally distinguished by 
an epithet which denoted the place of their resi- 
dence; thus the nymphs of Sicily were called 
Sicelides; those of Corycus, Corycides, &c. 
Ovid. Met. 1, v. 320, 1. 5, v. 412, 1. 9, v. 651, &c. 
Fast. 3, Y. 169.— Paus. 10, c. 3.— Pint, de 
Orac. def. — Orpheus. Arg: — Hesiod. Theog. — 
Propert. 3, el. 12. — Homer. Od. 14. 

NYSiEUs, a surname of Bacchus, because he 
was worshipped at Nysa. Propert. 3, el. 17, 
V. 22. 

Nysiades, a name given to the nyrophs of 
Nysa, to whose care Jupiter intrusted the edu- 
cation of his son Bacchus. Oaid. Met. 3, v. 
314, &c. 

O. 

Oceanides, and Oceanitides, sea-nymphs, 
daughters of Oceanus, from whom they received 
their name, and of the goddess Tethys. Hy- 
ginus mentions 16, whose names are almost all 
different from those of Apollodorus and Hesiod, 
which difference proceeds from the mutilation 
of the original text. The Oceanides, as the 
rest of the inferior deities, were honoured with 
libations and sacrifices. Prayers were offered 
to them, and they were entreated to protect 
sailors from storms and dangerous tempests. 
The Argonauts, before they proceeded to their 
expedition, made an offering of flour, honey, 
and oil, on the seashore, to all the deities of the 
sea ; and sacrificed bulls to them, and entreated 
their protection. When the sacrifice was made 
on the seashore, the blood of the victim was re- 
ceived in a vessel, but when it was in open sea, 
the blood was permitted to run down into the 
waters. "When the sea was calm the sailors 
generally offered a lamb or a young pig, but if 
it was agitated by the winds, and rough, a black 
bull was deemed the most acceptable victim. 
Homer. Od. 3. — Hnrat. — Afollod. Arg. — Virs[. 
G. 4, V. 341.— Hesiod. Theog. 349.—ApoUod.'l. 

Oceanus, a powerful deity of the sea, son of 
Coelus and Terra. He married Tethys, by 
whom he had the most principal rivers, such as 
the Alpheus, Peneus, Strymon, &c., with a 
number of daughters, who are called from him 
Oceanides. According to Homer, Oceanus 
was the father of all the gods, and on that ac- 
count he received frequent visits from the rest 
of the deities. He is generally represented as 
an old man, with a long flowing beard, and sit- 
ting upon the waves of the sea. He often holds 
a pike in his hand, while ships under sail appear 
749 



CED 



MYTHOLOGY. 



CED 



at a distance, or a sea-monster stands near him. 
Oceanus presided over every part of the sea, 
and even the rivers were subjected to his power. 
The ancients were superstitious in their worship 
to Oceanus, and revered with great solemnity a 
deity to whose care they intrusted themselves 
when going on a voyage. Hesiod. Theog. — 
Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 81, &c. — Apollod. 1. — Cic, de 
Nat. D. 3, c. 20.— Homer. 11. 

OcNUs, a son of the Tiber and of Manto, 
who assisted ^neas against Turnus. He built 
a town which he called Mantua after his moth- 
er's name. Some suppose that he is the same 
as Bianor. Virg. Eel. 10, v. 198. 

OcYPETE. Vtd. Harpice. 

Odinus, a celebrated hero of antiquity, who 
flourished about 70 years before the Christian 
era, in the northern parts of ancient Germany, 
or the modern kingdom of Denmark. He was 
at once a priest, a soldier, a poet, a monarch, 
and a conqueror. He imposed upon the cre- 
dulity of his superstitious countrymen, and 
made them believe that he could raise the dead 
to life, and that he was acquainted with futu- 
rity. When he had extended his power, and 
increased his fame by conquest and by persua- 
sion, he resolved to die in a different manner 
from other men. He assembled his friends, and 
with the sharp point of a lance he made on his 
body nine different wounds in the form of a 
circle, and as he expired he declared he was 
going into Scythia, where he should become 
one of the immortal gods. He further added, 
that he would prepare bliss and felicity for such 
of his countrymen as lived a virtuous life, who 
fought with intrepidity, and who died like he- 
roes in the field of battle. These injunctions 
had the desired effect ; his countrymen super- 
stitiously believed him, and always recom- 
mended themselves to his protection whenever 
they engaged in a battle, and they entreated him 
to receive the souls of such as had fallen in war. 

CEagrus, or CEager, the father of Orpheus 
by Calliope. He was king of Thrace, and from 
him mount Has m us, and also the Hebrus, one 
of the rivers of the country, has received the 
appellation of (Eagrius, though Servius, in his 
commentaries, disputes the explanation of Dio- 
dorus, by asserting that the CEagrius is a river 
of Thrace, whose waters supply the streams of 
the Hebrus. Ovid, in lb. 414. — Apollon. 1, 
arg.— Virg. G. 4, v. 524.— iteZ. 5, v. 463.— 
Diod. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. 

CEax. Vid. Part TI. 

CEbalus, I. a son of Argalus or Cynortas, 
who was king of Laconia. He married Gor- 
gophone, the daughter of Perseus, by whom he 
had Hippocoon, Tyndarus, &c. Pans. 3, c. 1. 

— Apollod. 3, c. 10. II. A son of Telon and 

the nymph Sebethis, who reigned in the neigh- 
bourhood of Neapolis in Italy. Virg. Mn.l^ 
V. 734. 

CEdipus, a son of Laius, king of Thebes, and 
Jocasta. As being descended from Venus by 
his father's side, (Edipus was born to be ex- 
posed to all the dangers and the calamities 
which Juno could inflict upon the posterity of 
the goddess of beauty. Laius, the father of 
CEdipus, was informed by the oracle, as soon as 
he married Jocasta, that he must perish by the 
hands of his son. The queen became pregnant, 
and Laius ordered his wife to destroy her child 
750 



as soon as if came into the world. The mother 
gave the child as soon as born to one of her 
domestics, with orders to expose him on the 
mountains. The servant bored the feet of the 
child, and suspended him with a twig by the 
heels to a tree on mount Citheeron, where he 
was soon found by one of the shepherds of Po- 
lybus, king of Corinth. The shepherd carried 
him home ; and Peribcea, the wife of Polybus, 
who had no children, educated him as her own 
child, with maternal tenderness. The accom- 
plishments of the infant, who was named CEdi- 
pus on account of the swelling of his feet, (otJew 
tumeo, Kooes pedes,) soon became the admiration 
of the age. His companions envied his strength 
and his address: and one of them told him 
he was an illegitimate child. This raised his 
doubts ; he asked Peribcea, who, out of tender- 
ness, told him that his suspicions were ill 
founded. Not satisfied with this, he went to 
consult the oracle of Delphi, and was there told 
not to return home, for if he did, he must neces- 
sarily be the murderer of his father, and the 
husband of his mother. This answer of the 
oracle terrified him ; he knew no home but the 
house of Polybus, therefore he resolved not to 
return to Corinth, where such calamities ap- 
parently attended him. He travelled towards 
Phocis, and in his journey met in a narrow road 
Laius on a chariot with his arm-bearer. Laius 
haughtily ordered CEdipus to make way for 
him. CEdipus refused, and a contest ensued, 
in which Laius and his arm-bearer were both 
killed. As CEdipus was ignorant of the quality 
and of the rank of the men he had just killed, 
he continued his journey, and was attracted to 
Thebes by the fame of the Sphynx. This ter- 
rible monster, whom Juno had sent to lay waste 
the country, (Vid. Sphynx,) resorted in the 
neighbourhood of Thebes, and devoured all 
those who attempted to explain, without suc- 
cess, the enigmas which he proposed. The ca- 
lamity was now become an object of public 
concern ; and as the successful explanation of 
an enigma would end in the death of the sphynx, 
Creon, who at the death of Laius had ascended 
the throne of Thebes, promised his crown and 
Jocasta to him who succeeded in the attempt. 
The enigma proposed v/as this : What animal 
in the morning walks upon four feet, at noon 
upon two, and in the evening upon three 1 This 
was left for CEdipus to explain : he came to the 
monster and said, that man, in the morning of 
life walks upon his hands and his feet; when 
he has attained the years of manhood, he walks 
upon his two legs ; and in the evening, he sup- 
ports his old age with the assistance of a staff. 
The monster, mortified at the true explanation, 
dashed his head against a rock and perished. 
CEdipus ascended the throne of Thebes, and 
married Jocasta, by whom he had two sons, Po- 
lynices and Eteocles, and two daughters, Ismene 
and Antigone. Some years after, the Theban 
territories were visited with a plague ; and the 
oracle declared that it should cease only when 
the murderer of King Laius was banished from 
Boeotia. As the death of Laius had never been 
examined, and the circumstances that attended 
it never known, this answer of the oracle was 
of the greatest concern to the Thebans; but 
CEdipus, the friend of his people, resolved to 
overcome every difficulty by the most exact in- 



CEN 



MYTHOLOGY. 



(EN 



quiries. His researches were successful, and 
ne was soon proved to be the murderer of his 
father. The melancholy discovery was render- 
ed the more alarming, when CEdipus considered 
that he had not only murdered his father, but 
that he had committed incest with his mother. 
In the excess of his grief he put out his eyes, as 
unworthy to see the light, and banished himself 
from Thebes, or, as some say, was banished by 
his own sons. He retired towards Attica, Igd 
by his daughter Antigone, and came near Co- 
lonos, where there was a grove sacred to the 
Furies. He remembered that he was doomed 
by the oracle to die in such a place, and to be- 
come the source of prosperity to the country in 
which his bones were buried. A messenger 
upon this was sent to Theseus, king of the 
country, to inform him of the resolution of 
CEdipus. When Theseus arrived, CEdipus ac- 
quainted him, with a prophetic voice, that the 
gods had called him to die in the place where 
he stood ; and to show the truth of this, he walk- 
ed himself, without the assistance of a guide, to 
the spot where he must expire. Immediately 
the earth opened, and CEdipus disappeared. 
Some suppose that CEdipus had no children by 
Jocasia, and that the mother murdered herself 
as soon as she knew the incest which had been 
committed. His tomb was near the Areopa- 
gus in the age of Pausanias. Some of the an- 
cient poets represent him in hell, as suffering 
the punishment which crimes like his seemed 
to deserve. According to some, the four chil- 
dren which he had were by Euriganea, the 
daughter of Periphas, whom he married after 
the death of Jocasta. ApoUod.3, c. 5. — Hygin. 
fab. ^^, «&c. — Eurip. in Phaniss.^ &c. — Sophod. 
(Edip. Tyr. and Col. Antig., &.c.—Hesiod. 
Theog. 1.— Homer. Od. 11, c. 210.— Pans. 9, 
c. 5, &c. — Stat. Theh. 8, v. 642. — Senec. in 
(Edip. — Pindar. Olymp. 2. — Diod. 4. — Athen. 6 
and 10. 

CEneus, a king of Calydon in iEtolia, son of 
Parthaon or Portheus, and Euryte. He mar- 
ried Althas, the daughter of Thestius, by whom 
he had Clymenus, Meleager, Gorge, and Deja- 
nira. After Althse's death, he married Periboea, 
the daughter of Hipponous, by whom he had 
Tydeus. In a general sacrifice which CEneus 
made to all the gods upon reaping the rich pro- 
duce of his fields, he forgot Diana; and the 
goddess, to revenge this unpardonable neglect, 
incited his neighbours lo take up arms against 
him, and besides, she sent a wild boar to lay 
waste the country of Calydonia. The animal 
was at last killed by Meleager and the neigh- 
bouring princes of Greece, in a celebrated chase 
known by the name of the chase of the Caly- 
donian boar. Some time after, Meleager died, 
and CEneus was driven from his kingdom by the 
sons of his brother. Agrius Diomedes, how- 
ever, his grandson, soon restored him to his 
throne ; but the continual misfortunes to which 
he was exposed, rendered him melancholy. He 
exiled himself from Calydon, and left his crown 
to his son-in-law Andremon. He died as he 
was going to A rgol is. His body was buried by 
the care of Diomedes, in a town of Argolis, 
which from him received the name of GEnoe. 
It is reported that CEneus received a visit from 
Bacchus, and that Bacchus permitted that wine 
of which he was the patron should be called 



among the Greeks by the name of CEneus, 
{oivos). Hygin. fab. 129. — Apollod. 1, c. 8. — 
Homer. 11. 9, v. 539.— Z?iorf. ^.—Paus. 2, c, 25. 
— Ovid. Met.8,v. 510. 

CEnoe, a nymph who married Sicinus the 
son of Thoas, king of Lemnos. From her the 
island of Sicinus has been called CEnoe. 

CEnomaus, a son of Mars by Sterope, the 
daughter of Atlas. He was king of Pisa in 
Elis, and father of Hippodamia by Evarete, 
daughter of Acrisius, or Eurythoa, the daughter 
of Danaus. He was informed by the oracle that 
he should perish by the hands of his son-in-law ; 
therefore, as he could skilfully drive a chariot, 
he determined to marry his daughter only to 
him who could outrun him, on condition that all 
who entered the list should agree to lay down 
their life if conquered. Many had already perish- 
ed; when Pelops, son of Tantalus, proposed 
himself He previously bribed Myrtilus, the 
charioteer of (Enomaus, by promising him (he 
enjoyment of the favours of Hippodamia if he 
proved victorious. Myrtilus gave his master an 
old chariot, whose axle-tree broke on the course, 
which was from Pisa to the Corinthian isthmus, 
and CEnomaus was killed. Pelops married 
Hippodamia, and became king of Pisa. As he 
expired, CEnomaus entreated Pelops to revenge 
the perfidy of Myrtilus, which was executed. 
Apollod. 2, c. 4. — Diod. 4. — Paus. 5, c. 17, ]. 
6, c. 11, &c. — Apollon. Rhod. 1. — Properi. 1, el. 
2, V. 2d. — Ovid, in lb. 367. Art. Am. 2, v. 8. 
—Heroid. 8, v. 70. 

QEnone, a nymph of mount Ida, daughter of 
the river Cebrenus in Phrygia. As she had 
received the gift of prophecy, she foretold to Pa- 
ris, whom she married before he was discovered 
to be the son of Priam, that his voyage into 
Greece would be attended with the most serious 
consequences, and the total ruin of his country ; 
and that he should have recourse to her medici- 
nal knowledge at the hour of death. All these 
predictions were fulfilled ; and Paris, when he 
had received the fatal wound, ordered his body 
to be carried to CEnone, in hopes of being cured 
by her assistance. He expired as he came into 
her presence ; and CEnone was so struck at the 
sight of his dead body, that she bathed it with 
her tears, and stabbed herself to the heart. She 
was mother of Corythus by Paris, and this son 
perished by the hand of his father when he at- 
tempted, at the instigation of CEnone, to per- 
suade him lo withdraw his affection from Hel- 
en. Dictys Cret. — Ovid, de Rem. Amor. v. 
457. — Heroid. 5. — Iju,can. 9. 

CEnopion, a son of Ariadne by Theseus, or, 
according to others, by Bacchus. He married 
Helice, by, whom he had a daughter, called 
Hero, or Merope, of whom the giant Orion 
became enamoured, The father, unwilling to 
give his daughter to such a lover, and afraid of 
provoking him by an open refusal, evaded his 
applications, and at last put out his eyes when 
he was intoxicated. Some suppose that this 
violence was offered to Orion after he had dis- 
honoured Merope. CEnopion received the island 
of Chios from Rhadamanthus, who had con- 
quered most of the islands of the iEgean Sea, 
and his tomb was still seen there in the age of 
Pausanias. Some suppose, and with more 
probability, that he reigned not at Chios, but at 
^gina, which from him was called CEnopia. 
751 



OM 



MYTHOLOGY. 



OR 



Plut. in TTies. — Apollod. 1, c. 4. — Diod. — Paus. 
7, c. 4. — ApoUon. Rhod. 3. 

CEoNus, a son of Licymnius, killed at Sparta, 
where he accompanied Hercules ; and as the 
hero had promised Licymnius to bring back his 
son, he burnt the body, and presented the ashes 
to the afflicted father. From this circumstance 
arose a custom of burning the dead among the 
Greeks, according to the mythologists. Schol. 
Homer. II. 

Ogmius, a name of Hercules among the 
Gauls. Lucian. in Here. 

Ogyges, a celebrated monarch, the most an- 
cient of those that reigned in Greece. He was 
son of Terra, or, as some suppose, of Neptune, 
and married Thebe the daughter of Jupiter, 
He reigaed in Boeotia, which, from him is 
sometimes called Ogygia, and his power was 
also extended over Attica. It is supposed that 
he was of Egyptian or Phoenician extraction ; 
but his origin, as well as the age in which he 
lived and the duration of his reign are so ob- 
scure and unknown, that the epithet of Ogygian 
is often applied to every thing of dark antiquity. 
In the reign of Ogyges there was a deluge, 
which so inundated the territory of Attica, that 
they remained waste for near 200 years. This, 
though it is very uncertain, is supposed to have 
happened about 1764 years before the Christian 
era, previous to the deluge of Deucalion. Ac- 
cording to some writers, it was owing to the 
overflowing of one of the rivers of the country. 
The reign of Ogyges was also marked by an 
uncommon appearance in the heavens; and, as 
it is reported, the planet Venus changed her 
colour, diameter, figure, and her course, Varro 
de R. R. 3, c. 1. — Pans. 9, c. 5. — Aug. de Civ. 
D. 18, &c. 

OicLEUs, a son of Antiphates and Zeuxippe, 
who married Hypermnestra, daughter of Thes- 
tius, by whom he had Iphianira, Polybcea, and 
Amphiaraus, He was killed by Laomedon 
when defending the ships which Hercules had 
brought to Asia when he made war against 
Troy. Homer. Od. 15. — Diod. 4. — Apollod. 1, 
c. 8, 1. 3, c. Q.—Paus. 6, c. 17. 

OiLEUs, a king of the Locrians. His father's 
name was Odoedocus, and his mother's Agria- 
nome. He married Eriope, by whom he had 
Ajax, called Oileus from his father, to discrimi- 
nate him from Ajax the son of Telamon. He 
had also another son, called Medon, by a courte- 
san called Rhene. Oileus was one of the Ar- 
gonauts. Virg. jEn. 1, v, 45. — ApoUon. 1. — 
Hijgin. fab. 14 and 18. — Homer. U. 13 and 15. — 
Apollod. 3. c. 10. 

Olen. Vid. Part II. 

Olenus, a son of Vulcan, who married Le- 
thgea, a beautiful woman, who preferred herself 
to the goddesses. She and her husband were 
changed into stones by the deities. Ovid. Met. 
10, V. 68. 

Olympius, a surname of Jupiter at Olympia, 
where the god had a celebrated temple and sta- 
tue, which passed for one of the seven wonders 
of the world. It was the work of Phidias. 
Pans. 7, c. 2. Vid. Part II. 

Omphale, a queen of Lydia, daughter of 
Jardanus. She married Tmolus, who, at his 
death, left her mistress of his kingdom. Om- 
phale had been informed of the great exploits of 
Hercules, and wished to see so illustrious a hero. 
752 



Her wish was soon gratified. After the murder 
of Eurytus, Hercules fell sick, and was ordered 
to be sold as a slave, that he might recover his 
health and the right use of his senses. Mercu- 
ry was commissioned to sell him, and Omphale 
bought him and restored him to liberty. The 
hero became enamoured of his mistress, and the 
queen favoured his passion, and had a son by 
him, whom some call Agelaus and others La- 
mon. From this son were descended Gyges 
and Croesus ; but this opinion is difierent from 
the account which makes these Lydian mon- 
archs spring from Alcaeus, a son of Hercules, 
byMalis, one of the female servants of Omphale, 
Hercules is represented by the poets as so des- 
perately enamoured of the queen, that he spins 
by her side among her women, while she covers 
herself with the lion's skin, and arms herself 
with the club of the hero, and often strikes him 
with her sandals for the uncouth manner with 
which he holds the distaff, &c, Ovid. Fast. 2, 
V, 305, &c. — Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 7. — Diod. 
i.—Propert. 3, el. 11, v. 17, 

Ops, {opis,) the daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
the same as the Rhea of the Greeks, who mar- 
ried Saturn, and became mother of Jupiter. 
She was known among the ancients by the 
different names of Cybele, Bona Dea^ Magna 
Mater, Thya, Tellus, Proserpina, and even of 
Juno and Minerva; and the worship which 
was paid to these apparently several deities, was 
offered merely to one and the same person, 
mother of the gods. The word Ops seems to be 
derived from Opus; because the goddess, who 
is the same as the earth, gives nothing without 
labour. Tatius built her a temple at Rome. 
She was generally represented as a matron, 
with her right hand opened, as if offering as- 
sistance to the helpless, and holding a loaf in 
her left hand. Her festivals were called Opa- 
lia, &c. Varro de L. L. 4. — Dionys. Hat. 2, 
SLC—Tibull. el, 4, v, 68.—Plin. 19, c. 6. 

Orckamus, a king of Assyria, father of Leu- 
cothoe, by Eurynome. He buried his daugh- 
ter alive for her amours with Apollo. Ovid. 
Met. 4, V, 212, 

Orcus, one of the names of the god of hell, 
the same as Pluto, though confounded by some 
with Charon, He had a temple at Rome. The 
word Orcus is generally used to signify the in- 
fernal regions, Horat. 1, od. 29, &c, — Virg. 
Mn. 4, V. 502, Sic— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 116, &c. 

Oreades. Vid. NymphcB. 

Orestes. Vid. Part II. 

Orion, a celebrated giant, sprung from Jupi- 
ter, Neptune, and Mercury. These three gods, 
as they travelled over Boeotia, met with great 
hospitality from Hyrieus, a peasant of the coun- 
try, who was ignorant of their dignity and char- 
acter. They were entertained with whatever 
the cottage afforded ; and when Hyrieus had 
discovered that they were gods, because Nep- 
tune told him to fill up Jupiter's cup with wine, 
after he had served it before the rest, the old 
man welcomed them by the voluntary sacrifice 
of an ox. Pleased with his piety, the gods pro- 
mised to grant him whatever he required; and 
the old man who had lately lost his wife, to 
whom he had promised never to marry again, 
desired them that, as he was childless, they 
would give him a son without another marriage. 
The gods consented, and Hyrieus, nine months 



OR 



MYTHOLOGY. 



OR 



after, found a beautiful child, whom he called 
Urion. The name was changed into Orion, by 
the corruption of one letter, as Ovid says, Per- 
didit antiquum litter a prima sonwm. Orion 
soon rendered himself celebrated, and Diana 
took him among her attendants, and even be- 
came deeply enamoured of him. His gigantic 
stature, however, displeased (Enopion, king of 
Chios, whose daughter Hero or Merope he de- 
manded in marriage. The king, not to deny 
him openly, promised to make him his son-in- 
law as soon as he delivered his island from wild 
beasts. This task, which CEnopion deemed 
impracticable, was soon performed by Orion, 
who eagerly demanded his reward. CEnopion, 
on pretence of complying, intoxicated his illus- 
trious guest, and put out his eyes on the sea- 
shore, where he had laid himself down to sleep. 
Orion, finding himself blind when he awoke, 
was conducted by the sound to a neighbouring 
forge, where he placed one of the workmen on 
his back, and, by his directions, went to a place 
where the rising sun was seen with the great- 
est advantage. Here he turned his face towards 
the luminary, and, as it is reported, he imme- 
diately received his eyesight, and hastened to 
punish the perfidious cruelty of CEnopion. It 
is said that Orion was an excellent workman in 
iron; and that he fabricated a subterraneous 
palace for Vulcan. Aurora, whom Venus had 
inspired with love, carried him away into the 
island of Delos ; but Diana, who was jealous of 
this, destroyed Orion with her arrows. Ac- 
cording to Ovid, Orion died of the bite of a 
scorpion, which the earth produced, to punish 
his vanity in boasting that there was not on 
earth any animal which he could not conquer. 
Some say that Orion was the son of Neptune 
and Euryale, and that he had received from his 
father the privilege and power of walking over 
the sea without welting his feet. Others make 
him son of Terra, like the rest of the giants. 
He had married a nymph, called Sida, before 
his connexion with the family of CEnopion. 
According to Diodorus, Orion was a celebrated 
hunter, superior to the rest of mankind by his 
strength and uncommon stature. He built the 
port of Zancle, and fortified the coast of Sicily 
against the frequent inundations of the sea, by 
heaping a mound of earth, called Pelorum, on 
which he built a temple to the gods of the sea. 
After death Orion was placed in heaven, where 
one of the constellations still bears his name. 
The constellation of Orion, placed near the 
feet of the bull, was composed of 17 stars, in 
the form of a man holding a sword, which has 
given occasion to the poets often to speak of 
Orion's sword. As the constellation of Orion, 
which rises about the ninth day of March, and 
sets about the 21st of June, is generally sup- 
posed to be accompanied, at its rising, with 
great rains and storms, it has acquired the epi- 
thet of aquosus, given it by Virgil. Orion was 
buried in the island of Delos ; and the monu- 
ment which the people of Tanagra in Bceotia 
showed, as containing the remains of this cele- 
brated hero, was nothing but a cenotaph. The 
daughters of Orion distinguished themselves as 
much as their father, and when the oracle de- 
clared thatBoeotia should not be delivered from 
a dreadful pestilence before two of Jupiter's 
children were immolated on the altars, they joy- 
Part III.— 5 C 



fully accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacri- 
ficed themselves for the good of their country. 
Their names were Menippe and Metioche. 
They had been carefully educated by Diana, 
and Venus and Minerva had made them very 
rich and valuable presents. The deities of hell 
were struck at the patriotism of the two females, 
and immediately two stars were seen to arise 
from the earth, which still smoked with the 
blood, and they were placed in the heavens in 
the form of a crown. According to Ovid, their 
bodies were burned by the Thebans, and from 
their ashes arose two persons, whom the gods 
soon after changed into constellations. Diod. 
i.— Homer. Od. 5, v. 121, 1. 11, -v. 309.— Virg. 
JEn. 3, v. bll.—Apollod. 1, c. 4.— Ovid. Met. 8 
and 13. Fast. 5, &iC.—Hygin. fab. 125, and P. 
A. 2, c. 44, &LC.—Propert. 2, el. 13.— Virg. Mn. 
1, &c.—Horat. 2, od. 13, 1. 3, od. 4 and 27, 
epod. 10, &c. — Lucan. 1, «&c. — Catull, de Be- 
ren. — Palephat. 1. — Parthen. erotic. 20. 

Orithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of 
Athens, by Praxiihea. She was courted and 
carried away by Boreas, king of Thrace, as she 
crossed the Ilissus, and became mother of Cleo- 
patra, Chione, Zetes, and Calais. Apollon. 1. 
— Apollod.o, c. 15. — Orpheus. — Ovid. Met. 6, v. 
706. Fast. 5, v. 204.— Paws, 1, c. 19, 1. 5, c. 19. 

Orpheus, a son of OEager, by the muse Cal- 
liope. Some suppose him to be the son of Apol- 
lo, to render his birth more illustrious. He re- 
ceived a lyre from Apollo, or, according to some, 
from Mercury, upon which he played with such 
a masterly hand, that even the most rapid rivers 
ceased to flow, the savage beasts of the forest 
forgot their wildness, and the mountains moved 
to listen to his song. The nymphs were his 
constant companions, but Eurydice only made a 
deep impression on the melodious musician, and 
their nuptials v/ere celebrated. Their happi- 
ness, however, was short ; Aristseus became en- 
amoured of Eurydice, and as she fled from her 
pursuer, a serpent, that was lurking in the 
grass, bit her foot, and she died of the poisoned 
wound. With his lyre in his hand, Orpheus 
entered the infernal regions, and gained an easy 
admission to the palace of Pluto. The king of 
hell was charmed with the melody of his strains, 
and according to the beautiful expressions of 
the poets, the wheel of Ixion stopped, the stone 
of Sisyphus stood still, Tantalus forgot his per- 
petual thirst, and even the furies relented. 
Pluto and Proserpine were moved with his sor- 
row, and consented to restore him Eurydice, 
provided he forbore looking behind till he had 
come to the extremest borders of hell. The con- 
ditions were gladly accepted, and Orpheus was 
already insight of the upper regions of the air, 
when he forgot his promises, and turned back 
to look at his long lost Eurydice. He saw her, 
but she instantly vanished from his eyes. He 
attempted to follow her, but he was refused ad- 
mission ; and the only comfort he could find, 
was to sooth his grief at the sound of his musi- 
cal instrument, in grottoes or on the mountains. 
He totally separated himself from the society of 
mankind ; and the Thracian women, whom he 
had oflfended by his coldness, attacked him while 
they celebrated the orgies of Bacchus ; and after 
they had torn his body to pieces they threw his 
head into the Hebrus, which still articulated the 
words Eurydice ! Eurvdice ! as it was carried 
753 



OS 



MYTHOLOGY. 



OS 



down the stream into the iEgean Sea. Orpheus 
was one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated 
expedition he wrote a poetical account. This 
is doubted by Aristotle, who says, according to 
Cicero, that there never existed an Orpheus ; 
but that the poems which pass under his name, 
are the compositions of a Pythagorean philoso- 
pher named Cercops. According to some of 
the moderns, the Argonautica, and the other 
poems attributed to Orpheus, are the produc- 
tion of the pen of Onomacritus, a poet who 
lived in the age of Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. 
Pausanias, however, and Diodorus Siculus, 
speak of Orpheus as a great poet and musician, 
who rendered himself equally celebrated by his 
knowledge of the art of war, by the extent of 
his understanding, and by the laws which he 
enacted. Some maintain that he was killed by 
a thunderbolt. He was buried at Pieria in 
Macedonia, according to ApoUodorus. The 
inhabitants of Dion boasted that his tomb was 
in their city ; and the people of mount Libethrus, 
in Thrace,claimed the same honour, and farther 
observed, that the nightingales, which built their 
nests near his tomb, sang with greater melody 
than all other birds, Orpheus, as some report, 
after death received divine honours ; the muses 
gave an honourable burial to his remains, and 
his lyre became one of the constellations in the 
heavens. The best edition of Orpheus is that 
ofGesner,8vo. Lips. 1764. Diod. 1, &c. — Pans. 
1, &.C. — ApoUod. 1, c. 9, &c. — Cic. de Nat. D. 
1, c. ^'d.—Apollon. l.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 645. G. 
4, v, 457, &c. — Hygin.fab. 14, &c. — Ovid. Met. 
10, fab. 1, &c. 1. 11, fab. 1.— Plato. Polit. 10.— 
Horat. 1, od. 13 and 35. — Orpheus. 

ORTmA, a surname of Diana at Sparta. In 
her sacrifices it was usual for boys to be whip- 
ped. Vid. Diamastigosis, Part II, Plut. in 
Thes., &c, 

Orthrus, or Orthos, a dog which belonged 
to Geryon, from whom and the Chimera, sprung 
the sphynx and the Nemasan lion. He had two 
heads, and wassprung from the union of Echid- 
na and Typhon. He was destroyed by Hercu- 
les. Hesiod. Theog. 310. — Afollod. 2, c. 5. 

Orus, or HoRUs, one of the gods of the Egyp- 
tians, son of Osiris and of Isis. He assisted 
his mother in avenging his father, who had 
been murdered by Typhon. Orus was skilled 
in medicine ; he was acquainted with futurity, 
and he made the good and happiness of his 
subjects the sole object of his government. He 
was the emblem of the sun among the Egyp- 
tians, and he was generally represented as an 
infant swathed in variegated clothes. In one 
hand he held a staff, which terminated in the 
head of a hawk, in the other a whip with three 
thongs. Herodot. 2. — Plut. de hid. <^ Os. — 
Diod. 1. The name is said to signify king 
or lord. 

Osiris, a great deity of the Egyptians, son 
of Jupiter and Niobe. All the ancients great- 
ly differ in their opinions concerning this cele- 
brated god, but they all agree that, as king of 
Egypt, he took particular care to civilize his 
subjects, to polish their morals, to give them 
good and salutary laws, and to teach them agri- 
culture. After he had accomplished a reform 
at home, Osiris resolved to go and spread civi- 
lization in the other parts of the earth. He 
left his kingdom to the care of his wife Isis, 
754 



and of her faithful minister Hermes or Mer- 
cury. The command of his troops at home was 
left to the trust of Hercules, a warlike officer. 
In his expedition Osiris was accompanied by his 
brother Apollo, and by Anubis, Macedo, and 
Pan. His march was through Ethiopia, where 
his army was increased by the addition of the 
Satyrs, a hairy race of monsters, who made 
dancing and playing on musical instruments 
their chief study. He afterwards passed through 
Arabia, and visited the greatest of the kingdoms 
of Asia and Europe, where he enlightened the 
minds of men by introducing among them the 
worship of the gods, and a reverence for the 
wisdom of a supreme being. At his return 
home, Osiris found the minds of his subjects 
roused and agitated. His brother Typhon had 
raised seditions,and endeavoured to make him- 
self popular. Osiris, whose sentiments were al- 
ways of the most pacific nature, endeavoured to 
convince his brother of his ill conduct, but he fell 
a sacrifice to the attempt. Typhon murdered 
him in a secret apartment, and cut his body in 
pieces, which were divided among the asso- 
ciates of his guilt. Typhon, according to Plu- 
tarch, shut up his brother in a coffer and threw 
him into the Nile. The inquiries of Isis dis- 
covered the body of her husband on the coast of 
Phoenicia, where it had been conveyed by the 
waves ; but Typhon stole it as it was carrying 
to Memphis, and he divided it among his com- 
panions, as was before observed. This cruelty 
incensed Isis; she revenged her husband's 
death, and with her son Orus she defeated Ty- 
phon and the partisans of his conspiracy. She 
recovered the mangled pieces of her husband's 
body, one part only excepted, which the mur- 
derer had thrown into the sea ; and to render 
him all the honour which his humanity deserv- 
ed, she made as many statues of wax as there 
were mangled pieces of his body. Each statue 
contained a piece of the flesh of the dead 
monarch ; and Isis, after she had summoned 
in her presence, one by one, the priests of all 
the different deities in her dominions, gave 
them each a statue, intimating, that, in doing 
that, she had preferred them to all the other 
communities of Egypt ; and she bound them by 
a solemn oath that they would keep secret that 
mark of her favour, and endeavour to show 
their sense of it by establishing a form of wor- 
ship and paying divine honours to their prince. 
They were further directed to choose whatever 
animals they pleased to represent the person 
and the divinity of Osiris, and they were en- 
joined to pay the greatest reverence to that 
representative of divinity, and to bury it when 
dead with the greatest solemnity. To render 
their establishment more popular, each sacer- 
dotal body had a certain portion of land allotted 
to them to maintain them, and to defray the 
expenses which necessarily attended the sacri- 
fices and ceremonial rites. That part of the 
body of Osiris which had not been recovered, 
was treated with more particular attention by 
Isis, and she ordered that it should receive 
honours more sol^jmn, and at the same time 
more mysterious, than the other members. Vid. 
Phallica. As Osiris had particularly instructed 
his subjects in cultivating the ground, the priests 
chose the ox to represent him, and paid the 
most superstitious veneration to that animal. 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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Vid. Apis. Osiris, according to the opinion of 
some mythologists, is the same as the sun ; and 
the adoration which is paid by different nations 
to an Anubis, a Bacchus, a Dionysius, a Jupi- 
ter, a Pan, &c., is the same as that which Osiris 
received in the Egyptian temples. Isis also, 
after death, received divine honours as well as 
her husbemd, and as the ox was the symbol of 
the sun, or Osiris, so the cow was the emblem of 
the moon, or of Isis. Nothing can give a deafer 
idea of the power and greatness of Osiris than 
this inscription, Avhich has been found on some 
ancient monuments: Saturn, the youngest of 
of all the gods, was myfatfier ; I am Osiris, who 
co7iducted a large and numerous army as far as 
the deserts of India, and travelled over the great- 
est part of the world, and visited the streams of 
the Ister, and the remote shores of the ocean, dif- 
fusing benevolence to all the inhabitants of the 
earth. Osiris was generally represented with a 
cap on his head like a mitre, with two horns ; 
he held a stick in his hand, and in his right a 
whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears 
with the head of a hawk, as that bird, by its 
quick and piercing eyes, is a proper emblem of 
the sun. JPlut. in Isid. and Os. — Herodot. 2, c. 
lU.—piod. 1.— Homer. Od. 12, v. 323.— JElian. 
de Anim. 3. — Ducan. de Dea Syr. — Plin. 8. 

Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Neptune. Vid. 
Aloides. 



P^AN, a surname of Apollo, derived from 
the word pcean, a hymn which was sung in 
his honour, because he had killed the serpent 
Python, which had given cause to the people 
to exclaim, lo Pcsan! The exclamation of lo 
Paean ! was made use of in speaking to the 
other gods, as it often was a demonstration of 
joy. Jnv. 6, v. ill.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 538, 1. 
14, V. 12Q.—Lucan. 1, &c.—Strab. 18. 

P.E0N, a celebrated physician, who cured the 
wounds which the gods received during the 
Trojan war. From him physicians are some- 
times called Paonii, and herbs serviceable in 
medicinal processes Pceonice herbce. Virg. Mn. 
1, V. l&9.—Ovid. Met. 15, v. 535. 

P^onIdes, a name given to the daughters of 
Pier us, who were defeated by the Muses, be- 
cause their mother was a native of Pasonia. 
Ovid. Met. 5, ult.fab. 

Pal^mon, or Palemon, a sea deity, son of 
Athamas and Ino. His original name was Me- 
licerta, and he assumed that of Palasmon after 
he had been changed into a sea deity by Nep- 
tune. 

Palamedes. Vid. Part 11, 

Palatinds. Apollo, who was worshipped 
on the Palatine hill, was called Palatinus. His 
temple there had been built, or rather repaired, 
by Augustus, who had enriched it with a libra- 
ry, valuable for the various collections of Greek 
and Latin manuscripts which it contained, as 
also for the Sibylline books deposited there, 
Horat. 1, ep. 3, v. 17. Vid. Part I. 

Pales, the goddess of sheepfolds and of pas- 
tures among the Romans. She was worship- 
ped with great solemnity at Rome, and her 
festivals, called Palilia, were celebrated the 
very day that Romulus began to lay the foun- 
dation of the city of Rome. Virg. G. 3, v. 1 



and 29L—Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 722, &ic.—PaUrc. 
1, c. 8. 

Palici, or Palisci, two deities, sons of Jupi- 
ter by Thalia, whom jEschylus calls ^tna, in 
a tragedy which is now lost, according to the 
words of Macrobius. The god concealed her 
in the bowels of the earth, and when the time 
of her delivery was come, the earth opened, and 
brought into the world two children, who re- 
ceived the name of Palici, airo tov rraXiv iKscdai, 
because they came again into the world from the 
bowels of the earth. These deities were wor- 
shipped with great ceremonies by the Sicilians, 
and near the temple were two small lakes of 
sulphureous water, which were supposed to 
have sprung out of the earth at the same time 
that they were born. Near these pools it was 
usual to take the most solemn oaths, by those 
who wished to decide controversies and quar- 
rels. If any of the persons who took the oaths 
perjured themselves, they were immediately 
punished in a supernatural manner by the dei- 
ties of the place, and those whose oath was sin- 
cere departed unhurt. The Palici had also an 
oracle, which was consulted upon great emer- 
gencies, and which rendered the truest and most 
unequivocal answers. In a superstitious age 
the altars of the Palici were stained with the 
blood of human sacrifices ; but this barbarous 
custom was soon abolished, and the deities were 
satisfied with their usual offerings. Virg. Mn. 
9, V. bSb.-Ovid. Met. 5, v. 506.—Diod. 2.— 
Macrob. Saturn. 5, c. \Q.—ltal. 14, v. 219. 

Palinurus. Vid. Part II. 

Palladium, a celebrated statue of Pallas. It 
was about three cubits high, and represented 
the goddess as sitting and holding a pike in her 
right hand, and in her left, a distaff and a spin- 
dle. It fell down from heaven near the tent of 
Ilus, as that prince was building the citadel of 
Ilium, Some nevertheless suppose that it fell 
at Pessinus in Phrygia, or, according to others, 
Dardanus received it as a present from his 
mother Electra. There are some authors who 
maintain that the Palladium was made with 
the bones of Pelops by Abaris; but Apollodo- 
rus seems to say, that it was no more than a 
piece of clock-work, which moved of itself On 
its preservation depended the safety of Troy, 
and therefore Ulysses and Diomedes were com- 
missioned to steal it away. They effected their 
purpose ; and if we rely upon the authority of 
some authors, they were directed how to carry 
it away by Helenus, the son of Priam, who 
proved, in this, unfaithful to his country, be- 
cause his brother Deiphobus, at the death of 
Paris, had married Helen, of whom he was ena- 
moured. Minerva was displeased with the vio- 
lence which was offered to her statue, and. ac- 
cording to Virgil, the Palladium itself appeared 
to have received life and motion, and by the 
flashes which started from its eyes, and its sud- 
den springs from the earth, it seemed to show 
the resentment of the goddess. The true Pal- 
ladium, as some authors observe, was not car- 
ried away from Troy by the Greeks, but only 
one of the statues of similar size and shape, 
which were placed near it to deceive whatever 
sacrilegious persons attempted to steal it. The 
Palladium, therefore, as they say, was conveyed 
safe from Troy to Italy by ^neas, and it was 
afterwards preserved bv the Romans with the 
755 



l*A 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PA 



greatest secrecy and veneration, in the temple 
of Vesta ; a circumstance which none but the 
vestal virgins knew. Herodian. 1, c. 14, &c. — 
Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 422, &c. Met. 13, v. 336.— 
Dictys Cret. 1, c. b.—Apollod. 3, c. 12. — Dionys. 
Hal 1, &.C.— Homer. 11. lO.— Virg. JEn. 2, v. 
166, 1. 9. V. 151. — Plut. de reb. Rom. — iMcan. 
9. — Dares Pkryg. — Juv. 3, v. 139. 

Pallantias, a patronymic of Aurora, as be- 
ing related to the giant Pallas. Ovid. Met. 9, 
fab. 12. 

Pallantides, the 50 sons of Pallas, the son 
of Pandion and the brother of ^geus. They 
were all killed by Theseus, the son of ^geus 
whom they opposed when he came to take pos- 
session of his father's kingdom. 

Pallas, (adis,) a daughter of Jupiter, the 
same as Minerva. The goddess received this 
name either because she killed the giant Pal- 
las, or perhaps from the spear which she seems 
to brandish in her hands (TraAXei) Vid. Mi- 
nerva. 

Pallas, I. one of the giants, son of Tartarus 
and Terra. He was killed by Minerva, who 
covered herself with his skin, whence, as some 
suppose, she is called Pallas. Apollod. 3, c. 12. 

II. A son of Crius and Eurybia, who 

married the nymph Styx, by whom he had 
Victory, Valour, &c. Hesiod. Theog. Vid. 
Part 11. 

Pan, was the god of shepherds, of huntsmen, 
and of all the inhabitants of the country. He 
was the son of Mercury, by Dryope, according 
to Homer. Some give him Jupiter and Cal- 
listo for parents ; others, Jupiter and Ybis, or 
Oneis. Lucian, Hyginus, &c. support that he 
was the son of Mercury and Penelope, the 
daughter of Icarius. Some authors maintain 
that Penelope became mother of Pan during the 
a bsence of Ulysses in the Trojan war, and that 
he was the offspring of all the suiters that fre- 
quented the palace of Penelope, whence he re- 
ceived the name of Pan, which signifies all or 
every thing. He had two small horns on his 
head, his complexion was ruddy, his nose flat, 
and his legs, thighs, tail, and feet, were those of 
a goat. The education of Pan was intrusted 
to a nymph of Arcadia, called Sinoe ; but the 
nurse, according to Homer, terrified at the sight 
of such a monster, fled away and left him. He 
was wrapped up in the skin of beasts by his 
father, and carried to heaven, where Jupiter and 
the gods long entertained themselves with the 
oddity of his appearance. Bacchus was great- 
ly pleased with him, and gave him the name of 
Pan. The god of shepherds chiefly resided in 
Arcadia, where the woods and the most rugged 
mountains were his habitation. He invented 
the flute with seven reeds, which he called Sy- 
rinx, in honour of a beautiful nymph of the 
same name who was changed into a reed. The 
worship of Pan was well established, particular- 
ly in Arcadia, where he gave oracles on mount 
Lycseus. His festivals, called by the Greeks 
LyccBa, were brought to Italy by Evander, and 
they were well known at Rome by the name of 
the Lupercalia. The worship, and the different 
functions of Pan, are derived from the mytho- 
logy of the ancient Egyptians. This god was 
one of the eight great gods of the Egyptians, 
who ranked before the other 12 gods whom the 
Romans called Consentes. He was worshipped 
756 



with the greatest solemnity all over Egypt. His 
statues represented him as a goat, not because 
he was really such, but this was done for mys- 
terious reasons. He was the emblem of fecun- 
dity, and they looked upon him as the principle 
of all things. His horns, as some observe, 
represented the rays of the sun, and the bright- 
ness of the heavens was expressed by the viva- 
city and the ruddiness of his complexion. The 
star which he wore on his breast was the sym- 
bol of the firmament, and his hairy legs and feet 
denoted the inferior parts of the earth, such as 
the woods and plants. He appeared as a goat, 
because, when the gods fled into Egypt in their 
war against the giants, Pan transformed himself 
into a goat ; an example which was immediately 
followed by all the deities. Pan, according to 
some is the same as Faunus, and he is the chief 
of all the Satyrs. Plutarch mentions that, in 
the reign of Tiberius, an extraordinary voice 
was heard near the Echinades in the Ionian 
Sea, which exclaimed that the great Pan was 
dead. This was readily believed by the empe- 
ror, and the astrologers were consulted, but 
they were unable to explain the meaning of so 
supernatural a voice, which probably proceeded 
from the imposition of one of the courtiers who 
attempted to terrify Tiberius. In Egypt, in the 
town of Mendes which word also signifies a 
goat, there was a sacred goat kept with the 
most ceremonious sanctity. The death of this 
animal was always attended with the greatest 
solemnities ; and, like that of another Apis, be- 
came the cause of a universal mourning. As 
Pan usually terrified the inhabitants of the 
neighbouring country, that kind of fear which 
often seizes men, and which is only ideal and 
imaginary, has received from him the name of 
panic fear. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 396, 1. 2, v. 277. 
Met.\,v.Qm.— Virg. G.l,y. 17. Mn. 8, v. 
343. G. 3, V. 392.— Juv. 2, v. U2.—Paus. 8, 
c. 30.—ltal. 13, V. 327.— Farro de L. L.—b, c. 
3. — Liv. I, c. 4. — Dionys. Hal. 1. — Herodot. 2, 
c. 46 and 145, &c. — Died. 1. — Orpheus Hymn. 
10. — Homer. Hymn, in Pan. — Lucian. Dial. 
Merc. (^ Pan. — Apollod. 1, c. 4. 

Panacea, a goddess, daughter of ^sculapius, 
who presided over health. Jjucan. 9, v. 918, — 
PZm. 35, c. 11, &c. 

Panda, two deities at Rome, who presided 
one over the openings of roads, and the other 
over the openings of towns. Varro de P. R. 
I.— A. Gell. 13, c. 22. 

Pandarus, I. Vid. Part II. II. A na- 
tive of Crete, punished with death for being ac- 
cessary to the theft of Tantalus. What this 
theft was is unknown. Some, however, sup- 
pose that Tantalus stole the ambrosia and the 
nectar from the tables of the gods to which he 
had been admitted, or that he carried away a 
dog which watched Jupiter's temple in Crete, 
in which crime Pandarus was concerned, and 
for which he suffered. Pandarus had two 
daughters, Camiro and Clytia, who were also 
deprived of their mother by a sudden death 
and left without friends or protectors, Venus 
had compassion upon them, and the goddesses 
were all equally interested in their welfare. Ve- 
nus wished still to make their happiness more 
complete, and prayed Jupiter to grant them 
kind and tender husbands. But in her absence 
the Harpies carried away the virgins, and de- 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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livered ihem to the Eamenides to share the 
punishment which their father suffered. Paus. 
10, c. ^Q— Pindar. Vid. Part II. 

Pandarus, or Pandareus, a man who had a 
daughter called Philomela. Some suppose him 
to be the same as Pandion, king of Athens. 

Pandemia, a surname of Venus, expressive 
of her great power over the affections of man- 
kind. 

Pandemus^ one of the surnames of the god 
of love among the Egyptians and the Greeks, 
who distinguished two Cupids, one of whom 
was the vulgar, called Pandemus, and another 
of a purer, and more celestial origin. Plut. in 
Erot. 

Pandion, a king of Athens, son of Erich- 
thon and Pasithea, who succeeded his father, 
B. C. 1437. He became father of Procne and 
Philomela, Erechtheus, and Butes. During 
his reign there was such an abundance of corn, 
wine, oil, that it was publicly reported that 
Bacchus and Minerva had personally visited 
Attica. He waged a successful war against 
Labdacuskingof Bceotia, and gave his daugh- 
ter Procne in marriage to Tereus, king of 
Thrace, who had assisted him. The treatment 
which Philomela received from her brother-in- 
law, Terreus {Vid. Philo'nela) was the source 
of infinite grief to Pandion, and he died, through 
excess of sorrow, after a reign of 40 years. 

Th ere was also another Pandion, son of 

Cecrops, 2d, by Metiaduca, who succeeded to his 
father, B. C. 130. He was driven from his pa- 
ternal dominions, and fled to Pylas, king of Me- 
gara,, who gave him his daughter Pelia in mar- 
riage, and resigned his crown to him. Pandion 
became father of four children, called from him 
PandionidcB, iEgeus, Pallas, Nisus, and Ly- 
cus. The eldest of these children recovered his 
father's kingdom. Some authors have confound- 
ed the two Pandions together in such an indis- 
criminate manner, that they seem to have been 
only one and the same person. Many believe 
that Philomela and Procne were the daughters 
not of Pandion the 1st, but of Pandion the 2d. 
Ovid. Met. 6,v. 676. — Apollod. 3, c. 15. — Paus. 
1, c. 5. — Hygin. fab. 48. 

Pandora, I. a celebrated woman, the first 
mortal female that ever lived, according to the 
opinion of the poet Hesiod. She was made 
with clay by Vulcan, at the request of Jupiter, 
who wished to punish the impiety and artifice of 
Prometheus, by giving him a wife. When this 
woman of clay had been made by the artist, and 
received life, all the gods vied in making her 
presents. Venus gave her beauty and the art 
of pleasing ; the Graces gave her the power of 
captivating; Apollo taught her how to sing; 
Mercury instructed her in eloquence ; and Mi- 
nerva gave her the most rich and splendid orna- 
ments. From all these valuable presents, which 
she had received from the gods, the woman was 
called Pandora, which intimates that she had 
received every necessary ^i/^, rtav Sotpov. Jupi- 
ter, after this, gave her a beautiful box, which 
she was ordered to present to the man who mar- 
ried her ; and by the commission of the god, 
Mercury conducted her to Prometheus. The 
artful mortal was sensible of the deceit, and as 
he had always distrusted Jupiter, as well as the 
rest of the gods, since he had stolen fire away 
from the sun to animate his man of clay, he 



sent away Pandora without suffering himself 
to be captivated by her charms. His brother 
Epimetheus was not possessed of the same pru- 
dence and sagacity. He married Pandora, and 
when he opened the box which she presented 
to him, there issued from it a multitude of evils 
and distempers which dispersed themselves all 
over the world, and which, from that fatal mo- 
ment, have never ceased to afflict the human 
race. Hope was the only one who remained at 
the bottom of the box, and it is she alone who 
has the wonderful power of easing the labours 
of man, and of rendering his troubles and sor- 
rows less painful in life. Hesiod. Theog. <^ 
Dios. — Apollod. 1, c. 7. — Pans. 1, c. 24. — Hy- 
gin. 14. II. A daughter of Erech theus, king 

of Athens. She was sister to Protogenia, who 
sacrificed herself for her country at the begin- 
ning of the Boeotian war. 

Pandr5sos, a daughter of Cecrops, king of 
Athens, sister to Aglauros and Herse. She 
was the only one of the sisters who had not the 
fatal curiosity to open a basket which Minerva 
had intrusted to their care, {Vid. Erichiho- 
nius,) for which a temple was raised to her near 
that of Minerva, and a festival instituted to her 
honour, called Pandrosia. Ovid. Met. 2. v. 738. 
— Apollod. 3. — Paus. 1, &c. 

Panomph^us, a surname of Jupiter, either 
because he was worshipped by every nation on 
earth, or because he heard the prayers and the 
supplications which were addressed to him, or 
because the rest of the gods derived from him 
their knowledge of futurity, (nas omnis, ofxipri, 
vox) Ovid. Met. 11, v. \3S.— Homer. 11. 8. 

Panope, or Panopea, one of the Nereides, 
whom sailors general invoked in storms. Her 
name signifies, giving every assistance, or see- 
ing every thing. Hesiod. Theog. ^.bl.— Virg. 
JEn. 6, V. 825. 

Panopeus, a son of Phocus and Asterodia, 
who accompanied Amphitryon when he made 
war against the Teleboans He was father to 
Epeus, who made the celebrated wooden horse 
at the siege of Troy. Poais. 2, c. 29. — Apollod. 
2, c. 4. Vid. Part I. 

Pantheus, or Panthus, a Trojan, son of 
Othryas the priest of Apollo. When his coun- 
try was burnt by the Greeks, he followed the 
fortune of ^neas and was killed. Virg. jEn. 
2. V. 429. 

Paphia, a surname of Venus because the 
goddess was worshipped at Paphos. 

Paphus. Vid Pygmalion. 

Parc^:, powerful goddesses, who presided 
over the birth and the life of mankind. They 
were three in number, Clotho, Lachesis, and 
Atropos, daughters of Nox and Erebus, ac- 
cording to Hesiod, or of Jupiter and Themis 
according to the same poet in another poem. 
Some make them daughters of the sea. Clo- 
tho, the youngest of the sisters, presided over 
the moment in which we are born, and held a 
distaff in her hand ; Lachesis spun out all the 
events and actions of our life ; and Atropos, 
the eldest of the three, cut the thread of human 
lile with a pair of scissors. The different func- 
tions are well expressed in this ancient verse : 

Clotho columretinet, Lachesis net, et Atropos occat. 

The name of Parcse, according to Varro, is de- 
rived a partu or parturiendo, because they pre- 

757 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



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sided over the birth of men, and by corruption, 
the woid par ca is formed from parta or partus, 
but, according to Servius, they are called so by 
Antiphrasis, quod nemini parcant. The pow- 
er of the Parcae was great and extensive. Some 
suppose that they were subjected to none of the 
gods but Jupiter; while others support that 
even Jupiter himself was obedient to their com- 
mands; and, indeed, we see the father of the 
gods, in Homer's Tliad, unwilling to see Patro- 
cles perish, yet obliged by the superior power of 
the Fates to abandon him to his destiny. Ac- 
cording to the more received opinions, they were 
the arbiters of the life and death of mankind, 
and whatever good or evil befalls us in the 
world immediately proceeds from the Fates or 
Parcas, Some make them ministers of the king 
of hell, and represent them as sitting at the foot 
of his throne ; others represent them as placed 
on radiant thrones, amidst the celestial spheres, 
clothed in robes spangled with stars, and wear- 
ing crowns on their heads. According to Pau- 
sanias, the names of the Parcse were different 
from those already mentioned. The most an- 
cient of all, as the geographer observes, was Ve- 
nus Urania, who presided over the birth of men ; 
the second was Fortune ; Ilythia was the third. 
To these some add a fourth, Proserpina, who of- 
ten disputes with Atropos the right of cutting 
the thread of human life. The worship of the 
Parcse was well established in some cities of 
Greece. They received the same worship as 
the Furies, and their votaries yearly sacrificed to 
them black sheep, during which solemnity the 
priests were obliged to wear garlands of flowers. 
The Parcae were generally represented as three 
old women, with chaplets made with w^ool and 
interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus. 
They were covered with a white robe, and fillet 
of the same colour, bound with chaplets. One 
of them held a distaff, another the spindle, and 
the third was armed with scissors, with which 
she cut the thread which her sisters had spun. 
Their dress is differently represented by some 
authors. Clotho appears in a variegated robe, 
and on her head is a crown of seven stars. She 
holds a distaff in her hand reaching from heaven 
to earth. The robe which Lachesis wore was 
variegated with a great number of stars, and 
near her were placed a variety of spindles, Atro- 
pos was clothed in black ; she held scissors in 
her hand, with clews of thread of different 
sizes, according to the length and shortness of 
the lives whose destinies they seemed to con- 
tain, Hyginus attributes to them the inven- 
tions of these Greek letters, a, /?, n, t, v, and 
others call them the secretaries of heaven, and 
the keepers of the archives of eternity. The 
Greeks call the Parcae by the different names of 
yLoipa, aiva, Krjp, Eijiapficvri, which are cxpressivc 
of their power and of their inexorable decrees. 
Hesiod. Theog. tf* scut. Her. — Paus. 1, c. 40, 1. 
3, c. 11, 1, 5, c. \b.— Homer. 11. 20. Od. 7.— 
Theocrit. 1. — Callimach. in Dian.. — JElian. 
Anlm. 10. — Pindar. Olymp. 10, Nem. l.—Eu- 
Hp. in Iphig. — Plut. de facie in orbe Lunce. — 
Hi/gin. in praef. fab. & fab. 277, — Varro. — 
Orph. hymn. 58. — Apollon. 1, &c. — Claudian. 
derapt. Pros. — Lycoph. & Tzetz, &c. — Horat. 
S, od. 6, Sic— Ovid. Met. 5, v, b33.—Lucan. 3, 
— Virg. Eel. 4, jEn. 3, &c. — Senec. in Here. 
Fur.— Stat. Theb. 6. 

758 



Paris. Vid. Part II, 

Parthaon, a son of Agenor and Epicaste, 
who married Euryte, daughter of Hippodamus, 
by whom he had many children, among whom 
were CEneus and Sterope. Parthaon was 
brother to Demonice, the mother of Evenus by 
Mars, and also to Molus, Pylus, and Thestius. 
He is called Portheus by Homer, 11. 14. — Apol- 
lod. 1, c, l.—Hygin. fab. 129 and 239, 

Parthenop^us, a son of Meleager and Ata- 
lanta, or, according to some, of Milanion and 
another Atalanta. He was one of the seven 
chiefs who accompanied Adraslus the king of 
Argos in his expedition against Thebes, He 
was killed by Amphidicus, Apollod. 3, c. 9. — 
Paus. 3, c. 12, 1. 9, c. 19. 

Pasiphae, a daughter of the Sun and of Per- 
seis, who married Minos king of Crete. She 
disgraced herself by an unnatural passion, 
which, according to some authors, she was ena- 
bled to gratify by means of the artist Daedalus. 
Minos had four sons by Pasiphge, Castreus. 
Deucalion, Glaucus, and Androgeus, and three 
daughters, Hecate, Ariadne, and Phaedra [ Vid. 
Minotaurus.] Plato de Min. — Plut. in Thes. 
—Apollod. 2, c. l.— Virg. Mn. 6, v, 24, Hy- 
gin. fab, 40. — Died. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. 4, v. 57 
and 165. 

Patroclus. Vid. Part II, 

Patrous, a surname of Jupiter among the 
Greeks, represented by his statues as having 
three eyes, which some suppose to signify that 
he reigned in three different places, in heaven, 
on earth, and in hell. Paus. 2, 

Patulcius, a surname of Janus, which he 
received apateo because the doors of his temple 
were always open in the time of war. Some 
suppose that he received it because he presided 
over gates, or because the year began by the ce- 
lebration of his festivals, Ovid. Fast, 1, v, 129. 

Paventia, a goddess who presided over ter- 
ror at Rome, and who was invoked to protect 
her votaries from its effects, Aug. de civ. 4, 
c, 11, 

Pavor, an emotion of the mind which re- 
ceived divine honours among the Romans, and 
was considered of a most tremendous power, as 
the ancients swore by her name in the most 
solemn manner. Tullus Hostilius, the third 
king of Rome, was the first who built her tem- 
ples, and raised altars to her honour, as also to 
Pallor, the goddess of paleness. Cic. de Nat. 
D. 8, c. 17. 

Pax, an allegorical divinity among the an- 
cients. The Athenians raised her a statue, 
which represented her as holding Plutus, the 
god of wealth, in her lap, to intimate that peace 
gives rise to prosperity and to opulence ; and 
they were the first who erected an altar to her 
honour after the victories obtained by Timothe- 
us over the Lacedaemonian power, though Plu- 
tarch asserts it had been done after the conquests 
of Cimon over the Persians. She was represent- 
ed among the Romans with the horn of plenty, 
and also carrying an olive branch in her hand. 
The emperor Vespasian built her a celebrated 
temple at Rome, which was consumed by fire 
in the reign of Commodus. It was customary 
for men of learning to assemble in that temple 
and even to deposite their writinsfs there, as in a 
place of the greatest security. Therefore, when 
It was burnt, not only books, but also many 



PE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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valuable things, jewels, and immense treasures, 
were lost in the general conflagration. C. Nef. 
in Timoth. 2, — Plut in dm. — Pans. 9, e. 16. 

Peas, a shepherd, who, according to some, 
set on fire the pile on which Hercules was 
burnt. The hero gave him his bow and arrows, 
Afollod. 2. 

Pedasus, I. a son of Bucolion, the son of La- 
omedon. His mother was one of the Naiads, 
He was killed in the Trojan war by Euryalus. 

Homer. iV. 6, v. 21. II. One of the four 

horses of Achilles. As he was not immortal, 
like the other three, he was killed by Sarpedon 
Id. 16. Vid. Part I. 

Pegasides, a name given to the Muses from, 
the horse Pegasus, or from the fountain which 
Pegasus had raised from the ground by striking 
it with his foot. Ovid. Her. 15, v. 27. 

Pegasis, a name given to CEnone by Ovid, 
(Her. 5.) because she was daughter of the river 
ynvyn) Cebrenus. 

Pegasus, a winged horse, sprung from the 
blood of Medusa, when Perseus had cat off her 
head. He received his name from his being 
born, according to Hesiod, near the sources 
(irriyri) of the occau. As soou as born he left 
the earth, and flew up into heaven, or rather, 
according to Ovid, he fixed his residence on 
mount Helicon, where, by striking the earth 
with his foot, he raised a fountain which has 
been called Hippocrene. He became the fa- 
vourite of the Muses; and being afterwards 
tamed by Neptune or Minerva, he was given to 
Bellerophon to conquer the Chimsera. No sooner 
was this fiery monster destroyed, than Pegasus 
threw down his rider, because he was a mortal, 
or rather, according to the more received opin- 
ion, because he attempted to fly to heaven. 
This act of temerity in Bellerophon was pu- 
nished by Jupiter, who sent an insect to torment 
PegEisus, which occasioned the fall of his rider. 
Pegasus continued his flight up to heaven, and 
was placed among the constellations by Jupiter. 
Perseus, according to Ovid, was mounted on 
the horse Pegasus when he destroyed the sea 
monster which was going to devour Andromeda. 
Hesiod. Theog.2&2.—Horat. A. od. 11, v, 20.— 
Homer. 11. 6, v. ll^.—Apollod. 2, c. 3 and 4.— 
Lycophr. 11.— Pans. 12, c. 3 andi.— Ovid. Met. 
4, V. ISb.—Hygin. fab. 57. 

Pelarge, a daughter of Potneus, who re-es- 
tablished the worship of Ceres in Bceotia. She 
received divine honours after death. Pans. 9, 
c. 25. 

Pelasgus, a son of Terra, or, according to 
others, of Jupiter and Niobe, who reigned in 
Sicyon, and gave his name to the ancient inha- 
bitants of Peloponnesus. 

Pelethronh, an epithet given to the Lapi- 
thae, because they inhabited the town of Pele- 
thronium, at the foot of mount Pel ion in Thes- 
saly ; or because one of their number bore the 
name of Pelethronius. It is to them that man- 
kind are indebted for the invention of the bit 
with which they tamed their horses with so 
much dexterity. Virg. G. 3 v. 115. — Ovid. 
Met. 12, V. Ab^.—lAican. 6, v. 387. 

Peleus, a king of Thcssaly, son of JEacus 
and Endeis, the daughter of Chiron. He mar- 
ried Thetis, one of the Nereids, and was the 
only one among mortals who married an im- 
mortal. He was accessary to the death of his 



brother Phocus, and on that account he was 
obliged to leave his father's dominions. He 
retired to the court of Eurytus, the son of Ac- 
tor, who reigned at Phthia, or, according to the 
less received opinion of Ovid, he fled to Ceyx. 
king of Trachinia. He was purified of his 
murder by Eurytus, with the usual ceremonies, 
and the monarch gave him his daughter Anti- 
gone in marriage. Some time after this, Peleus 
and Eurytus went to the chase of the Calydonian 
boar, where the father-in-law was accidentally 
killed by an arrow which his son-in-law had 
aimed at the beast. This unfortunate event 
obliged him to banish himself from the court of 
Phthia, and he retired to lolchos, where he was 
purified of the murder of Eurytus, by Acastus 
the king of the country. His residence at lol- 
chos was short; Astydamia, the wife of Acas- 
tus, became enamoured of him ; and when she 
found him insensible to her passionate decla- 
ration, she accused him of attempts upon her 
virtue. The monarch partially believed the ac- 
cusations of his wife; but, not to violate the 
laws of hospitality by putting him instantly to 
death, he ordered his officers to conduct him to 
mount Pelion, on pretence of hunting, and there 
to tie him to a tree, that he might become the 
prey of the wild beasts of the place. The or- 
ders of Acastus were faithfully obeyed ; but 
Jupiter, who knew the innocence of his grand- 
son Peleus, ordered Vulcan to set* him at liberty. 
As soon as he had been delivered from danger, 
Peleus assembled his friends to punish the ill 
treatment which he had received from Acastus. 
He forcibly took lolchos, drove the king from 
his possessions, and put to death the wicked 
Astydamia. After the death of Antigone, Pe- 
leus courted Thetis, of whose superior charms 
Jupiter himself had been enamoured. His pre- 
tensions, however, were rejected, and as he was 
a mortal, the goddess fled from him with the 
greatest abhorrence. Peleus became more ani- 
mated from her refusal ; he oflJered a sacrifice 
to the gods, and Proteus informed him that to 
obtain Thetis he must surprise her while she 
was asleep in her grotto near the shores of 
Thessaly. This advice was immediately fol- 
lowed, and Thetis unable to escape from the 
grasp of Peleus, at last consented to marry him. 
Their nuptials were celebrated with the greatest 
solemnity, and all the gods attended, and made 
them each the most valuable presents. The 
goddess of discord was the only one of the 
deities who was not present. Vid. Discordia. 
From the marriage of Peleus and Thetis was 
born Achilles, whose education was early in- 
trusted to the centaur Chiron, and afterwards 
to PhoBnix,"theson of Amyntor. Achilles went 
to the Trojan war at the head of his father's 
troops, and Peleus gloried in having a son Avho 
was superior to all the Greeks in valour and in- 
trepidity. The death of Achilles was the 
source of grief to Peleus; and Thetis, to com- 
fort her husband, promised him immortality, and 
ordered him to retire into the grottoes of the isl- 
and of Leuce, where he would see and con- 
verse with the manes of his son. Peleus had a 
daughter called Potydora, by Antigone. Ho- 
mer. 11. 9, V. 482. — Eurip. in Aiidrom. — Catul. 
de Kupt. Pel. tf Thet.—Ovid. Heroid. 5. Fast. 
2, Met. 11, fab. 7 and S.—Apollod. 3, c. 12.— 
Paus. 2, c. 29.—Diod. i.—Hygin. fab. 54. 
759 



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MYTHOLOGY. 



PE 



Peliades, the daughters of Pelias. Vid. Pe- 
lias. 

Pelias, the twin brother of Neleus, was son 
of Neptune by Tyro, the daughter of Salmo- 
neus. His birth was concealed from the world 
by his mother, who wished her father to be ig- 
norant of her incontinence. He was exposed 
in the woods, but his life was preserved by 
shepherds, and he received the name of Pelias, 
from a spot of the colour of lead in his face. 
Some time after this adventure, Tyro married 
Cretheus,sonof JEolus, king of lolchos, and be- 
came mother of three children, of whom^son 
was the eldest. Meantime, Pelias visited his 
mother, and was received in her family, and 
after the death of Cretheus, he unjustly seized 
the Idngdom, which belonged to the children of 
Tyro by the deceased monarch. To strength- 
en himself in his usurpation, Pelias consulted 
the oracle ; and when he was told to beware of 
one of the descendants of ^olus, who should 
come to his court with one foot shod and the 
other bare, he privately removed the son of 
^son, after he had publicly declared that he 
was dead. These precautions proved abortive. 
Jason, the son of -Eson, who had been educated 
by Chiron, returned to lolchos when arrived to 
years of maturity, and boldly demanded the 
kingdom. Pelias told him that he would vol- 
untarily resign the crown to him if he went to 
Colchis to avenge the death of Phryxus, the son 
of Athamas, whom ^etes had cruelly murder- 
ed. This was accepted by the young hero, and 
his intended expedition was made known all 
over Greece. Vid. Jason. During the ab- 
sence of Jason, in the Argonautic expedition, 
Pelias murdered ^son and all his family ; but 
according to the more received opinion of Ovid, 
JEson was still living when the Argon auis re- 
turned, and was restored to the vigour of youth 
by the magic of Medea. The daughters of Pe- 
lias, who had received the patronymic of Pe- 
liades^ expressed their desire to see their father's 
infirmities vanish by the same powerful arts. 
Medea who wished to avenge the injuries 
which her husband Jason had received from Pe- 
lias, raised the desires of the Peliades, by cut- 
ting an old ram to pieces, and boiling the flesh in 
a caldron, and afterwards turning it into a fine 
young lamb. After they had seen this success- 
ful experiment, the Peliades cut their father's 
body to pieces, after they had drawn all his blood 
from his veins, on the assurance that Medea 
would replenish them by her incantations. The 
limbs were immediately put into a caldron of 
boiling water; but Medea suffered the flesh to 
be totally consumed, and refused to give the Pe- 
liades the promised assistance, and the bones of 
Pelias did not even receive a burial. The Pe- 
liades were four in number, Alceste, Pisidice, 
Pelopea, and Hippothoe, to whom Hyginus 
adds Medusa. Their mother's name was An- 
axibia, the daughter of Bias or Philomache, the 
daughter of Amphion. Alter this parricide, the 
Peliades fled to the court of Admetus, where 
Acastus, the son-in-law of Pelias, pursued them 
and took their protector prisoner. The Peliades 
died, and were buried in Arcadia. Hygin.fab. 
12, 13 and U.— Ovid. Met.l, fab. 3' and 4.— 
Heroid. 12, v. \^.—Paus. 8, c. \\.—Apollod. 
T, c. 9. — Seneca in Med. — Apollod. Arg. 1. — 
Pindar. Pyth. L—Diod. 4. 
760 



Pelopea, or Pelopia. Vid. Part II. 

Pelops, a celebrated prince, son of Tantalus, 
king of Phrygia. The mother's name was Eu 
ryanass^,, or, according to others, Euprytone, or 
Eurystemista, or Dione. He was murdered by 
his father, who wished to try the divini'ty of the 
gods who had visited Phrygia, by placing on 
their table the limbs of his son. The gods per- 
ceived his perfidious cruelty, and they refused to 
touch the meat, except Ceres, whom the recent 
loss of her daughter had rendered melancholy 
and inattentive. She eat one of the shoulders 
of Pelops, and therefore, when Jupiter had com- 
passion on his fate, and restored him to life, he 
placed a shoulder of ivory instead of that which 
Ceres had devoured. This shoulder had an un- 
common power, and it could heal, by its very 
touch, every complaint, and remove every dis- 
order. Some time after, the kingdom of Tan- 
talus was invaded by Tros, king of Troy, on 
pretence that he had carried away his son Gany- 
medes. This rape had been committed by Ju- 
piter himself; the war, nevertheless, was car- 
ried on, and Tantalus, defeated and ruined, was 
obliged to fly with his -son Pelops, and to seek 
a shelter in Greece. This tradition is confuted 
by some, who support that Tantalus did" not fly 
into Greece, as he had been some time before 
confined by Jupiter in the infernal regions for 
his impiety, and therefore Pelops was the only 
one whom the enmity of Tros persecuted. Pe- 
lops came to Pisa, where, {Vid. (Enomaus) he 
married Hippodamia, According to some au- 
thors, Pelops had received some winged horses 
from Neptune, with which he was enabled to 
outrun (Enomaus. When he had established 
himself on the throne of Pisa, Hippodamia's 
possession, he extended his conquest over the 
neighbouring countries, and from him the pen- 
insula, of which he was one of the monarchs, 
received the name of Peloponnesus. Pelops, 
after death received divine honours ; and he was 
as much revered above all the other heroes of 
Greece, as Jupiter was above the rest of the 
gods. He had a temple at Olympia, near that 
of Jupiter, where Hercules consecrated to him 
a small portion of land, and offered to him a 
sacrifice. The place where this sacrifice had 
been offered was religiously observed, and the 
magistrates of the country yearly, on coming in- 
to oflice, made there an ofiering of a black ram. 
During the sacrifice the soothsayer was not al- 
lowed, as at other times, to have a share of the 
victim ; and all such as offered victims receiv- 
ed a price equivalent to what they gave. The 
white poplar was generally used in the sacrifi- 
ces made to Jupiter and to Pelops. The chil- 
dren of Pelops by Hippodamia were Pitheus, 
Troezene, Atreus, Thyestes, &c. The lime of 
his death is unknown, though it is universally 
agreed that he survived for some time Hippo- 
damia. Some suppose that the Palladium of 
the Trojans was made with the bones of Pelops. 
His descendants were called Pelopida. Pin- 
dar says that Neptune took him up to heaven, 
to become the cupbearer to the gods, from 
which he was expelled when the impiety of Tan- 
talus wished to make mankind partake of the 
nectar and the entertainments of the gods. 
Some suppose that Pelops first instituted the 
Olympic games in honour of Jupiter, and to 
conmiemorate the victory which he had obtain- 



PE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



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ed over CEnomaus. Paus. 5. c. 1, &c. — Apol- 
lod. 2, c. 5. — Eurip. in Iphig. — Diod. 3. — Strab. 
8.— Mela, 1, c. 18.— Pindar. Od. l.— Virg. G. 
3, V. l.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. 404, &c.—Hygin. fab. 
9, 82 and 83. 

Penates, certain inferior deities among the 
Romans, who presided over houses and the do- 
mestic afiairs of families. They were called 
Penates, because they were generally placed in 
the innermost and most secret parts of the house, 
in penitissimd cBdium parte, quod, as Cicero 
says, penitus insident. The place where they 
stood was afterwards called Penetralia, and 
they themselves received the name of Penetra- 
tes. It was in the option of every master of a 
family to choose his Penates, and therefore Ju- 
piter and some of the superior gods are often 
invoked as patrons of domestic affairs. Accord- 
ing to some, the gods Penates were divided into 
four classes ; the first comprehended all the ce- 
lestial, the second the sea-gods, the third the 
gods of hell, and the last all such heroes as had 
received divine honours after death. The Pe- 
nates were originally the names of the dead, 
and in the early ages of Rome human sacrifices 
were offered to them ; but Brutus, who expelled 
the Tarquins, abolished this custom. When 
offerings were made to them, their statutes were 
crowned with garlands, poppies, or garlic ; and 
besides the monthly day that was set apart for 
their worship, their festivals were celebrated 
during the Saturnalia. Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 
27. Ver. 2. — Dionys. 1. 

Penelope. Vid. Part II. 

Penthesilea, a queen of theAmazons, daugh- 
ter of Mars, by Otrera, or Orithya. She came 
to assist Priam in the last year of the Trojan 
war, and fought against Achilles, by whom she 
was slain. The hero was so struck with the 
beauty of Penthesilea, when he stripped her of 
her arms, that he even shed tears for having 
too violently sacrificed her to his fury. Ther- 
sites laughed at the partiality of the hero, for 
which ridicule he was instantly killed. The 
death of Thersites so offended Diomedes, that 
he dragged the body of Penthesilea out of the 
camp, and threw it into the Scamander, It is 
generally supposed that Achilles was enamour- 
ed of the Amazon before he fought with her, 
and that she had by him a son called Cayster. 
Dictys Cret. 3 and 4. — Paus. 10, c. 31. — Q. Ca- 
lab. l.— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 495, 1. 11, v. 662.— 
Dares Phryg. — Lnjcophr. in Cass. 995, &c. — 
Hygin. fab. 112, 

Pentheus, son of Echion and Agave, was 
king of Thebes in BoBotia. His refusal to ac- 
knowledge the divinity of Bacchus was attended 
with the most fatal consequences. He forbade 
his subjects to pay adoration to his new god ; 
and when the Theban women had gone out of 
the city to celebrate the orgies of Bacchus, Pen- 
theus, appri ed of the debauchery which at- 
tended the solemnity, commanded his soldiers 
^0 destroy the whole band of the bacchanals. 
This, however, was not executed, for Bacchus 
inspired the monarch with the ardent desire of 
seeing the celebration of the orgies. Accord- 
ingly he hid himself in a wood on mount Ci- 
thseron, from whence he could see all the cere- 
monies unperceived. But here his curiosity 
soon proved fatal ; he was descried by the bac- 
chanals, and thev all rushed upon him. His 

Part III.— 5 D 



mother was the first who attacked him ; her ex- 
ample was instantly followed by her two sisters, 
Ino and Autonoe, and his body was torn to 
pieces. Euripides introduces Bacchus among 
his priestesses, when Pentheus was put to 
death ; but Ovid, who relates the whole in the 
same manner, differs from the Greek poet only 
in saying, that not Bacchus himself, but one of 
his priests was present. The tree on which 
the bacchanals found Pentheus, was cut down 
by the Corinthians, by order of the oracle, and 
with it two statutes of the god of wine were 
made, and placed in the forum. Hygin. fab. 
\8L—Theocrit.2&.—Ovid. Met. 3, fab. 7,8, and 
^.— Virg. ^n. 4, v. 469.— Paus. 2, c. h.—Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 5. — Euripid. in Bacch. — Senec. — 
Phanis. & Hipp. 

Perdix. Vid. Talus. 

Periboea, I. the second wife of (Eneus, king 
of Calydon, was daughter of Hipponous. She 

became mother of Tideus. Hygin. fab. 69. 

II. A daughter of Alcathous, sold by her father 
on suspicion that she was courted by Telamon, 
son of Macns, king of iEgina. She was carried 
to Cyprus, where Telamon the founder of Sa- 
lamis married her, and she became mother of 
Ajax. She also married Theseus, according to 
some. She is also called Eriboea. Paus. 1, c. 

17 and ^2.— Hygin. 97. III. The wife of 

Polybus, king of Corinth, who educated CEdi- 
pus as her own child. , 

Periclymenus, one of the twelve sons of 
Neleus, brother to Nestor, killed by Hercules. 
He was one of the Argonauts, and had re- 
ceived from Neptune, his grandfather, the pow- 
er of changing himself into whatever shape he 
pleased. Apollod. — Ovid. Met. 12, v. 556. 

Perigone, a woman who had a son called 
Melanippus, by Theseus. She was daughter 
of Synnis, the famous robber whom These^us 
killed. She married Deioneus the son of Eu- 
rytus, by consent of Theseus. Plut. in Thes. 
—Paus. 10, c. 25. 

Perimela, a daughter of Hippodamus, thrown 
into the sea for receiving the addresses of the 
Achelous. She was changed into an island in 
the Ionian Sea, and became one of the Echi- 
nades. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 790. 

Pero, or Perone, a daughter of Neleus, king 
of Pylos, by Chloris. Vid. Melampus. She 
became mother of Talaus. Homer. Od. 11, v. 
28i.—Propert. 2, el. 2, v. 11.— Paus. 4, c. 36. 
Vid. Part II. 

Persephone, called also Proserpine. Vid. 
Proserpine. 

Perseus, a son of Jupiter and Danae, the 
daughter of Acrisius, thrown into the sea with 
his mother. Vid. Danae. The slender boat 
which carried Danae and her son was driven 
by the winds upon the coasts of the island of 
Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, where they were 
found by a fisherman called Dictys, and carried 
to Polydectes, the king of the place. Perseus 
was intrusted to the care of the priest of Mi- 
nerva's temple. His rising genius and manly 
courage, however, soon displeased Polydectes, 
who invited all his friends to a sumptuous en- 
tertainment, at which it was requisite all such 
as came should present the monarch with a 
beautiful horse. Perseus was in the number 
of the invited, and the more particularly so, as 
Polydectes knew that he could not receive from 
761 



PE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PE 



him the present which he expected from all the 
rest. Nevertheless Perseus, who wished not to 
appear inferior to the others in magnificence, 
told the king, that as he could not give him a 
horse, he would bring him the head of Medusa, 
the only one of the Gorgons who was subject 
to mortality. Vid. Gorgones. Polydectes ac- 
cepted the offer, and Perseus departed for the 
country of those formidable monsters. Having 
cut off the head of Medusa, he continued his 
journey across the deserts of Liva, but the ap- 
proach of night obliged him to alight in the ter- 
ritories of Atlas, king of Mauretania. He went 
to the monarch's palace, where he hoped to find 
a kind reception by announcing himself as the 
son of Jupiter; but in this he was disappointed. 
Atlas recollected that, according to an ancient 
oracle, his gardens were to be robbed of their 
fruit by one of the sons of Jupiter, and there- 
fore he not only refused Perseus the hospitality 
he demanded, but he even offered violence to his 
person. Perseus, finding himself inferior to his 
powerful enemy, showed him Medusa's head, 
and instantly Atlas was changed into a large 
mountain which bore the same name in the de- 
serts of Africa. On the morrow Perseus con- 
tinued his flight, and as he passed across the 
territories of Libya, he discovered, on the coasts 
of ^Ethiopia, the naked Andromeda, exposed 
to a sea-monster. He was struck at the sight, 
and offered her father Cepheus to deliver her, 
and obtained her in marriage as a reward of his 
labours. The universal joy, however, was soon 
disturbed. Phineus, Andromeda's uncle, enter- 
ed the palace with a number of armed men, and 
attempted to carry away the bride, whom he 
had courted and admired long before the arrival 
of Perseus. A bloody battle ensued, and Per- 
seus must have fallen a victim to the rage of 
Phineus, had not he defended himself at last 
with the same arms which proved fatal to Atlas. 
He showed the Gorgon's head to his adversa- 
ries, and they were instantly turned to stone, 
each in the posture and attitude in which he 
then stood. Soon after this memorable adven- 
ture Perseus retired to Seriphos, at the very 
moment that his mother Danae fled to the altar 
of Minerva to avoid the pursuit of Polydectes, 
who attempted to offer her violence. Dictys, 
who had saved her from the sea, and who, as 
some say, was the brother of Polydectes, de- 
fended her against the attempts of her enemies, 
and therefore Perseus, sensible of his merit and 
of his humanity, placed him on the throne of 
Seriphos, after he had with Medusa's head 
turned into stones the wicked Polydectes and 
the officers who were the associates of his guilt. 
He afterwards restored to Mercury the talaria 
and the wings, to Pluto the helmet, to Vulcan 
the sword, and to Minerva the shield, which 
they had lent him to accomplish the death of 
Medusa ; but as he was more particularly in- 
debted to the goddess of wisdom for her assist- 
ance and protection, he placed the Gorgon's 
head on her shield, or rather, according to the 
more received opinion, on her aegis. After he 
had finished these celebrated exploits, Perseus 
expressed a wish to return to his native coun- 
try, and accordingly he embarked for the Pelo- 
ponnesus, with his mother and Andromeda. 
When he reached the Peloponnesian coasts he 
was informed that Teutamias, king of Larissa, 
762 



W£is then celebrating funeral games in honour 
of his father. This intelligence drew him to 
Larissa to signalize himself in throwing the 
quoit, of which, according to some, he was the 
inventor. But here he was attended by an evil 
fate, and had the misfortune to kill a man with 
a quoit which he had thrown in the air. This 
was no other than his grandfather Acrisius, 
who, on the first intelligence that his grandson 
had reached the Peloponnesus, fled from his 
kingdom of Argos to the court of his friend and 
ally Teutamias, to prevent the fulfilling of the 
oracle, which had obliged him to treat his daugh- 
ter with so much barbarity. Some suppose, 
with Pausanias, that Acrisius had gone to La- 
rissa to be reconciled to his grandson, whose 
fame had been spread in every city of Greece ; 
and Ovid maintains that the grandfather was 
under the strongest obligation to his son-in- 
law, as through him he had received his king- 
dom, from which he had been forcibly driven by 
the sons of his brother Proetus. This unfortu- 
nate murder greatly depressed the spirits of Per- 
seus; by the death of Acrisius he was entitled 
10 the throne of Argos, -but he refused to reign 
there: and to remove himself from a place which 
reminded him of the parricide he had unfortu- 
nately committed, he exchanged his kingdom 
for that of Tirynthus, and the maritime coast 
of Argolis, where Megapenthes, the son of 
Proetus, then reigned. When he had finally 
settled in this part of the Peloponnesus, he de- 
termined to lay the foundations of a new city, 
which he made the capital of his dominions, 
and Avhich he called Mycence, because the pom- 
mel of his sword, called by the Greeks myces, 
had fallen there. The time of his death is un- 
known, yet it is universally agreed that he re- 
ceived divine honours like the rest of the an- 
cient heroes. He had statues at Mycenas and 
in the island of Seriphos, and the Athenians 
raised him a temple, in which they consecrated 
an altar in honour of Dictys, who had treated 
Danae and her infant son with so much pater- 
nal tenderness. The Egyptians also paid par- 
ticular honour to his memory, and asserted that 
he often appeared among them wearing shoes 
two cubits long, which was always interpreted 
as a sign of fertility. Perseus had by Andro- 
meda, Alceus, Sthenelus, Nestor, Electryon, 
and Gorgophone; and after death, according to 
some mythologists, he became a constellation in 
the heavens. Herodot. 2, c. 91. — Apollod. 2. c. 
4, &iC.—Paus. 2, c. 16 and 18, 1. 3, c. 17. &c. 
—Apollon. Arg.A,^. Ibm.—ltal. 9, v. 442.— 
Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 16, 1. 5, fab. 1, &c. — LMcan. 
9, V. 668.— fl?/^m. fab. &^.—Hesiod. Theog. 
270, (f- Scut.. Herc.—Pind. Pyth. 7. (^ Olymp. 
3. — Ital. 9. — Propert. 2. — Athen. 13. — Horner. 
U. 14. — Tzetz.inLycoph. 17. 

Pertunda, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over the consummation of marriage. Her sta- 
tue was generally placed in the bridal chamber. 
Varro. apud. Aug. Civ. D. 6, c. 9. 

Peteus, a son of Orneus, and grandson of 
Erechtheus. He reigned in Attica, and be- 
came father of Menestheus, who went with the 
Greeks to the Trojan war. He is represented 
by some of the ancients as a monster, half a 
man and half a beast. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — 
Paus. 10, c. 35. 

Phjea, a celebrated sow which infested (he 



PH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PH 



neighbourhood of Crorayon. It was destroyed 
by i'heseus,as he was travelling from Trcezene 
to Athens to make himself known to his father. 
Some suppose that the boar of Calydon sprang 
from this sow. Phasa, according to some authors, 
was no other than a woman who prostituted her- 
self to strangers, whom she murdered and after- 
wards plundered. Plut. in Thes. — Strab. 8. 

Phjedra, a daughter of Minos andPasiphae, 
who married Theseus, by whom she became 
mother of Acamas and JDemophoon. Venus 
inspired Phaedra with an unconquerable passion 
for Hippolyius the son of Theseus, by the ama- 
zon Hippolyte ; and in the absence of Theseus, 
she addressed Hippolytus with all the impa- 
tience of lo7e. Hippolytus rejected her with 
horror and disdain ; but Phaedra, incensed on 
account of the reception she had met. resolved 
to punish his coldness and refusal. At the re- 
turn of Theseus she accused Hippolytus of at- 
tempts upon her virtue. The credulous father 
listened to the accusation, and, without hearing 
the defence of Hippolytus, he banished him 
from his kingdom, and implored Neptune, who 
had promised to grant three of his requests, to 
punish him in some exemplary manner. As 
Hippolytus fled from Athens, his horses were 
suddenly terrified by a huge sea-monster, which 
Neptune had sent on the shore. He was drag- 
ged through precipices and over rocks, and was 
trampled under the feet of his horses, and crush- 
ed under the wheels of his chariot. When 
the tragical end of Hippolytus was known at 
Athens, Phaedra confessed her crime, and hung 
herself in despair, unable to survive one whose 
death her guilt had occasioned. The death of 
Hippolytus, and the infamous passion of Phse- 
dra, are the subject of one of the tragedies of 
Euripides and of Seneca. Phaedra was buried 
at Troezene, where her tomb was still seen in 
the age of the geographer Pausanias, near the 
temple of Venus, which she had built to render 
the goddess favourable to her passion. There 
was near her tomb a myrtle, whose leaves were 
all full of small holes, and it was reported, that 
Phaedra had done this with a hair pin, when the 
vehemence of her passion had rendered her 
melancholy and almost desperate. She was 
represented in a painting in Apollo's temple at 
Delphi as suspended by a cord, and balancing 
herself in the air, while her sister Ariadne stood 
near to her and fixed her eyes upon her ; a deli- 
cate idea, by which the genius of the artist inti- 
mated her melancholy end. Plut. in T/ies. — 
Pans. 1, c. 22, 1. 2, c. 32.—Diod. 4.—Hygin. 
fab. 47 and 243. — Eurip. ■^n Senec. d^ in Hip- 
pol. — Virg. JEn. 6, v. 445. — Ovid. Heroid. 4. 

Ph^nna, one of the two Graces worshipped 
at Sparta, together with her sister Clita. La- 
cedaemon first paid them particular honours. 
Pans. 9, c. 35. 

Phaeton, a son of the sun, or Phoebus, and 
Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He was son 
of Cephalus and Aurora according to Hesiod 
and Pausanias, or of Tithonus and Aurora ac- 
cording to Apollodorus. He is, however, more 
generally acknowledged to be the son of Phoe- 
bus and Clymene. When Epaphus, the son of 
lo, told him, to check his pride, that he was not 
the son of Phoebus, Phaeton resolved to know 
his true origin, and, at the instigation of his 
mother, he visited the palace of the sun. He 



begged Phoebus, that if he really were his father, 
he would give him incontestable proofs of his pa- 
ternal tenderness and convince the world of his 
legitimacy. Phoebus swore by the Styx that 
he would grant him whatever he required, and 
no sooner was the oath uttered than Phaeton 
demanded of him to drive his chariot for one 
day. Phoebus represented the dangers to which 
it would expose him, but in vain ; and, as the 
oath was inviolable and Phaeton unmoved, the 
father instructed his son how he was to proceed 
in his way through the regions of the air. His 
explicit directions were forgotten, or little at- 
tended to ; and no sooner had Phaeton received 
the reins from his father, than he betrayed his 
ignorance and incapacity to guide the chariot. 
The flying horses became sensible of the confu- 
sion of their driver, and immediately departed 
from their usual track. Phaeton repented too 
late of his rashness, and already heaven and 
earth were threatened with a universal confla- 
gration, when Jupiter, who had perceived the 
disorder of the horses of the sun, struck the 
rider with one of his thunderbolts, and hurled 
him headlong from heaven into the river Po. 
His body, consumed with fire, was found by the 
nymphs of the place, and honoured with a de- 
cent burial. His sister mourned his unhappy 
end, and were changed into poplars by Jupiter. 
Vid. Phaetoniiades. According to the poets, 
while Phaeton was unskilfully driving the cha- 
riot of his father, the blood of the Ethiopians 
was dried up, and their skin became black, a 
colour which is still preserved among the great- 
est part of the inhabitants of the torrid zone. 
The territories of Libya were also parched up, 
according to the same tradition, on account of 
their too great vicinity to the sun ; and ever 
since, Africa, unable to recover her original 
verdure and fruitfulness, has exhibited a sandy 
country and uncultivated waste. According to 
those who explain this poetical fable. Phaeton 
was a Ligurian prince who studied astronomy, 
and in whose age the neighbourhood of thePo 
was visited with uncommon heats. The horses 
of the sun are called Phaeiontis equi, either be- 
cause they were guided by Phaeton, or from the 
Greek word {<pae6wv^) which expresses the splen- 
dour and lustre of that luminary. Virg. JEn. 
5, V. 105.— Hesoid. Theog. 985.— Ori^. Met.X, 
fab. 17, I. 2, fab. 1, &c.—Apollon. 4, Arg.—Ho~ 
rat. 4, od. 11. — Senec. in Medea. — Apollod. — 
Hygin. fab. 156. 

Phaetontiades. or Phaetontides, the sisters 
of Phaeton. 

Phaon, a boatman of Mitylene, in Lesbos. 
He received a small box of ointment from Ve- 
nus, who had presented herself to him in the 
form of an old woman, to be carried over into 
Asia ; and as soon as he had rubbed himself 
with what the box contained, he became one 
of the most beautiful men of his age. Many 
were captivated with the charms of Phaon, and, 
among others, Sappho, the celebrated poetess. 
Mlian. V. H. 12.— Ovid. Heroid. 2l.—Pala- 
pJiat. de in. c. 49. — Athen. — Lucian. in Sim. &. 
Polistr. 

Phegeus, or Phlegeus, a priest of Bacchus, 
the father of Alphesiboea, who purified Alc- 
maeon of his mother's murder, and gave him 
his daughter in marriage. Vid. AlcmcBon. Ovid^ 
Met. 9, V. 412. 

763 



PH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PH 



Pherjeus, a surname of Jason, as being a 
native of Pherae. 

Pherephate, a surname of Proserpine, from 
the production of corn. 

Pheres, I. a son of Cretheus and Tyro, who 
built Pheras in Thessaly, where he reigned. 
He married Clymene, by whom he had Adme- 

lus and Lycurgus. Apollod. II. A son of 

Medea, stoned to death by the Corinthians on 
account of the poisonous clothes which he had 
given to Glance, Creon's daughter. Paus. 2, 
c. 3. 

PiiERETiAS, a patronymic of Admetus, son of 
Pheres. Ooid. Met. 8, v. 291. 

PmL5:trs, I. a son of Ajax by Lyside, the 
daughter of Coronus, one of the Lapithae. 
Miltiades, as some suppose, was descended from 

him. II. A son of Augeas, who upbraided 

his father for not granting what Hercules justly 
claimed for cleaning his stables. Vid. Augeas. 
He was placed upon his father's throne by Her- 
cules. Apollod. 2. 

Philoctetes. Vid. Part II. 

Philolads, a son of Minos, by the nymph 
Paria, from whom the island of Paros receiv- 
ed its name. Hercules put him to death be- 
cause he had killed two of his companions. 
Apollod. 3, c. 1. 

Philomache, the wife of Pelias, king of lol- 
chos. According to some writers she was daugh- 
ter to Amphion, king of Thebes, though she is 
more generally called Anaxibia, daughter of 
Bias. Apollod. 1. 

Philomela, a daughter of Pandion, king of 
Athens and sister to Procne, who had married 
Tereus king of Thrace. Procne prevailed upon 
her husband to go to Athens, and bring her 
sister to Thrace. Tereus obeyed his wife's in- 
junctions, but he had no sooner obtained Pan- 
dion's permission to conduct Philomela to 
Thrace, than he became enamoured of her. 
He dismissed the guards, whom the suspicions 
of Pandion had appointed to watch his conduct, 
and he offered violence to Philomela, and after- 
wards cut off her tongue that she might not be 
able to discover his barbarity and the indigni- 
ties which she had suffered. He confined her 
also in a lonely castle ; and after he had taken 
every precaution to prevent a discovery, he re- 
turned to Thrace, and told Procne that Philo- 
mela had died by the way. Procne, at this sad 
intelligence, put on mourning for the loss of 
Philomela ; but a year had scarcely elapsed be- 
fore she was secretly informed that her sister 
was not dead. Philomela, during her captivity, 
described on a piece of tapestry her misfortunes 
and the brutality of Tereus, and privately con- 
veyed it to Procne. She was then going to ce- 
lebrate the orgies of Bacchus when she received 
it ; she disguised her resentment, and as during 
the festivals of the god of wine, she was per- 
mitted to rove about the country, she hastened 
to deliver her sister Philomela from her confine- 
ment, and concerted with her on the best mea- 
sures of punishing the cruelty of Tereus. She 
murdered her son Itys, who was in the sixth 
year of his age, and served him up as food be- 
fore her husband during the festival. Tereus, 
in the midst of his repast, called for Itys, but 
Procne immediately informed him that he was 
then feasting on his flesh, and that instant Phi- 
lomela, by throwing on the table the head of 
764 



Itys, convinced the monarch of the cruelty of 
the scene. He drew his swOrd to punish Proc- 
ne and Philomela, but as he was going to stab 
them to the heart, he was changed into a hoopoe, 
Philomela into a nightingale, Procne, into a 
swallow, and Itys into a pheasant. This tra- 
gical scene happened at Daulis in Phocis ; but 
Pausanias and Strabo,who mentioned the whole 
of the story, are silent about the transformation ; 
and the former observes that Tereus, after this 
bloody repast, fled to Megara, where he de- 
stroyed bimself The inhabitants of the place 
raised a monument to his memory, where they 
offered yearly sacrifices, and placed small peb- 
bles instead of barley. It was on this monu- 
ment that the birds called hoopoes were first 
seen ; hence the fable of his metamorphosis. 
Procne and Philomela died through excess of 
grief and melancholy; and as the nightingale 
and swallow's voice is peculiarly plaintive and 
mournful, the poets have embellished the fable, 
by supposing that the two unfortunate sisters 
were changed into birds. Apollod. 3, c. 14.- — 
Paus. 1, c. 42, 1. 10, c. 4. — Hygin. fab. 45. — 
Strab. 9.— Ovid. Met. &, fab. 9 and lO.~Virg. 
G. 4, V. 15 and 511. 

Philonoe, a daughter of lobates, king of 
Lycia, who married Bellerophon. Apollod. 2. 
Philonome, I. a daughter of Nyctimus, king 
of Arcadia, who threw into the Erymanthus 
two children whom she had by Mars. The 
children were preserved, and afterwards as- 
cended their grandfather's throne. Plut. in 

Per. II. The second wife of Cycnus, the 

son of Neptune. She became enamoured of 
Tennes, her husband's son by his first wife, 
Proclea ; and when she accused him of attempts 
upon her virtue, Cycnus believed the accusa- 
tion, and ordered Tennes to be thrown into the 
sea, &c. Paus. 10, c. 14. 

Philyra, one of the Oceanides, who was met 
by Saturn in Thrace, and by whom he had a 
son, half a man and half a horse, called Chiron, 
Philyra was so ashamed of giving birth to such 
a monster, that she entreated the gods to change 
her nature. She was metamorphosed into the 
linden tree, called by her name among the 
Greeks. Hygin. fab. 138. 

Phineus, I. a son of Agenor, king of Phoe- 
nicia, or of Neptune, who became king of 
Thrace, or, as the greater part of the mytholo- 
gists support, of Bithynia. He married Cleo- 
patra, the daughter of Boreas, whom some call 
Cleobula, by whom be had Plexippus and Pan- 
dion. After the death of Cleopatra, he married 
Idaea, the daughter of Dardanus. Idsea, jea- 
lous of Cleopatra's children, accused them of 
attempts upon their father's life and crown, and 
they were immediately condemned by Phineus 
to be deprived of their eyes. This cruelty was 
soon after punished by the gods ; Phineus sud- 
denly became blind, and the Harpies were sent 
by Jupiter to keep him under continual alarm, 
and to spoil the meats which were placed on 
his table. He was, some time after, delivered 
from these dangerous monsters by his brothers- 
in-law, Zetes and Calais, who pursued them as 
far as the Strophades. He also recovered his 
sight by means of the Argonauts, whom he had 
received with great hospitality, and instructed 
in the easiest and speediest way by which they 
could arrive in Colchis. The second wife of 



PH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PH 



Phineus is called by some Dia, Enrytia, Danae, 
and IdoLhea. Phineus was killed by Hercules 
Arg. 2.—Apollod. 1. c. 9, 1. 3, c. Ib.—Diod. 4. 

— Hygin. fab. 19. — Orplieus. — Place. II. 

The brother of Cepheus, king of ^Ethiopia. 
He was going to marry his niece Andromeda, 
when her father Cepheus was obliged to give 
her up to be devoured by a sea-moster to ap- 
pease the resentment of Neptune. Vid. Per- 
seus. ApoLlod. 2, c. 1 and 4. — Ovid. Met: 5, 
fab. 1 and 2. — Hygin. fab. 64. 

Phlegyas, a son of Mars by Chryse, daugh- 
ter of Halmus, was king of the Lapithae in 
Thessaly. He was father of Ixion and Coro- 
nis, to whom Apollo offered violence. When 
the father heard that his daughter had been so 
abused, he marched an army against Delphi, 
and reduced the temple of the god to ashes. 
This was highly resented ; Apollo killed Phle- 
gyas, and placed him in hell, where a huge stone 
hangs over his head, and keeps him in contin- 
ual alarms by its appearance of falling every 
moment. Paus. 9, c. 36. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. — 
Pind. Pyth. 3. — Ovid. Mel. 5, v. 87. — Servius 
ad Virg. jEn. 6, v. 618. 

Phobetor, one of the sons of Somnus, and 
his principal minister. His office was to assume 
the shape of serpents and wild beasts, to inspire 
terror in the minds of men, as his name inti- 
mates, {(po0e(i)). The other two ministers of 
Somnus werePhantasia and Morpheus. Ovid. 
Met. 11, V. 640. 

Phobos, son of Mars, and god of terror 
among the ancients, was represented with a 
lion's head, and sacrifices were offered to him 
to deprecate his appearance in armies. Plut. 
in erot. 

Phcebas, a name applied to the priestess of 
Apollo's temple at Delphi. Jjiican. 5, v. 128, 
&c. 

Phoebe, I. a name given to Diana, or the 
moon, on account of the brightness of that lu- 
minary. She became, according to Apollodo- 
rus, mother of Asteria and Latona. Vid. Di- 
ana. II. A daughter of Leucippus and Phi- 

lodice, carried away with her sister Hilaira,by 
Castor and Pollux,'as she was going to marry 
one of the sons of Aphareus. Vid. Lucippi- 
des. Apollod. 2, c. 10.— Paus. 2, c. 22. 

Phcbbigena, a surname of ^sculapius, &c. 
as being descended from Phoebus. Virg. JEn. 
V. 773. 

Phcebus, a name given to Apollo or the sun. 
This word expresses the brightness and splen- 
dour of that luminary (0o(/?os.) Vid. Apollo. 

Phcenix. Vid. Part II, A son of Agenor, 
by a nymph who was calledTelephassa, accord- 
ing to Apollodorus and Moschus, or according 
to others, Epimedusa, Perimeda, or Agriope. 
He was, like his brothers, Cadmus and Cilix, 
sent by his father in pursuit of his sister Euro- 
pa, whom Jupiter had carried away under the 
form of a bull, and when his inquiries proved 
unsuccessful, he settled in a country, which, ac- 
cording to some, was from him called Phoenicia. 
From him, as some suppose, the Carthaginians 
were called Posni. Apollod. 3. — Hygin. fab. 178. 

Pholds, one of the Centaurs, son of Silenus 
and Melia, or, according to others, of Ixion and 
the Cloud. He kindly entertained Hercules 
•^hen he was going against the boar of Eryman- 
thus, but he refused to give him wine, as that 



which he had belonged to the rest of the Cen- 
taurs. Hercules, upon this, without ceremony, 
broke the casks and drank the wine. The smell 
of the liquor drew the Centaurs from the neigh- 
bourhood to the house of Pholus, but Hercules 
stopped them when they forcibly entered the hab- 
itation of his friend, and killed the greatest part 
of them. Pholus gave the dead a decent fune- 
ral, but he mortally wounded himself with one 
of the arrows which were poisoned with the ven- 
om of the hydra, and which he attempted to 
extract from the body of one of the Centaurs. 
Hercules, unable to cure him, buried him when 
dead, and called the mountain where his remains 
were deposited by the name of Pholoe. Apol- 
lod. I.— Paus. ^.— Virg. G. 2, v. 456. Mn. 8, 
V. 294. — Diod. 4. — Ital. 1. — Jjucan. 3, 6 and 7. 
—Stat. Theb. 2. 

Phorbas, a son of Lapithus, who married 
Hyrmine, the daughter of Epeus, by whom he 
had Actor. Pelops, according to Diodorus, 
shared his kingdom with Phorbas, who also, says 
the same historian,established himself atRhodes. 
at the head oi' a colony from Elis and Thessaly, 
by order of the oracle, which promised, by his 
means only, deliverance from the numerous ser- 
pents which infested the island, Diod. 2. — Paus. 
5, c. 1. 

Phorcus, or Phorcys, a sea-deity, son of Pon- 
tus and Terra, who married his sister Ceto, by 
whom he had the Gorgons, the dragon that kept 
the apples of the Hesperides, and other monsters. 
Hesiod. Theogn. — Apollod. 

Phoroneus, the god of a river of Peloponne- 
sus, of the same name. He was son of the river 
Inachus by Melissa, and he was the second king 
of Argos. He married a nymph called Cerdo, 
or Laodice, by whom he had Apis, from whom 
Argolis was called Apia, and Niobe, the first 
woman of whom Jupiter became enamoured. 
Phoroneus taught his subjects the utility of laws, 
and the advantages of a social life and of friend- 
ly intercourse, whence the inhabitants of Argo- 
lis are often called Phoroncei. Pausanias relates 
that Phoroneus, with the Cephisus, Asterion, 
and Inachus, were appointed as umpires in the 
quarrel between Neptune and Juno concerning 
their right of patronising Argolis. Juno gained 
the preference; upon which Neptune, in a fit of 
resentment, dried up all the four rivers, whose 
decision he deemed partial. He afterwards re- 
stored them to their dignity and consequence. 
Phoroneus was the first who raised a temple to 
Juno. He received divine honours after death. 
His temple still existed at Argos, under Anto- 
ninus the Roman emperor. Paus. 2, c. 15, &c. 
—Apollod. 2, c, 1.— Hygin. fab. 143. 

Phryxus, a son of Athamas, king of Thebes, 
by Nepliele. Vid. Argonautcs. 

Phyleus, a son of Augeas. He was placed 
on his father's throne by Hercules. 

Phyllis, a daughter of Sithon, or, according 
to others, of Lycurgus, king of Thrace, who 
hospitably received Demophoon the son of The- 
seus, who, at his return from the Trojan war, 
had stopped on her coasts. She became ena- 
moured of him, and did not find him insensible 
to her passion. After some months of mutual 
tenderness and aflfection, Demophoon set sail for 
Athens, where his domestic affairs recalled him. 
He promised faithfully to return as soon as a 
month was expired ; but either his dislike for 
765 



PI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PI 



Phyllis, or the irreparable situation of his affairs, 
obliged him to violate his engagement, and the 
queen, grown desperate on account of his ab- 
sence, hanged herself, or, according to others 
threw herself down a precipice into the sea, and 
perished. Her friends raised a tomb over her 
body, where there grew up certain trees, whose 
leaves, at a particular season of the year, sud- 
denly became wet, as if shedding tears for the 
death of Phyllis. According to an old tradition 
mentioned by Servius, Virgil's commentator, 
Phyllis was changed by the gods into an almond 
tree, which is called Phylla by the Greeks. 
Some days after this metamorphosis, Demo- 
phoon revisited Thrace, and when he heard of 
the fate of Phyllis, he ran and clasped the tree, 
which, though at that time stripped of its leaves, 
suddenly shot forth and blossomed, as if still sen- 
sible of tenderness and love. The absence of 
Demophoon from the house of Phyllis has given 
rise to a beautiful epistle of Ovid, supposed to 
have been written by the Thracian queen about 
the fourth month after her lover's departure. 
Ovid. Heriod. 2. de Art. Am. 2, v. 353. Trist. 
9, An.—Hygin. fab. 59. 

Phyllius, a young Boeotian, uncommonly 
fond of Cygnus, the son of Hyria, a woman of 
BcEotia. Cygnus slighted his passion, and told 
him, that to obtain a return of affection, he must 
previously destroy an enormous lion, take alive 
two large vultures, and sacrifice on Jupiter's al- 
tars a wild bull that infested the country. This 
he easily effected by means of artifice, and by the 
advice of Hercules he forgot his partiality for 
the son of Hyria. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 372.— M- 
cand in Heter. 3. 

PicuMNUs, and Pildmnus, different names of 
a deity at Rome, who presided over the auspi- 
ces that were required before the celebration of 
nuptials. Pilumnus was supposed to patronise 
children. The manuring of lands was first in- 
vented by him, from which reason he is called 
Sterquilinius. Pilumnus is also invoked as the 
god of bakers and millers, as he is said to have 
first invented how to grind corn. Turnusboast- 
ed of bein g one of h is lin eal descendants. Virg. 
uEn. 9, V. 4. — Varro. 

Pious, a king of Latium, son of Saturn, who 
married Venilia, who is also called Canens, by 
whom he had Faunus. He was tenderly loved 
by the goddess Pomona, and he returned a mu- 
tual afifection. As he was one day hunting in 
the woods, he was met by Circe, who became 
deeply enamoured ofhim, and who changed him 
into a woodpecker, called by the name of picus 
among the Latins. His wife Venilia was so 
disconsolate when informed of his death, that 
she pined away. Some suppose that Picus was 
the son of Pilumnus, and that he gave out pro- 
phecies to this subjects, by means of a favourite 
woodpecker; from which circumstance origin- 
ated the fable of his being metamorphosed into 
a bird. Virg. yEw. 7, v. 48, 171, &.c.—Ovid. 
Met. 14, V. 320, &c. 

PiERiDEs, I. a name given to the Muses, 
either because they were born in Pieria, inThes- 
saly, or because they were supposed by some to 
be the daughters of Pierus, a king of Macedo- 
nia, who settled in Boeotia. II. Also the 

daughters of Pierus, who challenged the Muses 
to a trial in music, in which they were conquer- 
ed, and changed to magTJies. It may, perhaps 
766 



j be supposed that the victorious Muses assumed 
the name of the conqnered daughters of Pierus 
and ordered themselves to be called Pierides 
in the same manner as Minerva was called 
Pallas because she had killed the giant Pallas. 
Ovid. Met. 5, V. 300. 

Pierus, a rich man of Thessaly, whose nine 
daughters, called Pierides, challenged the Mu- 
ses, and were changed into magpies when con- 
quered. Paus. 9, c. 29. 

PiETAs, a deity among the Romans. Acilius 
Glabrio first erected a temple to this new di- 
vinity, oh the spot where a woman had fed with 
her own milk her aged father, who had been 
imprisoned by order of the senate, and deprived 
of all aliment. Cic. de Div. 1. — Vol. Max. 5, 
c. A.—Plin. 7, c. 36. 

Pilumnus. Vid. Hicumnus. 

PiNARius and Potitius, two old men of Ar- 
cadia, who came with Evander to Italy. They 
were instructed by Hercules, who visited the 
court of Evander, how they were to offer sacri- 
fices to his divinity, in the morning, and in the 
evening, immediately at sunset. The morning 
sacrifice they punctually performed, but on the 
evening, Potitius was obliged to offer the sacri- 
fice alone, as Pinarius neglected to cometill af- 
ter the appointed time. This negligence offend- 
ed Hercules, and he ordered, that for the future, 
Potitius and his descendants should preside over 
the sacrifices, but that Pinarius, with his poste- 
rity should wait upon the priests as servants 
when the sacrifices were annually offered to 
him on mount Aventine. This was religiously 
observed till the age of Appius Claudius, who 
persuaded the Potitii, by a large bribe, to dis- 
continue their sacred office, and to have the 
ceremony performed by slaves. For this neg- 
ligence, as the Latin authors observe, the Poti- 
tii were deprived of sight, and the family be- 
came, a little time after, totally extinct. Liv. 1, 
c.l.— Virg. jEn. 8, v. 269, &.C.— Victor de 
orig. 8. 

PiON, one of the descendants of Hercules, 
who built Pionia, near the Caycus in Mysia. 
It is said that smoke issued from his tomb as of- 
ten as sacrifices were offered to him. Paus. 9, 
c. 18. 

PiRENE, I. a daughter of Danaus. II. A 

daughter of CEbalaus, or, according to others, 
of the Achelous. She had by Neptune two sons, 
called Leches and Cenchrius, who gave their 
name to two of the harbours of Corinth. Pirene 
was so disconsolate at the death of her son Cen- 
chrius, who had been killed by Diana, that she 
pined aAvay, and was dissolved, by her continual 
weeping, into a fountain of the same name, 
which was still seen at Corinth in the age of 
Pausanias. The fountain Pirene was sacred to 
the Muses, and, according to some, the horse 
Pegasus was then drinking some of its waters 
when Bellerophon took it to go and conquer the 
Chimsera. Paus. 2, c. S.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 240. 

PiRiTHOUs, a son of Ixion and the Cloud, or, 
according to others, of Dia, the daughter of 
Deioneus. Some make him son of Dia, by Ju- 
piter. He married Hippodamia. Vid. Theseus. 

PisTOR, a surname given to Jupiter by the 
Romans, signifying bdker^ because, when their 
city was taken by the Gauls, the god persuaded 
them to throw down loaves from the Tarpeian 
hill where they were besieged, that the enemy 



PL 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PL 



might from thence suppose that they were not 
in want of provisions, though, in reality, they 
were near surrendering through famine. This 
deceived the Gauls, and they soon afler raised 
the siege. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 350, 394, dec. 

PiTHO, called also Suada, the goddess of per- 
suasion among the Greeks and Romans, sup- 
posed to be the daughter of Mercury and Venus. 
A caduceus, as a symbol of persuasion, appears 
at her feet, with the writings of Demosthenes 
and Cicero, the two most celebrated among the 
ancients, who understood how to command the 
attention of their audience, and to rouse and 
animate their various passions. 

PiTHYs, a nymph beloved by Pan. Boreas 
dashed her against a rock, and she was changed 
into a pine tree. 

PiTTHEus, a king of Trcezene in Argolis, son 
of Pelops and Hippodamia. He was univer- 
sally admired for his learning, wisdom, and 
application ; he publicly taught in a school at 
Troezene, and even composed a book, which 
was seen by Pausanias the geographer. He 
gave his daughter ^thra in marriage to M- 
geus, king of Athens, and he himself took par- 
ticular care of the youth and education of his 
grandson Theseus. He was buried at Troezene, 
which he had founded, and on his tomb were 
seen, for many ages, three seats of white mar- 
ble, on which he sat, with two other judges, 
whenever he gave laws to his subjects or set- 
tled their disputes. Paus. 1 and 2. — Plut. in 
Th^s.-^Strab. 8. 

Pi.EioNE, one of the Oceanides, who married 
Atlas, king of Mauretania, by whom she had 
twelve daughters, and a son called Hyas. Seven 
of the daughters were changed into a constella- 
tion called Pleiades, and the rest into £in other 
called Hyades. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 84. 

Plemneus, a king of S icy on, son of Peratus. 
His children always died as soon as born, till 
Ceres pitying his misfortune, offered herself as 
a nurse to his wife. The child lived by the care 
and protection of the goddess, and Plemneus 
was no sooner acquainted with the dignity of 
his nurse than he raised her a temple. Paus. 
2, c. 5 and IL 

Pleuron. Vid. Part IL 

Plexippus, a son of Thestius, brother to Al- 
thaea, the wife of CEneus. Vid. Althcea and 
Meleager. 

Pluto, a son of Saturn and Ops, inherited 
his father's kingdom with his brothers, Jupiter 
and Neptune. He received as his lot the king- 
dom of hell, and whatever lies under the earth, 
and as such he became the god of the infernal 
regions, of death and funerals. From his func- 
tions, and the place he inhabited, he received 
different names. He was called Dis, Hades or 
Ades, Orcus, &c. As the place of his residence 
was obscure and gloomy, all the goddesses re- 
fused to marry him ; but he determined to obtain 
by force what was denied to his solicitations. 
As he once visited the island of Sicily, after a 
violent earthquake, he saw Proserpine, the 
daughter of Ceres, gathering flowers in the 
plaiiis of Enna, with a crowd of female attend- 
ants. He became enamoured of her, and im- 
mediately carried her away upon his chariot 
drawn by four horses. To make this retreat 
more unknown, he opened himself a passage 
through the earth, by striking it with his trident 



in the lake of Cyane in Sicily, or, according to 
others, on the borders of the Cephisusin Attica. 
Proserpine called upon her attendants for help, 
but in vain ; and she became the wife of her 
ravisher and the queen of hell. Pluto is gene- 
rally represented as holding a trident with two 
teeth; he has also keys in his hand, to intimate 
that whoever enters his kingdom can never re- 
turn. He is looked upon as a hardhearted and 
inexorable god, with a grim and dismal counte- 
nance ; and for that reason no temples were 
raised to his honour as to the rest of the superior 
gods. Black victims, and particularly a bull, 
were the only sacrifices which were offered to 
him, and their blood was not sprinkled on the 
altars, or received in vessels, as at other sacri- 
fices, but it was permitted to run down into the 
earth, as if it were to penetrate as far as the 
realms of the god. The Syracusans yearly sa- 
crificed to him black bulls, near the fountain of 
Cyane, where, according to the received tradi- 
tions, he had disappeared with Proserpine. 
Among plants, the cypress, the narcissus, and 
the maiden-hair, were sacred to him, as also eve- 
ry thing which was deemed inauspicious, parti- 
cularly the number two. According to some of 
the ancients, Pluto sat on a throne of sulphur, 
from which issued the rivers Lethe, Cocytus, 
Phlegethon, and Acheron. The dog Cerberus 
watched at his feet, the harpies hovered round 
him, Proserpine sat on his left hand, and near 
to the goddess stood the Eumenides, with their 
heads covered with snakes. The Parcae occu- 
pied the right, and they each held in their hands 
the symbols of their office, the distaff, the spin- 
dle, and the scissors. Pluto is called by some 
the father of the Eumenides. During the war 
of the gods and the Titans, the Cyclops made 
a helmet, which rendered the bearer invisible, 
and gave it to Pluto. Perseus was armed with 
it when he conquered the Gorgons. Hesiod. 
Theog. — Homer. IL. — Apollod. 1, &c. — Hygin. 
fab. 155. P. A. 2.— Stat. Theb. S.—Diod. 3.— 
Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 6.— Paus. 2, c. 36.— Orpheus. 
Hymn. 17, &.c.—Cic. de Nat. D.2. c. 26.— Pla- 
to de Rep. — Euripid. in Med. Hippol. — jEschyl. 
in Pres. Prom. — Varro L. L. 4. — Catull. ep.'S. 
— Virg. G. 4, V. 502. Mn. 6, v. 273, I. 8, v. 
2%.—Lucan. 6, v. llb.—Horat. 2, od. 3 and 18. 
— Senec. in Her. fur. 

Plutds, son of Jasion or Jasius, by Ceres, 
the goddess of corn, has been confounded by 
many of the mythologists with Pluto, though 
plainly distinguished from him as being the god 
of riches. He was brought up by the goddess 
of peace, and on that account Pax was repre- 
sented at Athens as holding the god of wealth 
in her lap. The Greeks spoke of him as of a 
fickle divinity. They represented him as blind, 
because he distributed riches indiscriminately ; 
he was lame,because he came slow and gradual- 
ly; but had wings, to intimate that he flew 
away with more velocity than he approached 
mankind. L/acian. in Tim. Paus. 9, c. 16 
and 26. — Hygin. P. A. — Aristoph. in Plut. 
Diod. b.— Hesiod. Th. 910.— Dion. Hal. 1, c. 53. 

Pluvius, a surname of Jupiter as god of rain. 
He was invoked by that name among the Ro- 
mans, whenever the earth was parched up by 
continual heat, and was in want of refreshmg 
showers. He had an altar in the temple on the 
capitoL TibvZl. 1, el. 7, v. 26. 
767 



PO 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PO 



PoDALiRius, a son of JEsculapius and Epi- 
one. He was one of the pupils of the Centaur 
Chiron, and he made himself under him such 
a master of medicme, that during the Trojan 
war, the Greeks invited him to their camp, to 
stop a pestilence which had baffled the skill of 
all their physicians. Some, however, suppose 
that he went to the Trojan war, not in the ca- 
pacity of a physician in the Grecian army, but 
as a warrior, attended by his brother Machaon, 
in 30 ships with soldiers from CEcalia, Ithome, 
and Trica. At his return from the Trojan war, 
Podalirius was shipwrecked on the coast of Ca- 
ria, where he cured of the falling sickness and 
married a daughter of Damcetas, the king of the 
place. He fixed his habitation there, and built 
two towns, one of which he called Syrna, by 
the name of his wife. The Carians, after his 
death, built him a temple, and paid him divine 
honours. Dictys Cret. — Q. Smyrn. 6 and 9. — 
Ovid, de Art. Am. 2.— TrUt. el. 6.— Pans. 3. 

Pollux, a son of Jupiter by Leda the wife 
of Tyndarus. He was brother to Castor. Vid. 
Castor. 

PoLYBius, or PoLYBus, a king of Corinth, 
who married Periboea, whom some have called 
Merope. He was son of Mercury by Chtho- 
nophyle, the daughter of Sicyon, king of Sicyon, 
He permitted his wife, who had no children to 
adopt and educate as her own son, CEdipus, 
who had been found by his shepherds exposed 
in the woods. He had a daughter called Lysia- 
nassa, whom he gave in marriage to Talaus, 
son of Bias, king of Argos. As he had no male 
child, he left his kingdom to Adrastus, who had 
been banished from his throne, and who had 
fled to Corinth for protection. Hygin. fab. 66. 
Paus. 2, c. 6. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. — Seneca in 
(Edip. 812. 

PoLYBOTEs, one of the giants who made war 
against Jupiter. He was killed by Neptune, 
w^ho crushed him under a part of the island of 
Cos, as he was walking across the Mgewa.. 
Paus. 1, c. 2. — Hygin. in pr a fab. 

PoLYBUs, a king of Corinth. Vid. Polybius. 

PoLYCAON, a son of Lelex, who succeeded 
his brother Myles. He received divine honours 
after death, with his wife Messene, at Lace- 
dsemon, where he had reigned. Paus. 4, c. 1, 
&c. 

PoLYDAMAs. Vid. Part II. 

PoLYDECTES, a SOU of Magncs, king of the 
island of Seriphos. He received with great 
kindness Danae and her son Perseus, who had 
been exposed on the sea by Acrisius. Vid. 
Perseus, He took particular care of the edu- 
cation of Perseus ; but when he became ena- 
moured of Danae, he removed him from his 
kingdom,apprehensive of his resentment. Some 
time after he paid his addresses to Danae, and 
when she rejected him, he prepared to offer her 
violence. Danae fled to the altar of Minerva 
for protection, and Dictys, the brother of Poly- 
dectes, who had himself saved her from the sea- 
waters, opposed her ravisher, and armed him- 
self in her defence. At this critical moment 
Perseus arrived, and with Medusa's head he 
turned into stones Polydectes and the associ- 
ates of his guilt. The crown of Seriphos was 
given to Dictys, who had shown himself so ac- 
tive in the cause of innocence. Ovid. Met. 5, 
V. 'im.— Hygin. fab. 63, &c. 
768 



PoLYDoEA, I. a daughter of Peleus, king of 
Thessaly, by Antigone, the daughter of Eury- 
tion. She married the river Sperchius, by whom 
she had Mnestheus. Apollod. II. A daugh- 
ter of Meleager, king of Calydon, who married 
Protesilaus. She killed herself when she heard 
that her husband was dead. The wife of Pro- 
tesilaus is more commonly called Laodamia. 
Vid. Protesilaus. Paus. 4, c. 2. 

PoLYDORUS. Vid. Part II. 

Polyhymnia, and Polymnia, one of the 
Muses, daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. 
She presided over singing and rhetoric, and 
was deemed the inventress of harmony. She 
was represented veiled in white, holding a 
sceptre in her left hand, and with her right 
raised up, as if ready to harangue. She had a 
crown of jewels on her head. Hesiod. Theog. 
75 and 915. — Plut. in Symp. — Horat. 1, od. 1. 
— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 9 and 53. 

PoLYMEDE, a daughter of Autolycus, w^ho 
married iEson, by whom she had Jason. She 
survived her husband only a few days. Apol- 
lod. 1, c. 13. 

PoLYMNESTOR. Vid. Part II. 

PoLYNiCEs, a son of CEdipus and Jocasta. 
Vid. Eteocles. 

PoLYPEMON, Procrustes. Ovid calls him fa- 
ther of Procrustes. Vid. Procrustes. 

Polyphemus, a celebrated Cyclops, king of 
all the Cyclops in Sicily, and son of Neptune 
and Thoosa, the daughter of Phorcys. He is 
represented as a monster of strength, of a tall 
stature, and one eye in the middle of the fore- 
head. He fed upon human flesh, and kept his 
flocks on the coast of Sicily, when Ulysses, at 
his return from the Trojan war, was driven 
there. The Grecian prince, with twelve of his 
companions, visited the coast, and were seized 
by the Cyclops, who confined them in his cave, 
and daily devoured two of them. Ulysses would 
have shared the fate of his companions, had he 
not intoxicated the Cyclops, and put out his 
eye with a firebrand while he was asleep. Po- 
lyphemus was awakened by the sudden pain, he 
stopped the entrance of his cave, but Ulysses 
made his escape by creeping between the legs 
of the rams of the Cyclops, as they were led out 
to feed on the mountains. Polyphemus became 
enamoured of Galataea, but his addresses were 
disregarded, and the nymph shunned his pre- 
sence. The Cyclops was more earnest ; and 
when he saw Galatsea surrender herself to the 
pleasures of Acis, he crushed his rival with a 
piece of a broken rock. Theocrit. 1. — Ovid. 
Met. 13, V. 112.— Homer. Od. 19.— Eurip. in 
Cyclop. — Hygin. fab. 125. — Virg. JEn. 3, v. 
619, &c. 

PoLYXENA. Vid. Part II. 

PoLYxo, a priestess of Apollo's temple in 
Lemnos. She was also nurse to Q.ueen Hypsi- 
pyle. It was by her advice that the Lemnian 
women murdered all their husbands. Apol- 
lon. 1. — Place. 2. — Hygin. fab. 15. Vid. Part 
II. 

Pomona, a nymph at Rome, who was sup- 
posed to preside over gardens, and to be the 
goddess of all sorts of fruit-trees. She had a 
temple at Rome, and a regular priest called Fla- 
mens Pomonalis, who offered sacrifices to her 
divinity for the preservation of fruit. Many of 
the gocfs of the country endeavoured to gain her 



PR 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PR 



affection, but she received their addresses with 
coldness. Vertumnus was the only one who, 
by assuming different shapes, 'and introducing 
himself into her company, under the form of an 
old woman, prevailed upon her to break her 
vow of celibacy and to marry him. This deity 
was unknown among the Greeks. Ovid. Met. 
14, V. 628, &.c.—Festus de V. sig. 

PoMPiLUs, a fisherman of Ionia, He carried 
into Miletus, Ocyroe, the daughter of Chesias, 
of whom Apollo was enamoured ; but before he 
had reached the shore, the god changed ihe boat 
into a rock, Pompilius into a fish of the same 
name, and carried away Ocyroe. Plin. 6, c. 
29, 1. 9, c. 15, 1. 32, c. 11. 

PoNTus, an ancient deity, the same as Ocean- 
us. ApoUod. 1, c- 2. 

Prophyrion, a son of Ccelus and Terra, one 
of the giants who made war against Jupiter. 
He was so formidable, that Jupiter, to conquer 
him, inspired him with love for Juno, and while 
the giant endeavoured to obtain his wishes, he, 
with the assistance of Hercules, overpowered 
him. Horat. 3, od. 4.— Mart. 13, ep. 78.— 
ApoUod. 1, c. 6. 

PoRus, the god of Plenty at Rome, He was 
son of Metis or Prudence. Plato. Vid. Part. 

II, 

PcsTVERTA, a goddess at Rome, who pre- 
sided over the painful travails of women. Ovid. 
Fast. 1, V. 633, 

Praxidace, a goddess among the Greeks, 
who presided over the execution of enterprises, 
and who punished all evil actions, Paus. 9, c. 
33. 

Praxis, a surname of Venus at Megara. 
Paus. 1, c. 43. 

Praxithea, a daughter of Phrasimus and 
Diogenea. She married Erechtheus, king of 
Athens, by whom she had Cecrops, Pandarus, 
and Metion, and four daughters, Precis, Creu- 
sa Chthonia, aud Crithyia. ApoUod. 3, c, 15. 

Priapus, an obscene deity among the ancients, 
son of Venus by Mercury or Adonis; or, 
according to the more received opinion, by- 
Bacchus. He was born at Lampsacus. Pri- 
apus was so deformed in all his limbs, by means 
of Juno, that the mother, ashamed to have given 
birth to such a monster, ordered him to be ex- 
posed on the mountains. His life, however, 
was preserved by shepherds. He soon became 
a favourite of the people of Lampsacus, but was 
at length expelled by the inhabitants on account 
of his licentiousness. This violence was pun- 
ished by the son of Venus, who was recalled, 
and temples erected to his honour. Festivals 
were also celebrated ; and the people, naturally 
idle and indolent, gave themselves up to every 
impurity during the celebration. His worship 
was also introduced in Rome ; but the Romans 
revered him more as god of orchards and 
gardens than as the patron of licentiousness. 
A crown, painted with different colours, was 
offered to him in the spring, and in the summer a 
garland of ears of corn . He is generally repre- 
sented with a human face and the ears of a 
goat ; he holds a stick in his hand, with which 
he terrifies birds, as also a club to drive away 
thieves, and a scythe to prune the trees, and cut 
down corn. He was crowned with the leaves 
of the vine, and sometimes with laurel or rocket. 
IPriapus is often distinguished by the epithet of 

Part III.— 5 E 



phaUus, fascinus, JtyphaUus, or rtiber, or rubi- 
cundus. CatuU. ep. 19 and 20. — Column. 2, de 
Cult/tort. — Horat. 1, sat. 1. — TibtUl. 1, el. 1, v. 
18.— Ovid. Fast. I. v. 415, 1. 6, v. 319,— Fir^. 
Ed. 7, V. 33, G. 4. v. Ul.—Paus. 9, c. 31.— 
Hygin. fab. 190.— Diod. 1, 

Procne, a daughter of Pandion, king of 
Athens, by Zeuxippe. She married Tereus 
king of Thrace, by whom she had a son called 
Itylus, or Itys, Vid. Pkilomela. 

Procris, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of 
Athens. She married Cephalus. Vid. Cepha- 
lus. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 435. 

Procrustes, a famous robber of Attica, killed 
by Theseus, near the Cephisus. He lied tra- 
vellers on a bed, and if their length exceeded 
that of the bed, he used to cut it off, but if they 
were shorter he had them stretched to make 
their length equal to it. He is called by some 
Damastes and Polypemon. Ovid. Heroid. 2, 
V. 59. Met. 7, v. 4^.— Paus. in Thes. 

Prcetides, the daughters of Prcetus, king of 
Argolis, were three in number, Lysippe, Iphi- 
noe, Iphianassa. They became insane for neg- 
lecting the worship of Bacchus, or, according 
to others, for preferring themselves to Juno, and 
they ran about the fields believing themselves to 
be cows, and flying away not to be harnessed 
to the plough or to the chariot. Prcetus applied 
to Melampus to cure his daughters of their in- 
sanity, but he refused to employ him when he 
demanded the third part of his kingdom as a 
reward. This neglect of Proetus was punished, 
the insanity became contagious, and the mon- 
arch at last promised Melampus two parts of 
his kingdom and one of his daughters, if he 
would restore them and the Argian women to 
their senses. Melampus consented, and after 
he had wrought the cure, he married the most 
beautiful of the Prcetides. Some have called 
them Lysippe, Ipponoe, and Cyrianassa. Apol- 
lod. 2, c. ^.— Virg. Ed. 6, v. 48.— Ovid. Met. 
15. — Ladant. ad Stat. Theb. 1 and 3, 

Prcetus, Vid. Part II. 

Prometheus, a son of lapetus by Clymene, 
one of the Oceanides, He was brother to Atlas, 
Menoetius, and Epimetheus ; and surpassed all 
mankind in cunning and fraud. He sacrificed 
two bulls, and filled their skins, one with the 
flesh and the other with the bones, and asked 
the father of the gods which of the two he pre- 
ferred as an offering. Jupiter became the dupe 
of his artifice, and chose the bones ; and from 
that time the priests of the temples were ever 
after ordered to burn the whole victims on the 
altars, the flesh and the bones altogether. To 
punish Prometheus and the rest of mankind, 
Jupiter took fire away from the earth, but the 
son of lapetus climbed the heavens by the assist- 
ance of Minerva, and stole fire from the chariot 
of the sun, which he brought down upon the 
earth at the end of a ferula. This provoked 
Jupiter the more ; he ordered Vulcan to make 
a woman of clay, and after he had given her 
life, he sent her to Prometheus, with a box of 
the richest and most valuable presents which he 
had received from the gods. Vid. Pandora. 
Prometheus, who suspected Jupiter, took no 
notice of Pandora or her box, but he made his 
brother Epimetheus marry her; and the god, 
now more irritated, ordered Mercury, orVulcan 
according to ^schylus. to carry this artful mor- 
769 



PR 



MYTHOLOGY. 



PS 



tal to mount Caucasus, and there tie him to a 
rock, where, for 30,000 years, a vulture was to 
feed upon his liver, which was never diminished 
though continually devoured. He was deliv- 
ered from this painful confinement about thirty 
years afterwards by Hercules, who killed the 
bird of prey. According to Apollodorus, Pro- 
metheus made the first man and woman that 
ever were upon the earth, with clay, which he 
animated by means of the fire which he had 
stolen from heaven. On this account, therefore, 
the Athenians raised him an altar in the grove 
of Academus, where they yearly celebrated 
games in his honour. Hesiod. Theog. 510 and 
550. — Apollod. 1 and 2. — Pans. 1, c. 30, 1. 5, c. 
11. — Hygin. fab. 144. — ^schyl. in Prom. — 
Virg. Ed. 6.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 82.— Horat. 1, 
od. 3. — Seneca in Med. 823. 

Pronuba, a surname of Juno, because she 
presided over marriages. Virg. yEw, 4, v. 166. 

PROPCBT\'DEs,some women of Cyprus, severely 
punished by Venus, whose divinity they had 
despised. The poets have feigned that they 
were changed into stones, on account of their 
insensibility to every virtuous sentiment. Jus- 
tin. 18, c. b.—Ovid. Met. 10, v. 238. 

Propylea, a surname of Diana. She had a 
temple at Eleusis in Attica. 

Prosclystius, a surname of Neptune among 
the Greeks. Pans. 2. 

Proserpina, a daughter of Ceres by Jupiter, 
called by the Greeks Persephone. Proserpine 
made Sicily the place of her residence, and 
delighted herself with the beautiful views, the 
flowery meadows, and limpid streams, which 
surrounded the plains of Enna. In this solitary 
retreat, as she amused herself wiih her female 
attendants in gathering flowers, Pluto carried 
her away into the infernal regions, of which 
she became the queen. Ceres soon learned 
from the nymph Arethusa that her daughter 
had been carried away by Pluto, and imme- 
diately she repaired to Jupiter, and demanded 
of him to punish the ravisher. Jupiter said that 
she might return on earth if she had not taken 
any aliment in the infernal regions. Her re- 
turn, however, was impossible. Proserpine, as 
she walked in the Elysian fields, had gathered 
a pomegranate from a tree and eaten it, Jupi- 
ter to appease the resentment of Ceres, and 
sooth her grief, permitted that Proserpine should 
remain six months with Pluto in the infernal 
regions, and that she should spend the rest of 
the year with her mother on earth. As queen 
of hell and wife of Pluto, Proserpine presided 
over the death of mankmd ; and, according to 
the opinion of the ancients, no one could die, if 
the goddess herself, or Atropos, her minister, 
did not cut off" one of the hairs from the head. 
From this superstitious belief, it was usual to 
cut off" some of the hair of the deceased, and to 
strew it at the door of the house, as an oflfering 
for Proserpine. The Sicilians were very par- 
ticular in their worship to Proserpine, and as 
they believed that the fountain Cyane had risen 
from the earth at the very place where Pluto 
had opened himself a passage, they annually 
sacrificed there a bull, of which they suffered 
the blood to run into the water. Proserpine 
was universally worshipped by the ancients, 
and she was known by the dififerent names of 
Theogamia. Libitina, Hecate, Jmio inferna. 
770 



Anthesphoria, &c. Plut. in Luc. — Paus. 8, c. 
37, 1. 9, c. 31.— Ovid. Met, b, fab. 6. Fast. ^^ 
V. 417.— Fir^-. ^n. 4, v. 698. 1. 6, v. 138.— 
Strab. 7. — Diod. 5. — Cic. in Verr. 4. — Hygin. 
fab. 146. — Hesiod. Theog. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. — 
Orpheus. Hymn. 28. — Claudian. de Rapt. Pros. 

Protesilaus, a king of part of Thessaly, 
son of Iphiclus, originally called lolaus, grand- 
son of Phylacus, and brother to Alcimede, the 
mother of Jason. He married Laodamia, the 
daughter of Acastus, and, some time after, he 
departed- with the rest of the Greeks for the 
Trojan war with 40 sail. He was the first of 
the Greeks who set foot on the Trojan shore, 
and, as such, he was doomed by the oracle to 
perish ; therefore he was killed, as soon as he 
had leaped from his ship, by ^neas or Hector. 
Homer has not mentioned the person who kill- 
ed him. Vid. Laodamia. Protesilaus has re- 
ceived the patronymic of Phijlacides, either 
because he was descended from Phylacus,or be- 
cause he was a native of Phylace. He was bu- 
ried on the Trojan shore, and, according to Pli- 
ny, there were near his tomb certain trees which 
grew to an extraordinary height, which, as soon 
as they could be discovered and seen from Troy, 
immediately withered and decayed, and after- 
wards grew up again to their former height, and 
suffered the same vicissitude. Homer. II. 2, v. 
20b.— Ovid. Met. 12, fab. l.—Heroid. 13, v. 
11.— Propert. 1, el. 19.— Hygin. fab. 103, &c. 

Proteus, a sea-deity, son of Oceanus and 
Tethys, or, according to some, of Neptune and 
Phoenice. He had received the gift of prophecy 
from Neptune, because he had tended the mon- 
sters of the sea ; and from his knowledge of 
futurity mankind received the greatest services,. 
He usually resided in the Carpathian Sea, and 
like the rest of the gods, he reposed himself on 
the seashore, where such as wished to consult 
him generally resorted. He was difficult of 
access, and when consulted he refused to give 
answers, by immediately assuming different 
shapes, and, if not properly secured in fetters, 
eluding the grasp in the form of a tiger or a 
lion, or disappearing in a flame of fire, a whirl- 
wind, or a rushing stream. Aristaeus and Men- 
elaus were in the number of those who consult- 
ed him, as also Hercules. Some suppose that 
he was originally king of Egypt, known among 
his subjects by the name of Cetes; and they as- 
sert that he had two sons, Telegonus, and Poly- 
gonus, who were both killed by Hercules. He 
had also some daughters, among whom were 
Cabira, Eidothea, and Rhetia. Homer. Od. 4, 
V. 360.— Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 10. Am. el. 12, v. 
36.— Hesiod. Theog. v. 2A3.— Virg. G. 4, v. 387. 
—Hygin. fab. 1 18.— Herodot. 2, c. 112.— Diod. 1. 

Protogenea, a daughter of Calydon, by 
iEolia the daughter of Amythaon. She had a 
son called Oxillus by Mars. Apollod. 1. 

Protogenia, I. a daughter of Deucalion and 
Pyrrha. She was beloved by Jupiter, by whom 
she had iEthlius, the father of Endymion. 
Apollod. 1, c. 7. — Paus. 5, c. 1. Hygin. fab. 
155. II. Another. Vid. Protogenea. 

Psamathe, I. one of the Nereides, mother of 
Phocus by iEacus, king of ^gina. Apollod. 
3, c. 12.— Ovid. Met. 11, v. 398.— Flacc.v. 364. 
II. Adaughter of Crotopus, king of Argos. 



She became mother of Linus by Apollo, and, 
to conceal her shame from her father she ex- 



PY 



MYTHOLOGY. 



RE 



posed her shild, which was found by dogs and 
torn to pieces. Pans. 1, c. 43. 

Psyche, a nymph whom Cupid married. Ve- 
nus pal her to death because she had robbed the 
world of her son ; but Jupiter at the request of 
Cupid, granted immortality to Psyche. The 
word signifies the soul, and this personification 
of Psyche, first mentioned by Apuleius, is pos- 
terior to the Augustan age, though still it is 
connected with ancient mythology. Psyche is 
generally represented with the wings of a but- 
terfly, to intimate the lightness of the soul, of 
which the butterfly is the symbol. 

PuDiciTiA, a goddess who, as her name im- 
plies, presided over chastity. She had two tem- 
ples at Rome. Festus. de V. sig. — Liv. 10, c. 7. 

PYGMiEi, a nation of dwarfs, in the extremest 
parts of India, or, according toothers, in Mihio- 
pia. Some authors affirm that they were no 
more than one foot high, and that they built 
their houses with egg-shells. Aristotle says 
that they lived in holes under the earth, and 
that they came out in the harvest-time with 
hatchets to cut down the corn as if to fell a 
forest. They went on goats and lambs of pro- 
portionable stature to themselves, to make war 
against certain birds whom some call cranes, 
which came there yearly from Scythia to plun- 
der them. They were originally governed by 
Gerana, a princess, who was changed into a 
crane, for boasting herself fairer than Juno. 
Ovid. Met. 6, v. 90.— Homer. 11. Z.—Strab. 7. 
— AHst. Anim. 8, c. 12.- — Juv. 13, v. 186. — 
Plin. 4, &c. — Mela, 3, c. 8. — Siiet. in Aug. 83. 
— Philostr Icon. 2, c. 22, mentions that Her- 
cules once fell asleep in the deserts of Africa, 
aftef he had conquered Antaeus, and that he 
was suddenly awakened by an attack which 
had been made upon his body by an army of 
these Liliputians, who discharged their arrows 
with great fury upon his arms and legs. The 
hero, pleased with their courage, wrapped the 
greatest number of them in the skin of the 
Nemsean lion, and carried them to Eurystheus, 
to whom the art and the hatred of Juno had 
rendered him subject. 

Pygmalion, Vid. Part II. 

Pylades, Vid. Part 11. 

Pyracmon, one of Vulcan's workmen in the 
forges of mount ^tna. The name is derived 
from two Greek words, which signify fire and 
an anvil. Virg. Mn. 8, v. 42.5. 

Pyramus, a youth of Babylon, who became 
enamoured of Thisbe, a beautiful virgin, who 
dwelt in the neighbourhood. The flame w^as 
mutual, and the two lovers, whom their parents 
forbad to marry, regularly received each other's 
addresses through the chink of a wall which 
separated their houses. After the most solemn 
vows of sincerity, they both agreed to elude the 
vigilance of their friends, and to meet one an- 
other at the tomb of Ninus, under a white mul- 
berry tree, without the walls of Babylon. Thisbe 
came first to the appointed place, but the sudden 
arrival of a lioness frightened her away; and 
as she fled into a neighbouring cave, she 
dropped her veil, which the lioness found and 
besmeared with blood. Pyramus soon arrived ; 
he found Thisbe's veil all bloody, and conclud- 
ing that she had been torn to pieces by the wild 
beasts of the place, he stabbed himself with his 
sword. Thisbe, when her fears were vanished, 



returned from the cave, and at the sight of the 
dying Pyramus, she fell upon the sword which 
still reeked with his blood. This tragical scene 
happened under a white mulberry tree, which, 
as the poets mention, was stained with the blood 
of the lovers, and ever after bore fruit of the 
colour of blood. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 55, &c. — 
Hygin. fab. 243. Vid. Part I. 

Pyren^os, a king of Thrace, who, during a 
shower of rain, gave shelter in his house to the 
nine Muses, and attempted to ofier them vio- 
lence. The goddesses upon this took to their 
wings and flew away. Pyrenseus, who attempted 
to follow them, as if he had wings, threw him- 
self down from the top of a tower and was 
killed. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 274. 

Pyrene, I. a daughter of Bebrycius, king of 
the southern parts of Spam. Hercules offered 
violence to her before he went to attack Geryon, 
and she brought into the world a serpent, which 
so terrified her that she fled into the woods, 
where she was torn to pieces by wild beasts. 

II. A nymph, mother of Cycnus by Mars. 

Apollod. Vid. Part II. 

Pyrodes, a son of Cilix, said to be the first 
who discovered, and applied to human purposes, 
the fire concealed in flints. Plin. 7, c. 56. 

Pyrrha, a daughter of Epimethus and Pan- 
dora, v/ho married Deucalion, the son of 
Prometheus, who reigned in Thessaly. Vid. 
Deucalion. Pyrrha became mother of Am- 
phictyon, Hellen, and Protogenea, by Deuca- 
lion, Ovid. Met. 1, v. 350, &c. — Hygin. fab. 
VSi.—Apollon. Rhod. 3, v. 1085. 

Pythius, a surname of Apollo, which he had 
received for his having conquered the serpent 
Python, or because he was worshipped at Del- 
phi ; called also Pytho, Macrob. 1, sat. 17. — 
Propert. 2, el. 23, v, 16. 

Python, a celebrated serpent, sprung from 
the mud and stagnated waters which remained 
on the surface of the earth after the deluge of 
Deucalion. Some, however, suppose that it 
was produced from the earth by Juno, and sent 
by the goddess to persecute Latona. Apollo, 
as soon as he was born, attacked the monster 
and killed him with his arrows, and in comme- 
moration of the victory which he had obtained, 
he instituted the celebrated Pythian games. 
Strab. S.—Paus. 2, c. 7, 1. 10, c. 6.— Hygin.— 
Ovid. Met. 1, v. 438, &c.—Lucian. 5, v, 134. 

a 

ClUADRATUs, a surname given to Mercury, 
because some of his statues were square. The 
number 4, according to Plutarch, was sacred 
to Mercury, because he was born on the 4th day 
of the month, Plut. in Sympos. 9. 

CluADRiFRONs, or Q.UADRICEPS, a sumame of 
Janus, because he was represented with four 
heads. He had a temple on the Tarpeian 
rock, raised by L, Catulus. 

CluiRiNus, a surname of Mars among the 
Romans, This name was also given to Romu- 
lus when he had been made a god by his super- 
stitious subjects. Ovid. Past. 2, v. 475, 

R. 

Rediculus, a deity, whose name is derived 
from the word redire, (to return.) Vid. Mdi- 
culcB Redicula, Part I. 

771 



RH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



SA 



Rhacius, a Cretan prince, the first of that 
nation who entered Ionia with a colony. He 
seized ClaroSjOf which he became the sovereign. 
He married Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, 
who had been seized on his coasts. Paus. 7, c. 3. 

Rhadamanthus, a son of Jupiter and Europa. 
He was born in Crete, which he abandoned 
about the 30th year of his age. He passed into 
some of the Cyclades, where he reigned with 
so much justice and impartiality, that the an- 
cients have said he became one of the judges 
of hell, and that he was employed in the infer- 
nal regions in obliging the dead to confess their 
crimes, and in punishing them for their offences. 
Rhadamanthus reigned not only over some of 
the Cyclades, but over many of the Greek cities 
of Asia. Paus. 8, c. bS.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 435. 
— Diod. 5. — Plato. — Homer. 11. 4, v. 564. — 
Virg. Mn. 6, v. 566. 

Rhamnusia, a name of Nemesis. 

Rhea, I. a daughter of Coelus and Terra, who 
married Saturn, by whom she had Vesta, Ce- 
res, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, &c. Her husband, 
however, devoured them all as soon as born, as 
he had succeeded to the throne with the solemn 
promise that he would raise no male children, 
or, according to others, because he had been in- 
formed by an oracle that one of his sons would 
dethrone him. To stop the cruelty of her hus- 
band, Rhea consulted her parents, and was ad- 
vised to impose upon him, or perhaps to fly into 
Crete. Accordingly, when she brought forth, 
the child was immediately concealed, and Sa- 
turn devoured up a stone which his wife had 
given him as her own child. The fears of Sa- 
turn were soon proved to be well founded. A 
year after, the child, whose name was Jupiter, 
became so strong and powerful, that he drove 
his father from his throne. Rhea has been 
confounded by the mythologists with some of 
the other goddesses, and many have supposed 
that she was the same divinity that received 
adoration under the var^'ous names of Bona 
Dea, Cybele, Dindymena, Magna Mater, Ce- 
res, Vesta, Titgea, and Terra, Tellus, and Ops. 
Vid. Cybele, Ceres, Vesta, &c. Rhea, after the 
expulsion of her husband from his throne, fol- 
lowed him to Italy, where he established a king- 
dom. Her benevolence in this part of Europe 
was so great, that the golden age of Saturn is 
often called the age of Rhea. Hesiod. Theog. 
— Orpheus, in Hymn. — Homer, ib. — Mschyl. 
Prom. — Euripid. Bacc. <^ Elect. — Ovid. East. 

4, V. 191.—Apollod. 1, c. 1, &c. II. Svlvia, 

ihe mother of Romulus and Remus. She is 
also called Ilia. Vid. Ilia. 

Rhesus, a king of Thrace, son of the Stry- 
mon and Terpsichore, or, according to others, 
of Eioneus by Euterpe. After many warlike 
exploits and conquests in Europe, he marched 
to the assistance of Priam, king of Troy, against 
the Greeks. He was expected with great im- 
patience, as an ancient oracle had declared that 
Troy should never be taken if the horses of 
Rhesus drank the waters of the Xanthus, and 
fed upon the grass of the Trojan plains. This 
oracle was well known to the Greeks, and 
therefore two of their best generals, Diomedes 
and Ulysses, were commissioned bv the rest to 
intercept the Thracian prince. The Greeks 
entered his camp in the night, slew him, and 
carried away his horses to their camp. Homer. 
772 



11. IQ.—Dictys Cret. 2.--ApoUod. I, c. 3.— Virg. 
jEn. 1, V. ^13.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 98. 

Rhoebus, a horse of Mezentius, w4iom his 
master addressed with the determination to 
conquer or die when he saw his son Lausus 
brought lifeless from the battle. This beautiful 
address is copied from Homer, where likewise 
Achilles addresses his horses. Virg. JEn. 10, 
V. 861. 

RoBiGO, or RuBiGO, a goddess at Rome, par- 
ticularly worshipped by husbandmen, as she 
presided over corn. Her festivals, called Ro- 
bigalia, 'were celebrated on the 25th of April, 
and incense was offered to her, as also the en- 
trails of a sheep and a dog. She was entreated 
to preserve the corn from blights. Ovid. Fast. 

4, V. 2n.— Virg. G. 1, V. \b\.— Varro de L. L. 

5, de R. R. 1, c. 1. 
Romulus. Vid. Part II. 

S. 

Sabazius, a surname of Bacchus, as also of 
Jupiter. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 'i^.—Arnob. 4. 

Salamis, a daughter of the river Asopus, by 
Methone. Neptune became enamoured of her, 
and carried her to an island of the iEgean, 
which afterwards bore her name, and where she 
gave birth to Cenchreus. Diod. 4. Vid. Part I. 

Salmoneus, a king of Elis, son of jEoIus and 
Enarette, who married Alcidice, by whom he 
had Tyro. He wished to be called a god, and 
to receive divine honours from his subjects; 
therefore, to imitate the thunder, he" used to 
drive his chariot over a brazen bridge, and 
darted burning torches on every side, as if to 
imitate the lightning. This impiety provoked 
Jupiter. Salmoneus was struck with a thun- 
derbolt, and placed in the infernal regions near 
his brother Sisyphus. Homer. Od. 11, v. 235. 
— Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Hygin. fab. 60. — Diod. 4. — 
Virg. JEn. 6, v. 585. 

Salus, the goddess of health at Rome, wor- 
shipped by the Greeks under the name of 
Hygieia. Liv. 9 and 10. 

Sancus, Sangus, or Sanctus, a deity of the 
Sabines, introduced among the gods of Rome 
under the name of Dius Fidius. According to 
some, Sancus was father to Sabus, or Sabinus, 
the first king of the Sabines. Ital. 8, v. 421. — 
Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 10.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 213. 

Saron, a king of Troezene, unusually fond of 
hunting. He was drowned in the sea, where 
he had swam for some miles in pursuit of a stag. 
He was made a sea-god by Neptune, and divine 
honours were paid to him by the Troezenians. 
It was customary for sailors to offer him sacri- 
fices before the<y embarked. That part of the 
sea where he was drowned, was called Saroni- 
cus Sinus. Saron built a temple to Diana at 
Troezene, and instituted festivals to her honour, 
called from himself Saronia. Paus. 2, c. 30. — 
Mela, 2, c. S.—Strab. 8. 

Sarpedon, I. a son of Jupiter, by Europa, the 
daughter of Agenor. He banished himself from 
Crete, after he had in vain attempted to make 
himself king in preference to his elder brother 
Minos, and he retired to Caria, where he built 
the town of Miletus. He went to the Trojan 
war to assist Priam against the Greeks, where 
he was attended by his friend and companion 
Glaucus. He was at last killed by Patroclus, 



^A 



MYTHOLOGY. 



SE 



after he had made a great slaughter of the ene- 
my, and his body, by order of Jupiter, was con- 
veyed to Lycia, by Apollo, where his friends 
and relations paid him funeral honours, and 
raised a monument to perpetuate his valour. 
According to some mythologists, the brother 
of King Mmos, and the prince who assisted 
Priam, were two different persons. This last 
was king of Lycia, and son of Jupiter by Lao- 
damia, the daughter of Bellerophon, and liv^d 
about a hundred years after the age of the son 
of Europa. Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Herodot. 1, c. 

ll^i.Strab. 12.— Homer. E. 16. II. A son 

of Neptune, killed by Hercules for his barba- 
rous treatment of strangers. Vid. Part I, 

Satdrnius, a name given to Jupiter, Pluto, 
and Neptune, as being the sons of Saturn. 

Saturnus, a son of CobIus, or Uranus, by 
Terra, called also Titea, Thea, or Titheia. He 
was naturally artful, and by means of his mo- 
ther, revenged himself on his father, and for 
ever prevented him from increasing the num- 
ber of his children, whom he had treated with 
unkindness and confined in the infernal regions. 
After this, the sons of Coelus were restored to 
liberty, and Saturn obtained his father's king- 
dom by the consent of his brother, provided he 
did not bring up any male children. Pursuant 
to this agreement, Saturn always devoured his 
sons as soon as born, because, as some observe, 
he dreaded from them a retaliation of his un- 
kindness to his father, till his wife Rhea, unwil- 
ling to see her children perish, concealed from 
her husband the birth of Jupiter, Neptune, and 
Pluto, and instead of the children, she gave him 
large stones, which he immediately swallowed 
without perceiving the deceit. Titan was some 
time after informed that Saturn had concealed 
his male children, therefore he made war 
against him, dethroned and imprisoned him 
with Rhea; and Jupiter, who was secretly edu- 
cated in Crete, was no sooner grown up, than 
he flew to deliver his father, and to replace him 
on his throne. Saturn, unmindful of his son's 
kindness, conspired against him when he heard 
that he raised cabals against him ; but Jupiter 
banished him from his throne, and the father 
fled for safety into Italy, where the country re- 
tained the name of Latium, as being the place 
of his concealment (lateo). Janus who was then 
king of Italy, received Saturn with marks of 
attention, he made him his partner on the 
throne ; and the king of heaven employed him- 
self in civilizing the barbarous manners of the 
people of Italy, and in teaching them agricul- 
ture and the useful and liberal arts. His reign 
there was so mild and popular, so beneficent 
and virtuous, that mankind have called it the 
golden age, to intimate the happiness and tran- 
quillity which the earth then enjoyed. The wor- 
ship of Saturn was not so solemn or so univer- 
sal as that of Jupiter. It was usual to offer 
human victims on his altars ; but this barba- 
rous custom was abolished by Hercules, who 
substituted small images of clay. In the sac- 
rifices of Saturn, the priest always perform- 
ed the ceremony with his bead uncovered, 
which was unusual at other solemnities. The 
god is generally represented as an old man 
bent through age and infirmity. He holds a 
scythe in his right hand , with a serpent which 
bites its own tail, which is an emblem of time 



and of the revolution of the year. In his left 
hand he holds a child, which he raises up as 
if instantly to devour it. Tatius, king of 
the Sabines, first built a temple to Saturn on 
the Capitoline hill, a second was afterwards 
added by Tullus Hostilius, and a third by the 
first consuls. On his statues were generally 
hung fetterSjin commemoration of the chains he 
had worn when imprisoned by Jupiter. From 
this circumstance all slaves that obtained their 
liberty generally dedicated their fetters to him. 
During the celebration of the Saturnalia, the 
chains were taken from the statues, to intimate 
the freedom and the independence which man- 
kind enjoyed during the golden age. One of 
his temples at Rome was appropriated for the 
public treasury, and it was there ^Jso that the 
names of foreign ambassadors were enrolled. 
Hesiod. Theog. — Apollod. I, c. 1. — Virg. jEn. 
8, V. 2\9.— Pates. 8, c. 8.— Tibull. el. 3, v. 35. 
—Homer. 11— Ovid. Fast. 4, v. \dl.—Met. 1, 
V. 123. 

Satyri, demi-gods of the country, whose 
origin is unknown. They are represented like 
men, but with the feet and the legs of goats,short 
horns on the head, and the whole body covered 
with thick hair. They chiefly attended upon 
Bacchus, and rendered themselves known in 
his orgies by their riot and lasciviousness. The 
first fruits of eveiy thing were generally offered 
to them. The Romans promiscuously called 
them Fauni Panes, and Sylvani. It is said 
that a Satyr was brought to Sylla, as that 
general returned from Thessaly. The monster 
had been surprised while asleep in a cave ; but 
his voice was inarticulate when brought into 
the presence of the Roman general, and Sylla 
was so disgusted with it, that he ordered it to be 
instantly removed. The monster answered in 
every degree the description which the poets 
and painters have given of the Satyrs. Pans. 
1, c. 2^.— Pint, in Syll.— Virg. Eel 5, v. 13.— 
Ovid. Heroid. 4, v. 171. 

Saurus, a famous robber of Elis, killed by 
Hercules. Pans. 6, c. 21. 

ScAMANDER, a son of Corybas and Demodice, 
who brought a colony from Crete into Phrygia, 
and settled at the foot of mount Ida, where he 
introduced the festivals of Cybele and the 
dances of the Corybantes. He, some time after, 
lost the use of his senses, and threw himself 
into the river Xanthus, which ever after bore 
his name. His son-in-law Teucer succeeded 
him in the government of the colony. He had 
two daughters, Thymo and Callirhoe. Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 12.—Diod. 4. Vid. Part I. 

SciASTEs, a surname of Apollo at Laceds- 
mon, from -the village Scias, where he was 
particularly worshipped. Lycoph. 562. Tzetzes. 
loco. 

SciNis, a cruel robber, who tied men to the 
boughs of trees, which he had forcibly brought 
together, and which he aflerwards unloosened 
so that their limbs were torn in an instant from 
their body. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 440. 

SciRON, a celebrated thief in Attica, who 
plundered the inhabitants of the country, and 
threw them down from the highest rock into 
the sea, after he had obliged them to wait upon 
him and to wash his feet. Theseus attacked 
him, and treated him as he treated travellers. 
According to Ovid, the earth as well as the sea 
773 



sc 



MYTHOLOGY. 



■ SE 



refused to receive the bones of Sciron, which 
remained for some time suspended in the air, 
rill they were changed into large rocks called 
Scironia Saxa, situate between Megara and 
Corinth. There was a road near them which 
bore the name of Sciron, naturally small and 
narrow, but afterwards enlarged by the emperor 
Adrian. Some suppose thai Ino threw herself 
into the sea from one of these rocks. Sciron 
had married the daughter of Cychreus a king of 
Salamis. He was brother-in-law to Telamon, 
the son of jiEacus, Ovid. 7, Met. v. 444, He- 
roid. 2, V. m.—Strab. 9.— Mela, 2, c. 13.— Plin. 

2, c. 47. — Diod. 4. — Hygin. fab. 38. — Propert. 

3, el. 14, V. 12.— Pans. 1, c. U.—Senec. N. D. 
5, c. 17. 

ScTLLA, T, a daughter of Nisus, king of Me- 
gara, who became enamoured of Minos, as 
that monarch besieged her father's capital. To 
make him sensible of her passion, she informed 
him that she would deliver Megara into his 
hands if he promised to marry her. Minos 
consented, and as the prosperity of Megara de- 
pended on a golden hair which was on the head 
of Nisus, Scylla cut it off as her father was 
asleep, and from that moment the sallies of the 
Megarians were unsuccessful, and the enemy 
easily became masters of the place. Scylla was 
disappointed in her expectations, and Minos 
treated her with such contempt and ridicule, 
that she threw herself from a tower into the 
sea, or, according to other accounts, she was 
changed into a lark by the gods, and her father 
into a hawk. Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 393. — Paus. 
2, c. 3i.— Propert. 3, el. 19, v. 21.— Hygin, fab. 
198.— Virg. G. 1, v. 405, &c. II. A daugh- 
ter of Typhon, or, as some say, of Phorcys, 
who was greatly loved by Glaucus, one of the 
deities of the sea. Scylla scorned the addresses 
of Glaucus, and the god, to render her more 
propitious, applied to Circe, whose knowledge 
of herbs and incantations was universally ad- 
mired. Circe no sooner saw him than she be- 
came enamoured of him, and, instead of giving 
him the required assistance, she attempted to 
make him forget Scylla, but in vain. To pun- 
ish her rival, Circe poured the juice of some 
poisonous herbs into the waters of the fountain 
where Scylla bathed, and no sooner had the 
nymph touched the place, than she found every 
part of her body below the waist, changed into 
frightful monsters, like dogs, which never 
ceased barking. The rest of her body assumed 
an equally hideous form. She found herself 
supported by twelve feet, and she had six dif- 
ferent heads, each with three rows of teeth. 
This sudden metamorphosis so terrified her, 
that she threw herself into that part of the sea 
which separates the coast of Italy and Sicily, 
where she was changed into rocks, which con- 
tinued to bear her name, and which were ixni- 
versally deemed by the ancients very dangerous 
to sailors. During a tempest the waves are 
described by modern navigators as roaring 
dreadfully when driven into the rough and un- 
even cavities of the rock. Homer. Od. 12, v. 
85.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 66, Sac— Paus. 2, c. 34. 

— Hygin. fab. 199. Some authors, as Pro- 

pert'.A, el. 4, v. 39, and Virg. Eel. 4, v. 74, with 
Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 500, have confounded the 
daughter of Typhon with the daughter of 
Nisus. Virg. ^n. 3, v. 424, &c. 
774 



Scythes, or Scytha, a son of Jupiter by a 
daughter of Tellus. Half his body was that 
of a man, aud the rest that of a serpent. He 
became king of a country which he called 
Scythia. Diod. 2. 

Segetia, a divinity at Rome, invoked by the 
husbandmen that the harvest might be plenti- 
ful. Aug. de Civ. D. 4, c. Q.—Macrob. 1, c. 16. 
—Paus. 18, c. 2. 

Selimnus, a shepherd of Achaia, who, for 
some time, enjoyed the favours of the nymph 
Argyra without interruption. Argyra was at 
last disgusted with her lover, and the shep- 
herd died through melancholy, and was chang- 
ed into a river of the same name. Argyra 
was also changed into a fountain, and mingled 
her waters with those of the Selimnus. Paus. 
7, c. 23. 

Semele, a daughter of Cadmus by Hermione, 
the daughter of Mars and Venus. She was 
tenderly beloved by Jupiter, and after death 
was honoured with immortality under the name 
of Thyone. Some, however, suppose that she 
remained in the infernal regions till Bacchus, 
her son, was permitted, to bring her back. Vid. 
Bacchus. There were in the temple of Diana, 
at Troezene, two altars raised to the infernal 
gods, one of which was over an aperture through 
which, as Pausanias reports, Bacchus returned 
from hell with his mother. Semele was particu- 
larly worshipped at Brasiae, in Laconia, where, 
according to a certain tradition, she had been 
driven by the winds with her son, after Cadmus 
had exposed her on the sea on account of her 
incontinent amour with Jupiter, The mother 
of Bacchus, though she received divine hon- 
ours, had no temples ; she had a statue in a 
temple of Ceres, at Thebes, in Bceotia. Paus. 
3, c. 24, 1. 9, c. b.—Hesiod. I'heog.-Homer. 11. 
14, v. 323. — Orpheus. Hymn. — Eurip. in Bacch. 
—Avollod. 3, c. ^.—Ovid. Met. 3, v. 254. Fast. 
3, V? l\b.—Diod. 3 and 4, 

Semones, inferior deities of Rome, not in the 
number of the great gods. Among these were 
Faunus, the Satyrs, Priapus, Vertumnus, Ja- 
nus, Pan, Silenus, and all such illustrious he- 
roes as had received divine honours after death. 
The word seems to be the same as semi ho- 
m%e.s,because they were inferior to the supreme 
gods, and superior to men, Ovid. Fast. 6,v. 213. 

Semosancius, one of the gods of the Romans, 
among the Indigetes, or such as were born and 
educated in their country. 

Serapis, one of the Egyptian deities, sup- 
posed to be the same as Osiris. He had a mag- 
nificent temple at Memphis, another very rich 
at Alexandria, and a third at Canopus. The 
worship of Serapis was introduced at Rome by 
the emperor Antoninus Pius, A. D. 146, and 
the mysteries celebrated on the 6th of May, but 
with so much licentiousness that the senate 
were soon after obliged to abolish it. Herodo- 
tus, who speaks in a very circumstantial man- 
ner of the deities, and "of the religion of the 
Egyptians, makes no mention of the god Sera- 
pis. Apollodorus says it is the same as the 
bull Apis. Paus. 1, c. 18, 1. 2, c. U.— Tacit. 
Hist. 4, c. 83.—Strab. 11.— Martial. 9, ep. 30. 
Though Serapis was a deity long known to 
the Egyptians, his worship was not formally in- 
troduced into Egypt until Ptolemy Soter caused 
his statue to be transported from Pontus, and 



SI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



SI 



placed in a magnificent temple erected by him 
to receive it in Alexandria. In his minute ac- 
count of the Egyptian religion, &c., Herodotus 
makes no mention of Serapis, nor is he found 
in any of the remains of antiquity of unmixed 
Egyptian origin. He belongs, therefore, we 
may presume, to the Alexandrian era, and 
unites the Greek with the Egyptian mythology. 
Sibylla, certain women inspired by heaven, 
who flourisked in different parts of the world. 
Their number is unknown. Plato speaks of 
one, others of two,Pliny of three,^lian of four, 
and Varro of ten, an opinion which is univer- 
sally adopted by the learned. These ten Sibyls 
generally resided in the following places,Persia, 
Libya, Delphi, Cumae in Italy, Erythrsea, Sa- 
mos, Cumae in Molia, Marpessa on the Helles- 
pont, Ancyra in Phrygia, and Tiburtis. The 
most celebrated of the Sibyls is that of Cumae 
in Italy, whom some have called by the different 
names of Amalthsea, Demophile, Herophile, 
Daphne, Manto, Phemonoe, and Deiphobe. It 
is said that Apollo became enamoured of her, 
and that, to make her sensible of his passion, 
he offered to give her whatever she should ask. 
The Sibyl demanded to live as many years as 
she had grains of sand in her hand, but unfor- 
tunately forgot to ask for the enjoyment of the 
health, vigour, and bloom of which she was 
then in possession. The god granted her her 
request, but she refused to gratify the passion of 
her lover, though he offered her perpetual youth 
and beauty. Some time after she became old 
and decrepit, her form decayed, melancholy, 
paleness and haggard looks succeeded to bloom 
and cheerfulness. She had already lived about 
seven hundred years when ^neas came to 
Italy ; and, as some have imagined, she had 
three centuries more to live before her years 
were as numerous as the grains of sand which 
she had in her hand. She gave iEneas instruc- 
tions how to find his father in the infernal re- 
gions, and even conducted him to the entrance 
of hell. It was usual in the Sibyl to write her 
prophecies on leaves, which she placed at the 
entrance of her cave, and it required particular 
care in such as consulted her to take up these 
leaves before they were dispersed by the wind, 
as their meaning then became incomprehensi- 
ble. According to the most anthentic historians 
of the Roman republic, one of the Sibyls came 
to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine 
volumes, which she offered to sell for a very 
high price. The monarch disregarded her, and 
she immediately disappeared, and soon after 
returned, when she had burned three of the 
volumes. She asked the same price for the re- 
maining six books ; and when Tarquin refused 
to buy them, she burned three more, and still 
persisted in demanding the same sum of money 
for the three that were left. This extraordinary 
behaviour astonished Tarquin ; he bought the 
books, and the Sibyl instantly vanished, and 
never after appeared to the world. These 
books were preserved with great care by the 
monarch, and called the SibylliTie verses. A 
college of priests was appointed to have the 
care of them ; and such reverence did the Ro- 
mans entertain for these prophetic books, that 
they were consulted with the greatest solem- 
nity, and only when the state seemed to be in 
danger. When the capitol was burnt in the 



troubles of Sylla, the Sibylline verses, which 
were deposited there, perished in the conflagra- 
tion ; and to repair the loss which the republic 
seemed to have sustained, commissioners were 
immediately sent to different parts of Greece, 
to collect whatever verses could be found of the 
inspired writings of the Sibyls. The fate of 
these Sibylline verses, which were collected 
after the conflagration of the capitol, is un- 
known. There are now eight books of Sibyl- 
line verses extant, but they are universally 
reckoned spurious. They speak so plainly of 
our Saviour, of his sufferings, and of his death, 
as even to surpass far the sublime prediction 
of Isaiah in description ; and therefore from 
this very circumstance it is evident that they 
were composed in ihe second century, by some 
of the followers of Christianity, who wished to 
convince the heathens of their error, by assist- 
ing the cause of truth with the arms of pious 
artifice. The word Sibyl seems to be derived 
from aiov .Police for Atoj Jovis, and l3ov\ri con- 
silium. Plut. in Phced. — JElian. V. H. 12, c. 
35.— Pans. 10, c. 12, &c:—Diod. 4.— Ovid. 
Met. 14, V. 109 and 140.— Hr^-. jEn. 3, v. 445, 
1. 6, V. 36.—Lucan. 1, v. b&^.—Plin. 13, c. 13. 
— Flor. 4, c. 1. — Sallust. — Cic. Caiil. 3. — Vol. 
Max. 1, c. 1, 1. 8, c. 15, &c. 

SiCH^us. Vid. Part II. 

SiLENTJs, a demi-god, who became the nurse, 
the preceptor, and attendant of the god Bac- 
chus. He was, as some suppose, son of Pan, 
or, according to others, of Mercury or of Terra. 
Malea in Lesbos was the place of his birth. 
After death he received divine honours,and had 
a temple in Elis. Silenus is generally repre- 
sented as a fat and jolly old man, riding on an 
ass, crowned with flowers, and always intoxi- 
cated. He was once found by some peasants in 
Phrygia, after he had lost his way and could 
not follow Bacchus, and he was carried to King 
Midas, who received him with great attention. 
He detained him for ten days, and afterwards 
restored him to Bacchus, for which he was re- 
warded with the power of turning into gold 
whatever he touched. Some authors assert that 
Silenus was a philosopher, who accompanied 
Bacchus in his Indian expedition, and assisted 
him by the soundness of his counsels. From 
this circumstance, therefore, he is often intro- 
duced speaking with all the gravity of a philoso- 
pher concerning 'the formation of the world and 
the nature of things. The Fauns in general, 
and the Satyrs, are often called Sileni. Pans. 
3, c. 25,1. 9, c. 2i.—PMlosi. 23.— Ovid. Met. 
i.—Hygin. fab. 191.— Diod. 3, &c.—Cic. Tiisc. 
1, c. 4:8.—jElimi. V. H. 3, c. IS.— Virg. Ed. 
6, V. 13. 

SiLYANUs, a rural deity, son of an Italian 
shepherd. He is generally represented as halt 
a man and half a goat. According to Virgil, he 
was son of Picus, or, as others report, of Mars, 
or according to Plutarch, of Valeria Tuscula- 
naria. The worship of Silvanus was establish- 
ed only in Italy, where, as some authors have 
imagined, he reigned in the age of Evander. 
This deity was sometimes represented, holding 
a cypress in his hand, on account of his regard 
for a beautiful youth, called Cyparissus, who 
was changed into a tree of the same name. 
Silvanus presided over gardens and limits, and 
he is often confounded with the Fauns, Satyrs, 
775 



SI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



SO 



and Silenus. Plut. in Parall. — Virg. Ed. 10. 
G. 1, V. 20, 1. 2, V. A92.—jElian. Anim. 6, c. 42. 
Ovid. Met. 10. — Horat. ep. 2. — Dionys. Hal. 
Vid. Part II. 

SiNOE, a nymph of Arcadia, who brought up 
Pan. 

Simon. Vid. Part II. 

SiNoPE, a daughter of the Asopus by Me- 
thone. She was beloved by Apollo, who car- 
ried her away to the borders of the Euxine Sea, 
in Asia Minor, where she gave birth to a son 
called Syrus. Diod. 4. Vid. Part I. 

SiHENEs, sea-nymphs who charmed so much 
with their melodious voice, that all forgot their 
employments to listen with more attention, and 
at last died for want of food. They were 
daughters of the Achelous, by the muse Cal- 
liope, or, according to others, by Melpomene or 
Terpsichore. They were three in number, 
called Parthenope, Ligeia, and Leucosia, or, 
according to others, Molpe, Aglaophonos, and 
Thelxiope or Thelxione, and they usually lived 
in a small island near cape Pelorus in Sicily, 
According to Ovid, they were so disconsolate at 
the rape of Proserpine, that they prayed the gods 
to give them wings that they might seek her in 
the sea as well as by land. The Sirens were 
informed by the oracle, that as soon as any per- 
sons passed by them without suffering them- 
selves to be charmed by their songs, they should 
perish ; and their melody had prevailed in call- 
ing the attention of all passengers, till Ulysses, 
informed of the power of their voice by Circe, 
stopped the ears of his companions with wax, 
and ordered himself to be tied to the mast of his 
ship, and no attention to be paid to his com- 
mands should he wish to stay and listen to the 
song. Upon this artifice of Ulysses, the Sirens 
were so disappointed that they threw themselves 
into the sea and perished. Some authors say 
that the Sirens challenged the Muses to a trial 
of skill in singing, and that the latter proved 
victorious, and plucked the feathers from the 
wings of their adversaries, with which they 
made themselves crowns. The place where 
the Sirens destroyed themselves was afterwards 
called Sirenis, on the coast of Sicily. Virgil, 
however, ^En. 6, v. 864, places the Sirenum 
Scopuli on the coast of Italy, near the island of 
Caprea. The Sirens are often represented 
holding, one a lyre, a second a flute, and the 
third singing. Pans. 10, c. 6.— Homer. Od. 12, 
V. 167. — Strab. 6. — Ammian. 29, c. 2. — Hygin. 
fab. lAl.—Apollod. 2, c. A.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 
555, de Art. Am. 3, v. ^W.—Ital. 12, v, 33. 

Sisyphus, a brother of Athamas and Salmo- 
neus, son of JEolus and Enaretta, the most 
crafty prince of the heroic ages. He married 
Merope, the daughter of Atlas, or, according 
to others, of Pandareus, by whom he had sev- 
eral children. He built Ephyre, called after- 
wards Corinth. It is reported that Sisyphus, 
mistrusting Autolycus, who stole the neighbour- 
ing flocks, marked his bulls under the feet, 
and when they had been carried away by the 
dishonesty of his friend, he confounded and 
astonished the thief by selecting from his nu- 
merous flocks those bulls, which by the mark 
he knew to be his own. After his death, Sisy- 
phus was condemned in hell, to roll to the top 
of a hill a large stone, which had no sooner 
reached the summit than it fell back into the 
776 



plain with impetuosity, and rendered his pun- 
ishment eternal. The causes of this rigorous 
sentence are variously reported. Some attri- 
bute it to his continual depredations in the 
neighbouring country, and his cruelty in laying 
heaps of stones on those whom he had plun- 
dered, and suffering them to expire in the most 
agonizing torments. Others, to the insult offered 
to Pluto, in chaining death in his palace, and 
detaining her till Mars, at the request of the 
king of hell, went to deliver her from confine- 
ment. . Others suppose that Jupiter inflicted this 
punishment because he told Asopus where his 
daughter iEgina had been carried away by her 
ravisher. The more followed opinion however 
is, that Sisyphus, on his death-bed, entreated his 
wife to leave his body unburied ; and when he 
came into Pluto's kingdom, he received the per- 
mission of returning upon earth to punish this 
seeming negligence of his wife, but, however, 
on promise of immediately returning. But he 
was no sooner out of the infernal regions, than 
he violated his engagements ; and when he was 
at last brought back to hell by Mars, Pluto, to 
punish his want of fidelity, condemned him to 
roll a huge stone to the top of a mountain. The 
institution of the Pythian games is attributed by 
some to Sisyphus. To be of the blood of Sisyphus 
was deemed disgraceful among the ancients. 
Homer. Od. 11, v. 592.— Hr^. uEn. 6, v. 616.— 
Ovid. Met. 4, v. 459, 1. 13, v. 32. Fast. 4, v. 
175, in Ibid. 191. — Paus. 2, &c. — Horat. 2, od. 
14, V. 20. Vid. Part IT. 

Smilax. Vid. Crocus. 

Smintheus, one of the surnames of Apollo in 
Phrygia, where the inhabitants raised him a 
temple because he had destroyed a number of 
rats that infested the country. These rats were 
called (TuivBai, in the language of Phrygia, 
whence the surname. There is another story 
similar to this related by the Greek scholiast of 
Homer. 11. 1, v. Z^.— Strab. 13.— Ovid. Met. 12, 
V. 585. 

Sol, (the sun,) was an object of veneration 
among the ancients. It was particularly wor- 
shipped by the Persians, under the name of 
Mithras; and was the Baal or Bel of the 
Chaldeans, the Belphegor of the Moabites, the 
Moloch of the Canaanites, the Osiris of the 
Egyptians, and the Adonis of the Syrians, The 
Massagetae sacrificed horses to the sun on ac- 
count of their swiftness. According to some 
of the ancient poets, Sol and Apollo were two 
different persons. Apollo, however, and Phoe- 
bus and Sol, are universally supposed to be the 
same deity. 

SoMNUs, son of Erebus and Nox, was one of 
the infernal deities, and presided over sleep. 
His palace, according to some mythologists, is 
a dark cave where the sun never penetrafes. 
At the entrance are a number of poppies and 
somniferous herbs. The god himself is repre- 
sented as asleep on a bed of feathers with black 
curtains. The dreams stand by him, and Mor- 
pheus, as his principal minister, watches to 
prevent the noise from awaking him. The 
Lacedaemonians always placed the image of 
Somnus near that of death. Hesiod. Theog. — 
Horn. 11. U.— ViTg.JE:7i.6,y.893.—Ovid.Met.n. 

SoPHAX, a son of Hercules and Tinga, the 
widow of Antseus, who founded the kingdom 
of Tingis, in Mauretania, and from whom were 



ST 



MYTHOLOGY. 



ST 



descended Diodorus, and Juba, king of Maure- 
tania. Strab. 3. 

SoRGE, a daughter of QEneus, king of Caly- 
don, by ^ihea, daugiiter of Thestius. She 
married Andremon, and was mother of Oxilus. 
Apollod. 1 and 2. 

SospiTA, a surname of Juno in Latium. Her 
most famous temple was at Lanuvium. She 
had also two at Rome, and her statue was cov- 
ered with a goat-skin, with a buckle, &c. Liv. 
3, 6, 8, &c. — Festus. de V. sig. 

Soxms, an Egyptian name of the constella- 
tion called Sirius, which received divine hon- 
ours in that country. 

Sparta, or Sparti, a name given to those 
men who sprang from the dragon's teeth which 
Cadmus sowed. They all destroyed one an- 
other, except five, who survived, and assisted 
Cadmus in building Thebes. 

Spherus, an arm-bearer of Pelops, son of 
Tantalus. He was buried in a small island 
near the isthmus of Corinth, which from him 
was called Spheria. Paus. 5, c. 10. 

Sphinx, a monster which had the head and 
breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, the tail 
of a serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a 
lion, and a human voice. It sprang from the 
union of Orthos with the Chimcera, or of Ty- 
phon with Echidna. The Sphinx had been sent 
into the neighbourhood of Thebes by Juno, who 
wished to punish the family of Cadmus, which 
she persecuted with immortal hatred, and it laid 
this part of Boeotia under continual alarms by 
proposing enigmas, and devouring the inhabi- 
tants if unable to explain them. In rhe midst 
of their consternation the Thebans were told by 
the oracle, that the Sphinx would destroy her- 
self as soon as one of the enigmas she proposed 
was explained. In this enigma she wished to 
know what animal walked on four legs in the 
morning, two at noon, and three in the evening. 
Upon this Creon, king of Thebes, promised his 
crown, and his sister Jocasta in marriage, to 
him Tvho could deliver his country from the 
monster by a successful explanation of the 
enigma. It was at last happily explained by 
(Edipus, who observed that man walked on his 
hands and feet when young or in the morning 
of life, at the noon of life he walked erect, and 
in the evening of his days he supported his in- 
firmities upon a stick. Vid. CEdipus. The 
Sphinx no sooner heard this explanation than 
she dashed her head against a rock, and imme- 
diately expired. Some mythologists wish to un- 
riddle the fabulous traditions about the Sphinx, 
by the supposition that one of the daughters of 
Cadmus, or Lams, infested the country of 
Thebes by her continual depredations, because 
she had been refused a part of her father's 
possessions. The lion's paw expressed, as they 
observed, her cruelty, the body of the dog her 
lasciviousness, her enigmas the snares she laid 
for strangers and travellers, and her wings the 
despatch she used in her expeditions. Plut. — 
Hesiod. Theos. v. 326. — Hygin. fab. 68. — Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 5.—DiodA.— Ovid.inlb. 318.—Strab. 
9. — Sophocl. in (Edip. tyr. 

Stator, a surname of Jupiter, given him by 
Romulus, because he stopped (sto) the flight of 
the Romans in a battle against the Sabines. 
The conqueror erected him a temple under that 
name. Liv. 1, c. 12. 

Part III.— 5 F 



Stellio, a youth turned into an elf by Ceres, 
because he derided the goddess, who drank with 
avidity when tired and afflicted in her vain pur- 
suit of her daughter Proserpine. Ovid. Met. 
5, V. 445. 

Stenobcba, or Sthenobcea. Vid. Bellerophon. 

Stentor, one of the Greeks who went to the 
Trojan war. His voice alone was louder than 
that of 50 men together. Homer E. 5, v. 784. 
— Juv. 13, V. 112. 

Sterope, I. one of the Pleiades, daughters of 
Atlas. She married CEnomaus, king of Pisae, 

by whom she had Hippodamia, &c. II. A 

daughter of Parthaon, supposed by some to be 
the mother of the Sirens. 

Sthenelus, I. a king of Mycenas, son of Per- 
seus and Andromeda. He married Nicippe, 
the daughter of Pelops, by whom he had two 
daughters, and a son called Eurystheus. Sthe- 
nelus made war against Amphitryon, who had 
killed Electryon and seized his kingdom. He 
fought with success, and took his enemy pris- 
oner, whom he transmitted to Eurystheus. Ho- 

iner. 11. 19, v. 91.— Apollod. 2, c. 4. II. A son 

of Capaneus. He was one of the Epigoni, and 
of the suiters of Helen. He went to the Trojan 
war, and was one of those who were shut up in 
the wooden horse, according to Virgil. Paus. 

2, c. 18.— Hr^. .En. 2 and 10. III. A son 

of Androgens, the son of Minos. Hercules 

made him king of Thrace. Apellod. 2, c. 5. 

IV. A king of Argos, who succeeded his father 

Crotopus. Paus. 2, c. 16. V. A son of Actor, 

who accompanied Hercules in his expedition 
against the Amazons. He was killed by one 

of these females. VI. A son of Melas, killed 

by Tydeus. Apollod. 1, c. 8. 

Stilbe, or Stilbia, a daughter of Penneus, 
by Creusa, who became mother of Centaurus 
and Lapithus, by Apollo. Diod. 4. 

Strenija, a goddess at Rome, who gave vigour 
and energy to the weak and indolent. Aug. de 
Civ. D. 4, c. 11 and 16. 

STROPmus. Vid. Part I. 

Stymphalus, a king of Arcadia, son of Ela- 
tus and Laodice. He made war against Pelops, 
and was killed in a truce. Apollod. 3, c. 9. — 
Paus. 8, c. 4. Vid. Part I. 

SrYRtis, a king of Albania, to whom iEetes 
promised his daughter Medea in marriage, to 
obtain his assistance against the Argonauts. 
Flacc. 3, V. 497, 1. 8, v. 358. 

Styx, I. a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. 
She married Pallas, by whom she had three 
daughters, Victory. Strength, and Valour. Hes- 
iod^ Theog. 363 and 3M.— Apollod. 1, c. 2. 

II. A celebrated river of hell, round which 

it flows nine times. According to some writers, 
the Styx was a small river of Nonacris, in Ar- 
cadia, whose waters were so cold and venomous 
that they proved fatal to those who tasted them. 
Among' others, Alexander the Great is men- 
tioned as a victim to their fatal poison, in conse- 
quence of drinkmg them. They even consum- 
ed iron, and broke all vessels. The wonderful 
properties of this water suggested the idea that 
it was a river of hell, especially when it disap- 
peared in the earth a little below its fountain 
head. The gods held the waters of the Styx in 
such veneration that they always swore by 
them ; an oath which was inviolable. If any of 
the gods had perjured themselves, Jupiter obli- 
777 



TA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TE 



ged them to drink tlie waters of the Styx, which 
lulled them for one whole year into a senseless 
stupidity; for the nine following years they 
were deprived of the ambrosia and the nectar 
of the gods, and after the expiration of the 
years of their punishment, they were restored 
to the assembly of the deities, and to all their 
original privileges. It is said that this venera- 
tion was shown to the Styx, because it received 
its name from the nymph Styx, who with her 
three daughters assisted Jupiter in his war 
against the Titans. Hesiod. Theog. v. 384, 
115.— Homer. Od. 10, v. b\2.—Herodot. 6, c. 
l^.— Virg. JEn. 6, v. 323, 439, &c.—Apollod. 
1, c. 3.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 29, &.c.—Lucan. 6, v. 
378, &c.—Paus. 8, c. 17 and 18.— Curt. 10, c. 10. 

SuADA, the goddess of persuasion, called Pi- 
tho by the Greeks. She had a form of worship 
established to her honour first by Theseus, She 
had a statue in the temple of Venus Praxis at 
Megara. Cic. de el. Or at. 15. — Paus. 1, c. 22 
and 43, 1. 9, c. 35. 

SuMMANUs, a surname of Pluto, as prince of 
the dead, summus manium. He had a tem- 
ple at Rome, erected during the wars with 
Pyrrhus, and the Romans believed that the 
thunderbolts of Jupiter were in his power 
during the night. Cic. de Div. — Ovid. Fast. 
6, V. 731. 

Sylvia. Vid. Rhea. 

Sylvius. Vid. Part II. 

Syrinx, a nymph of Arcadia, daughter of the 
river Laodon. Pan became enamoured of her, 
but Syrinx escaped, and at her own request 
was changed by the gods into a reed called 
Syrinx by the Greeks. The god made himself 
a pipe with the reeds into which his favourite 
nymph had been changed. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 
&^\.— Martial. 9, ep. 63. 

T. 

Tages, a son of Genius, grandson of Jupiter, 
was the first who taught the 12 nations of the 
Etrurians the science of augury and divination. 
It is said that he was found by a Tuscan plough- 
man in the form of a clod, and that he assumed 
a human shape to instruct this nation, which 
became so celebrated for their knowledge of 
omens and incantations. Cic. de Div. 2, c. 23. 
—Ovid. Met. 15, v. bb^.-Uican. 1, v. 673. 

Talaus, a son of Bias and Pero, father of 
Adrastus by Lysimache. He was one of the 
Argonauts. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 6. 

Talus, a youth, son of the sister of Daedalus, 
who invented the saw, compasses, and other 
mechanical instruments. His uncle became 
jealous of his growing fame, and murdered him 
privately ; or, according to others, he threw him 
down from the citadel of Athens. Talus was 
changed into a partridge by the gods. He is 
also called Calus, Acalus, Perdix, and Taliris. 
Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Paus. 1, c. 21. — Ovid. Met.S. 

Tantalides, I. a patronymic applied to the 
descendants of Tantalus, such as Niobe, Her- 

mione, &c. II. Agamemnon and Menelaus, 

as grandsons of Tantalus, are called Tantalidce 
frates. Ovid. Heroid. 8, v. 45 and 122. 

Tantalus, a king of Lydia, son of Jupiter, 

bv a nymph called Pluto. He was father of 

Niobe, Pelops, &c., by Dione, one of the Atlan- 

tides, called by some Euryanassa. Tantalus is 

778 



represented by the poets as punished in hell 
with an insatiable thirst, and placed up to the 
chin in the midst of a pool of water, which, how- 
ever, flows away as soon as he attempts to taste 
it. There hangs also above his head, a bough, 
richly loaded with delicious fruits ; which, as 
soon as he attempts to seize, is carried away 
from his reach by a sudden blast of wind. Ac- 
cording to some mythologists, his punishment 
is to sit under a huge stone, hung at some dis- 
tance over his head, and as it seems every mo- 
ment ready to fall, he is kept under continual 
alarms and never-ceasing fears. The causes 
of this eternal punishment are variously ex- 
plained. Some declare that is was inflicted upon 
him because he stole a favourite dog, which Ju- 
piter had intrusted to his care to keep his tem- 
ple in Crete. Others say that he stole away the 
nectar and ambrosia from the tables of the gods. 
when he was admitted into the assemblies of 
heaven, and that he gave it to mortals on earth. 
Others support that this proceeds from his cruel- 
ty and impiety in killing his son Pelops, and in 
serving his limbs as food before the gods, whose 
divinity and power he wished to try, when they 
had stopped at his house as they passed over 
Phrygia. There were also others who impute 
it to his carrying away Ganymedes. Pindar. 
Olymp. 1. — Homer. Od. 11, v. 581. — Cic. Tusc. 

1, c. 5, 1. 4, c. 16. — Eurip. in Iphig. — Propert. 

2, el. 1, V. 66.—Horat. 1, Sat. 1, v. 68. 
Taranis, a name of Jupiter among the 

Gauls, to whom human sacrifices were offered. 
Lucan. 1, v. 446. 

Taraxippus, a deity worshipped at Elis. His 
statue was placed near the race-ground, and his 

Erotection was implored that no harm might 
appen to the horses during the games. Paus. 
6, c. 20, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 2. 

Tartarus, (pi. a, orum,) one of the regions 
of hell, where, according to the ancients, the 
most impious and guilty among mankind were 
punished. It was surrounded with a brazen 
wall, and its entrance was continually hidden 
from the sight by a cloud of darkness, which is 
represented three times more gloomy than the 
obscurest night. According to Hesiod, it was a 
separate prison, at a greater distance from the 
earth, than the earth is from the heavens. Vir- 
gil says that it was surrounded by three impen- 
etrable walls, and by the impetuous and burn- 
ing streams of the river Phlegethon. The en- 
trance is by a large and lofty tower, whose gates 
are supported by columns of adamant, which 
neither gods nor men can open. It was the 
place where Ixion, Tityus, the Danaides, Tan- 
talus, Sisyphus, &c. were punished, according 
to Ovid. Hesiod. Theog. v. 120.—Sil. 13, v. 
591.— Virg. jEn. Q.— Homer. Od. \l.—Ovid. 
Mel. 4, fab. 13. 

Taurica, a surname of Diana, because she 
was worshipped by the inhabitants of Taurica 
Chersonesus. 

Taurus, an officer of Minos, king of Crete. 
Vid. Minotaurus. He was vanquished by 
Theseus in the games which Minos exhibited 
in Crete. Plut. in Thes. 

Tectamus, son of Dorus, grandson of Hel- 
len, the son of Deucalion, went to Crete with 
thcjEtolians and Pelasgians, and reigned there. 
He had a son called Asterius, by the daughter 
of Cretheus. 



TE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TE 



TelamOxV. Vid. Part II. 

Tjelchinu, a sarname of Minerva at Teu- 
messa in Bceotia, where she had a temple. 

Paus. 9, c. 19. Also a surname of Juno in 

Rhodes, where she had a statue at lalysus, rais- 
ed by the Telchinians, who settled there. 



Also an ancient name of Crete, as the place 
from whence the Telchines of Rhodes were de- 
scended. Stat. 6, Sylv. 6, v. 47. 

Telchinius, a surname of Apollo among the 
Rhodians. Diod. 5. 

Telchis, a son of Europs, the son of ^gia- 
leus. He was one of the first kings of the Pe- 
loponnesus. 

Teleg5nus, a king of Egypt, who married lo 
after she had been restored to her original form 
by Jupiter. Apollod. Vid. Part II. 

Telemachus. Vid. Part II. 

Telemus, a Cyclops, who was acquainted 
"With futurity. He foretold to Polyphemus all 
the evils which he some time after suffered from 
Ulysses. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 771. 

Telephassa, the mother of Cadmus, Phoe- 
nix, and Clix, by Agenor. She died in Thrace, 
as she was seeking her daughter Europa, whom 
Jupiter had carried away. Apollod. 3, c. 1 
and 4. 

Telephus, a king of Mysia, son of Hercules 
and" Auge, the daughter of Aleus. He was ex- 
posed as soon as born on mount Parthenius, but 
his life was preserved by a goat, and by some 
shepherds. According to Apollodorus, he was 
exposed, not on a mountain, but in the temple 
of Minerva, at Tegea, or, according to a tradi- 
tion mentioned by Pausanias, he was left to the 
mercy of the waves with his mother, by the 
cruelty of Aleus, and carried by the winds to 
the mouth of the Caycus, where he was found by 
Teuthras, king of the country, who married, or 
rather adopted as his daughter, Auge, and edu- 
cated her son. Some, however, suppose, that 
Auge fled to Teuthras to avoid the anger of her 
father on account of her amour with Hercules. 
Yet others declare that Aleus gave her to Nau- 
plius to be severely punished for her inconti- 
nence ; and that Nauplius, unwilling to injure 
her, sent her to Teuthras, king of Bithynia, by 
whom she was adopted. Telephus, according 
to the more received opinions, was ignorant of 
his origin, and he was ordered by the oracle, if 
he wished to know his parents, to go to Mysia. 
Obedient to this injunction, he came to Mysia, 
where Teuthras offered him his crown and his 
adopted daughter Auge in marriage, if he would 
deliver his country from the hostilities of Idas, 
the son of Apharous. Telephus readily com- 
plied, and at the head of the Mysians he soon 
routed the enemy and received the promised re- 
ward. As he was going to unite himself to 
Auge, the sudden appearance of an enormous 
serpent separated the two lovers; Auge implor- 
ed the assistance of Hercules, and was soon in- 
formed by the god that Telephus was her own 
son. When this was known, the nuptials were 
not celebrated, and Telephus, some time after, 
married one of the daughters of King Priam. 
As one of the sons of the Trojan monarch,, Te- 
lephus prepared to assist Priam against the 
Greeks, and with heroic valour he attacked 
them when they had landed on his coast. The 
carnage was great andTelephus was victorious, 
when Bacchus, who protected the Greeks, sud- 



denly raised a vine from the earth, which en- 
tangled the feet of the monarch, and laid him 
flat on the ground. Achilles immediately rushed 
upon him, and wounded him so severely that he 
was carried away from the battle. The wound 
was mortal, and Telephus was informed by the 
oracle, that he alone who had inflicted it could 
totally cure it. Upon this, applications were 
made to Achilles, but in vain ; the hero observ- 
ed that he was no physician, till Ulysses, who 
knew that Troy could not be taken without the 
assistance of one of the sons of Hercules, and 
who wished to make Telephus the friend of the 
Greeks, persuaded Achilles to obey the direc- 
tions of the oracle. Achilles consented, and as 
the weapon which had given the wound could 
alone cure it, the hero scraped the rust from the 
point of his spear, and by applying it to the sore, 
gave it immediate relief. It is said that Tele- 
phus showed himself so grateful to the Greeks 
that he accompanied them to the Trojan war, 
and fought with them against his father-in-law. 
Hij£;in. fab. 101.— Paws, 8, c. 48.— Apollod. 2, 
c. 7, &L(i.—Mlian. V. H. 12, c. 42.— Diod. 4. 



— Ovid. Fast, 
Plin. 

Telethusa. 

Teleute, a 



1, el. 1, &c. — Philostr. her. — 



Venus among the 



Vid. Iphis. 
surname of 
Egyptians. Plut. de Is. <^ Os. 

Tellus, a divinity, the same as the Earth, the 
most ancient of all the gods after Chaos. She 
was mother by Coelus of Oceanus, Hyperion, 
Ceus, Rhea, Japetus, Themis, Saturn, Phoebe, 
Tethys, &c. Tellus is the same as the divinity 
who is honoured under the several names of 
Cybele, Rhea, Vesta, Cere^, Tithea, Bona Dea, 
Proserpine, &c. She was generally represented 
in the character of Tellus, as a woman with 
many breasts, distended with milk, to express 
the fecundity of the earth. She also appeared 
crowned with turrets, holding a sceptre in one 
hand and a key in the other, while at her feet 
was lying a tame lion without chains, as if to 
intimate that every part of the earth can be 
made fruitful by means of cultivation . — Hesiod. 
Tlieog. V. 130.— Hr^. JEn.l, v. 131 .—Apollod. 
1, c. 1. Vid. Part II. 

Telphusa, a nymph of Arcadia, daughter of 
the Ladon, who gave her name to a town and 
fountain of that place. The waters of the foun- 
tain Telphusa were so cold, that Tiresias died 
by drinking them. Diod. 4. — Strab. 9. — Iajco- 
phron. 1040. Vid. Part II. 

Temenites, a surname of Apollo, which he 
received at Teraenos, a small place near Syra- 
cuse, where he was worshipped. Cic. in Verr. 

Tenes. Vid. Part II. 

Tereus, a king of Thrace, son of Mars and 
Bistonis. He married Progne, the daughter of 
Pandion, king of Athens, whom he had assisted 
in a war against Megara. Vid. Philomela. 

Termerus, a robber of Peloponnesus, who 
killed people by crushing their heads against 
his owTi. He was slain by Hercules in the 
same manner. Plut. in Thes. 

Terminalis, a surname of Jupiter, because 
he presided over the boundaries and lands of 
individuals, before the worship of the god Ter- 
minus was introduced. Dionys. Hal. 2. 

Termincts, a divinity at Rome, who was.-^up- 
posed to preside over bounds and limits, and to 
punish all unlawful usurpation of land. His 
779 



TH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TH 



■worship was at first introduced at Rome by Nu- 
ma, who persuaded his subjects that the limits 
of their lands and estates were under the imme- 
diate inspection of heaven. His temple was on 
the Tarpeian rock, and he was represented with 
a human head without feet or arms to intimate 
that he never moved, wherever he was placed. 
The people of the country assembled once a 
year with their families, and crowned with gar- 
lands and flowers the stones which separated 
their different possessions, and offered victims 
to the god who presided over their boundaries. 
It is said that when Tarquin the Proud wished 
to build a temple on the Tarpeian rock to Ju- 
piter, the god Terminus refused to give way, 
though the other gods resigned their seats with 
cheerfulness; whence Ovid has said: — 

Restitit, et mo.gno cum Jove templa tenet. 

Dionys. Hal. 2.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v. QH.—Plut. 
in Num. — Liv. 5. — Virg. jEn. 9. 

Terpsichore, one of the Muses, daughter of 
Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over 
dancing, of which she was reckoned the inven- 
tress, as her name intimates, and with which 
she delighted her sisters. She is represented 
like a young virgin crowned with laurel, and 
holding in her hand a musical instrument. 
Juv. 7, V. 35. — Apollod. 1. — Eustat. in 11. 10. 

Terra, one of the most ancient deities in my- 
thology, wife of Uranus, and mother of Ocea- 
nus, the Titans, Cyclops, Giants, Thea, Rhea, 
Themis, Phosbe, Thetys, and Mnemosyne. By 
the Air she had Grief, Mourning, Oblivion, 
Vengeance, &c. According to Hyginus, she is 
the same as Tellus. Vid. Tellus. 

Terror, an emotion of the mind, which the 
ancients have made a deity, and one of the 
attendants of the god Mars, and of Bellona. 

Tethys, the greatest of the sea-deities, was 
wife of Oceanus, and daughter of Uranus and 
Terra. She was mother of the chiefest rivers 
of the universe, such as the Nile, the Alpheus, 
the Maeander, Simois, Peneus, Evenus, Sca- 
mander, &c., and about 3000 daughters, called 
Oceanides, Tethys is confounded by some my- 
thologists with her grand-daughter Thetis, the 
wife of Peleus and the mother of Achilles. 
The word Tethys is poetically used to express 
the sea. Apollod. \,c. 1, &c. — Virg. G. 1, v. 
"il.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 509, 1. 9, v. A^Q.—Fast. 2, 
V. 191. — Hesiod. Theogu. v. 336. — Homer. II. 
14, V. 302. 

Teucer. Vid. Part II. 

Teutas, or Teutates, a name of Mercury 
among the Gauls. The people offered human 
victims to this deity. Lmcan. 1, v. 445. — Casar. 
Bell. G. 

Teuthras, a king of Mysia, on the borders 
oftheCaycus. Vid. Telephus. The 50 daugh- 
ters of Teuthras, who became mothers by Her- 
cules, are called Teuthrantia turba. Apollod. 
2, c. 7, &c.—Paus.3, c. 25.--Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 
19. Heroid. 9, Y.bl.—Hygin. fab. 100. 

Thalassius, a beautiful young Roman, in the 
reign of Romulus. At ths rape of the Sabines, 
one of these virgins appeared remarkable for 
beauty and elegance, and her ravisher, afraid of 
many competitors, exclaimed as he carried her 
away, that it was for Thalassius. The name 
of Thalassius was no sooner mentioned, than 
all were eager to preserve so beautiful a prize for 
780 



him. Their union was attended with so much 
happiness, that it was ever after usual at Rome 
to make use of the word Thalassius at nuptials, 
and to wish those that were married the felici- 
ty of Thalassius. He is supposed by some to 
be the same as Hymen, as he was made a deity. 
Plut. in Rom. — Martial. 3, ep. 92. — Liv. 1, c. 9. 

Thalestria, or Thalestris, a queen of the 
Amazons, who, accompanied by 300 women, 
came 35 days' journey to meet Alexander in his 
Asiatic conquests, to raise children by a man 
whose fame was so great and courage so uncom- 
mon. Curt. 6, c. 5. — Strab. 11. — Justin. 2, c. 4. 

Thalia, one of the Muses, who presided over 
festivals, and over pastoral and comic poetry. 
She is represented leaning on a column, holding 
a mask in her right hand, by which she is dis- 
tinguished from her sisters, as also by a shep- 
herd's crook. Her dress appears shorter, and 
not so ornamented as that of the other Muses. 
Herat. 4, Od. 6, v. ^b.—Mart. 9, ep. lb.— Plut. 
in Symp. &c. — Virg. Ec. 6, v. 2. Vid. Charites. 

Thamyras, or Thamyris, a celebrated musi- 
cian of Thrace. His father's name was Phi- 
lammon, and his mother's Agriope. He became 
enamoured of the Muses, and challenged them 
to a trial of skill. His challenge was accepted, 
and it was mutually agreed that the conquered 
should be totally at the disposal of his victorious 
adversary. He was conquered, and the Muses 
deprived him of his eyesight, and of his melo- 
dious voice, and broke his lyre. His poetical 
compositions are lost. Some accused him of 
having first introduced into the world the un- 
natural vice of which Socrates is accused. 
Homer. 11. 2, v. 594, 1. 5, v. bm.— Apollod. 1, c. 
3.— Ovid. Amor. 3, el. 7, v. 62, Art. Am. 3, 399. 
— PoALs. 4, c. 33. 

Tharops, the father of (Eager, to whom 
Bacchus gave the kingdom of Thrace, after the 
death of Lycurgus. Diod. 4. 

Thasus, a son of Neptune, who went with 
Cadmus to seek Europa. He built the town of 
Thasus in Thrace. Some make him brother 
of Cadmus. Apollod. 3, c. i. 

Thaumantias, and Thaumantis, a name given 
to Iris, the messenger of Juno, because she was 
the daughter of Thaumas, the son of Oceanus 
and Terra, by one of the Ocea ides. Hesiod. 
Theog.— Virg. j^n. 9, v. b.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 
479, 1. 14, V. 845. 

Thaumas, a son of Neptune and Terra, who 
married Electra, one of the Oceanides, by whom 
he had Iris and the Harpies, &c. Apollod. 1, c. 2. 

Thea, a daughter of Uranus and Terra. She 
married her brother Hyperion, by whom she 
had the sun, the moon, Aurora, (fee. She is also 
called Thia, Titsea, Rhea, Tethys, &c. 

Theano. Vid. Part II. 

Themis, I. a daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
who married Jupiter against her own inclina- 
tion. She became mother of Dice, Irene, Eu- 
nomia, the Parcae and Horse ; and was the first 
to whom the inhabitants of the earth raised tem- 
ples. Her oracle was famous in Attica in the 
age of Deucalion, who consulted it with great 
solemnity, and was instructed how to repair the 
loss of mankind. She was generally attended 
by the Seasons. Among the moderns she is rep- 
resented as holding a sword in one hand and 
a pair of scales in the other. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 
321. II. A daughter of Ilus, who married 



TH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TH 



Capys, and became mother of Anchises. Apol- 
lod. 3, c. 12. 

Themisto, daughter of Hypsens, was the 
third wife of Alhamas, king of Thebes, by 
whom she had four sons, called Ptous, Leucon, 
Schoeneus, and Erythroes. She endeavoured to 
kill the children of Ino, her husband's second 
wife, but she killed her own by means of Ino. 
who lived in her house in the disguise of a ser- 
vant-maid, and to whom she intrusted Jier 
bloody intentions, upon which she destroyed 
herself. Paus. 9, c. ^2>'i.—Apollod. 1, c. 9. 

Theoglymenus, a soothsayer of Argolis, de- 
scended from Melampus. His father's name 
was Thestor. He foretold the speedy return of 
Ulysses to Penelope and Telemachus. Homer. 
Od. 15, V. 225, &ic.—Hygin. fab. 128. 

Theodamas, or TmoDAMAs, a king of My- 
sia, in Asia Minor. He was killed by Hercu- 
les, because he refused to treat him and his son 
Hyllus with hospitality. Ovid, in lb. v. 438. — 
Apollod. 2, c. l.—Hygin. fab. 271. 

Theonoe, I. a daughter of Thestor, sister to 
Calchas. She was carried away by sea pirates, 
and sold to Icarus, king of Caria, &c. Hygin. 

fab. 190. II. A daughter of Proteus and a 

Nereid, v/ho became enamoured of Canobus, 
the pilot of a Trojan vessel, &c. 

.Theophane, a daughter of Bisaltus, whom 
Neptune changed into a sheep, to remove her 
from her numerous suiters, and conveyed to the 
island Crumissa. Of her was born the ram 
with the golden fleece, which carried Phryxus 
to Colchis. Ovid. Met. 6, v. 111.— Hygin. fab. 
188. 

Theorius, a surname of Apollo at Troezene, 
where he had a very ancient temple. It signi- 
fies clear-sighted. 

Theritas, a surname of Mars in Laconia. 

Thersander. Vid. Part IL 

Thersites. Vid. Part IL 

Theseus, king of Athens, and son of M^e- 
us, by ^thra the daughter of Piitheus, was 
one of the most celebrated of the heroes of an- 
tiquity. He was educated at Troezene, in the 
house of Pittheus, and as he was not publicly ac- 
knowledged to be the son of the king of Athens, 
he passed for the son of Neptune. When he 
came to years of maturity, he was sent by his 
mother to his father, and a sword was given 
him by which he might make himself known 
to ^geus in a private manner. Vid. Mgeus. 
The road from Troszene to Athens was infest- 
ed with robbers and wild beasts, and rendered 
impassable ; but these obstacles were easily re- 
moved by the courageous son of JEgeus. He 
destroyed Corynetes, Synnis, Sciron, Cercyon, 
Procrustes,andthecelebratedPha3a. At Athens, 
however, his reception was not cordial ; Medea 
lived there with ^Egeus, and as she knew that 
her influence would fall to the ground if The- 
seus were received by his father's house, she at- 
tempted to destroy him before his arrival was 
made public. JEgeus was himself to give the 
cup of poison to this unknown stranger at a 
feast, but the sight of his sword on the side of 
Theseus, reminded him of his amours with 
^thra. He knew him to be his son, and the 
people of Athens were glad to find that this il- 
lustrious stranger, who had cleared Attica from 
robbers and pirates, was the son of their mon- 
arch. The Pallantides were all put to death 



by the young prince. The bull of Marathon 
next engaged the attention of Theseus. After 
this, Theseus went to Crete among the seven 
chosen youths whom the Athenians yearly sent 
to be devoured by the Minotaur. The wish to 
deliver his country from so dreadful a tribute 
engaged him to undertake his expedition. He 
was successful by means of Ariadne, the daugh- 
ter of Minos, who was enamoured of him ; and 
after he had escaped from the labyrinth with a 
clew of thread, and killed the Minotaur, ( Vid. 
Minotaurus,) he sailed from Crete with the six 
boys and seven maidens whom his victory had 
equally redeemed from death. In the island of 
Naxos, where he was driven by the winds, he 
had the meanness to abandon Ariadne, to whom 
he was indebted for his safety. The rejoicings 
which his return might have occasioned at 
Athens were interrupted by the death of Mge- 
us, who threw himself into the sea when he saw 
his son's ship return with black sails, which 
was the signal of ill success. Vid. jEgeus. His 
accession to his father's throne was universally 
applauded, B. C. 1235. The Athenians were 
governed with mildness, andTheseusmade new 
regulations and enacted new laws. The num- 
ber of the inhabitants of Athens was increased 
by the liberality of the monarch, religious wor- 
ship was attended with more than usual solem- 
nity, a court was instituted which had the care 
of all civil afiairs, and Theseus made the gov- 
ernment democratical, while he reserved for 
himself only the command of the armies. The 
fame which he had gained by his victories and 
policy made his alliance courted ; but Pirithous, 
king of the Lapithse, alone wished to gain his 
friendship by meeting him in the field of battle. 
He invaded the territories of Attica ; and when 
Theseus had marched out to meet him, the two 
enemies, struck at the sight of each other, rush- 
ed between their two armies, to embrace one 
another in the most cordial and affectionate 
manner, and from that time began the most sin- 
cere and admired friendship, which has become 
proverbial. Theseus was present at the nuptials 
of his friend, and was the most eager and coura- 
geous of the Lapithse in the defence of Hippo- 
damia, and her female attendants, against the 
brutal attempts of the Centaurs. When Piri- 
thous had lost Hippodamia, he agreed with 
Theseus, whose wife Phaedra was also dead, to 
carry away some of the daughters of the gods. 
Their first attempt was upon Helen, the daugh- 
ter of Leda, and after they had obtained this 
beautiful prize, they cast lots, and she became 
the property of Theseus. The Athenian mon- 
arch intrusted her to the care of his mother 
^thra, at Aphidnge, till she was of nubile 
years ; but the resentment of Castor and Pollux 
soon obliged him to restore her safe into their 
hands. Helen was but nine years old when 
carried away by the two royal friends, and 
Ovid introduces her in one of his epistles, say- 
ing, Excepto redii passa timore nihil. Some 
time after, Theseus assisted his friend in pro- 
curing a wife, and they both descended into the 
infernal regions to carry away Proserpine. 
Pluto, apprized of their intentions, stopped 
them. Pirithous was placed on his father's 
wheel, and Theseus was tied to a huge stone, 
on which he had sat to rest himself. Virgil 
represents him in this eternal state of punish- 
781 



TH 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TH 



ment, repeating to the shades in Tartarus the 

words of Discile justiliam moniti, et non tem- 
nere divos. Apollodorus, however, and others 
declare, that he was not long detained in hell ; 
when Hercules came to steal the dog Cerberus, 
he tore him away from the stone, but with such 
violence that his skin was left behind. The 
same assistance was given to Pirithous; and 
the two friends returned upon the earth by the 
favour of Hercules, and the consent of the in- 
fernal deities, not, however, without suffering 
the most excruciating torments. During the 
captivity of Theseus in the kingdom of Pluto, 
Mnestheus, one of the descendants of Erech- 
theus, ingratiated himself into the favour of the 
people of Athens, and obtained the crown in 
preference to the children of the absent mon- 
arch. At his return, Theseus attempted to eject 
the usurper, but to no purpose. The Athenians 
had forgotten his many services, and he retired 
with great mortification to the court of Lyco- 
medes, king of the island of Scyros. After 
paying him much attention, Lycomedes, either 
jealous of his fame or bribed by the presents of 
Mnestheus, carried him to a high rock, on pre- 
tence of showing him the extent of his domin- 
ions, and threw him down a deep precipice. 
Some suppose that Theseus inadvertently fell 
down this precipice, and that he was crushed 
to death without receiving any violence from 
Lycomedes. The children of Theseus, after 
the death of Mnestheus, recovered the Athenian 
throne ; and that the memory of their father 
might not be without the honours due to a hero, 
they brought his remains from Scyros, and gave 
them a magnificent burial. They also raised 
him statues and a temple, and festivals and 
games were publicly instituted to commemorate 
the actions of a hero who had rendered such 
services to the people of Athens. These festi- 
vals were still celebrated in the age of Pausa- 
nias and Plutarch, about 1200 years after the 
death of Theseus, The historians disagree 
from the poets in their accounts about this hero, 
and they all suppose, that, instead of attempting 
to carry away the wife of Pluto, the two friends 
wished to seduce a daughter of Aidoneus, king 
of the Molossi. This daughter, as they say, 
bore the name of Proserpine, and the dog which 
kept the gates of the palace was called Cerberus ; 
and hence perhaps arises the fiction of the poets. 
Pirithous was torn to pieces by the dog, but 
Theseus was confined in prison, from whence 
he made his escape-, some time after, by the 
assistance of Hercules, Some authors place 
Theseus and his friend in the number of the 
Argonauts, but they were both detained, either 
in the infernal regions, or in the country of the 
Molossi, in the time of Jason's expedition to 
Colchis. Plut. in vita. — Apollod. 3. — Hijgin. 
fab. 14 and 10—Paus. 1, c. 2, &c.— Ovid. Met. 
7, V. 433. ]b. 412. Fast. 3, v. 473 and 491. 
Heroid. — Diod. 1 and 4. — Lucan. 2, v. 612. — 
Harrier. Od. 21, v. 293. — Hesiod. in Scut. Here. 
—jElian. V. H. 4, c. b.—Stat. Tfieb. 5, v. 432. 
— Propert. 3. — Lactant.ad Theb.Stat. — Philost. 
Icon. 1. — Flacc. 2. — Apollon. 1. — Virg. JEn. 6, 
v. C17. — Seneca, in Hippol. — Stat. Achill. 1, 

Thespiades, a surname of the nine Muses, 
because they were held in great veneration in 
Thespia. 

Thespis, a Greek poet of Attica, supposed by 
782 



some to be the inventor of tragedy, 536 years 
before Christ, His representations were very 
rustic and imperfect. He went from town to 
town upon a cart, on which v/as elected a tem- 
porary stage, where two actors, whose faces 
were daubed with the lees of wine, entertained 
the audience with choral songs, &c, Solon 
was a great enemy to his dramatic representa- 
tions. Horat. Art. P. 216.— Diod. 

Thespius, a king of Thespia, in Boeotia, son 
of Erechiheus, according to some authors. He 
was desirous that his fifty daughters should 
have children by Hercules, and therefore when 
that hero was at his court he permitted him to 
enjoy their company. This passes for the 13th 
and most arduous of the labours of Hercules, 
as the two following lines from the arcana 
arcanissima indicate : — 

Tertius hinc decimus labor est durissimus, una 
Quinquaginta simul stiipravit node puellas. 

All the daughters of Thespius brought male 
children into the world, and some of them twins, 
particularly Procris the eldest, and the young- 
est. Some suppose that -one of the Thespiades 
refused to admit Hercules to her arms, for which 
the hero condemned her to pass all her life 
in continual celibacy, and to become the priest- 
ess of a temple he had at Thespia. The chil- 
dren of the Thespiades, called Thespiadce, went 
to Sardinia, where they made a settlement with 
lolaus, the friend of their father. Thespius is 
often confounded by ancient authors with Thes- 
tius, though the latter lived in a different place, 
and, as king of Pleuron, sent his sons to the 
hunting of the Calydonian boar, Apollod. 2, c. 
A.— Pans. 9, c. 26 and 27. -Plut. 

Thestius, I. a king of Pleuron, and a son of 
Parthaon, father to Toxeus, Plexippus, and 
Althae. II. A king of Thespia. Vid. Thes- 
pius. -The sons of Thestius, called Thes- 

iiadcB, were killed by Meleager, at the chase of 
the Calydonian boar. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 

Thestor, a son of Idmon and Laothoe, father 
to Calchas. From him Calchas is often called 
Thestorides. Ovid. Met. 12, v. 19.— Stat. 1, 
Ach. V. 497. — Apollon. 1, v. 239. — Homer. II. 

1, V. m. 

Thetis, one of the sea-deities, daughter of 
Nereus, and Doris, often confounded with Te- 
thys, her grandmother. She was courted by 
Neptune and Jupiter; but when the gods were 
informed that the son she should bring forth 
must become greater than his father, their ad- 
dresses were stopped, and Peleus, the son of 
iEacus, was permitted to solicit her hand. Vid. 
Peleus. Thetis became mother of several chil- 
dren by Peleus, but all these she destroyed by 
fire, in attempting to see whether they were im- 
mortal. Achilles must have shared the same 
fate, if Peleus had not snatched him from her 
hand as she was going to repeat the cruel opera- 
tion. She afterward rendered him invulner- 
able, by plunging him in the waters of the Styx, 
except that part of the heel by which she held 
him. As Thetis well knew the fate of her son, 
she attempted to remove him from the Trojan 
war, by concealing him in the court of Lycome- 
des. This was useless, he went with the rest of 
the Greeks, The mother, still anxious for his 
preservation, prevailed upon Vulcan to make 
nira a suit of armour ; but when it was done, 



TI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TI 



sTie refused the god the favours which she had 
promised him. When Achilles was killed by- 
Paris, Thetis issued out of the sea with the 
Nereides to mourn his death, and after she had 
collected his ashes in a golden urn, she raised 
a monument to his memory, and instituted fes- 
tivals in his honour. Hesiod. IVieog. v. 244, 
&c.—ApoUod. 1, c. 2 and 9, 1. 3. c. 13.— Hygin. 
fab. 5i.— Homer. 11. 1, &c. Od. 24, v. 55.— 
Pans. 5, c. 18, &c.— Ovid. Met. 11, fab. 7,'l. 
12, fab. 1, &c. 

Thedtis. Vid. Part II. 

Thia, the mother of the sun, moon, and Au- 
rora, by Hyperion. Vid. Thea. Hesiod. Theog. 
V. 371. Vid. Part I. 

Thisbe, a beautiful woman of Babylon. 
Ovid.— Hygin. Vid. Pyramus, Part I. 

Thoas, I. a king of Taurica Chersonesus, in 
the age of Orestes and Py lades. He would 
have immolated these two celebrated strangers 
on Diana's altars, according to the barbarous 
customs of the country, had they not been de- 
livered by Iphigenia. Vid. Iphigenia. Ac- 
cording to some, Troas was the son of Borys- 

thens. Ovid. Pont. 3, el. 2. II. A king 

of Lemnos, son of Bacchus and Ariadne, the 
daughter of Minos, and husband of Myrine. 
He had been made king of Lemnos by Rhada- 
manthus. He was still alive when the Lem- 
nian women conspired to kill all the males in 
the island, but his life was spared.by his only 
daughter Hypsipyle, in whose favour he had 
resigned the crown. Hypsipyle obliged her 
father to depart secretly from Lemnos, to escape 
from the fury of the women, and he arrived safe 
in a neighbouring island, which some call Chios, 
though many suppose that Thoas was assassin- 
ated by the enraged females before he had left 
Lemnos. Some mythologists confound the king 
of Lemnos with that of Chersonesus, and sup- 
pose that they were one and the same man. 
According to their opinion, Thoas was very 
young when he retired from Lemnos, and after 
that he went to Taurica Chersonesus, where 
he settled. Flacc. 8, v. 208.— Hygin. fab. 74, 
120.— Ovid, in lb. 384. Heroid. 6, v. 114.— 
Stat. Theb. 5, v. 262 and m&.—Apollon. Rhod. 
1, V. 209 and 615. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 6.— 

Eurip. in Iphig. III. A son of Andremon 

and Gorge, the daughter of CEneus. He went 
to the Trojan war on 15 or rather 40 ships. 
Homer. 11. 2, &c. — Dictys Cret. 1. — Hygin. 
fab. 97. 

Thoosa, a sea-nymph, daughter of Phorcys, 
and mother of Polyphemus, by Neptune. He- 
siod. Theog. V. 236. — Homer. Od. 1, v. 71. 

Thoth, an Eg5^tian deity, the same as Mer- 
cury. 

Thriambus, one of the surnames of Bacchus. 

Thuisto, one of the deities of the Germans. 
Tacit. 

Thyestes-. Vid. Part II. 

Thymbrsus, a surname of Apollo. Virg. 
G. 4, V. 323. ^n. 3, v. 85. Vid. Thymbra. 

Thyone, a name given to Semele. 

Thyoneus, a surname of Bacchus. 

Tiberinus, son of Capetas, and king of Alba, 
was drowned in the river Albula, which, on 
that account, assumed the name of Tiberis, of 
which he became the protecting god. Liv. 1, 
c S.— Cicde Nat. D. 2, c. 20.— Varro de L. 
L. 4, c. 5, &C.—OV. Fast. 2, v. 389, 1. 4, v. 47. 



TiBURTUs, the founder of Tibur, often called 
Tihurtia Mania. He was one of the sons of 
Amphiaraus. Virg. JEn. 7, v. 670. 

TiMANDRA, a daughter of Leda, sister to 
Helen. She married Echemus of Arcadia. 

TiPHYS, the pilot of the ship of the Argo- 
nauts, was son of Hagnius, or, according to 
some, of Phorbas. He died before the Argo- 
nauts reached Colchis, at the court of Lycus in 
the Propontis, and Erginus was chosen in his 
place. Orph. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Apollon. — 
Val. Flacc. — Pans. 9, c. 32. — Hygin. fab. 14 
and 18. 

TmEsiAS, a celebrated prophet of Thebes, son 
of Everus and Chariclo. He lived to a great 
age, which some authors have called as long as 
seven generations of men, others six, and others 
nine, during the time that Polydorus, Labdacus, 
Laius, CEdipus, and his sons, sat on the throne 
of Thebes. It is said that in his youth he found 
two serpents on mount Cyllene, and that when 
he struck them with a stick to separate them, 
he found himself suddenly changed into a girl. 
Seven years after he found again some serpents 
together in the same manner, and he recovered 
his original sex by striking them a second time 
with his wand. When he was a woman, Ti- 
resias had married, and it was from those rea- 
sons, according to some of the ancients, that 
Jupiter and Juno referred to his decision a dis- 
pute in which the deities wished tb know which 
of the sexes received greater pleasure from the 
connubial state. Tiresias, who could speak from 
actual experience, decided in favour of Jupiter, 
and declared, that the pleasure which the female 
received was ten times greater th>in that of the 
male. Juno, who supported a different opinion, 
and gave the superiority to the male sex, pun- 
ished Tiresias by depriving him of his eyesight. 
But this dreadful loss was in some measure re- 
paired by Jupiter, who bestowed upon him the 
gift of prophecy, and permitted him to live seven 
times more than the rest of men. These causes 
of the blindness of Tiresias,which are supported 
by the authority of Ovid, Hyginus, and others, 
are contradicted by Apollodorus, Callimachus, 
Propertius, &c., who declared that this was in- 
flicted upon him as a punishment, because he 
had seen Minerva bathing in the fountain Hip- 
pocrene, on the mount Helicon. Chariclo, who 
accompanied Minerva, complained of the sever- 
ity with which her son was treated ; but the god- 
dess, who well knew that this was the irrevo- 
cable punishment inflicted by Saturn on such 
mortals as fix their eyes upon a goddess without 
her consent, alleviated the misfortunes of Tire- 
sias, by making him acquainted with futurity, 
and giving him a stafi" which could conduct his 
steps with as much safety as if he had the use 
of his eyesight. During his lifetime Tiresias 
was an infallible oracle to all Greece. The 
generals, during the Theban war, consulted 
him, and found his predictions verified. He 
drew his prophecies sometimes from the flight 
or language of birds, in which he was assisted 
by his daughter Manto, and sometimes he drew 
the manes from the infernal regions to know 
futurity, with mystical ceremonies. He at last 
died, after drinking the waters of a cold foun- 
tain, which froze his blood. He was buried 
with great pomp by the Thebans on mount Til- 
phussus, and honoured as a god. His oracle 
783 



Tl 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TL 



at Orchomenos was in universal esteem. Ho- 
mer represented Ulysses as going to the infer- 
nal regions to consult Tiresias concerning his 
return to Ithaca. Apollod. 3, c. 6. — Theocrit. 
Id. 24, V. 10.— Stat. Theb. 3, v. 96.—Hygin. fab, 
75. — JEschyl. sep. ante Theb. — Sophocl. in (Edip. 
tyr. — Pindar. Nem. \. — Diod. 4. — Homer. Od. 
11. — Plut. in Symph. &c. — Paus. 9, c. 33. 

TiRYNTmA, a name given to Alcmena, be- 
cause she lived at Tirynthus. Ovid. Met. 6. 

TisAMENES, or TisAMENUs, a king of Thebes, 
son of Thersander and grandson of Polynices. 
The furies, who continually persecuted the 
house of CEdipus, permitted him to live in 
tranquillity, but they tormented his son and 
successor Autesion, and obliged him to retire 
to Doris. Paus. 3, c. 5, 1. 9, c. 6. 

TiSANDRUs, one of the Greeks concealed with 
Ulysses in the wooden horse. Some supposed 
him to be the same as Thersander, the son of 
Polynices. Virg. jEn. 2, v. 261. 

TisipHONE, I. one of the furies, daughter of 
Nox and Acheron, who was the minister of 
divine vengeance upon mankind, who visited 
them with plagues and diseases, and punished 
the wicked in Tartarus. She was represented 
with a whip in her hand, serpents hung from 
her head, and were wreathed round her arms 
instead of bracelets. By Juno's direction she 
attempted to prevent the landing of lo in Egypt, 
but the god of the Nile repelled her, and ob- 
liged her to retire to hell. Stat. Theb. 1, v. 59. 

— Virg. G. 3, V. 552. jEn. 6, v. bbb.—Horat. 

1, Stat. 8, V. 34. II. A daughter of Alcmaeon 

and Manto. 

TiTiEA, the mother of the Titans. She 
is supposed to be the same as Thea, Rhea, 
Terra, &c. 

Titan, or Titanus, a son of Coelus and 
Terra, brother to Saturn and Hyperion. He 
was the eldest of the children of Coelus : but he 
gave his brother Saturn the kingdom of the 
world, provided he raised no male children. 
When the birth of Jupiter was concealed, Titan 
made war against Saturn, and with the assist- 
ance of his brothers, the Titans, he imprisoned 
him till he was replaced on his throne by his 
son Jupiter, This tradition is recorded by 
Lactantius, a Christian writer, who took it from 
the dramatic compositions of Ennius, now lost. 
None of the ancient mythologists, such as Apol- 
lodorus, Hesiod, Hyginus, &c. have made men- 
tion of Titan. Titan is a name applied to 
Saturn by Orpheus and Lucian ; to the sun by 
Virgil and Ovid; and to Prometheus by Juve- 
nal. Ovid. Met. 1, vi. \0.—Juv. 14, v. 35.— 
Diod. 5. — Paus. 2, c. 11. — Orpheus. Hymn. 13. 

— Virg. ^n. 4, v. 119. 

TiTANEs, a name given to the sons of Ccslus 
and Terra. They were 45 in number, accord- 
ing to the Egyptians. Apollodorus mentions 
13, Hyginus 6, and Hesiod 20, among whom 
are the Titanides. The most known of the 
Titans are Saturn, Hyperion, Oceanus, Jape- 
tus, Cottus, and Briareus, to whom Horace 
adds Typhosus, Mimas, Porphyrion, Rhoetus, 
and Enceladus, who are by other mythologists 
reckoned among the giants. They were all of 
a gigantic stature, and with proportionable 
strength. They were treated with great cru- 
elty by Ccelus, and confined in the bowels of 
the earth, till their mother pitied their misfor- 
784 



tunes and armed them against their father. 
Saturn with a scythe cut off the genitals of his 
father, as he was going to unite himself to 
Terra, and threw them into the sea, and from 
the froth sprang a new deity called Venus ; as 
also Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megsera, accord- 
ing to Apollodorus. When Saturn succeeded 
his father, he married Rhea ; but he devoured 
all his male children, as he had been informed 
by an oracle that he should be dethroned by 
them as a punishment for his cruelty to his 
father. • The wars of the Titans against the 
gods are very celebrated in mythology. They 
are often confounded with that of the giants ; 
but it is to be observed, that the war of the 
Titans was against Saturn, and that of the 
giants against Jupiter. Hesiod. Theog. 135, &c. 
— Apollod. 1, c. 1. — JEschyl. in Pomp. — Callim. 
in Del. 17. — Diod. 1. — Hygin.pref.fab. 

TiTANiA, a patronymic applied to Pyrrha, as 
grand-daughter of Titan, and likewise to Diana. 
Ovid. Met. 1, V. 395, 1. 2, &c. 

Titanides, the daughters of CceIus and Terra, 
reduced in number to six according to Orpheus. 
The most celebrated were Tethys, Themis, 
Dione, Thea, Mnemosyne, Ops, Cybele,-VevSta, 
Phcebe, and Rhea. Hesiod. Theog. 135, &c. 
— Apollod. 1, c. 1. 

TiTHONUS, a son of Laomedon, king of Troy, 
by Strymo, the daughter of the Scamander. 
He was so beautiful that Aurora became ena- 
moured of him, and carried him away. He 
had by her Memnon and ^mathion. He 
begged of Aurora to be immortal, and the god- 
dess granted it; but as he had forgotten to ask 
the vigour, youth, and beauty, which he then 
enjoyed, he soon grew old, infirm, and decrepit; 
and, as life became insupportable to him, he 
prayed Aurora to remove him from the world. 
As he could not die, the goddess changed him 
into a cicada, or grasshopper. Apollod. 3, c. 
5._FzV^. G. 1, V. Ml.—jEn. 4, v. 585, 1. 8, v. 
^SA.— Hesiod. Theog. 984:.— Diod. I.— Ovid. 
Fast. 1, V. 461, 1. 9, v. 403.— Horat. 1, Od. 28, 
1, 2, Od. 16, 

TiTiA, a deity among the Milesians. 

TiTYUs, a celebrated giant, son of Terra, or, 
according to others, of Jupiter by Elara, the 
daughter of Orchomenos. He M^as of such a 
prodigious size, that his mother died in travail 
after Jupiter had drawn her from the bowels 
of the earth, where she had been concealed to 
avoid the anger of Juno. Tityus attempted to 
offer violence to Latona, but the goddess deliv- 
ered herself from his importunities, by calling to 
her assistance her children, who killed the giant 
with their arrows. He was placed in hell, 
where a serpent continually devoured his liver; 
or, according to others, where vultures perpetu- 
ally fed upon his entrails, which grew again as 
soon as devoured. It is said that Tityus cover- 
ed nine acres when stretched on the ground. 
He had a small chapel with an altar in the is- 
land of EubcEa. Apollod. 1. c. A.—Pind. Pyth. 
A.— Homer. Od. 7, v. 325, 1. 11, v. blb.—Apol- 
Ion. Ph. 1, v. 182, &c.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 595, 
—Horat. 3, od. 4, v. H.—Hygin. fab. 55.— 
Ovid. Met. 4, V. Abl.— Tibull. 1, el. 3, v. 75. 

Tlepolemus, a son of Hercules and Astyo- 
chia, or, according to Pindar, of Astydamia. He 
was born at Argos. He left his native country 
after the accidental murder of Licymnius, and 



TR 



MYTHOLOGY. 



TY 



retired to Rhodes, by order of the oracle, where 
he was chosen king as being one of the sons 
of Hercules. He went to the Trojan war 
with nine ships, and was killed by Sarpedon. 
There were some festivals established at 
Rhodes to his honour, called Tlepolemia in 
which men and boys contended. The victors 
were rewarded with poplar crowns. Homer. 11. 
Apollod. 2, c. l.—Diod. 5. — Hygin. fab. 97. 

Tmolus, a king of Lydia, who married Om- 
phale, and was son of Sipylus and Chthonia. 
He was killed by a bull. The mountain on 
which he was buried bore his name. Apollod. 
2, c. 6.— Quid Met. 11, fab. 1. Hygin. fab. 191. 
Vid. Part I. 

ToLUS, a man whose head was found in dig- 
ging for the foundation of the capitol, in the 
reign of Tarquin, whence the Romans con- 
cluded that their city should become the head 
or mistress of the world. 

ToxEus, a son of CEneus, killed by Melea- 
ger. 

Triopas, or Triops, a son of Neptune by 
Canace, the daughter of ^olus. He was fa- 
ther of Iphimedia and of Erisichthon, who is 
called on that account Triopeius, and hisdaugh- 
ter Triopeis. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 754. — Apollod. 
1, c. 7. 

Triptolemus, a son of Oceanus and Terra, 
or, according to some, of Trochilus, a priest of 
Argos. According to the more received opinion 
he was son of Celeus, king of Attica, by Neraea, 
whom some have called Metanira, Cothonea, 
Hyona, Melania, or Polymnia. He was born 
at Eleusis in Attica, and was cured in his youth 
of a severe illness by the care of Ceres, who had 
been invited into the house of Celeus by the 
monarch's children, as she travelled over the 
country in quest of her daughter. To repay 
the kindness of Celeus, the goddess took par- 
ticular notice of his son. She fed him with ker 
own milk,and placed him on burning coals dur- 
ing the night, to destroy whatever particles of 
mortality he had received from his parents. 
The mother was astonished at the uncommon 
growth of her son, and she had the curiosity to 
watch Ceres. She disturbed the goddess by a 
sudden cry, when Triptolemus was laid on the 
burning ashes, and as Ceres was therefore un- 
able to make him immortal, she taught him 
agriculture, and rendered him serviceable to 
mankind, by instructing him how to sow corn 
and make bread. She also gave him her cha- 
riot, which was drawn by two dragons ; and 
in this celestial vehicle he travelled all over 
the earth, and distributed corn to all the inhab- 
itants of the world. In Scythia the favourite 
of Ceres nearly lost his life ; but Lyncus, the 
king of the country, who had conspired to mur- 
der him, was changed into a lynx. At his re- 
turn to Eleusis, Triptolemus restored Ceres 
her chariot, and established the Eleusinian fes- 
tivals and mysteries in honour of the deity. He 
reigned for some time, and after death re- 
ceived divine honcmrs. Some suppose that he 
accompanied Bacchus in his Indian expedi- 
tion. Diod. Hygin. fab. 147. — Paus. 2, c. 14, 
J. 8, c. 4. — Justin. 2, c. 6. — Apollod. 1, c. 5. — 
Callim. in Cer. ^.—Ovid. Met. 5, v. 646. 
Fast. 4, V. 501. Trist. 3, eh 8, v. I . 

Triton, a sea-deity, son of Neptune, by Am- 
phitrite, or, according to some, by Celeno, or 

Part III.— 5 G 



Salacia. He was very powerful among the sea- 
deities, and could calm the ocean and abate 
storms at pleasure. He is generally represent- 
ed as blowing a shell; his belly, above the 
waist, is like that of a man, and below, a dol- 
phin. Some represent him with the fore-feet 
of a horse. Many of the sea-deities are called 
Tritons, but the name is generally applied to 
those only who are half men and half fish. 
Apollod. 1, c. 4. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 930. — 
Ovid. Met. 1, v. 333.— Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 28. 
— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 148, 1. 6, v. 173. Paus. 9, 
c. 20. Fi^.Partl. 

Trivia, a surname given to Diana, because 
she presided over all places where three roads 
met. At the new moon the Athenians offered 
her sacrifices, and a sumptuous entertainment, 
which was generally distributed among the 
poor. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 13, 1. 7, v. Hi.— Ovid. 
Met. 2, V. 416. Fast. 1, v. 389. 

Troilus. Vid. Part II. 

Trophonius. Vid. Part II. 

Tros. Vid. Part II. 

TuisTo, a deity of the Germans son of Ter- 
ra, and the founder of the nation. Tacit, de 
Germ. 2. 

TuRNUS. Vid. Part II. 

Tydeus, a son of CEneus, king of Calydon 
and Periboea. He fled from his country after 
the accidental murder of one of his friends, 
and found a safe asylum in the'court of Adras- 
tus, king of Argos, whose daughter Deiphyle 
he married. When Adrastus wished to re- 
place his son-in-law Polynices on the throne of 
Thebes, Tydeus undertook to go and declare 
war against Eteocles, who usurped the crown. 
The reception he met provoked his resentment ; 
he challenged Eteocles and his ofiicers to single 
combat, and defeated them. On his return to 
Argos, he slew 50 of the Thebans who had 
conspired against his life and laid in ambush to 
surprise him ; and only one of the number was 
permitted to return to' Thebes, to bear the ti- 
dings of the fate of his companions. He was 
one of the seven chiefs uf the army of Adrastus, 
and during the Theban war he behaved with 
great courage. Many of the enemies expired 
under his blows, till he was at last wounded by 
Melanippus. Though the blow was fatal, Ty- 
deus had the strength to dart at his enemy, and 
to bring him to the ground, before he was car- 
ried away from the fight l3y his companions. 
At his own request the dead body of Melanip- 
pus was brought to him, and after he had order- 
ed the head to be cut off, he began to tear out 
the brains with his teeth. The savage barba- 
rity of Tydeus displeased Minerva, who was 
coming to bring him relief, and to make him im- 
mortal, and the goddess left him to his fate and 
suffered him to die. He was buried at Argos, 
where his monument was still to be seen in the 
age of Pausanias. He was father to Diomedes. 
Some suppose that the cause of his flight to 
Argos was the murder of the son of Mel us, or, 
according to others, of Alcathous his father's 
brother, or perhaps his own brother Olenius. 
Homer. 11. 4, v. 365, 2%!.— Apollod. 1, c. 8, 1. 
3, c. 6. — JSschyl. Sept. ante Theb. — Paus. 9, 
c. 18. — Diod. 2. — Eurip. in Sup. — Virg. Mn. 
6, V. 419.— Ovid, in lb. 350, &c. 

Tyndaridje, I. a patronymic of the chil- 
dren of Tyndarus, as Castor, Pollux, Helen, 
785 



VA 



MYTHOLOGY. 



VE 



&c. Ovid. Met. 8. II. A people of Colchis. 

Tyndarus, sou of CEbalus and Gorgophone, 
or, according to some, of Perieres. He was 
king of Lacedsemon, and married the celebrated 
Leda, who bore him Timandra, Philonoe, &c. 
and also became mother of Pollux and Helen 
by Jupiter. Vid. Leda, Castor, Pollux, Clytem- 
nestra, &c. 

Typh(Eus, or Typhon, a famous giant, son 
of Tartarus and Terra, who had a hundred 
heads like those of a serpent or a dragon. 
Flames of devouring fire were darted from his 
mouth and from his eyes, and he uttered horrid 
yells, like the dissonant shrieks of different ani- 
mals. He was no sooner born, than, to avenge 
the death of his brothers the giants, he made 
war against heaven. The father of the gods at 
last put Typhceus to fight with his thunder- 
bolt, and crushed him under mount jEina, in 
the island of Sicily, or, according to some, 
under the island Inarime. Typhosus became 
father of Geryon, Cerberus, and Orthos, by his 
union Mdth Echidna. Hygin. fab. 152 and 196. 
— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 325. — JSschyl. sept, ante 
Theb. — Hesiod. Theog. 820. — Homer. Hym. — 
Herodot. 2, c. 156. 

Typhon, I. a giant whom Juno produced by 
striking the earth. Some of the poets make 
him the same as the famous Typhoeus. Vid. 

Typhceus. II. A brother of Osiris, who 

married Nepthys. He laid snares for his bro- 
ther during his expedition, and murdered him 
at his return. The death of Osiris, was aven- 
ged by his son Orus, and Typhon was put to 
death. Vid Osiris. He was reckoned among 
the Egyptians to be the cause of every evil, and 
on that account generally represented as a wolf 
and a crocodile. Plut. in Is. <^ Os. — Diod. 1, 

Tyro, a beautiful nymph, daughter of Sal- 
moneus, king of Elis and Alcidice. She was 
treated with great severity by her mother-in- 
law Sidero, and at last removed from her fa- 
ther's house by her uncle Cretheus. She be- 
came enamoured of the Enipeus ; and as she 
often walked on the banks of the river, Nep- 
tune assumed the shape of her favourite lover 
and gained her afiections. She had two sons, 
Pelias and Neleus, by Neptune, whom she ex- 
posed, to conceal her incontinence from the 
world. The children were preserved by shep- 
herds, and when they had arrived to years of 
maturity, they avenged their mother's injuries 
by assassinating the cruel Sidero. Some time 
after her amour with Neptune, Tyro married 
her uncle Cretheus, by whom she had Amytha- 
on, Pheres, and iEson. Tyro is often called 
Salmonis from her father. Homer. Od. 11, v. 
9,M.— Pindar. Pyth. i.—ApoUod. 1. c. 9.— 
Diod. L—Provert. 1, el. 13, v. 20, 1. 2, el. 30, v. 
51, 1. 3, el. 19,V. n.— Ovid. Am. 3, el. 6, v. 43. 
—^lian. V. H. 12, e. 42. 

TYRRHEUs,a shepherd of King Latinus, whose 
stag being killed by the companions of Asca- 
nius, was the first cause of war between ^Eneas 
and the inhabitants of Latium. Hence the 
word Tyrrheides. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 485. 

V. 

Vacuna, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over repose and leisure, as the word indicates 
(vacareS. Her festivals were observed in the 
786 



month of December. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 307. — 
Horat. I, ep. 10, v. 49. 

Vejovis, or Vejopiter, a deity of ill omen at 
Rome. He had a temple on the Capitoline hill, 
built by Romulus. Some suppose that he was 
the same as Jupiter the infant, or in fie cradle, 
because he was represented without thunder or 
a sceptre, and had only by his side the great 
Amalthsea, and the Cretan nymph who fed him 
when young. Ovid. Past. 3, v. 430. 

Venilia, a nymph, sister to Amata, and mo- 
ther of Turnus by Daunus. Amphitrite, the 
sea-goddess, is also called Venilia. Virg. JEn. 
10, V. 16.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. S'Si.— Varro de 
L. L. 4, c. 10. 

Venti. The ancients, and especially the 
Athenians, paid particular attention to the 
winds, and offered them sacrifices as to deities, 
intent upon the destruction of mankind, by con- 
tinually causing storms, tempests, and earth- 
quakes. The winds were represented in dif- 
ferent attitudes and forms. The four principal 
winds were, Eurus, the southeast, who is re- 
presented as a young man flying with great im- 
petuosity, and often appearing in a playsome 
and wanton humour. Auster, the south wind, 
appeared generally as an old man with" gray 
hair, a gloomy eountenance,a head covered with 
clouds, a sable vesture, and dusky wings. He 
is the dispenser of rain, and of all heavy show- 
ers. Zephyrus is represented as the mildest of 
all the winds. He is young and gentle, and his 
lap is filled with vernal flowers. He married 
Flora the goddess, with whom he enjoyed the 
most perfect felicity. Boreas, the north wind, 
appears always rough and shivering. He is the 
father of rain, snow, hail, and tempests, and is 
always represented as surrounded with impene- 
trable clouds. Those of inferior note were So- 
lanus, whose name is seldom mentioned. He 
appears as a young man, holding fruit in his 
lap, such as peaches, oranges, &c. Africus, or 
southwest, represented with black wings and 
a melancholy countenance. Corns, or north- 
west, drives clouds of snow before him ; and 
Aquilo, the northeast, is equally dreadful in ap- 
pearance. The winds, according to some my- 
thologists, were confined in a large cave, of 
which JEolus had the management, and with- 
out this necessary precaution they would have 
overturned the earth, and reduced every thing 
to its original chaos. Virg. Mn. 1, v, 57, &c. 

Venus, I. one of the most celebrated deities of 
the ancients. She was the goddess of beauty, 
the mother of love, the queen of laughter, the 
mistress of graces and of pleasures, and the 
patroness of courtesans. Some mythologists 
speak of more than one Venus. Plato mentions 
two, Venus Urania,the daughter of Uranus, and 
Venus Popularia, the daughter of Jupiter and 
Dione. Cicero speaks of four, a daughter of 
Coelus and Light, one sprung from the froth of 
the sea, a third, daughter of Jupiter and the 
Nereid Diane, and a fourth born at Tyre, and 
the same as the Astarte of the Syrians. Of 
these, however, the Venus sprung from the froth 
of the sea, after the mutilated part of the body 
of Uranus had been thrown there by Saturn, is 
the most known ; and of her in particular, an- 
cient mythologists, as well as painters, make 
mention. She arose from the sea near the island 
of Cjrprus, or, according to Hesiod, of Cythera, 



VE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



VE 



wliither she was V\ afied by the zephyrs, and re- 
ceived on the seashore by the Seasons, daugh- 
ters of Japiter and Them:s. She was soon aiier 
carried to heaven, where all the gods admired 
her beauty, and all the goddesses became jea- 
lous of her personal charms. Jupiter gave her 
in marriage to his ugly and deformed son 
Vulcan. Her intrigue with Mars is the most 
celebrated. She was caught in her lover's arms, 
and exposed to the ridicule and laughter of all 
the gods. Venus became mother of Hermione, 
Cupid, and Anteros, by Mars ; by Mercury, she 
had Hermaphroditus ; by Bacchus, Priapus; 
and by Neptune, Kryx. Her great partiality 
for Adonis made her abandon the seats of Ol3'm- 
pus; and her regard for Anchises obliged her 
often to visit the woods and solitary retreats of 
mount Ida. The power of Venus over the 
heart was supported and assisted by a celebrated 
girdle, called zo7ie by the Greeks and cestus by 
the Latins. This mysterious girdle gave beauty, 
grace, and elegance, when worn even by the 
most deformed ; it excited love and rekindled 
extinguished flames. Juno herself was in- 
debted to this powerful ornament to gain the 
favours of Jupiter, and Venus, though herself 
possessed of ever}' charm, no sooner put on her 
cestus, than Vulcan, unable to resist the influ- 
ence of love, forgot all the intrigues and infi- 
delities of his wife, and fabricated arms even 
for her illegitimate children. The contest of 
Venus for the golden apple of Discord is well 
known. She gained the prize over Pallas and 
Juno, {Vid. Pans, Discordia,) and rewarded 
her.impartial judge with the hand of the fairest 
woman in the Avorld. The worship of Venus 
was universally established ; statues and tem- 
ples were erected to her in ever}' kingdom, and 
the ancients were fond of paying homage to a 
divinity who presided over generation, and by 
whose influence alone mankind existed. In 
her sacrifices, and in the festivals celebrated in 
her honour, too much licentiousness prevailed, 
and public prostitution was often a part of the 
ceremony. Victims were seldom offered to her, 
or her altars stained with blood, though we find 
Aspasia making repeated sacrifices. No pigs, 
however, or male animals were deemed accept- 
able. The rose, the myrtle, and the apple, were 
sacred to Venus, and'among birds, the dove, 
the swan, and the sparrow, were her favourites ; 
and among fishes, those called the aphya and 
the lyccstomus. The goddess of beautv was rep- 
resented among the ancients in different forms. 
At Elis she appeared seated on a goat, with one 
foot resting on a tortoise. At Sparta and Cvth- 
era she was represented armed like Minerva, 
and sometimes wearing chains on her feet. In 
the temple of Jupiter Olympias she was repre- 
sented by Phidias as rising from the sea, re- 
ceived by love, and crowned by the goddess of 
persuasion. At Cnidos, her statue, made by 
Praxiteles, represented her naked, with one 
hand hiding what modesty keeps concealed. 
Her statue atElephantis was the same, with only 
a naked Cupid by her side. In Sicyon she held 
a poppy in one hand, and in the other an apple; 
while on her head she had a crown, which ter- 
minated in a point to intimate the pole. She is 
generally represented with her son Cupid, on a 
chariot drawn by doves, or at other times by 
swans or sparrows. The surnames of the god- 



dess are numerous, and only serve to show how 
well established her worship was all over the 
earth. She was called Cypria, because particu- 
larly worshipped in the island of Cyprus, and in 
that character she was ofien represented with a 
beard, and with a sceptre in her hand, and the 
body and dress of a female, whence she is called 
duplex Amathusa by Catullus. She received 
the name of Pa,pkia, because worshipped at 
Paphos, where she had a temple with an altar, 
on which rain never fell, though exposed in the 
open air. Some of the ancients call her Apos- 
tropliia, or Epistrophia: as also Venus Urania 
and Venus Pandemos. The Cnidians raised 
her teinples under the name of Venus Acrcca, 
of Doris, and of Euplxa. In her temple under 
the name of Euploea, at Cnidos, was the most 
celebrated of her statues, being the most perfect 
piece of Praxiteles. Venus was also surnamed 
Cytheraa, because she was the chief deiiy of 
Cythera; Philonimeis, because the queen of 
laughter; Telessigarna, because she presided 
over marriage ; Coliada, Colotis, or Colias, be- 
cause v.'-orshipped on a promontory of the same 
name in Attica ; Area, because armed like Mars ; 
Verticordia, because she could turn the hearts 
of women to cultivate chastity; Apuiaria, be- 
cause she deceived; Calva, because she was 
represented bald ; Eriajna,, because worshipped 
at Eryx ; Etaira, because the patroness of cour- 
tesans ; Acidalia, because of a fountain of Or- 
chomenos; Ba.silea, because the queen of love; 
Myrtea, because the myrtle was sacred to her; 
Mechanitis, in allusion to the many artifices 
practised in love, &c., &c. As the goddess of 
the sea, because born in the bosom of the waters, 
Venus was called Ponlia, Marina, Lymnesia, 
Epipmitia, Pelagia, Saligenia, Pontogenia, 
Aligenia, Thalassia, &c., and, as rising from 
the sea, the name of Anadyomene, is applied to 
her, and rendered immortal by the celebrated 
painting of Apelles, wliich represented her as 
issuing from the bosom of the waves, and wring- 
ing her tresses on her shoulder. Vid. Ano.dy- 
omene. Cic. d^ Nat. D. 2, c. 27, 1. 3, c. 22.-- 
Orph. Hymn. 54. — Hesiod. Theog. — Sappho. — 
Homer. Hymn, in Ven., &c. — Virg. JEn. 5, v. 
800, &c.— Ovid. Her aid. 15, 16, 19, &c. 3Iet. 4, 
fab. 5. &c. — Diod. 1 and 5. — Hvgin. fab. 94, 
271.— PflMS. 2, c. 1, 1. 4, c. 30, "1. 5, c. 18.— 
Martial. 6, ep. 13. — Eurip. in Hel. in Ipliig. in 
Troad.—Plut. in Erotic. — Mlian. V. H. 12, c. 
1. — Athen. 12, &c. — Catullus. — Lactant. de falsa 
re. — Calnber. 11. — Lucian. dial., &c. — Slrab.l-i. 
— Tacit. Ami. 3, &c.— Val. Max. 8, c. 11.— 

Pli-n. 36.—Horat. 3. Od. 26, 1. 4, Od. 11, &c. 

II. A planet, called by the Greeks Phosphorus, 
and bv the Latins Ducifer, when it rises before 
the sun,"but when it follows it, Hesperus or 
Vesper. Cic. d£ Nat. 2, c. 20, in somn. Scip. 

Veritas, (truth,) was not only personified by 
the ancients, but also made a deit)', and called 
the daughter of Saturn and the mother of Vir- 
tue. She was represented like a young virgin, 
dressed in white apparel, with all the marks of 
youthful diflidence and modesty. Democritus 
used to say that she hid herself at the bottom 
of a well, to intimate the difficulty with which 
she is found. 

Verticordia. Vid. Venus. 

Vertummts, a deity among the Romans, who 
presided over the spring and over orchards, 
787 



VI 



MYTHOLOGY. 



UR 



He endeavoured to gain the affections of the 
goddess Pomona; and, to effect this, he assumed 
the shape and dress of a fisherman, of a soldier, 
a peasant, a reaper, &c., but all to no purpose, 
till, under the form of an old woman, he pre- 
vailed upon his mistress and married her. He is 
generally represented as a young man crowned 
with flowers, covered up to the waist, and hold- 
ing in his right hand fruit, and a crown of 
plenty in his left. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 642, &c. 
— Proper t. 4, el. 2, v. 2.—Horat. 2, Sat. 7, v. 14. 

Vesta, a goddess, daughter of Rhea and Sa- 
turn, sister to Ceres and Juno. She is often 
confounded by the mythologists with Rhea, 
Ceres, Cybele, Proserpine, Hecate, and Tellus. 
When considered as the mother of the gods, 
she is the mother of Rhea and Saturn ; and 
when considered as the patroness of the vestal 
virgins and the goddess of fire, she is called the 
daughter of Saturn and Rhea. Under this last 
name she was worshipped by the Romans. 
jlEneas was the first who introduced her mys- 
teries into Italy, and Numa built her a temple, 
where no males were permitted to go. The 
Palladium of Troy was supposed to be pre- 
served within her sanctuary, and a fire was 
continually kept lighted by a certain number 
of virgins, who had dedicated themselves to the 
service of the goddess. Vid. Vestales. If the 
fire of Vesta was ever extinguished, it was sup- 
posed to threaten the republic with some sudden 
calamity. The virgin by whose negligence it 
had been extinguished was severely punished, 
and It was kindled again by the rays of the 
sun. The temple of Vesta was of a round 
form, and the goddess was represented in a long 
flowing robe, with a veil on her head, holding 
m one hand a lamp, or a two-eared vessel, and 
in the other a javelin, or sometimes a palladium. 
On some medals she appears holding a drum 
in one hand, and a small figure of victory in 
the other. Hesiod. Theog. v. 454. — Cic. de Leg. 
2, c. \±—Apollod. 1, c. \.— Virg. Mn. 2, v. 296. 
— Diod. 5. — Ovid. Fast. 6.— l\ist. 3. — Val. 
Max. 1, c. 1. — Plut. in Num. — Paus. 5, c. 14. 

ViCA PoTA, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
over victory (a vincere and potiri.) Liv. 2, c. 7. 

Victoria, one of the deities of the Romans, 
called by the Greeks Nice, supposed to be the 
daughter of the giant Pallas, or Titan and Styx. 
The goddess of Victory was sister to Strength 
and Valour, and was one of the attendants of 
Jupiter. She was greatly honoured by the 
Greeks, particularly at Athens. Sylla raised 
ner a temple at Rome, and instituted festivals 
in her honour. She was represented with 
v/ings, crowned with laurel, and holding the 
branch of a palm-tree in her hand. A golden 
statue of this goddess, weighing 320 pounds, 
was presented to the Romans by Hiero, king 
of Syracuse, and deposited in the temple of 
Jupiter, on the Capitoline hill. Liv. 22. — Varro. 
de L. L. — Hesiod. Theog. — Hygin. praf. fa}). 
—Stiet. 

ViRiPLACA, a goddess among the Romans who 
presided over the peace of families, whence her 
name, {virum placare.') If any quarrel hap- 
pened between a man and his wife, they gene- 
rally repaired to the temple of the goddess, 
which was erected on the Palatine mount, and 
came back reconciled. Va2. Max. c. 1. 

Virtus. All virtues were made deities among 
, . 788 



the Romans. Marcellus erected two temples, 
one to Virtue and the other to Honour. They 
were built in such a manner, that to see the 
temple of Honour it was necessary to pass 
through that of Virtue ; a happy allegory among 
a nation free and independent. The principal 
virtues were distinguished each by their attire. 
Prudence was known by her rule and her point- 
ing to a globe at her feet ; Temperance fead a 
bridle; Justice held an equal balance; and 
Fortitude leant against her sword; Honesty 
was clad in a transparent vest ; Modesty ap- 
peared veiled ; Clemency wore an olive branch, 
and Devotion threw incense upon an altar; 
Tranquillity was seen to lean on a column ; 
Health was known by her serpent. Liberty by 
her cap, and Gayety by her myrtle. Cic. de N. 
D. 2, c. 23. — Plant, in amph. prol. — Liv. 29, c. 
\\.— Val. Max. 1, c. \.—Aug. de Civ. D. 4, c. 20. 

ViTULA, a deity among the Romans who 
presided over festivals and rejoicings. Ma- 
crob. 3, c. 2. 

Ulysses. Vid. Part II. 

Unca, a surname of Minerva among the 
Phoenicians and Thebans. 

Unigena, a surname of Minerva, as sprung 
of Jupiter alone. ' ' 

Unxia, a surname of Juno, derived from un- 
gere, to anoint, because it was usual among the 
Romans for the bride to anoint the threshold of 
her husband, and from this necessary ceremony 
wives were called Unxores, and afterwards Ux- 
ores, from Unxia, who presided over them. 
Arnob. 3. 

VoLUMN^ Fanum, a temple in Etruria, sacred 
to the goddess Volumna, where the states of 
the country used to assemble. Viterbo now 
stands on the spot. Liv. 4, c. 23, 1. 5, c. 17. 1. 
6, c. 2. 

VoLUMNUs, and Volumna, two deities who 
presided over the will. They were chiefly in- 
voked at marriag-es, to preserve concord between 
the husband and wife. They were particularly 
worshipped by the Etrurians. Liv. 4, c. 61 . 

VoLUPTAS, and Volupia, the goddess of sen- 
sual pleasures, worshipped at Rome, where she 
had a temple. She was represented as a young 
and beautiful woman, well dressed, and ele- 
gantly adorned, seated on a throne, and having 
virtue under her feet. Cic. de N. D. 2, c. 23. 
— Macrob. 1, c. 10. — Aug de Civ. D. 4, c. 8. 

Upis, the father of one of the Dianas men- 
tioned by the ancients, from v/hich circumstance 
Diana herself is called Upis. Cic. de Nat. D. 
3, c. 23. — Callim. in Dian. 

Urania, one of the Muses, daughter of Jupi- 
ter and Mnemosyne, who presided over astron- 
omy. She is generally called mother of Linus 
by Apollo, and of the god Hymena-us by Bac- 
chus. She was represented as a young virgin 
dressed in an azure-coloured robe. crowned with 
stars, and holding a globe in her hands, and 
having many mathematical instruments placed 
round. Hesiod Theog. 77. — Apollod. 1, c. 2. — 

Hygin. fab. 161. A surname of Venus, the 

same as Celestial. She was supposed, in that 
character, to preside over beauty and genera- 
tion, and was called daughter of Uranus or 
Coelus by the Light. Her temples In Asia, 
Africa, Greece, and Italy, were numerous. 
Plato, in Symp. — Cic. de Nat. Z). 3, c. 23.— 
Paus. 1, c. 14, &c.. 1. 7, c. 26, &c. 



vu 



IVIYTHOLOGY. 



XU 



Uranus, or Ouranus, a deity, the same as 
Ccelus, the most ancient of all the gods. He 
married Tithea, or the Earth, by whom he had 
Ceus, Creus, Hyperion, Mnemosyne, Cottus, 
Pha3be, Briareus, Thetis, Saturn, Giges, called 
from their mother Titans. His children con- 
spired against him, because he confined them 
in the bosom of the earth, and his son Saturn 
mutilated him, and drove him from his throne, 

VuLCANTJS, a god of the ancients who pfesi- 
ded over fire, and was the patron of all artists 
who worked iron and metals. He was son of 
Juno alone, who in this wished to imitate Jupi- 
ter, who had produced Minerva from his brains. 
According to Homer he was son of Jupiter and 
Juno, and the mother was so disgusted with the 
deformities of her son, that she threw him into 
the sea as soon as born, where he remained for 
nine years. According to the more received 
opinion, Vulcan was educated in heaven with 
the rest of the gods, but his father kicked him 
down from Olympus, when he attempted to de- 
liver his mother, who had been fastened by a 
golden chain for her insolence. He was nine 
days in coming from heaven upon earth, and 
he fell in the island of Lemnos, where, accord- 
ing to Lucian, the inhabitants seeing him in the 
air, caught him in their arms. He, however, 
broke his leg by the fall, and ever after remain- 
ed lame of one foot. He fixed his residence in 
Lemnos, where he built himself a palace, and 
raised forges to work metals. The inhabitants 
of the island became sensible of his industry, 
and were taught all the useful arts which could 
civilize their rude manners, and render them 
serviceable to the good of society. The first 
work of Vulcan was, accordingtosome,a throne 
of gold with secret springs, which he presented 
to his mother, to avenge himself for her want of 
afiection towards him. Juno no sooner was seat- 
ed on the throne than she found herself unable 
to move. The gods attempted to deliver her by 
breaking the chains which held her, but to no 
purpose ; and Vulcan alone had the power to 
set her at liberty, Bacchus intoxicated him, and 
prevailed upon him to come to Olympus, where 
he was reconciled to his parents. Vulcan has 
been celebrated by the ancient poets for the in- 
genious works and automatical figures which 
he made; and many speak of two golden statues, 
which not only seemed animated, but which 
walked by his side, and even assisted him in the 
working of metals. It is said, that at the request 
of Jupiterhe made the first woman that ever ap- 
peared on earth, well known under the name 
of Pandora. Vid. Pandora. The Cyclops of 
Sicily were his ministers and attendants ; and 
with him they fabricated, not only the thunder- 
bolts of Jupiter, but also arms for the gods and 
the most celebrated heroes. His forges were 
supposed to be undermount^Etna in the island 
of Sicily, as well as in every part of the earth 
where there were volcanoes. The most known 
of the works of Vulcan which were presented 
to mortals, are the arms of Achilles, those of 
^neas, the shield of Hercules described by 
Hesiod, a collar given toHermione the wife of 
Cadmus, and a sceptre which was in the pos- 
session of Agamemnon king of Argos and My- 
cenae. The collar proved fatal to all those that 
wore it, but the sceptre, after the death of Aga- 
memnon, was carefully preserved at Cheroncea, 



and regarded as a divinity. The amours of 
Vulcan are not numerous. He demanded Mi- 
nerva from Jupiter, who had promised him in 
marriage whatever goddess he should choose, 
and when she refused his addresses, he attempt- 
ed to offer her violence. Minerva resisted with 
success, though there remained on her body 
some marks of Vulcan's passion, which she 
threw down upon earth wrapped up in wool. 
Vid. Erichthonius. This disappointment in 
his love was repaired by Jupiter, who gave 
him one of the Graces. Venus is universally 
acknowledged to have been the wife of Vulcan ; 
her infidelity is well known, as well as her 
amours with Mars, which were discovered by 
Phoebus, and exposed to the gods by her own 
husband. The worship of Vulcan was well 
established, particularly in Egypt, at Athens 
and at Rome. It was usual in the sacrifices 
that were offered to him to burn the whole vic- 
tim, and not reserve part of it as in the immola- 
tions to the rest of the gods. A calf and a boar- 
pig were the principal victims offered. Vulcan 
was represented as covered with sweat, blowing 
with his nervous arm the fires of his forges. 
His breast was hairy, and his forehead was 
blackened with smoke. Some represent him 
lame and deformed, holding a hammer raised 
in the air ready to strike; while with the other 
hand he turns, with pincers, a thunderbolt on 
his anvil, for which an eagle waits by his side to 
carry it to Jupiter. He appears on some monu- 
ments with a long beard, dishevelled hair, half 
naked, and a small round cap on his head, while 
he holds a hammer and pincers in his hand. 
TheEgyptians represented him under the figure 
of a monkey. Vulcan has received the names 
of Mulciber, Pamphanes, Clytotechnes, Panda- 
maior, Cyllopodes, Chalaipoda, &c., all expres- 
sive of his lameness and his profession. He 
was father of Cupid by Venus ; of Ciseculus. 
Cecrops, Cacus, Periphetes, Cercyon, Ocrisia, 
&c. Cicero speaks of more than one deity of 
the name of Vulcan. One he calls son of Coe- 
lus, and father of Apollo by Minerva ; the sec- 
ond he mentions is son of the Nile, and called 
Phtas by the Egyptians ; the third was the son 
of Jupiter and Juno, and fixed his residence in 
Lemnos ; and the fourth, who built his forges in 
the Lipari islands, was son of Menalius. Vul- 
can seems to have been admitted into heaven 
more for ridicule than any other purpose; and 
even his wife is represented as laughing at his 
deformities, and mimicking his lameness to 
gain the smiles of her lovers. He.". Theog. tf* in 
Suet. Here. 140 and 2'^.—Apollod. 1, c. 3, &c. 
—Homer. 11. 1, v. 57, and 1. 15, v. 18, 1. 11, v. 
397, &c.—Diod. 5.— Pans. 1, c. 20, 1. 3, 17.— 
Cic. de JVat. D. 3, c. 22.—HerodoL 2 and 3.— 
Varro. de L. L. — Virg. Mn. 7, &c. 

X. 

XuTmjs, a son of Hellen, grandson of Deu- 
calion. He was banished from Thessaly by his 
brothers and came to Athens, where he married 
Creusa, the daughter of King Erechtheus, by 
whom he had Achaeus and Ion. He retired af- 
ter the death of his father-in-law into Achaia, 
where he died. According to some, he had no 
children, but adopted Ion, the son whom Creusa, 
before her marriage, had born to Apollo. 
789 



ZE 



MYTHOLOGY. 



ZY 



ApoUod. I, c. 7. — Paus. 7, c. 1. — Eurip. in Ino. 
1, sc. 1. 

Z. 

Zacynthus. Vid. Part II. 

Zethes, Zetes, or Zetus, a son of Boreas, 
king of Thrace and Orithya,who accompanied, 
with his brother Calais, the Argonauts to Col- 
chis. In Bithynia, the two brothers, who are 
represented with wings, delivered Phineus from 
the continual persecution of the Harpies, and 
drove these monsters as far as the islands called 
Strophades, where at last they were stopped by 
Iris, who promised them that Phineus should 
no longer be tormented by them. They were 
both killed, as some say, by Hercules, during the 
Argonautic expedition, and were changed into 
those winds which generally blow 8 or 10 days 
before the dogstar appears, and are called Pro- 
dromi by the Greeks. Their sister Cleopatra 
married Phineus king of Bithynia. Orpheus. 
Arg. — Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 15. — Hygin. fab. 
14.-^ Ovid. Met. 8, v. 1\Q.—Paus. 3, c. 18.— 
Vol. Flaec. 

Zetus, or Zethus, a son of Jupiter and An- 

liope, brother to Amphion. Vid. Antiope. 

Tne crown of Thebes was seized by the two 

brothers, not only as the reward of this victory, 

790 



but as their inheritance, and Zethus surrounded 
the capital of his dominions with a strong wall, 
while his brother amused himself with playing 
on his lyre. Music and verses were disagree- 
able to Zethus, and according to some, he pre- 
vailed upon his brother no longer to pursue so 
unproductive a study. Hygin. fab. 7. — Paus. 

2, c. 6, Slc— Apollod. 3, c. 5 and 10.~Horat. 1, 
ep. 18,v. 41. 

Zeds, a name of Jupiter among the Greeks, 
expressive of his being the father of mankind, 
and by whom all things live. Diod. 5. 

Zedxippe, I. a daughter of Eridanus, mother 
of Butes, one of the Argonauts, &c. Apollod. 

3, c. 15. II. A daughter of Laomedon. She 

married Sicyon, who after his father-in-law's 
death, became king of that city of Peloponnesus 
which from him has been called Sicyon. Paus. 
2, c. 6. 

ZosTERiA, a surname of Minerva. She had 
two statues under that name in the city of 
Thebes in Boeotia. The word signifies girt, 
or armed for battle, words synonymous among 
the ancients. Paus. 9, c. 17. — Homer. 11. 2, v. 
478,1. 11, V. 15. 

Zygia, a surname of Juno, because she pre- 
sided over marriage, (a ^evywixi Jungd.) She 
is the same as the PronuJ}a of the Latins. Pin- 
dar. — Pollux. 3, c. 3. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 

From the Creation of the World to the fall of the Roman Empire in the west and in the east. 



4004 
2348 



2247 
2234 



2089 
2059 
J 996 
1856 

1822 



Before Christ.* 

The world created in the 710th year of the Julian 
period 

The deluge 

The tower of Babel built, and the confusion of lan- 
guages 

Celestial observations are first made at Babylon 

The kingdom of Egypt is supposed to have begun 
under Misraim, the son of Ham, and to have con- 
tinued 1663 years, to the conquest of Cambyses 

The kingdom of Sicyon established 

The kingdom of Assyria begins 

The birtn of Abraham 

The kingdom of Argos established under Inachus 

Memnon, the Egyptian, said to invent letters, 15 
years before the reign of Phoroneus 

The deluge of Ogyges, by which Attica remained 
waste aoove 200 years, till the coming of Cecrops 

Joseph sold into E^ypt by his brethren 

The chronology ot the Arundelian Marbles begins 
about this time, fixing here the arrival of Cecrops 
in Attica, an epoch which other writers have 
placed later by 26 years 

Moses born 

The kingdom of Athens begun under Cecrops, "who 
came from Egypt with a colony of Saites. This 
happened about 780 years before the first Olym- 
piad 

Scamander migrates from Crete, and begins the 
kingdom of Iroy 

The (feluge of Deucalion in Thessaly 

The Panathena9a first celebrated at Athens 

Cadmus com'eB into Greece, and builds the citadel of 
Thebes 

The first Olympic Games celebrated in Elis by the 
Idsei Dactyli 

The five books of Moses written in the land of Moab, 
where he dies the following year, aged 110 

Minos flourishes in Crete, and iron is found by the 
Dactyli by the accidental burning of the woods of 
Ida in Crete 

The Eleusinian mysteries introduced at Athens by 
Eumolpus 

The Isthmian games first instituted by Sisyphus, 
king of Corinth 

The argonautic expedition. The first Pythian games 
celebrated by Adrastus, king of Argos' 

Gideon flourishes in Israel 

The Theban war of the seven heroes against Eteo- 
cles 

Olympic games celebrated by Hercules 

The rape of Helen by Theseus, and, 15 years after, 
by Paris 

Troy taken after a siege of 10 years. jEneas sails to 
Italy 

Alba Longa built by Ascanius 

Migration of the .^olian colonies 

The return of the Heraclidas into Peloponnesus, 80 
years after the taking of Troy. Two years after, 
they divide the Peloponnessus amon^ themselves : 
and here, therefore, begins the kingdom of Lace- 
daemon under Eurysthenus and Procles 

Saul made king over Israel 

The kingdom of Sicyon ended 

The kingdom of Athens ends in the death of Codrus 

The migration of the Ionian colonies from Greece, 
and their settlement in Asia Minor 

Dedication of Solomon's temple 

Samos built 

Division of the kingdom of Judah and Israel 

Homer and Hesiod flourished about this time, ac- 
cording to the Marbles 



1582 
1571 



1556 

1546 
]503 
1495 

1493 

1453 

1452 



1406 

1356 

1326 

1263 
1245 

1225 

1222 

1213 

1184 
1152 
1124 



1104 
1095 
1088 
1070 

1044 
1004 
986 
975 

907 



Before Christ. 
Elias the prophet taken up into heaven 896 

Lycurgus, 42 years old, established his laws at La- 
cedaimon, and, together with Iphitus and Cleos- 
thenes, restores the Olympic games at Elis, about 
108 years before the era which is commonly call- 
ed the first Olympiad 884 
Phidon, king of Argos, is supposed to have invented 
scales and measures, and coined silver at ^gina. 
Carthage built by Dido 869 
Fall of the Assyrian empire by the death of Sardan- 

apalus, an era placed 80 years earlier by Justin 820 
The kingdom of Macedonia begins, and continues 

646 years, till the battle of Pydna 814 

The kingdom of Lydia begins and continues 249 

years 797 

The triremes first invented by the Corinthians 786 

Tlie monarchical government abolished at Corinth, 

and the Prytanes elected 797 

Corcebus conquers at Olympia, in the 28th Olympiad 
from the institution of Iphitus. This is vulgarly 
called the first Olympiad, about 23 years before 
the foundation of Rome 776 

The Ephori introduced into the government of La- 

cedasmon by Theopompus , 760 

Isaiah begins to projihesy 757 

The decennial archons begin at Athens, of which 

Charops is the first 754 

Rome built on the 20th of April, according to Varro, 

in the year 3961 of the Julian period 753 

The rape of the Sa bines 7.50 

The era of Narbonassar king of Babylon begins 747 

The first Messenian war begins, and continues 19 

years, to the taking of Ithome 743 

Syracuse built by a Corinthian colony 732 

The kingdom of Israel finished by the takiiig of Sa- 
maria by Salmanasar, king of Assyria. Ihe first 
eclipse of the moon on record, March 19, accord- 
in» to Ptolemy 721 

Candaules murdered by Gyges, who succeeds to the 

Lydian throne 718 

Tarentum built by the Parthenians 707 

Corcyra built by the Corinthians _ 703 

The second Messenian war begins, and continues 14 
years, to the taking of Ira, after a siege of 11 
years. About this time flourished the poets Tyr- 
taeus and Archiloclius 685 

The government of Athens intrusted to annual ar- 
chons 684 
Alba destroyed 665 
Cypselus usurps the government of Corinth, and 

keeps it for 30 years C59 

Byzantium built by a colony of Argives or Athenians 658 
Cyrene built by Battus 630 

The Scythians invade Asia Minor, of which they 

Iieep possession for 28 years 624 

Draco estabhshes his laws in Athens 623 

The canal between the Nile and the Red Sea begun 

by king Necho 610 

Nineveh taken and destroyed by Cyaxares and his 

allies • 606 

The Phoenicians sail round Africa, by order of Ne- 
cho. About this time flourished Arion, Pittacus, 
Alcaeus, Sappho, &c. 604 

The Scythians are expelled from Asia Minor by 

Cyaxares 596 

The Pythian games first established at Delphi. 
About this time flourished Chilo, Anacharcis, 
Thales, Epimenides, Solon, the prophet Ezekiel, 
^sop, Stersichorus 591 

Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 9th of June, 

after a siege of 18 months 587 



* In the following Table, I have confined myself to the more easy and convenient eras of before, (B. C.) anil after, 
(A. D.) Christ. For the sake of those, however, that do not wish the exclusion of the Julian period, it is necessary to 
observe, that, as the first year of the Christian era always falls on the 4714th of the Julian years, the number required 
either before or after Christ, will easily be discovered by the application of the rules of subtraction or addition. The 
era from the foundation of Rome (A. U. C.) will be found witri the same facility, by recollecting that the city waa 
built 753 years before Christ ; and the Olympiads can likewise be recurred to by the consideration, that the conquest 
of Coroebus (B. C. 776,) forms the first Olympiad, and the Olympic games were celebrated after the revolution of 
four years. 

791 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B.C. 

The Isthmian games restored, and celebrated every 

1st and 3d year of the Olympiads 582 

Death of Jeremiah the prophet 577 

The Nemsean games restored 5G8 

The first comedy acted at Athens by Susarion and 

Dolon 562 

Pisistratus first usurped the sovereignty at Athens 560 

Cyrus begins to reign. About this time flourished 
Anaximenes, Bias, Anaximander, Phalaris, and 
Cleobulus 559 

Crcesus conquered by Cyrus. About this tim?. flou- 
rished Theognis and Pherecydes 548 
Marseilles built by the Phocseans. The age of Py- 
thagoras, Simonides, Thespis, Xenophanes, and 
Anacreon 539 
Babylon taken by Cyrus 538 
The return of the Jews by the edict of Cyrus, and 

the rebuilding of the temple 536 

The first tragedy acted at Athens on the wagon of 

Thespis 535 

Learning encouraged at Athens, and a public libra- 
ry built 526 
Egypt conquered by Cambyses 525 
Polycrates, of Samos, put to death 5^ 
Darius Hystaspes chosen king of Persia. About 
this time flourished Confucius, the celebrated Chi- 
nese philosopher 521 
The tyranny of the Pisistratidae abolish'^d at Athens 510 
The consular ojovernmest begins at Rome after the 
expulsion ot the Tarquins, and continues inde- 
pendent 461 years, till the battle of Pharsalia 509 
Sardis taken by the Athenians and burnt, which be- 
came afterwards the cause of the invasion of 
Greece by the Persians. About this time flourish- 
ed Heraclitus, Parmenides, Milo the wrestler, 
Aristagoras, &c. 504 
The first dictator, Lartius, created at Rome 498 
The Roman i)opulace retire to mount Sacer 493 
The battle of iVIarathon 490 
The battles of Thermopylaj, August 7th, and Sala- 
mis, October 20th. About this time flourished 
^schylus, Pindar, Charon, Anaxagoras, Zeuxis, 
Aristides, &c. 480 
The Persians defeated at PlatEea and Mycale on the 

same day, 22d September 479 

The 390 Fabii killed at Cremera, July 17th 477 

Themistocles, accused of conspiracy, flies to Xerxes 471 
The Persians defeated at Cyprus, and near the Eu- 

rymedon 470 

The third Messenian war begins, and continues 10 

years 465 

Egypt revolts from the Persians under Inarus, as- 
sisted by the Athenians 463 
The Romans send to Athens for Solon's laws. 
About this time flourished Sophocles, Nehemiah 
the prophet, Plato the comic poet, Aristarchus 
the tragic, Leocrates, Thrasybulus, Pericles, Za- 
leucus, &c. 454 
The first sacred war concerning the temple of Delphi 448 
The Athenians defeated at Cnseronea by the Boeo- 
tians 447 
Herodotus reads his history to the council of Athens, 
and receives public honours in the 39th year of his 
age. About this time flourished Empedocles, He- 
lanicus, Euripides, Herodicus, Phidias, Artemo- 
nes, Charondas, <fcc. 445 
A colony sent to Thurium by the Athenians 444 
Comedies prohibited at Athens, a restraint which re 

mained in force for three years 440 

A war between Corinth and Corcyra 439 

Meton begins here his 19 years' cycle of the moon 432 
The Peloponnesian war begins, May the 7th, and 
continues about 27 years. About this time flour- 
ished Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, Meton, 
Euctemon, Malachi, the last of the prophets, De- 
mocritus, Georgias, Thucydides, Hippocrates, &c. 431 
The history of the Old Testament finishes about this 

time. A plague at Athens for five years 430 

A peace of fifty years made between the Athenians 
and Lacedaemonians, which is kept only during 
six years and ten months, though each continued 
at war with the other's allies 421 

The scene of the Peloponnesian war changed to Si- 
cily. The Agrarian law first moved at Rome 416 
Egypt revolts from the Persians, and Amyrtaeus is 

appointed king 414 

The Carthaginians enter Sicily, where they destroy 
Selinus and Himera, but they are repulsed by Her- 
mocrates 409 

The battle of ^gospotamos. The usurpation of 

Dionysius 405 

Athens taken by Lysander, 24th April, the end of 
the Peloponnesian war, and the appointment of 
30 tyrants over the conquered city. About this 
time flourished Parrhasius, Protagoras, Lysias, 
Agathon, Euclid, Cebes, Telestes, &c. 404 

792 



B. C 

Cyrus the younger killed at Cunaxa. The glorious 
retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, and the expulsion of 
the 30 tyrants from Athens, by Thrasybulus 401 

Socrates put to death 400 

Agesilaus of Lacedaemon's expedition into Asia 
against the Persians. The age of Xenophon, Cte- 
sias, Zeuxis, Antisthenes, Lvagoras, Aristippus 
of Cyrene, and Archytas 396 

The Corinthian war begun by the alliance of the 
Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
against Lacedaemon 395 

The Lacedaemonians, under Pisander, defeated by 
Conon at Cnidus ; and a few days after, the allies 
are defeated at Coronaea, by Agesilaus 394 

The battle of A Ilia, Julv 17th, and the taking of 
Rome by the Gauls " 390 

Dionysius besieges Rhegium, and takes it after 11 
months. About this time flourished Plato, Phi- 
loxenus, Damon, Pythias, Iphicrates, fcc. 388 

The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia, by the 
peace of Antalcidas, between the Lacedaemo- 
nians and Persians 387 

The war of Cyprus finished by a treaty, after it had 

continued two years 385 

The Lacedaemonians defeated in a sea-fight at Nax- 
os, September 20th, by Chabrias. About this 
time flourished Philistus, Isaeus, Isocrates, Arete, 
Philolaus, Diogenes the cynic, &-c. 377 

Artaxerxes sends an army under Pharnabazus, with 
20,000 Greeks, commanded by Iphicrates 374 

The battle of Leuctra, July 8th, where the Lacede- 
monians are defeated by Epaminondas, the gene- 
ral of the Thebans 371 

The Messenians, after a banishment of 300 years, 

return to Peloponnesus 370 

One of the consuls at Rome elected from the plebe- 
ians 367 

The battle of Mantinea, gained by Epaminondas, a 

year after the death of Pelopidas 363 

Agesilaus assists Tachos, king of Egypt. Some of 
the governors of Lesser Asia revolt from Persia 362 

The Athenians are defeated at Methone, the first 

battle that Philip of Macedon ever won in Greece 360 

Dionysius the younger is expelled from Syracuse by 
Dion. The second Sacred War begins, on the 
temple of Delphi being attacked by the Phoceans 357 

Dion put to death, and Syracuse governed seven 
years by tyrants. About this time flourished 
Eudoxus, Lycurgus, Ibis, Theopompus, Ephorus, 
Datames, Philomelus, &c. ■ 354 

The Phoceans, under Onomarchus, are defeated in 

Thessaly by Philip 353 

Egypt is conquered by Ochus 350 

The Sacred War is finished by Philip taking all the 

cities of the Phoceans 348 

Dionysius recovers the tyranny of Syracuse, after 10 

years' banishment 347 

Timoleon recovers Syracuse, and banishes the ty- 
rant 343 

The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon near Agri- 
gentum. About this time flourished Speusippus, 
Protogenes, Aristotle, iEschines, Xenocrates, De- 
mosthenes, Phocion, Mamercus, Icetas, Stilpo, 
Demades 340 

The battle of Cheronsea, August 2, where Philip de- 
feats the Athenians and Thebans 338 

Philip of Macedon killed by Pausanias. His son 
Alexander, on the following year, enters Greece, 
destroys Tnebes. &c. 336 

The battle of Graiiicus, 22d of May 334 

The battle of Issus in October 333 

Tyre and Egypt conquered by the Macedonian 

prince, and Alexandria built 332 

The battle of Arbela, October 2d 331 

Alexander's expedition against Poms. About this 
time flourished Apelles, Callisthenes, Bagoas, 
Parmenio, Philotas, Memnon, Dinocrates, Calip- 
pus, Hyperides, Philetus, Lysippus, Menedemus, 
&c. 327 

Alexander dies on the 21st of April. His empire di- 
vided into four kingdoms. The Samian war, and 
the reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt 323 

Polyperchon publishes a general liberty to all the 
Greek cities. The age of Praxiteles, Crates, Theo- 
phrastus, Menander, Demetrius, Dinarchus, Po- 
femon, Neoptolcmus, Perdiccas, Leosthenes 320 

Syracuse and Sicily usurped by Agathocles. Deme- 
metrius Phalereus governs Athens for ten years 317 

Eumenes delivered to Antigonus by his army 315 

Seleucus takes Babylon, and here the beginning of 
the era of the Seleucidae 312 

The conquests of Agathocles in Africa 309 

Democracy established at Athens by Demetrius Po- 
liorcetes 307 

The title of kings first assumed by the succeBSors of 
Alexander 306 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B.C. 

The battle of Ipsus, where Antigonus is defeated 

and killed by rtolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and 

Cassander. About this time flourished Zeno, 

Pyrrho, Philemon, Megasthenes, Grantor, &c. 301 

Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, after a 

year's siege 296 

The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cur- 
sor, and the time first divided into hours 293 
Seleucus, about this time, built about 40 cities in 
Asia, which he peopled with different nations. 
The age of Euclid the mathematician, Acesilaus, , 
Epicurus, Bion, Timocharis, Erasistratus, Aristyl- 
lus, Strato, Zenodotus, Arsinoe, Lachares, &c. 291 

The Athenians revolt from Demetrius 287 

Pyrrhus expelled from Macedon by Lysimachus 286 

The Pharos of Alexandria built. The Septuagint 

supposed to be translated about this time 284 

Lysimachus defeated and killed by Seleucus. The 
Tarentine war begins, and continues 10 years. 
The Achaean league begins 281 

Pyrrhus, of Epirus, goes to Italy, to assist the Taren- 
tines 280 

The Gauls, under Breraus, are cut to pieces near 
the temple of Delphi. About this time flourished 
Dionysius the astronomer, Sostratus, Theocritus, 
Dionysius, Heracleotes, Philo, Aratus, Lycophron, 
Perseeus-, &c. 278 

Pyrrhus, defeated by Curius, retires to Epirus 274 

The first coining of silver at Rome 269 

Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatus, who keeps it 

12 years 268 

The first Punic war begins, and continues for 23 
years. The chronology of the Arundelian Mar- 
bles composed. About this time flourished Ly- 
con. Crates, Berosus, Herraachus, Helenus, Clini- 
as, Aristotimus, &c. 264 

Antiochus Soter defeated at Sardis by Eumenes of 
Per|;amus 262 

The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius 260 

Regulus defeated by Xanthippus. Athens is restor- 

to liberty by Antigonus 256 

Aratus persuades the people of Sicyon to join the 
Achasan league. About this time flourished Cle- 
anthes. Homer junior, Manetho, Timseus, Calli- 
machus, Zoilus, Duris, Neanthes, Ctesibius, So- 
sibiu's, Hieronymus, Hanno, Laodice, Lysias, Ar- 
iobarzanes 251 

The Parthians under Arsaces, and the Bactrians un- 
der Theodotus, revolt from the Macedonians 250 

The sea-fight of Drepanum 249 

The citadel of Corinth taken by Aratus, 12th «f Au- 
gust 243 

Agis, king of Sparta, put to death for attempting to 
settle an Agrarian law. About this period flour- 
ished Antigonus Carystius, Conon of Samos, Era- 
tosthenes, Apollonius of Perga, Lacydes, Amil- 
car, Agesilaus the ephor, &c. 241 

Plays first acted at Rome, being those of Livius An- 

dronicus 240 

Amilcar passes with an army to Spain, with Anni- 

bal his son 237 

The temple of Janus shut at Rome, the first time 

since Numa 235 

The Sardinian war begins, and continues three 
years 234 

Oriffinal manuscripts of iEschylus, Euripides, and 
Sophocles, lent by the Athenians to Ptolemy for a 
pledge of 15 talents 233 

The first divorce known at Rome, by Sp. Carvilius. 

Sardinia and Corsica conquered 231 

The Roman ambassadors first appeared at Athens 

and Corinth 228 

The war between Cleomenes and Aratus begins, 

and continues for five years 227 

The colossus of Rhodes thrown down by an earth- 
quake. The Romans first cross the Po, pursuing 
the Gauls, who had entered Italy. About this 
time flourished Chrysippus, Polystratus, Euphori- 
on, Archimedes, Valerius, Messala, 0. Naevius, 
Aristarchus, Apollonius, Philocorus, Aristo Ceus, 
Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian, Phylar- 
chus, Lysiades, Agro, &c. 224 

The battle of Sellasia 222 

The Social War between the .ffitolians and Achae- 

ans, assisted by Philip 220 

Saguntum taken by Annibal 219 

The second Punic war begins, and continues 17 

years 218 

The battle of the lake Thrasymenus, and next year, 

that of Cannoe, May 21 217 

The Romans begin the auxiliary war against Philip. 
in Epirus, which is continued by intervals for l4 
years 214 

Syracuse taken by Marcellus, after a siege of three 

years 212 

Philopoemen defeats Machinadas at Mantinea 208 

Part 3.-5 H 



B C 

Asdrubal is defeated. About this time flourished 

Plautus, Archagathus, Evander, Teleclus, Her- 

mippus, Zeno, Sotion, Ennius, Hieronymus of 

Syracuse, Tlepolemus, Epicydes 207 

The battle of Zama 202 

The first Macedonian war begins, and continues 

near four years 200 

The battle of Panius, where Antiochus defeats Sco- 

pias 198 

The battle of Cynoscephale, where Philip is defeated 197 
The war of Antiochus the Great begins, and contin- 
ues three years 192 
Lacedaimon joined to the Achaean league by Philo- 
poemen 191 
The luxuries of Asia brought to Rome in the spoils 

of Antiochus 189 

The laws of Lycurgus abrogated for a while at 

Sparta by Philopcemen 188 

Antiochus the Great defeated and killed in Media. 
About this time flourished Aristophanes of Byzan- 
tium, Asclepiades, Tegula, C. Laelius, Aristony- 
mus, Hegesinus, Diogenes the stoic, Critolaus, 
Masinissa, the Scipios, the Gracchi, Thoas, &c. 187 
A war which continues for one year, between Eu- 
menes and Prusias, till the death of Annibal 184 
Philopcemen defeated and killed by Dinocrates 183 
Numa's books found in a stone coffin at Rome 179 
Perseus sends his ambassadors to Carthage 175 
Ptolemy's generals defeated by Antiochus, in a bat- 
tle between Pelusium and Mount Cassius. The 
second Macedonian war 171 
The battle of Pydna, and the fall of the Macedonian 
empire. About this period flourished Attains the 
astronomer, Metrodorus, Terence, Crates, Polybi- 
us, Pacuvius, Hipparchus, Heraclides, Carneades, 
Aristarchus, &;c. 168 
The first library erected at Rome, with books obtain- 
ed from the plunder of Macedonia 167 
Terence's Andria first acted at Rome . 166 
Time measured out at Rome by a water machine, 
invented by Scipio Nasica, 134 years after the in- 
troduction of sun-dials 159 
Andriscus, the Pseudophilip, assumes the royalty in 

Macedon 152 

Demetrius, king of Syria, defeated and killed by 

Alexander Balas , 150 

The third Punic war begins. Prusias, king of Bi- 

thynia, put to death by his son Nicodemes 149 

The Romans make war against the Achaeans, which 

is finished the next year by Mummius 148 

Carthage is destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by 

Mummius 147 

Viriathus is defeated by Laehus, in Spain 146 

The war of Numantia begins, and continues for 

eight years 141 

The Roman army, of 30,000, under Mancinus, is de- 
feated by 4000 Numantines 138 
Restoration of learning at Alexandria, and univer- 
sal patronage offered to all learned men by Ptole- 
my Physcon. The age of Satyrus, Aristobulus, 
Lucius Acciusj Mnaceas, Antipater, Diodorus the 
peripatetic, Nicander, Ctesibius, Sarpedon, Mi- 
cipsa, &c. 137 
The famous embassy of Scipio, Metellus, Mummius, 

and Panaetius, into Egypt, Syria, and Greece 136 

The history of the Apocrypha ends. The Servile 
War in Sicily begins, and continues for three 
years 135 

Numantia taken. Pergamus annexed to the Roman 

empire 133 

Antiochus Sidetes killed by Phraates. Aristonicus 

defeated by Perpenna 130 

Demetrius Nicator defeated at Damascus by Alex- 
ander Zebina 127 
The Romans make war against the pirates of the 
Baleares. Carthage is rebuilt by order of the Ro- 
man senate 123 
C. Gracchus kiued 121 
Dalmatia conquered by Metellus 118 
Cleo])atra assumes the government of Egypt. The 
age of Erymnaeus, Athenion, Artemidoras, Clito- 
machus, Apollonius, Herodicus, L. Cjelius, Cas- 
tor, Menecrates, Lucilius, &c. 116 
The Jiigurthine war begins, and continues for five .. 

years 112 

The famous sumptuary law at Rome, which limited 

the expenses of eating every day 110 

The Teutones and Cimbri begin the war against 

Rome, and continue it for eight years 109 

The Teutones defeat 80,000 Romans on the banks of 

the Rhone 105 

The Teutones defeated by C. Marius, at Aquae 

Sextiae 102 

The Cimbri defeated by Marius and Catulus 101 

Dolabella conquers Lusitania 99 

Cyrene left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans 97 

793 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B.C. 

The Social war begins, and continues three years, 

till finished by Sylla 91 

The Mithridatic war begins, and continues 26 years 89 
The civil wars of Marias and Sylla begin, and con- 
tinue six years 88 
Sylla conquers Athens, and sends its valuable libra- 
ries to Rome 86 
Young Marius is defeated by Sylla, who is made 

dictator 82 

The death of Sylla. About this time flourished 
Philo, Charmidas, Asclepiades, Appellicon, L. 
Sisenna, Alexander Polyhistor, Plotius Gallus, 
Diotimus, Zeno, Hortensius, Archias, Posidonius, 
Geminus, &c. VS 

Bithynia left by Nicomedes to the Romans 75 

The Servile war, under Spartacus, begins, and two 
years after, the rebel general is defeated and kill- 
ed by Pompey and Crassus 73 
Mithridates and Tigranes defeated by Lucullus 69 
Mithridates conquered by Pompey in a night battle. 
Crete is subdued by Metellus, after a war of two 
years 66 
The reign of the Seleucidae ends in Syria on the 

conquest of the country by Pompey 65 

Catiline's conspiracy detected by Cicero. Mithri- 
dates kills himself 63 
The first triumvirate in the persons of J. Caesar, 
Pompey, and Crassus. About this time flourish- 
ed Apollonius of Rhodes, Terentius Varro, Tyran- 
nion, Aristodemus of Nysa, Lucretius, Dionysius, 
the grammarian, Cicero, Antiochus, Spurinus, 
Andronicus, Catullus, Sallust, Timagenes, Cratip- 
pus, &c. 60 
Cicero banished from Rome and recalled the next year 58 
Caesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans, and 

invades Britain 55 

Crassus is killed by Surena in June 53 

Civil war between Csesar and Pompey 50 

The battle of Pharsalia about May 12th 48 

Alexandria taken by Caesar 47 

The war of Africa. Cato kills himself. This year 
is called the year of Confusion, because the calen- 
dar was corrected by Sosigenes, and the year 
made to consist pf 15 months, or 445 days 46 

The battle of Munda 45 

Caesar murdered 44 

The battle of Mutina. The second triumvirate in 
Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. Cicero put to 
death. The age of Sosigenes, C. Nepos, Diodo- 
rus Siculus, Trogus Pompey, Didymus the scho- 
liast, Varo the poet, &c. 43 
The battle of Philippi 42 
Pacorus, general of Parthia, defeated by Ventidius, 
14 years after the disgrace of Crassus, and on the 
same day 39 
Pompey the younger defeated in Sicily by Octavius 36 
Octavius and Antony prepare for war 32 
The battle of Actium 2d of September. The era of 

the Roman emperors properly begins here 31 

Alexandria taken, and Egypt reduced into a Ro- 
man province 30 
The title of Augustus given to Octavius 27 
The Egyptians adopt the Julian year. About this 
time flourished Virgil, Manilius, Dioscorides, Asi- 
nius Pollio, Maecenas, Agrippa, Strabo, Horace, 
Macer, Propcrtius, Livy, Musa, Tibullus, Ovid, 
Pylades, Bathyllus, Varius, Tucca, Vitruvius, Sec. '25 
The conspiracy of Muraena against Augustus 22 
Augustus visits Greece and Asia 21 
The Roman ensigns recovered from the Parthians 

by Tiberius 20 

The secular games celebrated at Rome 17 

Lollius defeated by the Germans 16 

The Rhaeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus 15 

The Pannonians conquered by Tiberius 12 

Some of the German nations conquered by Drusus 11 

Augustus corrects the calendar, by ordering the 
twelve ensuing years to be without intercalation. 
About this time flourished Damascenus, Hyginus, 
Flaccus the grammarian, Dionysius of Halicar- 
nassus, and Dionysius the geographer 8 

Tiberius retires to Rhodes for seven years 6 

Our Saviour is born four years before the vulgar 
era, in the year 4709 of the Julian period, A. U. 
C. 749, and the fourth of the 193d Olympiad 4 

A. D. 
Tiberius returns to Rome 2 

The leap year corrected, having formerly been 

every 3d year 4 

Ovid banished to Tomos 9 

Varus defeated and killed in Germany by Arminius 10 
Augustus dies at Nola, August 19th, and is suc- 
ceeded by Tiberius. The age of Phfedrus, Asini- 
us Gallus, VelleiusPaterculus, Germanicus, Cor- 
nel, Celsus, &c. 34 
Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earthquake 17 



A. D. 

Germanicus poisoned by Piso, dies at Antioch 19 

Tiberius goes to Caprese 26 

Sejanus disgraced 31 

Our Saviour crucified, Friday April 3d. This is 

■put four years earlier by some Chronoloffists 33 

Tiberius dies at Misenum near Baice, March 16th, 
and is succeeded by Caligula. About this period 
flourished Valerius Maximus, Colomella, Pompo- 
nius Mela, Appion, Philo Judieus, Artabanus, and 
Ao^rippina 37 

St. Paul converted to Christianity 36 

St. Matthew writes his Gospel 39 

The name of Christians first given at Antioch, to 

the followp.rs of our Saviour 40 

Caligula murdered by Chaereas, and succeeded by 

Claudius 41 

The expedition of Claudius into Britain 43 

St. Mark writes his Gospel 44 

Secular games celebrated at Rome 47 

Caractacus carried in chains to Rome 51 

Claudius succeeded by Nero 54 

Agrippina put to death by her son Nero 59 

First persecution against the Christians 64 

Seneca, Lucan, and others put to death 65 

Nero visits Greece. The Jewish war begins. The 
ageof Persius, Q,. Curtius, Pliny the elder, Jose- 
phus, Frontinus, Burrhus, Corbulo, Thrasea, Bo- 
adicea, &c. 66 

St. Peter and St. Paul put to death 67 

Nero dies, and is succeeded by Galba 63 

Galba put to death. Otho, defeated by Vitellius, 
kills himself Vitellius is defeated by Vespasian's 
army 69 

Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus " 70 

The Parthians revolt 77 

Death of Vespasian, and succession of Titus. Her- 
culaneura and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption 
of Mount Vesuvius, November 1st 79 

Death of Titus, and succession of Domitian. The 
age of Sil. Italicus, Martial, Apollon, Tyanaeus, 
Valerius Flaccus, Solinus, Epictetus, Q,uinti!ian, 
Lupus, Agricola, &c. 81 

Capitoiine games instituted by Domitian, and cele- 
brated every fourth year ■ 86 
Secular games celebrated. The war with Dacia be- 
gins and continues 15 years 88 
Second persecution of the Christians 95 
Domitian put to death by Stephanus, &-c. and suc- 
ceeded by Nerva. Tlie age of Juvenal, Tacitus, 
Statins, &c. . 96 
Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan 98 
Pliny, proconsul of Bithynia, sends Trajan an ac- 
count of the Christians 102 
Dacia reduced to a Roman province 103 
Trajan's expedition against Parthia. About this 
time flourished Florus, Suetonius, Pliny junior, 
Philo Byblius, Dion, Prusaus, Plutarch, <tc 106 
Third persecution of the Christians 107 
Trajan's column erected at Rome 114 
Trajan dies and is succeeded by Adrian 117 
Fourth persecution of the Christians 118 
Adrian builds a wall in Britain 121 
Adrian visits Asia and Egypt for seven years 126 
He rebuilds Jerusalem, and raises there a temple to 

Jupiter 130 

The Jews rebel, and are defeated after a war of five 

years, and all banished 131 

Adrian dies, and is succeeded by Antoninus Pius. 
In the reign of Adrian flourished Theon, Phavoii- 
nus, Phlegon, Trallian, Aristides, Aquila, Salvius 
Julian, Polycarp, Arrian, Ptolemy, <icc. 138 

Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians 145 
The worship of Serapis brought to Rome 146 

Antoninus dies, and is succeeded by M. Aurelius and 
L. Verus. the last of whom reigned nine years. 
In the reign of Antoninus flourished Maximus Ty- 
rius, Pausanias, Diophantes, Lucian, Hermoge- 
nes, Polyaenus, Appian, Artemidorus, Justin the 
martyr, Apuleius, &;c. 161 

A war with Parthia, which continues three years 162 

A war against the Marcomanni, which continues 

five years 169 

Another, which continues three years 177 

M. Aurelius dies, and Commodus succeeds. In the 
last reign flourished Galen, Athenagoras, Tatian, 
Athena;us, Montanus, Diogenes Laertius 180 

Commodus makes peace with the Germans 181 

Commodus put to death by Martia and Laetus. He 
is succeeded for a few months by Pertinax, who 
is murdered, 193, and four rivals arise, Didius Ju- 
lianus, Pescennius Niger, Severus, and Albinus. 
Under Commodus flourished J. Pollux, Theodo- 
tian, St. Irenaeus 192 

Ni^er is defeated by Severus at Issus 194 

Albinus defeated in Gaul, and killed at Lyons, Feb- 
ruary 19th isa 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. 

Severus conquers the Parthians 200 

Fifth persecution against the Christians 202 

Severus visits Britain, and two years after builds a 

wall there across the Frith of Forth 207 

Severus dies at York, and is succeeded by Caracal- 
la and Geta. In his reign flourished Tertullian, 
Minutius Felix, Papinianus, Clemens of Alexan- 
dria, Philostratus, Plotianus, and Bulas 211 
Geta killed by his brother Caracalla 212 
The septuagint discovered. Caracalla murdered by 

Macrinus. Flourished Oppian 217 

Opilius Macrinus killed by the soldiers, and suc- 
ceeded by Heliogabalus 218 
Alexander Severus succeeds Heliogabalus. The 
Goths then exacted an annual payment not to in- 
vade or molest the Roman empire. The age of 
Julius Africanus 222 
The ArsacidsB of Parthia are conquered by Artax- 

erxes, king of Media, and their empire destroyed 229 
Alexander defeats the Persians 234 

The sixth persecution against the Christians 235 

Alexander killed, and succeeded by Maximinus. At 
that time flourished Dion Cassius, Origen, and 
Ammonius 235 

The two Gordians succeed Maximinus, and are put 
to death by Pupienus, who soon after is destroy- 
ed, with Balbinus, by the soldiers of the younger 
Gordian 236 

Sabinianus defeated in Africa 240 

Gordian marches against the Persians 242 

He is put to death by Philip, who succeeds, and 
makes peace with Sapor the next year. About 
this time flourished Censorius and Gregory Thau- 
matur^us ^4 

Philip killed, and succeeded by Decius. Herodian 

flourished 249 

The seventh persecution against the Christians 250 

Decius succeeded by Gallus 251 

A great pestilence over the empire 252 

Gallus dies, and is succeeded by .lEmilianus, Vale- 
rianus, and Gallienus. In the reign of Gallus 
flourislied St. Cyprian and Plotinus 254 

The eighth persecution against the Christians 257 

The empire is harassed by 30 tyrants successively 258 
Valerian is taken by Sapor and flayed alive 260 

Odenatus governs the east for Gallienus 264 

The Scythians and Goths defeated by Cleodamus 

and Athenaeus 267 

Gallienus killed, and succeeded by Claudius. In 
this reign flourished Longinus, Paulus, Samosate- 
nus, &c. 268 

Claudius conquers the Goths, and kills 300,000 of 

them. Zenobia takes possession of Egypt 269 

Aurelian succeeds 270 

The ninth persecution against the Christians 272 

Zenobia defeated by Aurelian at Edessa 273 

Daeia ceded to the Barbarians by the emperor 274 

Aurelian killed, and succeeded by Tacitus, who died 
after a reign of six months, and was succeeded by 
Florianus, and, two months after, by Probus 275 

Probus makes an expedition into Gaul 277 

He defeats the Persians in the east 280 

Probus is put to death, and succeeded by Carus, and 

his sons Carinus and Numerianus 282 

Dioclesian succeeds 284 

The empire attacked by the barbarians of the north. 
Dioclesian takes Maximianus as his imperial col- 
league 286 
Britain recovered, after a tyrant's usurpation of ten 

years. Alexandria taken by Dioclesian 296 

The tenth persecution against the Christians, which 

continues ten years 303 

Dioclesian and Maximianus abdicate the empire, 
and live in retirement, succeeded by Constantius 
Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus, the two Cse- 
sars. About this period flourished J. Capitolinus, 
Arnobius, Gregory and Hermogenes, the lawyers, 
.^lius Spartianus, Hierocles, Flavins Vopiscus, 
TrebeUius Pollio, &c. 304 

Constantius dies, and is succeeded by his son 306 

At this time there were four emperors, Constantine, 

Licinius, Maximianus, and Maxentius 308 

Maxentius defeated and killed by Constantine 312 

The emperor Constantine begins to favour the Chris- 
tian religion 319 
Licinius defeated and banished by Constantine 324 
The first general Council of Nice, composed of 318 

bishops, who sit from June 19 to August 25 325 

The seat of the empire removed from Rome to Con- 
stantinople 328 
Constantinople solemnly dedicated by the emperor 

on the 11th of May 330 

Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be de- 
stroyed 331 
The d.eath of Constantine, and succession of his 
three sons, Constantinus, Constans, and Constaa- 



A.D 

tins. In the reign of Constantine flourished Lao- 
tantius, Athanasius, Arius, and Eusebius 337 

Constantine the younger defeated and killed by Con- 
stans at Aquileia 340 
Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius 350 
Gallus put to death by Constantius 354 
One hundred and fifty cities of Greece and Asia 

ruined by an earthquake 358 

Constantius and Julian quarrel, and prepare for war ; 
but the former dies the next year, and leaves the 
latter sole emperor. About this period flourished 
.^lius, Donatus, Eutropius, Libanius, Ammian, 
Marcellinus, Jamblicus, St. Hilary, &c 360 

Julian dies, and is succeeded by Jovian. In Juli- 
an's reign flourished Gregory Nazianzen, Themis- 
tius, Aurelius Victor, &c. 363 

Upon the death of Jovian, and the succession ofVa- 
lens and Valentinian, the empire is divided, the 
former being emperor of the east, and the other of 
the west 364 

Gratian taken as partner in the western empire by 

Valentinian 367 

Firmus, tyrant of Africa, defeated 373 

Valentinian the Second succeeds Valentinian the 

First 375 

The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace, on being 

expelled by the Huns 376 

Theodosius the Great succeeds Valens in the eastern 
empire. The Lombards first leave Scandinavia 
and defeat the Vandals 379 

Gratian defeated and killed by Andrigathius 383 

The tyrant Maximus defeated and put to death by 

Theodosius 388 

Eugenius usurps the western empire, and is, two 

years after, defeated by Theodosius 392 

Theodosius dies, and is succeeded by his sons, Ar- 
cadius in the east, and Honorius in the west. In 
the reign of Theodosius flourished Ausonius, Eu- 
napius. Pappus, Theon, Prudentius, St. Austin, St. 
Jerome, St. Ambrose, &;c. i 395 

Gildo, defeated by his own brother, kills himself 398 

Stilicho defeats 200,000 of the Goths at Fesula; 405 

The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi, permitted to settle 

in Spain and France by Honorius 406 

Theodosius the Younger succeeds Arcadius in the 
east, having Isdegerdes king of Persia, as his 
guardian, appointed by his father 408 

Rome plundered by Alaric, king of the Visigoths, 

August 24th 410 

The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain 412 

The kingdom of the Burgundians is begun in Alsace 413 
The Visigoths found a kingdom at Thoulouse 415 

The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths 417 

The kingdom of the French begins on the lower 

Rhine 420 

The death of Honorius, and succession of Valenti- 
nian the Third. Under Honorius flourished Sul- 
picius Severus, Macrobius, Anianus, Panodorus, 
Stobaeus, Servius the commentator, Hypatia, Pe- 
lagius, Synesius, Cyril, Orosius, Socrates, &.c. 423 

Theodosius establishes public schools at Constanti- 
nople, and attempts the restoration of learning 425 
The Romans take leave of Britain and never return 426 
Pannonia recovered from the Huns by the Romans. 

The Vandals pass into Africa " 427 

The French defeated by ^tius 428 

The Theodosian code published 435 

Genseric the Vandal takes Carthage, and begins the 

kingdom of the Vandals in Africa 439 

The Britons, abandoned by the Romans, make their 
celebrated complaint to JEtius against the Picts 
and Scots, and three years after the Saxons settle 
in Britain upon the invitation of Vortigern 446 

Attila, king of the Huns, ravages Europe 447 

Theodosius the Second dies, and is succeeded by 
Marcianus.- About this time flourished Zozimus, 
Nestorius, Theodoret, Sozomen, Olympiodorus, &c. 450 
The city of Venice first began to be known 452 

Death of Valentinian the Third, who is succeeded 
by Maximus for two months, by Avitus for ten, 
and, after an interregnum of ten months, by Ma- 
jorianus 454 

Rome taken by Genseric in July. The kingdom of 

Kent first established 4.'55 

The Suevi defeated by Theodoric on the Ebro 450 

Marcianus dies, and is succeeded by Leo, surnamed 
the Thracian. Vortimer defeated by Hengist at 
Crayford, in Kent 457 

Severus succeeds in the western empire 461 

The paschal cycle of 532 years invented by Victo- 

rius of Aquitain 463 

Anthemius succeeds in the western empire, after an 

interregnum of two years 467 

Olybrius succeeds Anthemius, and is succeeded, 
the next year, by Glycerius, and Glycerius by 
Nepos 472 

795 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D. 

Nepos is succeeded by Augustulus. Leo junior, son 
of Ariadne, though an infant, succeeds his grand- 
father Leo in the eastern empire, and some months 
after is succeeded by his father Zeno 474 

The western empire is destroyed by Odoacer, king 
of the Heruli, who assumes the title of king of 
Italy. About that time flourished Eutyches, Pros- 
per, Victorius, Sidonius, ApoUinaris 476 

Constantinople partly destroyed by an earthquake, 
which lasted 40 days at intervals 480 

The battle of Soissons and victory of Clovis over Si- 

agrius the Roman general 485 

After the death of Zeno in the east, Ariadne married 
Anastasius surnamed the Silentiary, who ascends 
the vacant throne 491 

Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, revolts about 
this time, and conquers Italy from the Heruli. 
About this time flourished Boethius and Symma- 
chus 493 

Christianity embraced in France by the baptism of 
Clovis 496 

The Burgundian laws published by king Gondebaud 501 

Alaric defeated by Clovis at the battle of Vorcille 

near Poictiers 507 

Paris made the capital of the French dominions 510 

Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet 
is burned with a brazen speculum by Proclus 514 

The computing of time by the Christian era, intro- 
duced first by Dionysius 516 

Justin the First, a peasant of Dalmatia, makes him- 
self emperor 518 

Justinian the First, nephew of Justin, succeeds. 
Under his glorious reign flourished Belisarius, Jor- 
nandes, Paul the Silentiary, Simplicius, Dionysius, 
Procopius, Proclus, Narses, &c. 527 

Justinian publishes his celebrated code of laws, and, 

four years after, his Dig'est 529 

Conquest of Africa by Belisarius, and that of Rome 
two years after 534 

Italy is invaded by the Franks 538 

The Roman consulship suppressed by Justinian 542 

A great plague which arose in Africa, and desolat- 
ed Asia and Europe 543 

The beginning of the Turkish empire in Asia 545 

Rome taken and pillaged by Totila 547 

The manufacture of silk introduced from India into 

Europe by monks 551 

Defeat and death of Totila, the Gothic king of Italy 553 

A dreadful plague over Africa, Asia, and Europe, 

which continues for 50 years 558 

Justin the Second, son or Vigilantia, the sister of 

Justinian, succeeds 565 

Part of Italy conquered by the Lombards from Pan- 

nonia, who form a kingdom there 568 

Tiberius the Second, an ofiicer of the imperial 
guards, is adopted, and soon after succeeds 578 

Latin ceases to be the language of Italy about this 
time 581 

Maurice, the Cappadocian, son-in-law of Tiberius, 
succeeds 582 

Gregory the First, surnamed the Great, fills St. Pe- 
ter's chair at Rome. The few men of learning 
who flourished the latter end of this century, were 
Gildas, Agathias, Gregory of Tours, the father of 
French history, Evagrius, and St. Augustin the 
Monk 590 

Augustin the Monk, with 40 others, comes to preach 

Christianity in England 597 

About this time the Saxon Heptarchy began in Eng- 
land f J e » 600 

Phocas, a simple centurion, is elected emperor, after 
the revolt of the soldiers, and the murder of Mau- 
rice and of his children 602 

The power of the Popes begins to be established by 

the concessions of Phocas 606 

Heraclius, an officer in Africa, succeeds, after the 

murder of the usurper Phocas 610 

The conquests of Chosroes, king of Persia, in Syria, 
Egypt, Asia Minor, and, afterwards, his siege of 
Rome 611 

The Persians take Jerusalem with the slaughter of 
90,000 men, and the next year they overrun Africa 614 

Mahomet, in his 53d year, flies from Mecca to Medi- 
na, on Friday, July 16, which forms the first year 
of the Hegira, the era of the Mahometans 622 

Constantinople is besieged by the Persians and Arabs 626 

Death of Mahomet 632 

Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, and three years 
after, Alexandria and its famous library destroy- 
ed 637 
Constantine the Third, son of Heraclius, in partner- 
ship with Heracleonas, his brother by the same 
father, assumes the imperial purple. Constan- 
tine reigns 103 days, and after his death, his son. 
Constantine's son Constans is declared emperor, 
tuough Heracleonas, with his mother Martina, 

796 



A. D. 

wished to continue in possession of the supreme 
power 641 

Cyprus taken by the Saracens 648 

The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus 653 

Constantine the Fourth, surnamed Pogonatus, suc- 
ceeds, on the murder of his father in Sicily 668 

The Saracens ravage Sicily 669 

Constantinople besieged by the Saracens, whose 
fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire 673 

Justinian the Second succeeds his father Constan- 
tine. In his exile of 10 years, the purple was usur- 
ped by Leontius and Absimerus Tiberius. His re- 
storation happened 704. The only men of learn- 
ing in this century were Secundus, Isidorus, The- 
opnylactus, Geo. Pisides, Callinicus, and the ven- 
erabl'e Bede 685 

Pepin engrosses the power of the whole French 

monarchy 690 

Africa finally conquered by the Saracens 709 

Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, succeeds at Con- 
stantinople, on the murder of Justinian 711 

Spain is conquered by the Saracens. Accession of 
Artetimus, or Anastasius the Second to the throne 713 

Anastasius abdicates, and is succeeded by Theodo- 
sius the Third, who, two years after, yields to the 
superior influence of Leo the Third, the first of 
the Isaurian dynasty 715 

Second, but unsuccessful siege of Constantinople by 
the Saracens 717 

Tax called Peterpence begun by Ina, king of Wes- 

sex, to support a college at Home 727 

Saracens defeated by Charles Martel between Tours 

and Poictiers, in October 732 

Constantine the Fifth, surnamed Copronymus, suc- 
ceeds his father Leo 741 

Dreadful pestilence for three years over Europe and 

Asia 746 

The computation of years from the birth of Christ 

first used in historical writings 748 

Learning encouraged by the race of Abbas, caliph 

of the Saracens 749 

The Merovingian race of kings ends in France 750 

Bagdad built, and made the capital of the Caliphs 
of the house of Abbas 762 

A violent frost for 150 days, from October to Febru- 
ary 763 

Monasteries dissolved in the east by Constantine 770 

Pavia taken by CharlemagnCj which ends the king- 
dom of the Lombards, alter a duration of 206 
years 774 

Leo the Fourth, son of Constantine, succeeds, and, 
five years after, is succeeded by his wife Irene, 
and his son Constantine the Sixth 775 

Irene murders her son and reigns alone. The only 
men of learning in this century were Johannes 
Damascenus, Fredegaire, Alcuinus, Paulus Dia- 
conus, and George the Monk 797 

Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of Rome and of 
the western empire. About this time the Popes 
separate themselves from the princes of Constan- 
tinople 800 

Egbert ascends the throne of England, but the total 
reduction of the Saxon heptarchy is not effected 
till 26 years after 801 

Nicephorus the First, great treasurer of the empire, 
succeeds 802 

Stauracius, son of Nicephorus, and Michael the 
First, surnamed Rhangabe, the husband of Pro- 
copio, sister of Stauracius, assume the purple 811 

Leo the Fifth, the Armenian, though but an officer 
of the palace, ascends the throne of Constantino- 
ple 813 

Learning encouraged among the Saracens by Al- 
mamon, who made observations on the sun, &;c. 816 

Michael the Second, the Thracian, surnamed the 
Stammerer, succeeds, after the murder of Leo 821 

The Saracens of Spain take Crete, which they call 
Candia 823 

The Almagest of Ptolemy translated into Arabic by 

order of Almanon 827 

Theophilus succeeds his father Michael 829 

Origin of the Russian monarchy 839 

Michael the Third succeeds his father Theophilus, 

with his mother Theodora 842 

The Normans get possession of some cities in France 853 

Michael is murdered and succeeded by Basil the 
First, the Macedonian 867 

Clocks first brought to Constantinople from Venice 872 

Basil is succeeded by his son Leo the Sixth, the phi- 
losopher. In this century flourished Mesu6, the 
Arabian physician, Eginhard, Eabanus, Albuma- 
sar, Godescalchus, Hincmarus, Odo, Photius, John 
Scotus, Anastasius the librarian, Alfraganus, Al- 
bategni, Reginon, John Asser 886 

Paris besieged by the Normans, and bravely defend- 
ed by Bishop Goslin 887 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Death oT Alfred, king of England, after a reign of 

30 years 
Alexander, brother of Leo, succeeds with his ne- 
phew Constantine the Seventh, surnaraed Porphy- 
ro^enitus 

The Normans establish thennselves in France, under 
Rollo 

Eomanus the First, surnamed Lecapenus, general 
of the fleet, usurps the throne, with his three sons, 
Christopher, Stephen, and Constantine the Eighth 

Fiefs established in France 

Saracen empire divided by usurpation into seven 
kingdoms 

Naples seized by the eastern emperors 

The sons of Romanus conspire against their father, 
and the tumults this occasioned produced the re- 
storation of Porphyrogenitus 

Romanus the Second, son of Constantine the Se- 
venth, by Helen, the daughter of Lecapenus, suc- 
ceeds 

Romanus poisoned by his wife Theophano, is suc- 
ceeded by Nicephorus Phocas the Second, whom 
the empress, unable to reign alone under the title 
of protectress of her young children, had married 

Italy conquered by Otho, and united to the German 
empire 

Nicephorus, at the instigation of Theophano, is 
murdered by John Zimisces, who assumes the 
purple 

Basil the Second, and Constantine the Ninth, the 
two sons of Romanus by Theophano, succeed on 
the death of Zimices 

The third or Capetian race of kings in France be- 
gins July 3d 

Arithmetical figures brought into Europe from Ara- 
bia by the Saracens 

The fempire of Germany first made elective by Otho 
III. The learned men of this century were Eudes 
de Cluni, Azophi, Lultprand, Alfarabius, Rhazes, 
Geber, Abbo, Almoin, Gevbert 

A general massacre of the Danes in England, Nov. 
I3th 

All old churches, about this time, rebuilt in a new 
manner of architecture 

Flanders inundated in consequence of a violent 
Btorib 

Constantine become sole emperor on the death of 
his brother 

Romanus the Third, surnamed Argyrus, a patrician, 
succeeds, by marrying Zoe, tne "daughter of the 
late monarch 

Zoe, after prostituting herself to a Paphlagonian 
money-lender, causes her husband Romanus to be 
poisoned, and afterwards marries her favourite, 
who ascends the throne under the name of Ali- 
chael the Fourth 

The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon begin 

Zoe adopts for her son Michael the Fifth, the trade 
of whose father (careening vessels) had procured 
him the surname of Calaphates 

Zoe, and her sister Theodora, are made sole em- 
presses by the populace, but, after two months, 
Zoe, though 60 years old, takes for her third hus- 
band Constantine the Tenth, who succeeds 

The Turks invade the Roman empire 

After the death of Constantine, Theodora recovers 
the sovereignty, and, 19 months after, adopts, as 
her successor, Michael the Sixth, surnamed Stra- 
tioticus 

Isaac Commenus the First, chosen emperor by the 
soldiers 

Isaac abdicates, and when his brother refuses to 
succeed him, he appoints his friend Constantine 
the Eleventh, surnamed Ducas 

Jerusalem conquered by the Turks from the Sara- 
cens 

The crown of England is transferred from the head 
of Harold by the battle of Hastings, October the 
14th, to WiUiam the Conqueror, duke of Nor- 
mandy 

On the death of Ducas his wife Eudocia, instead of 
protecting his three sons, Michael, Andronicus, 
and Constantine, usurps the sovereignty, and mar- 
ries Romanus the Third, surnamed Diogenes 

Romanus being taken prisoner by the Turks, the 
three young princes ascend the throne, under the 
name of Michael Parapinaces the Seventh, An- 
dronicus the First, and Constantine the Twelfth 

The general Nicephorus Botaniates the Third, as- 
sumes the purple 

Dooms-day book begun to be compiled from a gen- 
eral survey of the estates of England, and finish- 
ed in six years 

Alexius Commenus the First, nephew of Isaac the 
First, ascends the throne. His reign is rendered 
illustrious by the pen of his daughter, the princess 



A. D 

900 

911 

912 



919 
^23 



936 
942 



945 
959 

963 
964 

969 

975 
987 
991 

996 
1002 
1005 
1014 
1025 

1028 



1034 
1035 



1041 



1042 
1050 



1054 
1057 

1059 
1065 

1066 

1067 

1071 
1078 

1060 



A.D. 

Anna Commena. The Normans, under Robert of 

Appulia, invade the eastern empire 1081 

Asia Minor finally conquered by the Turks 1084 

Accession of William the Second to the English 

throne 1087 

The first crusade 1096 

Jerusalem taken by the crusaders 15th July. The 
only learned men of this century were Avicenna, 
Guy d'Arezzo, Glaber, Hermanus, Franco, Peter 
Dafniani, Michael Celularius, Geo. Cedrenus, Be- 
renger, PseJlus Marianus, Scotus, Arzachel, VVil- 
liam of Spires, Suidas, Peter the Hermit, Sige- 
bert 1099 

Henry the First succeeds to the throne of England 1100 
Learning revived at Cambridge 1110 

John, or Calojohannes, son of Alexius, succeeds at 

Constantinople 1118 

Order of Knights Templar instituted 1118 

Accession of Stephen to the English crown 1135 

Manuel, son of John, succeeds at Constantinople 1143 
The second crusade 1147 

The canon law composed by Gratian, after 24 years' 

labour 1151 

The party names of Guelfs and Gibellines begin in 

Italy 1154 

Henry the Second succeeds in England 1154 

The Teutonic order begins 1164 

The conquest of Egypt by the Turks 11G9 

The famous councU of Clarendon in England, Jan- 
uary 25th. Conquest of Irelafid by Henry II. 1172 
Dispensing of justice by circuits first established in 

England 1176 

Alexius the Second succeeds his father Manuel 1180 

English laws digested by Glanville 1181 

From the disorders of the government, on account 
of the minority of Alexius, Andronicus, the grand- 
son of the great Alexius, is named guardian, but 
he murders Alexius, and ascends the throne 1183 

Andronicus is cruelly put to death, and Isaac Ange- 
lus, a descendant of the great Alexius by the fe- 
male line, succeeds 1185 
The third crusade, and siege of Acre 1188 
Richard the First succeeds his father Henry in Eng- 
land 1189 
Saladin defeated by Richard of England in the bat- 
tle of Ascalon . 1102 
Alexius Angelus, brother of Isaac, revolts, and 
usurps the sovereignty, by putting out the eyes of 
the emperor 1195 
John succeeds to the English throne. The learned 
men of this century were, Peter Abelardj Anna 
Commena, St. Bernard, Averroes, William of 
Malmesbury, Peter Lombard, Otho Trisingensis, 
Maimonides, Humenus, Wernerus, Gratian, Jeof- 
frj of Monmouth, Tzetzes, Eustathius, John of 
Salisbury, Simeon of Durham, Henry of Hunting- 
don, Peter Comestor, Peter of Blois, Ranulph 
Glanville, Roger Hoveden, Campanus, William of 
Newburgh 
Constantinople is besieged and taken by the Latins, 
and Isaac is taken from his dungeon and replaced 
on the throne with his son Alexius. This year is 
remarkable for the fourth crusade 
The father and son are murdered by Alexius Mour- 
zoufle, and Constantinople is again besieged and 
taken by the French and Venetians, who elect 
Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor of the east. 
In the mean time, Theodore Lascaris makes him- 
self emperor of Nice ; Alexius, grandson of the ty- 
rant Andronicus, becomes emperor of Trebizond ; 
and Michael, an illegitimate child of the Angeli, 
founds an empire in Epirus 1204 
The emperor Baldwin is defeated by the Bulgari- 
ans, and next year is succeeded by his brother 
Henry - 1205 
Reign and conquest of the great Zingis Khan, first 
emperor of the Moguls and Tartars, till the time 
of his death, 1227 1206 
Aristotle's works, imported from Constantinople, are 

condemned by the council at Paris 1209 

Magna Charta granted to the English barons by 

king John J215 

Henry the Third succeeds his father John on the En- 
glish throne 1216 
Peter of Courtenay, the husband of Volanda, sister 
of the two last emperors, Baldwin and Henry, is 
made emperor by the Latins 1217 
Bobert, son of Peter Courtenay, succeeds 1221 
Theodore Lascaris is succeeded on the throne of 

Nice by his son-in-law, John Ducas Vataces 1222 

John of Brienne, and Baldwin the Second, son of 

Peter, succeeded on the throne of Constantinople 1229 
The inquisition which had been begun 1204 is now 

trusted to the Dominicans 1233 

Baldwin alone 1237 

Origin of the Ottomans 1240 

797 



1199 



1203 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D. 

The fifth crusade 1248 

Astronomical tables composed by Alphonso the Ele- 
venth of Castile 1253 

Ducas Vataces is succeeded on the throne of Nice 
by his son Theodore Lascaris the Second 1255 

Lascaris succeeded by his son John Lascaris, a mi- 
nor 1259 

Michael Palffiologus, son of the sister of the queen of 
Theodore Lascaris, ascends the throne, after the 
murder of the young prince's guardian 1260 

Constantinople is recovered fjom the Latins by the 

Greek emperors of Nice 1261 

Edward the First succeeds on the English throne 1272 

The famous Mortmain act passes in England 1279 

Eight thousand French murdered during the Sicilian 

vespers, 20th of March 1282 

Wales conquered by Edvsrard and annexed to Eng- 
land 1283 

Michael Pal^ologus dies, and his son Andronicus, 
who had already reigned nine years conjointly 
with his father, ascends the throne. The learned 
men of this century are, Gervase, Diceto, Saxo, 
Walter of Coventry, Accursius, Antony of Padua, 
Alexander Halensis, William of Pans, Peter de 
Vignes, Matthew Paris, Grosseteste, Albertus, 
Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, John Joinville, 
Roger Bacon, Cimabue, Durandus, Henry of 
Ghent, Raymond LuUi, Jacob Voragine, Alber- 
tet. Duns Scotus, Thebit 1293 

A regular succession of English parliaments from 

this time 1293 

The Turkish empire begins in Bithynia 1298 

The mariner's compass invented or improved by 

Flavio 1302 

The Swiss Cantons begin 1307 

Edward the Second succeeds to the English crown 1307 

Translation of the holy see to Avignon, which ali- 
enation continues 68 years, till the return of Gre- 
gory the Eleventh 1308 

Andronicus adopts, as his colleagues, Manuel and 
his grandson, the younger Andronicus. Manuel 
dying, Andronicus revolts against his grandfather, 
who abdicates 1320 

Edward the Third succeeds in England 1327 

First comet observed, whose course is described, 

with exactness, in June 1337 

About this time flourished Leo Pilatus, a Greek pro- 
fessor at Florence, Barlaam, Petrarch, Boccace, 
and Manuel Chrysoloras, where may be fixed the 
era of the revival of Greek literature in Italy 1339 

Andronicus is succeeded by his son John Pafeolo- 
gus in the ninth year of his age. John Cantacu- 
zene, who had been left guardian of the young 
prince, assumes the purple. First passage of the 
Turks into Europe 1341 

The knights and burgesses of Parliament first sit in 
the same house 1342 

798 



A.D 

The battle of Crecy, August 26 1346 

Seditions of Rienzi at Rome, and his elevation to 

the tribuneship 1347 

Order of the Garter in England established April 23 1349 
The Turks first enter Europe 1352 

Cantacuzene abdicates the purple 1355 

The battle of Poictiers, September 19th 1356 

Law pleadings altered from French into English as 
a favour from Edward 111. to his people, in his 
SOthyear 1362 

Rise or Timour, or Tamerlane, to the throne of Sa- 
marcand, and his extensive conquests till his 
death, after a reign of 35 years 1370 

Accession of Richard the Second to the English 

throne 1377 

Manuel succeeds his father John Palaeologus 1391 

Accession of Henry the Fourth in England. The 
learned men of this century were Peter Apono, 
Flavio, Dante, Arnoldus Villa, Nicholas Lyra, 
William Occam, Nicephoras, Gregoras, Leontius, 
Pilatus, Matthew of Westminster, WicklifF, Fro- 
issart, Nicholas Flamel, Chaucer 1399 

Henry the Fourth is succeeded bv his son Henry the 

Fifth ■ 1413 

Battle of Agincourt, October 25th 1415 

The island of Madeira, discovered by the Portuguese 1420 
Henry the Sixth succeeds to the throne of England. 
Constantinople is besieged by Amurath the Se- 
cond, the Turkish emperor 1422 
John PaloDologus the Second succeeds his father 

Manuel 1/124 

Cosmo de Medici recalled from banishment, and 

rise of that family at Florence 1434 

The famous pragmatic sanction settled in France 1439 
Printing discovered at Mentz, and improved gradu- 
ally in 22 years 1440 
Constantine, one of the sons of Manuel, ascends the 

throne after his brother John 1448 

Mahomet the Second, emperor of the Turks, besie- 

fes and takes Constantinople on the 29th of May. 
'all of the eastern empire. The captivity of the 
Greeks, and the extinction of the imperial families 
of the Commeni and PalcBologi. Aoout this time 
the house of York in England began to aspire to 
the crown, and, by their ambitious views, to de- 
luge the whole kingdom in blood. The learned 
men of the 15th century were Chaucer, Leonard 
Aretin, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Poggio, 
Flavins Blondus, Theodore Gaza, Frank Philel- 
phus, Geo. Trapezuntius, Gemistus Pletho, Lau- 
rentius Valla, John Guttemburg, John Faustus, 
Peter Schoeffer, Wesselus, .(Eneas Sylvius, Bes- 
sarion, Thomas a Kempis, Argyropulus, Regio- 
montanus, Platina, A^ricola, Pontanus, Ficinus, 
Lascaris, Annius of Viterbo, Morula, Savonarola, 
Picus, Politian, Hermolaus, Alexander ab Alex- 
andre, Demetrius Chalcondyles, &c. 1453 



TABLE 

OF THE 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

OP 

THE ANCIENTS. 



Dactylus or digit 

Doron 

Lichas 

Orthodoron 

Spithame 

Foot 

Cubit (nvyjxri') 

Pygon 

Larger Cubit (tttjxvs) 

Pace (opyvia) 

Stadium 
Milion 



Grecian Measures of Length reduced to 

English paces, feet. 













100 
805 







1 
1 
1 
1 
6 
4 
5 



m, 

3 
7 
8 
9 

1 
3 
6 

4 




dec. 

0218| 
5546| 
3101,^ 
0656i 
0875 
5984| 
109| 
13125 
525 
5 




Digitus transversus 

Uncia 

Paimos Minor 

Pes 

Palmipes 

Cubitus 

Gradus 

Passus 

Stadium 

Milliare 



Roman Measures of Length reduced to 

English paces, feet. 







- - - 











120 

967 



in 



dec. 
7251 





967 


2 


901 


11 


604 


2 


505 


5 


406 


5 


01 


10 


02 


4 


5 









The Grecian square measures were the Plethron, or acre, containing 1444, as some say, 
or as others report, 10,000 square feet ; the Aroura, which was half the Plethron. The 
Aroura of the Egyptians was the square of 100 cubits. 

The Roman square measure was the Jugerum, which, like their Libra and their As, was 
divided into twelve parts, called Uncia, as the following table shows : 



n 

12 
5 

3 

4 
2. 



2 
5 

3 
1 

T 



I 
1 2 



As or 

Deunx 

Dextans 

Dodrans 

Bes 

Septunx 

I Semis 

Q,uincunx 

Triens 

Quadrans 

Sextans 

Uncia 



UncicB. 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 



Square Scru- English Square 
feet. pies, roods. poles. 



28800 

26400 

24000 

21600 

19200 

16800 

14400 

12000 

9600 

7200 

4800 

2400 



288 

264 

240 

216 

192 

168 

144 

120 

96 

72 

48 

24 



18 
10 

2 

34* 
25 
17 

9 

1 
32 
24 
16 



Square 
feet. 

250,05 
183,85 
117,64 

51,42 
257,46 
191,25 
125,03 

58,82 
264,85 
198.64 
132,43 

66,21 



N. B. The Actus Major 
was 14,400 square feet, equal 
to a Semis. The Clima was 
3600 square feet, equal to a 
sescuncia, or an uncia and a 
lialf, and the acins minimus 
was equal to a sextans. 

The Roman as, or ces, was 
called so because it was made 
of brass. 



799 



Attic Measures of capacity, for things liquid, reduced to the English Wine 

Measure, 

gals, pints. sol. mch. dec. 

Cochlearion - - - - - lio ^ 0.356 -4 

Cheme - - - - - ^V 0712 '| 

Mystron ^V 089 A|- 

Conche - - - . - _i^ 178 J-i 

Cyathus ■ - - . ^ - ^i- 356 \^ 

i 535 I 

I ^ 141 I 



Oxybaphon _ , - - 

Cotyle ------ 

Xestes - - - - ' - 1 

Chous - - - - - -06 

Metretes ----- 10 2 



Attic Measures of capacity, for things dry, reduced to English Corn Measure. 

Cochlearion - - - 

Cyathus - - - - 

Oxybaphon 

Cotyle - - - - - 

Xestus ------ 

Choenix -' - - - - 

Medimnus - - - - - 

N. B. Besides this Medimnus, which is the Medicus, there was a Medimnus Gcorgicus, equal to six 
Roman Modii. 



pecks. 


gals. 


pints. 


sol. inch. 


dec. 














276/^ 











2 


763r 





0- 





4 


144} 











16 . 


579 











33 


158 








1 


15 


7051 


4 





6 


3 


501 



Roman Measures of capacity, for things dry, reduced to English Corn Measure. 

pecks, gals, pints, sol. inch. dec. 

Ligula - 5^^^ 01 

Cyathus - - - - - 

Acetabulum . . - - - 

Hemina - - - - - 

Sextaria - . - - 

Semimodius - - - - - • 

Modius ------ 









1 

1 9 





04 








1 

g 





06 








I 

2 





24 








1 





48 





1 








4 


1 











68 



Roman Measures of capacity, for things liquid, reduced to English Wine Measure. 

gals. pis. sol. inch. dec. 

Ligula - . - . . . ,V 1173% 

Cyathus -j^ 469f 

Acetabulum | 704^ 

Quartarius - - - -^- - -0^1 409 

Hemina ^ 2 818 

Sextarius 1 5 636 

Congius - - - - - - 7 4 942 

Uma - 3 41 5 33 

Amphora - - - . - - 7 1 10 66 

Culeus . - - . . - - 143 3 II 095 

N. B. The quadrantal is the same as the amphora. The Cadus Congiarins, and Dolium, denote no 
certain measure. The Romans divided the Sextarius, Uke the libra, into 12 equal parts, called Cyathi, 
and therefore their calices were called sextantes, quadrantes, irienies, &c. according to the numoer of 
eyathi which they contained. 

800 



Most ancient Grecian Weights reduced to English Troy Weight. 



Drachma 

Minse 

Talentum 



Ih. 


oz. 


dwt. 


ffrs. 


dee. 








6 


2 


22 


1 


1 





4 


14 


65 





12 


5 


To 



Less Ancient Grecian and Roman Weights reduced to English Troy Weight. 



Lentes 

SiliqusB 

Obolus 

Scriptulum 

Drachma 

Sextula 

Sicilicus 

Duella 

Uncia 

Libra 



lb. 


oz. 


dwt. 


gn 























3 











9 











18 








2 


6 








3 











4 


13 








6 


1 








18 


5 





10 


18 


13 



dec. 

8 5. 
11,2 

"25 

'J 

6 

2 
T 
5 

"f 

1 



N. B. The Roman ounce is the English a/voirdupois ounce, which was anciently divided into seven 
denarii and eight drachrrue, and as they reckon their denarius equal to an Attic drachma, the Attic 
weights were l-8th heavier than the corresponding weights among the Romans. 

The Greeks divided their obolus into chalci and smaller proportions; some into six chalci, and every 
chalcus into seven smaller parts; and others divided it into eight chalci, and each chalcus into eight parts. 



The greater Weights reduced to English Troy Weight. 



Libra - - - 

Mina Attica communis 
Mina Attica medica 
Talentum Atticum commune 



lb. 


oz. 


dwt. 





10 


18 





11 


7 


1 


2 


11 


66 


11 






frs. 
31 
16f 
lOf 
17i- 



N. B. Tfcere was also another Attic talent, which consisted of 80, or, according to some, of 100 mifus. 
It must however be remembered, tliat every )7iina contains 100 drachmce, and every talent 60 minre. The 
talents differ according to the different standard of their mince and drachmce, as the following table indi- 
cates: 



The Mina Egyptiaca 
Ajitiochica 



"1 Consists 



Alexandrina Dioscoridis j mae. 



I of Attic I 133| 
CleopatrsB Ptolemaica f drach- j 144 

1160 J 

r 80 ^ 

80 

86f 



f 1331^ Equivalent^ 
to Eng- 
lish troy 
weight. 



The Talentum ^Egyptiacum 
Antiochicura 
Ptolemaicum Cleo. 
AlexandrisB 
Insulaniun 
AntiochisB 



Consists 
of Attic ^ 
minae 



96 
120 
360 



Equivalent 
• to Eng- 
lish troy 
freight. 



lb. 
1 
1 
1 
1 



oz. 
5 
5 

6 

8 



86 8 

86 8 

93 11 

104 

130 1 

390 3 



divt. grs. 

6 22f« 
6 22ff 
14 16|f 



16 



74 1 



16 8 

16 8 

11 

19 14 

4 12 

13 11 



The value and proportion of the Grecian Coins. 



Lepton 
Chalcus 
Dichalcus 
Hemiobolus 
Part III. 



-5 1. 



J. 




801 



03 1 

2 7 



I. 


s. 


d. 


• 








1 


1, 








2 


2 








5 











7 


3 





1 


3 


2 





2 


7 








3 


2 


3 



Obolus . . . • . 

Diobolus ........ 

Tetrobolus ....... 

Drachma - - . - . - 

Didrachraon - - - . 

Tetradrachmon Stater ...-., 
Pentadrachmon ------ 

N. B. The Drachma:, and the Didrachmon, were silver, the others generally of brass. The Tridrach- 
mon, Triobolus, &c. were sometimes coined. The Drachmce and the Denarius, are here supposed to 
be equal, though often the former exceeded in weight. 

The gold com among the Greeks was the stater aureus, which weighed two Attic 
Drachmce, or half the stater argenteus, and was worth 25 Attic Drachmce of silver, or /. s. d. 

in English money - - - - - - - - -0 16 1^ 

Or according to the proportion of gold to silver, at present - - - - 10 9* 

T\\e Stater Cyzicenus eyi.ch^.VigeA ioY '2^ Axiic Drachmce, ov - - - -0181 

The Stater Philippi and Stater Alexandri were of the same value. 

The (S^a^er Z><zricMS, according to Josephus, was worth 50 Attic £>racAw<p, or - 1 12 31 

The Stater Croesi was of the same value. 



The value and proportion of the Roman Coins. 

/. s. d. q. 

Terentius - - - . ...000 OJ^ 

Sembella - . . . - . li|^ 

Libella, or As - . - v ..0003^ 

Sestertius - - - - - - 001 3| 

Quinarius, or Victoriatus - . -.-003 31 

Denarius - .- - - . 0073 

N. B. The Denarius, Victoriatus, Sestertius, and sometimes the As, were of silver, the others were 
of brass. The Triens, Sextans, Uncia, Sextula, and Dupondius, were sometimes coined of brass. 



The computation of Money among the Greeks, was by drachmae, as foLows: 



1 Drachma - 

10 Drachmae 
100 Drachmae equal to a Mina 

10 Minae 

60 Minae equal to a Talent 

10 Talents 
100 Talents 



I. 


5. 


d. 








7 





6 


5 


3 


4 


7 


32 


5 


10 


193 


15 





1937 


10 





19375 









Among the Romans, the computation was by Sestertii Nummi, as, 

^ I. s. d. q. 

A Sestertius - - - - - . 000 If 

10 Sestertii 017 li 



1000 Sestertii equal to one ) o 

Sestertium \ 



2 



10 Sestertia - - - - - - - 60 14 7 

100 Sestertia - - - - - 807 5 10 

1000 Sestertia or decies Sestertium, (centies und.) or decies 

centena millia nummum - - - . 8072 18 4 

Centies vel centies H. S. - - - - 80729 3 4 

MiUies H. S. 807291 13 4 

Millies centies H. S. 888020 16 8 

802 



The Mina Syra 
Ptolemaica 
Antiochica 
Euboica 
Babylonica 
Attica major 
Tyria 
iEginsea 
Rhodia 

The Talentum Syrum 
Ptolemaicum 
Antiochicum 
Euboicum 
Babylonicum 
Atticura majus 
Tyrium 
iEginsBum 
Rhodium 
iEgyptium 



Was worth, of 
"Attic drachmae 



Was worth, of 
'Attic Minse 



25 

33 1- 
100 
100 
116 
133i 
1331 
166f 
166f 

15 

20 
60 
60 
70 

80 

80 

100 

100 

80 



The Roman gold coin was the aureus, which generally weighed double the denarius. 
The value of it, according to the first proportion of coinage mentioned by Pliny, was 
Or according to the proportion of coinage at present - - - - 

According to the decuple or proportion mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux 
According to Tacitus, as it was afterwards valued and exchanged for 25 denarii 



I. s. d. 


I' 


14 3 


10 9 




12 11 




16 1 


3 



The value of coin underwent many changes during the existence of, the Roman 
republic, and stood, as Pliny mentions it, as follows : 

In the reiffn of Servius 
A. U. C. 490 
A. U. C. 537 
A. U. C. 586 



The as weighed 
of brass 



2 

I 

V. 2 



pound 
ounces 
ounce 
ounce 



A. U. C. 485 - - } The denarius ex- ^ 10 asses 

A. U. C. 537 " - ) changed for ( 10 asses 

A. U. C. 574, a scruple of gold was worth 20 sestertii; coined afterwards of the 

pound of gold, 20 denarii aurei; and in Nero's reign, of the pound of gold, 45 

denarii aurei. 

N. B. In the above tables of money, it is to be observed, that the silver has been reckoned at Ss. and 
gold at 4?. per ounce. 

A talent of gold among the Jews was worth 5475?. and one of silver 342?. 3s. 9d. 

The greater talent of the Romans was worth 99/. 6s. 8rf. and the less 60/. or, as some say, 75Z. and the 
great talent 1125/. 

The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it equivalent to an Attic 
mina, or 3/. 4s. Id. It is used indifferently by ancient authors for ces, as, and mina, and was supposed to 
consist of 100, or 9Q denarii. It is to be observed, that whenever the word pondo is joined to numbers, it 
signifies the same as libra; but when it is used with other words, it bears the same signification as the 
c-aOjxri or ofj-Kri of the Greeks, or the pondus of the Latins. The word nummus, when mendoned as a sum 
of money, was supposed to be equivalent to a sestertius, and though the words sestertius and nummus are 
often joined together, yet their signification is the same, and they intimate no more than either does se- 
parately. 

We must parricularly remark, that in reckoning their sesterces, the Romans had an art which can be 
rendered intelligible by the observation of these rules: If a numeral noun agreed incase, gender, and 
number, with the word sestertius, it denoted precisely as many sestertii, as for example, decern sestertii 
was ten sestertii. If a numeral noun of another case was joined with the genitive plural o{ sestertius, it 
denoted so many thousand, as decern sestertium signifies so many thousand sestertii. If the adverb nu- 
meral was joined, it denoted so many hundred thousand, as decies sestertium was ten hundred thousand 
sestertii. If the numeral adverb was put by itself, the signification was not altered; therefore decies, vi- 
gesies, &!.c. in a sentence, imply as many hundred thousand sestertii, or hundred sesiertia, as if the word 
sestertium was expressed. 

The denarius, which was the chief silver coin used at Rome, received its name because it contained 
denos ceris, ten asses. 

The as is often expressed by an L. because it is one pound weight; and the sestertius, because it was 
equivalent to two pound and a half of brass, is frequently denoted by H. S. or L. L. S. 

The Roman libra contained twelve ounces of silver, and was worth about 3/. sterling. 

The Roman talent was supposed to be equivalent to twenty-four sesiertia, or nearly 103/. sterling. 



FINIS, 



803 



